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7-1-1941 The rC isis of Democracy in the Western Hemisphere Rayford W. Logan

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R ayford W. L ogan

T he Colonial Period whatever abilities he may possess or There is definitely a crisis, perhaps acquire. There was little if any democ­ something worse before this article racy among the pre-Columbian In­ begins to gather dust on a library dians. Consequently, even in those re­ shelf. There is also a Western Hemi­ gions, like the Andean Republics, sphere even though its eastern limits where Indians have survived in large seem to be expanding almost as rapid­ numbers, there is no indigenous de­ ly as they did in the era of Manifest mocracy upon which to build. Destiny. Democracy, on the other Nor was there democracy in fif­ hand, is neither definite nor expand­ teenth and sixteenth century Europe ing. when white men began to settle in the How, indeed, when we consider the Western World. Most Europeans did history of the Western Hemisphere,* 1 * not come to America in the colonial can there be any functional democ­ period to create a democracy but racy? By functional democracy I rather to establish a new aristocracy. mean a system of government and a One may, therefore, search in vain for way of life that definitely promote the any substantial democracy in either opportunity for every one to develop the form of government or the daily and utilize to the best good of all life in the European colonies in Ameri­ ca. If these newcomers had discovered 1 The conclusions in this article are largely my uninhabited lands, they might, con­ own. Evidence can be adduced to show exceptions to these conclusions and, indeed, oontrary inter­ ceivably, have nevertheless achieved pretations. In place of specific documentation ^ I subjoin a very orief bibliography for the colonial democracy. But this “ dream of democ­ period as follows: James T. Adams, Provincial Society, 1690-1763. New York: The Macmillan racy” was frustrated by the presence Co., 1927; Charles M. Andrews, The Colonial Pe­ riod of American History. New Haven, etc.: Yale of Indians and the introduction of Ne­ University Press, 1934-1938; James C. Ballagh, White Servitude in the Colony of Virginia. Balti­ gro slaves. more: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1895; Marcus W . Jernegan, Laboring and Dependent From the every beginning, then, Classes in Colonial America, 1607-1788. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1931; Albert E. Mc­ colonial government and society de­ Kinley, The Suffrage Franchise in the Thirteen English Colonies in America. Philadelphia: Press veloped a definite nexus between race of the University of Pennsylvania, 1905; Herbert I. Priestley, The Coming of the White Man, 1492- and class. I am far from subscribing 1848. New York: The Macmillan Co., 1929. The following are helpful for the colonies of Latin to the leyenda negra which has made America: Raymond Joseph de Pons, Voyage h la partie orientate de la. Terre-Ferme. Paris, 1800; the treatment of Indians by Spaniards Thomas Gage, A New Survey of the West Indies. London, 1648; Friedrich Heinrich Alexander yon one of the great crimes of history. Dr. Humboldt, Political Essay on the Kingdom of New Spain. Paris, 1811-1812; Jorge Juan y Santacilla Lewis Hanke has revealed, for exam­ and Antonio de Ulloa, Noticias secretas de America. London, 1826; Sir Arthur Helps, The Spanish ple, the bitter conflict between the two Conquest in America. London, 1855-1861; Bernard Moses, The Spanish Dependencies in South Ameri­ schools of Spanish thought which con­ ca. New York and London, 1914; Robert Southey, History of Brazil. London, 1810-4.819; M. L. E. sidered the Indians as either “ noble Moreau de Saint-MAry, Description topographique, physique, civile, politique et historique de la partie savages” or “ dirty dogs.” But after franqaise de Visle Saint Domingue. Philadelphia, 1797. some thirty years of experimentation, 344 CRISIS OF DEMOCRACY IN WESTERN HEMISPHERE 345 the “ dirty dog” school seems to have bitter between the European-born won the battle since the government Spaniard or Portuguese and the creole decided that “ nothing could be gained (European born in the colonies); be­ by further attemps to make the In­ tween the men of the Tidewater and dians live like ‘Christian laborers in of the Piedmont in the English col­ Castile/ ” 2 In brief, the encomienda onies; between the grands blancs and and mita systems of forced labor, or the petits blancs; between patroon and expulsion beyond the frontier, became peasant. But, to use convenient terms, the general pattern of life for the In­ the white aristocracy and bourgeoisie dians who survived the Spanish con­ practically monopolized the instru­ quest. The other European colonists ments of government, controlled