Process and Product--A Reassessment of Students

R E P O R T RESUMES

ED 015 687 EM 006 228 PROCESS AND PRODUCT - -A REASSESSMENT OF STUDENTS AND PROGRAM. THE CREATIVE INTELLECTUAL STYLE IN GIFTED ADOLESCENTS, REPORT III. FINAL REPORT. BY- CREWS, ELIZABETH MONROE MICHIGAN ST. UNIV., EAST LANSING REPORT NUMBER NDEA-VIIA-647-FT-3-PHASE-II PUB DATE 66 GRANT OEG-7-32-0410-222 EDRS PRICE MF -$1.25 HC-$12.86 320F.

DESCRIPTORS- *GIFTED, CREATIVE THINKING, ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE, PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTS, ADOLESCENTS

THIS FINAL REPORT OF A SERIES ELABORATES DAiA FROM REPORT IIN SIX INTENSIVE CASE STUDIES OF THREE TYPES OF GIFTED ADOLESCENTS (CREATIVE INTELLECTUAL, STUDIOUS, SOCIAL LEADER) IDENTIFIED BY SELF-REPORT, AND TESTS THE STRENGTH AND DURABILITY OF ATTITUDE CHANGES RESULTING FROM CURRICULUM EXPERIMENTS DESCRIBED IN REPORT II. RESEARCH RELEVANT TO THE CREATIVE INTELLECTUAL STYLE IN BOTH ADULTS AND ADOLESCENTS IS CITED. ASSUMFTIOMS THROUGHOUT THIS RESEARCH ARE THAT EDUCATIONAL AIMS FOR GIFTED ADOLESCENTS SHOULD INCLUDE DEVELOPMENT OF IDENTITY, MOTIVATION TO LEARN, AND OPENNESS TO CHANGE. FORMAL AND INFORMAL MEASURES ON TESTS ADMINISTERED ONE YEAR AFTER THEY WERE GIVEN FOR REPORT II EXPERIMENTS SHOWED CONTINUING TRENDS OF ATTITUDE CHANGES TOWARD CREATIVE INTELLECTUALITY FOR ALL POPULATION SUB-GROUPS, BOTH EXPERIMENTAL AND CONTROL, BUT NO APPARENT INCREASE IN PROBLEM- SOLVING SKILLS. THESE RESULTS ARE FURTHER DISCUSSED IN THE CONTEXT OF )HE CASE STUDIES, AND IN TERMS OF CONCURRENT SOCIAL Tr''.ENDS.(LH) fr

THE C.' EA TI IN UAL STYLE GIFT D 4 ESCENTS

Ykizrvory-e.,avuov (.1principal investigator

I. motivation tolearn

ESS AND PRODUCT areassessmentof$tudents andprogram

*./ THE CREATIVE INTELLECTUAL STYLE IN GIFTED ADOLESCENTS Process and Product: A Reassessment of Students and Program

Elizabeth Monroe Drews Professor of Education Portland State College Portland, Oregon

Final Report of Title VII, Project No. 647 -I National Defense Act of 1958 Grant Number 7-32-0410-222

entitled

The Effectiveness of Audio-Visuals in Changing Aspirations of Intellectually Superior Students, Phase II

Michigan State University East Lansing, M'chigan

1966

The Research Reported Herein Was 00 Supported by a Grant from the Cl U.S, DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH, EDUCATION, AND WELFARE Office of Education 9 () U.S. DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH, EDUCATION & WELFARE 0 OFFICE OF EDUCATION

THIS DOCUMENT HAS BEEN REPRODUCED EXACTLY AS RECEIVED FROM THE

PERSON OR ORGANIZATION ORIGINATING IT.POINTS OF VIEW OR OPINIONS 1.1) STATED DO NOT NECESSARILY REPRESENT OFFICIAL OFFICE OF EDUCATION

POSITION OR POLICY. PREFACE

This is a report which argues that thepoint has been reached in human affairs where a dramatically new direction inpsychology and education is neat d. The plea is for further study and researchto determine the range and extend the limits of human potential andto combine these explorations with the humanizing of education. Education must begin to take into account the complexity and powerof human imagination, intellectual abilities and social needs. I agree with Abraham Maslow that a new image of man is emerging and with Buckminster Fullerthat a

spirit of change is in the air. The image and the direction is toward

"being and becoming". As educators we must be awareof our responsi

bility for the directions of this change and do everythingwithin our

power to allow this more positive imageof man to flourish and grow.