most pursued substantially similar policies. of the wealth, and enjoyed the social One would be very naive if he sought prerogatives. to generalize as to the relative brutali­ The second group consisted of free­ ty of Anglo-Saxons and Latins, of men, composed largely of mulattoes Protestants and Catholics. and mestizos (cross between Indian The Negro policy of the Europeans and white), “ poor whites,” some Ne­ in the Western Hemisphere was, on groes, Indians and zambos (cross be­ the whole, worse than their Indian tween Negro and Indian), and every policy. While forced labor was usually conceivable mixing of these free the lot of the Indians, slavery was the groups. The mulattoes and mestizos fate of most of the Negroes. Slavery frequently possessed more wealth and existed in all the colonies: in some like opportunity than did the others in this Argentina, Chile, and Massachusetts, group. But there was this essential there were only a few thousands; in difference—the “ poor whites” could Saint Domingue there were almost a hope to acquire enough wealth to join half million. The forced migration of the whites at the top in power and some ten millions of Africans has been eventually in social position. The mu­ a principal obstacle to the develop­ lattoes and mestizos, regardless of ment of democracy in America. their wealth, were rarely admitted to On the eve of the revolutions in equal participation in government or these European colonies a rather def­ social position. They might reach the inite social structure had been estab­ periphery but rarely the center. Senor lished. It was not static, and it varied Moises Saenz has aptly called the slightly in different colonies. But, by colonial mestizo “ a man without a and large, colonial government and so­ country.”3 The same designation can ciety consisted of well-defined groups. be applied to the other members of this The ruling class was composed almost group. In this no-man’s land, the full- exclusively of whites who possessed blooded and the zambo freemen usu­ also most of the wealth. Complete ally found advancement more difficult solidarity did not, of course, prevail than did the free mixed bloods. There among the whites. The contest was was no more unity among these in- between groups than there was among

2 The First Social Experiments in America. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1935, pp. 3 “ Indians are Americans,” Survey Graphic, 19-20, 70-71, 30:170, Mr 1941. 346 THE JOURNAL OF NEGRO EDUCATION the whites. At the bottom of the struc­ strict rigidly admission to the white ture, forming the broad base of a pyra­ group while in the other colonies the mid, were the forced laborers and the tendency was in the direction of more slaves who were mostly full-blooded liberality. If we may borrow terms Indians, Negroes and zambos, and from constitutional law, we may say some mulattoes and mestizos. that the Thirteen Colonies were strict There are perfectly understandable constructionists and that the others reasons for this general correlation be­ were loose constructionists. I venture tween race and class. The whites had the guess that the presence of a white possessed the superior arms that had minority in the Thirteen Colonies was enabled them to conquer the Indians a controlling factor in the strict con­ and enslave the Negroes. But, since the struction and that elsewhere the min­ whites were generally outnumbered, ority status, from the numerical point they had to buttress their superior po­ of view, dictated the necessity for the sition by the ideologies of racial pres­ admission of new members to the top tige and of religion. This minority ranks. Whatever the reasons, race domination, founded upon conquest, prejudice was stronger in the English buttressed by racial and religious ide­ colonies than in those of the Latin na­ ologies, was assured by the technique tions of Europe. of divide and rule. The non-white free­ But the important point is this: in men were not admitted to full member­ both instances the premium on being ship in the ruling classes, but they white was recognized. In the first case, were encouraged to hold themselves the premium was so high that it could apart from and above the unfree. This be accorded to only a few. In the sec­ last groveling mass in turn was taught ond, the premium was so high that it to hate the group immediately above was granted as a reward for extraor­ it. dinary achievement, a kind of honor­ One significant difference did exist, ary degree if you please. The essen­ however, on the surface between the tial similarity between the two con­ English and the other European colo­ cepts may be better understood if we nies, namely, in the concept of race. recall a favorite dictum about English It would be an obvious exaggeration and French colonial principles in to say that in the English colonies a Africa. The English, it is said, are con­ single drop of Negro or Indian blood vinced that their civilization is so caused one to be considered a Negro superior that only a few can acquire it. or an Indian and that in the other (It is even doubted that most Ameri­ colonies one drop of white blood cans can ever become real English­ caused the Negro or Indian to be con­ men.) The French, pre-Vichy of sidered white. The very fact that course, are sure that their civilization mixed bloods were regularly listed in is so superior that mankind would be the census or population estimates es­ improved if it were extended widely. tablishes conclusively that the latter In both cases, the superiority is taken contention was unfounded. It would be for granted. And so, in all the Western more accurate to say that the tendency Hemisphere, as later in Africa and in the Thirteen Colonies was to re­ Asia, membership in the white race CRISIS OF DEMOCRACY IN WESTERN HEMISPHERE 347 meant the possession of most of the had only a small number. It would wealth, power, and the social pre­ be contrary to all historical develop­ rogatives. ment if freedmen, regardless of race, could remove completely, in a short T he E ffects of the R evo­ period of time, the incubus of slavery lutionary W ars or if those who were already free could The revolutionary wars that brought entirely destroy the stigma attached independence eventually to twenty- to the slave status of other members of one American nations shook this struc­ their race.6 The Indians similarly ture but did not shatter it. The Span­ gained liberation, on paper, from ish- and Portuguese-born Europeans forced labor. But they likewise could and the Loyalists in the United States not in a brief time overcome, in any lost power to another group of whites. considerable numbers, the inevitable Only the black republic of Haiti cast results of historical processes. an unmistakable and ominous shadow This equilibrium of the social and across this white supremacy. But An­ economic classes was maintained or re­ glo-Saxon and Latin America long os­ stored in spite of the frequent “ revo­ tracized this racial Bolshevik from the lutions” which were the inevitable re­ family of nations. The Dominican Re­ sult of the caudillismo consequent to public sought to avoid the ostracism the long wars for independence. But by basing its claim to recognition by these so-called revolutions were rarely the United States upon the fiction that social. Except in infrequent cases, like it was white— even the Negroes had a that of Juarez and the War of Re­ “ white interest” or a “ white heart.”4 form in Mexico, opposing groups of One of the reasons why Cuban inde­ whites or near-whites commanding pendence was so long delayed was the dark-skinned fighters fought each fear that a revolution there might other to determine which group of create another Haiti.5 European descendants should gain Internally, as well as internation­ temporary control. ally, the socio-economic structure Democracy could not exist, of wobbled but eventually regained its course, in the European possessions equilibrium. Slavery was gradually that remained colonies. Colonialism abolished throughout the Western and democracy are necessarily incom­ Hemisphere. But, it should be noted, patible. The racial-economic situation in three of the countries in which slav­ in these colonies was substantially ery was last abolished, namely, the similar to that in the independent na­ United States, 1865, Cuba, 1886, and tions with the added burden of remote Brazil, 1888, there were considerable control from a European capital. In numbers of slaves whereas Central Canada the problem has been some­ America, where slavery was first abol­ what different. The Negro and Indian ished by national legislation (1824), questions have been relatively unim­ portant while that of the French Cath- 4 Rayford W . Logan, The Diplomatic Relations of the United States with Haiti, 1776-1S91. Cliapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press, 6 Charles S. Johnson, Shadow of the Planta­ 1941, pp. 237-248. tion. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 5 See, for example, ibid., p. 224. 1934. 