For this to happen, education must betransformed .and humanized. I also

feel this means that both research and the reports forits communication

must take on new forms. The present report is an exploration inthese

uncharted regions.

The critical reader with a developed tastefor what is known

as the research style(I assume this is comparable to becoming fond of

olives or oysters) may find what I write outof step and out of style

if measured against the well- organized brevity and theterseness of the

"scientific" monograph. In such monographs, mathematicalterms and

statistical tables substitute for words while in this report words are

the "media and the message".Here.-in contrast to the mini -skirt of the ii

fold of monograph--the message comesin 19th centurydress, fold upon

dreams. Nay preference, student words encasingthoughts, interests and of human potential,is for this at this pioneerstage in the exploration communication with a romantic, unabstractedpattern. I find primary appropriate rich abundance ofdirect experienceand illustration more and stylized pat- and certainly moreappealing thanthe squeezed-down terns of secondarycomnunic4tion. viewpoints--I have metthem, And yet I knowthere are other what an educationshould head on. Over the years asI have reflected on education", I findthat while most be and what is meantby "aims of heart and head, theinterpreta- mould agree that wemust sducate both At the far right are tions of what such anaim means arepoles apart. concerned with the fund-grantingagencies anduniversity administrators the humanistic and money, rulesand legalisms;While on the left are growth in all of its student-oriented researchersdevoted to change and how they will ever manageto report apparent unorthodoxy,and wondering the imposed timelimits. The this in the researchparadigm and within religions dilemma is clear, but a wayout is not,The histories of legalists and themystics. have reflected basicschisms between the is beginningto reflect the The study and managementof human potential

same deepconflicts. research style Yet despite theproblems imposedby prescribed his humanistic and time limits, Ifeel a researcherwho is honest in of youth and tochange the stance must write so asto advance the cause permeable and human. It is monoliths of educationinto something more be concerned withthe human mandatory thatpsycho-educational research ill-defined and treatment of human beings evenif this is a. drawn-out, iii inefficient procedure. And this must be the stance even when the educational establishment is permeated by an "efficiency syndrome" and dictates rules which, when they are translated, succinctly say "get something written, no matter what it says", "get the report filed, no matter how it is worded, so money can change hands." In other words, unless precautions are taken, the intent and honesty of the message be. comes far less important than meeting deadlines. The "person" and his needs, the only reason for research on youth can too easily be lost to time pressures and budgetary codicils.

My viewpoint is that if our knowledge about the process of

education and about youth is broken into icy chunks of facts which are

sterilely transmitted through a computer this knowledge is not apt to

ever directly meet an individual's needs. Certainly it will not leave him with the direct experienr of love and concern so necessary for the learner. It was Goethe who not only said that if we dissect a flower

down to its minutest part, we will not know it; but who also remarked,

"We only learn through those we love." Somehow the individual must re-

main whole and cherished as we study him.