348 THE JOURNAL OF NEGRO EDUCATION olics has been a major issue. In Haiti struction.7 One may infer, from scant control has fluctuated between the full- evidence, that the cleavage in Latin blooded Negroes and the mulattoes. America has not been healed. Accord­ ing to the Chief of the Division of So­ T he I ndependent N ations cial and Labor Information of the The social structure of the inde­ Pan-American Union, there are only pendent nations conformed, then, very 1,800,000 more or less loosely organ­ largely to that of the colonial system, ized workers in Latin America.8 Those with the exceptions that colonial-born who envisage a united front of all Europeans had ousted the European- workers as the essential prerequisite born Europeans and that legally free to the establishment of democracy in labor had taken the place of chattel the Western Hemisphere must realis­ slavery and forced labor. tically analyze the historical causes But two new factors modified the of racial conflicts. A study of the fail­ structure of the independent nations ure of the Populist movement in the in varying degrees. One was a new Eu­ United States is particularly enlight­ ropean immigration. The great mass of ening on this subject.9 In other words, these Europeans came from laboring capital and management evidently classes. A few intellectuals like Karl succeeded in dividing and ruling free Follen, and a few of the underprivi­ labor as effectively as the colonial re­ leged like Jacob Riis, became great gime divided and ruled unfree labor. liberal leaders. But the majority of The second factor in making the in­ the Europeans engaged for one gen­ dependent structure different from the eration at least in the bitter contest colonial is the Industrial Revolution. to earn a living. They had to com­ The frontier has virtually disappeared pete with the “ Old Americans” and the as a safety valve for discontented underprivileged Americans. In their masses. More and more men are struggle to elevate themselves, they chained to machines and employed by found it expedient not to burden them­ corporations. To a constantly in­ selves with the additional load of those creasing degree (except in the United who suffered from handicaps of race States) foreign capital and manage­ as well as of class. In the United States ment dictate the destinies of larger numbers of human beings. The world and Brazil, it is true, many of them has grown constantly more interde­ had favored the abolition of slavery pendent—the cholo in Lima, the coolie in order to rid themselves of “ unfair in China, the Kaffir in South Africa, as competition.” But there is little evi­ well as the trade unionist or the un­ dence to justify the pleasing assump­ employed in the United States, are all tion that free white labor willingly vitally affected not only by decisions joined forces with free black, brown, arrived at on Pennsylvania Avenue, in red and yellow labor. As far as the Downing Street, and the Wilhelm- United States is concerned, Du Bois 7 Black Reconstruction. New York: Harcourt has pointed to the refusal of wThite Brace and Co., 1935, especially ch. IX. 8 Ernesto Galarza, “ Labor— Leaven of Democ­ labor to recognize its golden opportu­ racy,” Survey Graphic, 30:169, Mr 1941. 9 J. D. Hicks, The Populist Revolt. Minneapolis* nity as the great tragedy of Recon­ The University of Minnesota Press, 1931. CRISIS OF DEMOCRACY IN WESTERN HEMISPHERE 349 strasse, but also by bargains made in cipal social influence in their countries. By Wall Street, the City, and Leipziger- sufferance or direct control, they have the government in their hands, with its too vast strasse, and to some extent in the officialdom, which swallows the revenues and chancelleries and counting houses of hinders advancement. And, in most of the Japan, Russia, and Italy. In other Hispanic American countries, the colored words, the whites at the top in Latin races are still enslaved, not openly, but America are hardly more free of eco­ actually, in some form of peonage.10 nomic control than are those beneath John T. Whitaker, one of the more them. The fate of one hundred twenty competent of the contemporary ob­ millions in Latin America, of one hun­ servers, has given the following recent dred thirty millions in the United interpretations: States, of eleven millions in Canada The heirs of the Spanish conquistadorcs rule and the scattered millions in the other Peru, but the country is inhabited by In­ parts of the Western Hemisphere is dians and owned by foreigners. . . . Living thus inescapably involved in the con­ still under the conqueror’s heel, the Indian who does his work and fights his wars en­ test between the United States and dures dire poverty by crunching the cocaine Great Britain on the one hand and the out of the cocoa leaf. Axis powers on the other. Sixty per cent of the arable land [in Chile] is still owned by less than 600 fami­ R aces and Class lies. . . . I have strolled out of the Union Club with tall, ruddy aristocrats to behold Against this historical background the man in the streets around the Moneda we can more clearly project the plight . . . and he is worse than ragged; he is six of democracy in the Western Hemi­ inches under normal stature, deformed with sphere today. This examination will rickets and dead-eyed from never having necessarily be inadequate since only a had enough food in his life. Imagine the victory of the Old South, if voluminous analysis would give a you can, in the