But despite these visions of a new image of man, there are

contradictory forces that seek to limit, control and mechanize him. In-

stead of the trans-humanism suggested by Julian Huxley and the psychology

of a transcendent behavior offered by Sidney Jourard, we see large task

forces committed to reductionism.However, the younger and healthier of

our species are beginning to resist these trends. It is becoming increa-

singly apparent that the students, particularly those who adolescent,

are restless. They have rebelled at Berkeley, there has been foment at

Michigan, and dissatisfaction with education as it exists in dozens of iv

high school andcol- other universitiesand colleges. In countless ways faculties try to knowthem as people- - lege students*have asked that the non-answerof public relations** but as educators, westill give them in Thus far, we havegenerally not engaged and go about our"business". of the student isdrowned by dialogue - -there canbe none when the voice creating more bigness the noise of the wheelsof progress grinding on, student's desireto be known as and more impersonalness. Despite each in the process,he is at a person,classes continueto get larger and, in the causeof dehumanizind" to lose his name andbecome a number--all and institutionalreality efficiency.As the gapbetween student needs universities will grow widens, out.of.schoollearning centersand shadow

at ever acceleratingrates.

CULTIVATING CREATIVEPOTENTIAL study the patterns As we lookat the ways weeducate youth and culture, it issometimes difficultto be of alienationwhich riddle our

40's while I was onthe staff at thePsychological *In fEe late the University of Michiganthere was talk about marasmus, Clinic at the suffer. hospitalized orinstitutionalized infants disease from which Mich from lack of fondlingand humaninteraction. Babies literally died The Rights of Infants, was made ofMargaretha Ribble's pleain her book, and loved as aseparate person that each infant hadthe right to be known intelligent and perhapsto live at and must have thisto become human and asking for the samerights. The all. Now we find thebolder adolescents of using Free Speech --remain mute, shy ones want ittoe but may.-instead Recently a sensitive,lovely high schooljunior came hurt and helpless. refer me to In the employment processI asked her to to work for me. She the staff of herhigh school who couldrecommend her. someone on who she was. Per- said that she wasTito sure none ofher teaelers knew is that she didnot think they haps they did,but the importantthin to anonymity in her knew her or couldspeak for her. She felt doomed but referred me toher elementaryschool where she present lizaztitution reported they would still rememberher. They did, and glowingly was sure they had ever her as one of the mostable and reliableand human students had. the young, and hand- **Equivalent tohead-patting to put off patting to put off theold. enthusiastic about what seems to be the manifest destiny of20th century man. Yet I cannot easily resign myself to, unconcern or to despair. I feel that youth has more to offer than mass' media or jaundiced adults apparently believe. On most days, at least until well past noon, I remain convinced that we stand at the threshold of a new era for man. MY research findings have tended to reinforce my most errant optimisticand romantic tendencies. As I have tried to understand giftedadolescents and the effect their educational experiences and the general socialset. ting has on their dreams and on their character, I have been buoyed by their obstinate tendencies to persist in (often against overwhelming cultural pressures to the contrary) idealistic, imaginative, and intelligent behaviors and to remain excited and eager to grow toward self- actualization. Beyond this, I have been fortified by may experience with a new kind of education*, an interventionif you will, in which I tried to determine whether attitudes, interests and values could be moved toward self-actualization. The resounding answer is that they can be.. young people reach eagerly toward the more helpful andelevated patterns of thought and belief.They enthusiastically substitute more ideal and mature self-images for those they held before. I am convinced that some of the adolescents in our study were already moving rapidly in this direction. Others were timorous about committing themselves but

*Elizabeth Monroe Drews, THE CMATIVE INTELLECTUAL mu IN GIFTED ADOLESCENTS; Be ng and Becoid.z21L/ A Cosmic Approach to Curriculum Revision, Report II in a series of three: Final Report for the Media Branch, Title VII, National. Defense Education Act, Contract No. 7- 32 -0410- 140, U.S. Office of Education, "The Effectiveness of Audio.Visuals in Changing Aspirations. of Intellectually Superior Students," Phase I. (East Lansing, Michigan: Office of Research and Publications, Michigan State University, 1965). vi

front approach, assur- excited aboutpossibilities. 'When, in our total hope and idealismand self- ances wererepeated they began to express experimental grolp showedby interest% confidence too. Over half of the they were or wantedto attitudes, behaviors andself-descriptions that small effort torelease be self-actualizing. Certainly this was only one Other potential, but I thinkthe experiment showswhat is possible. convictions that the drives efforts must be made bythose who share my the moat importantof to learn and to becomepsychologically open are be described asachievement all those kinds offocused energy which can for status or power orto please others, motive. Far more than the urge psychological maturity this motivation to growtoward intellectual and this which makes the manykinds is the essence ofbeing human and it is