American civil war and the complete picture. But a few conclu­ control of the country by the planter class. sions by historians and observers will Teach the planters all the tricks of the suffice to point up the picture. Kelly-Nash machine, Tammany Hall, or Professor Charles Edward Chapman ‘Marse’ Ed Crump. Then you have Argen­ tine politics. . . . Its people are all-European has given this excellent summary of and they constantly remind the others of conditions in Latin America today: their Indian and Negro blood. [In Brazil] amid much wealth the masses One must also consider racial factors, before live in poverty. Where God is a Brazilian launching forth in too optimistic views with the Brazilian is frequently little removed respect to the future of Hispanic America. from the animal. Not more than 15 per cent The ruling caste is still made up of the of the population can purchase anything but descendants of the warlike conquerors, them­ the meager necessities of life. selves in no small measure of Andalusian or Democracy in Mexico, or in most of Latin Portuguese Moslem blood. They still, in the America for that matter, is as yet only an main, despise academic pursuits, though not aspiration.11 so much as they once did (for example, in Chile and Cuba), and they still like politics Moises Saenz, one of the most sym­ and its inevitable agitations. The creole aristocrats still, to a great extent, possess 10 Hispanic America, Colonial and American. New York: The Macmillan Co., 1938, pp. 167-1G3. ultra-broad estates, with all the social and Quoted with the permission of the publishers. economic evils which this entails, and, in 11 Americas to the South. New York: The Mac­ millan Co., 1939, pp. 13, 81, 142, 184, 189, 235. union with the church, still wield the prin­ Quoted with the permission of the publishers. 350 THE JOURNAL OF NEGRO EDUCATION

pathetic and authoritative students of When I went to Mexico in 1936, I the Indian problem in Latin America, had to get special permission from the recently wrote: Department of Gobernacion because, Jose Carlos Mariategui coined an exact as my tourist card said, I am of the phrase: “ The Indians,” he accused, “form an Negro race. extra-social class.” He was speaking of the On the other hand, Nilo Peganha, Indians in Peru, but to a greater or less former President of Brazil, was one of extent, the description fits the rest of Indo- only a few Negroes who gained dis­ America.12 tinction in that country.17 President Not so much study has been given to Batista of Cuba is commonly said to the Negro in Latin America as to the have Negro blood. It would seem that Indian.13 A school headed by Nina Mexico has removed the humiliating Rodrigues, Arthur Ramos, and Gilber- requirements for Negroes who wish to to Freyere emphasizes the fusion of visit the country. But, it should be the Negro into Brazilian life and noted, the diplomatic, military, naval, culture.14 An American Negro jour­ and intellectual representatives of La­ nalist recently, however, gave a very tin American nations, with the excep­ gloomy picture of the Negro in Rio de tion of Haiti, belong predominantly Janeiro.15 Rufino Blanco Fombona, the to the white group. At most, they are, author of The Man of Gold, which is as Hanke has said, only “ part Indian.” considered such a brilliant example It would be possible to continue in­ of Venezuelan belles-lettres that it has terminably in this vein, balancing evi­ been translated into English, penned dences of prejudice and discrimination this classic which Hitler and Goebbels in Latin American against evidences of have probably never surpassed: progress and extraordinary achieve­ Andres Rata was, physically, an ill-shaped ments by the dark-skinned peoples of youth of blackish skin—an agile, bony, un­ Latin America, M y own conclusion is dersized mulatto with a hanging blubber-lip that which was voiced by Professor and yellowish eyes. One seeks instinctively Rupert Emerson at the 1941 Confer­ in such a person a tail, for it is hard to tell at first sight whether this is the metamor­ ence of the Division of Social Sciences phosis of a monkey turned man, or the de­ of Howard University. After a care­ generation of man who has reverted to the ful first-hand study of Puerto Rico he ape. At all events, one’s eyes look for a tail, pointed out that at the base of the thinking that the regular life of such a pyramid there is so much misery and hominoid must be arboreal. Morally he was even worse; filthy, as infectious as the saliva poverty that it is impossible to con­ of a consumptive and more vile than vile­ fine it to any one racial group. But at ness itself.16 the top it is very rare, indeed, to find any but “ whites.” This point of view 12 Op. cit., p. 176. seems to be substantiated by Whit­ 13 Even the special issue of Survey Graphic, 30: Mr 1941, has special articles on women, labor, aker’s estimate that eighty-five per immigrants, labor and Indians, but no special ar­ ticle on Negroes. cent of Brazilians are in poverty. This 14 See, for example, Ramos, The Negro in Brazil (transl. by Richard Patee). Washington: The Asso­ number would necessarily include ciated Publishers, 1939. 15 See the series of articles by Ollie Stewart in many of all racial groups. My own ob­ the Baltimore Afro-American, August 10, 17, 24, 1940. servations in Cuba in 1933 from Ha- 16 Transl. by Isaac Goldberg. New York: Bren- tano’s, 1920. p. 114. 17 Ramos, op. cit., pp. 166-167. CRISIS OF DEMOCRACY IN WESTERN HEMISPHERE 351 vana to Santiago and in Mexico in would probably have considered at 1936 from the American border as far great length such topics as the pos­ South as Acapulco support this inter­ sibility that totalitarian ideologies pretation although the mestizo is forg­ may be voluntarily adopted in the ing ahead rather rapidly in Mexico. Western Hemisphere or be imposed as There is less deviation from democ­ a result of the necessity of preparing racy in the United States than there for war. Another favorite subject of is in Latin America and there is prob­ discussion is the danger of military ably a causal connection between this conquest of the Western Hemisphere fact and the fact that the population by the Axis powers. The answer to all of the United States is about ninety of these questions lies within the do­ per cent white whereas that of Latin main of speculation. The reader may America is perhaps twenty per cent answer them to his own satisfaction white. It has become a commonplace by consulting his favorite expert or by to state that the Negro is the acid test using his own expert knowledge. of Democracy in the United States. The real and unmistakable crisis of There is some anti-Catholicism and a democracy as I see it lies in the failure strong undercurrent of anti-Semitism. to recognize the facts that there never The poll tax in eight Southern states has been a democracy here, there is disfranchises tens of thousands of none now and in the ascertainable fu­ white men and women. The title ture there will be none. For example, it Sharecroppers All18 aptly portrays the is becoming a commonplace to assert economic plight of large numbers of that the world can not survive half whites. The unemployment problem is totalitarian and half democratic, that a long way from solution. But it re­ it must become one or the other. It mains nontheless true that all of these would be more exact to inquire wheth­ disabilities fall with special incidence er the half-democratic (notice care­ upon the Negro. fully the hyphen, please) Western The discrimination against the Ne­ Hemisphere can survive the contest gro, is, in fact, so strong that some with the totalitarian powers. Some American Negro leaders have gone so writers have not failed to call atten­ far as to say that we could be no worse tion to the shortcomings of this so- off under Hitler.19 In my opinion this called democracy. It is very significant is a great exaggeration. Even so, the that among this number is a leading denial of equal opportunity is so gross isolationist and alleged Fascist, Law­ and so notorious that there is no need rence Dennis. He recently roundly de­ to retail the sorry story. clared: “ To say that Anglo-American supremacy would amount to the su­ T he R eal C risis T oday premacy of justice for all people is It would have been possible to inter­ the rankest hypocrisy in view of our pret the subject of this paper in an en­ record with the Indians and the Ne­ tirely different way. Many writers groes or the British record in Ireland 18 Arthur Raper and Ira de A. Reid. Chapel and India.”20 Although Dennis was Hill: The University of North Carolina Press, 1941. 19 See, for example, an editorial in The Crisis, 20 “The Eighth Fortune Round Table,” Supple­ 48:151. My 1941. ment to Fortune, Ap 1941, p. 20. 352 THE JOURNAL OF NEGRO EDUCATION speaking of only the United States in democracy,” the high ideals that are “America,” his comment is applicable all too frequently interred in Declara­ to the entire Western Hemisphere. tions of Independence, in national Thus far, the totalitarian nations holiday orations, and in challenges have gained the ascendency. How can hurled at the totalitarian ideologies. they be finally defeated? Mrs. Vera Unless the American people believe Micheles Dean of the Foreign Policy sincerely that they are fighting for real Association gave the best answer to democracy instead of merely against this question in a radio address on authoritarian principles, the half-dem­ June 1 when she urged that the people ocratic nations of the Western world of America be given something to fight may be doomed to a defeat which they for. That something is the “ dream of would well deserve.