of transcendent behaviorpossible. Becoming study) The insights whichReport II (the Being and to design this thirdstudy offered into thepotentials of youth led me Here the on THE CREATIVEINTELLECTUAL STYLE INGIFTED ADOLESCENTS*. of the changes we felt effort has been to studythe relative duration to look again at the to be a result of the Beingand Becoming Project, such efforts, and theories from a variety ofdisciplines which support

*The term creativeintellectual style is one Ihave used to supporting value system. indicate a motivational focusin learning and a search for mean. Although the wordcreative implies opev.aess and also a channels and intellectual ing through aesthetic,affective and intuitive adds the dimension of a morecritical and scholarly mind engagedin scientific endeavors, I am aware thatsuch a literal interpretationdoes not include the context of social concernwhich I consider to be the mostimportant mature expression ofthe creative intellectualstyle. Those of you who read Report IInoted the stress onhumanitarian-altruistic concerns, sometimesreferred to as the feminine dimension. Although such B.values were found by Maslow todescribe all self-actualizingadults, as yet only asmall number of adults, who excel increative' or intellectual pursuits can be described asseMactualized. However, there is some potential forsuch growth in all and greatpotential in many. vii finally to make a more detailed and carefulstudy of the creative intellectual style in youth. Both because I feel encouragedby my findings thus far and because my work has coL6vibuted onlyinfinitesimal insights in terms of what is needed, I know this cannotbe the final effort.

Through three investigations, I have come to knowthe students in our schools in ways I did not know them as a teacher, and asI have struggled to find theories to clarify and unify my thoughts I have cometo know.. at least through their writings--those menwho are in the vanguard of the movement concerned with psychic evolution.

As I continue in py work, Ibecome increasingly awarethat the students I know and the theories which I accept areprofoundly affecting my research, may philosophy and mylife style. Friends and enemies both

say--with different intonations--that I am alwayspart of each experiment and I become increasingly aware that eachstudy I do becomes part of me. E. B. White's aphorism, "The troublewith life is that one

thing leads to another" has become uncontestabletruth. As I just men-

tioned, despite the distance I have come--if millions of pagesof data,

taped records and .nritten words can be counted--I am still nearthe be-

ginning of the long hegira, my elusive, long-rangegoal to better under-

stand self-actualizing behavior and to learn toeducate for 't.his rather

than to follow preser' patterns of sandbagging andchanneling potential.

As you read this report you will seethat the question which

I ask (but cannot answer) is whycertain of these young people, despite

the forces of apalNy and alienation which surround them,have such a de-

termined drive to live lives of creative expansion. Why do some develop

and retain this special urge to engage in original thinking andto become viii

must admit thatthe gene., intellectually and morallyinvolved?As yet, I

remains obscure.Although in sis of this creativeintellectual style explore the beginningsof such growth the present reportI attempt to will see, istoo through interviews and casestudies* the data, as 3ou The behavior of one conflicting for me todraw definiteconclusions. reflection of a family creative intellectual seemsto be an expected motivations apparentlyin opposi- pattern while anotherdevelops similar fact, the expressionof love tion to every kinshiptradition-where, in isolates him fromhis family. Des- for the aestheticand the scholarly study I feel that as areader pite the inconclusivenessof the present of these ableadolescents. you willbe intrigued bythe self-insights

Through the students' eyeswe see: people and causes. Their commitments andpassions for ideas,

How they cometo grips with"matters of consequence." proceeds. How curiosity andsearch develops and

those who go beyondconcern withpleasure And learn about and search and success to gropetoward responsibility for meaning. ninth graders, I wasamazed In studyingthese 120 college-bound the varieties ofmotivation revealed. at the diversityof responses and people far surpassothers Certainly, as I havenoted before, some young

adolescents. *ThIrreport concentrates ondepth studies of six contrast to the crea- The motivation andvalues of twoof these provide The firstadolescent places primaryemphasis tive intellectualstyle. motivated to status and economic success,while the second is on social examples the school's terms. The remaining four are be a good student in student shifting of the creativeintellectual style--one a of variations three others eachexemplifying from a more studiousorientation and the in the intellectualrealm, one with an aes- astrength of interest.-one The studies draw thetic focus and onewith strong pro.socialconcerns. thus, to a greatextent, reportstudents' self-per- from interviews and have come to seethe It is from theserevelations that I ceptions. of our adolescents. strength of motivationand concern of some

F-7 ix in self-actualizing activities anddrives.However, it is equally certain that all healthy youth lean toward andwould benefit from afuller and richer use of mind and emotion,what Rollo May calls expansionof consciousness. It is my hope that my findingsand those of other researchers who study human potential will beturned toward this end.

Each young person Imo reveals a high degreeof openness and commitment contributes to the discovery and understandingof, such growth in all youth.These understandings will help us find waysof instilling vi-

tality and awakening joy in far greaternumbers of adolescents--including

the malnourished, the deprived and thedisinterested.

As I have reviewed theliterature related to humanpotential

and the creative intellectual style .Ihave examined three avenues to

growth--the routes that Socrates termed, the good,the true and the beau-

tiful. In the vernacular of psychologyit would probably be more approp-

riate to speak of the ethical, the intellectualand the aesthetie. These

are in Maslow's terms, B-values,and each is an aspect of or a wayto

reach self-actualization and thus nottruly separate from the others.

However, most creative people concentratetheir efforts in one of thesa

broad areas* despite the fact that in each,there are many common traits

such as autonomy and openness. Three of the case studies of adolescents

represent these distinct directions of growth- -one isof the budding

scientist-scholar, one is a romantic rebel and thelast a humanitarian.

altruist.

*In con rast, the great geniuses were markedby a unity of thought--an ability to establish parallels between differentthings. IN APPRECIATION the preface of the first I should liketo refer the reader to two volumes of THE CREATIVEINTELLECTUAL STYLE IN GIFTEDADOLESCENTS. obligations and also thank- In these I expressed manyof my intellectual the Lansing Public ed the personnel(administrators and teachers) in

Schools who have helped to make mystudies possible. Report III is pri- of the young marily devoted to explorationsin depth of a selected group acknowledgement of their people themselves and Iwant to make a special people who contributions. In addition, I wantto thank the three young and helped with the interviews--ArlisThornblade Stewart, David Kanouse extensive con- Robert Trezise. As my graduateassistant, Mr. Tresize did the basis text analysis of the interviewprotocols. This material became University in for his doctoral dissertation,completed at Michigan State

1966, which is entitled "A DescriptiveStudy of the Life Styles of a

Group of Creative Adolescents".

The development of mythinking also owes much to all ofthose Three who served as film models forthe Being and Becoming FilmSeries.

of the models, Loren Eiseley, AnneRoe and Harold Taylor,have published insights into extensively and I have gained machfrom their provocative

human nature.The writers in what isoften termed "Third Force" psy- want to ac- chology have also influenced megreatly and in this realm I

knowledge understandings I havegained from Gordon Allport,Charlotte

Buhler, Erich Fromm, Rollo Mayand Carl Rogers. I owe a very laxge debt

to Abraham Maslow whose writings are aconstant source of inspiration

and who has encouraged meto move toward the moredirect experiential whose reporting. I also have been muchinfluenced by Robert Havighurst

great concern for moral andcharacter development has been expressedin xi excellent socio-educational researchand commentary, and who, aswell, makes me aware that one can remaineternally young, if hepersists in these more idealistic and open ways ofthought. I want to express continued appreciation to DonaldMacKinnon and his co-workers atthe Insci- rkeley for their tute of PersonalityAssessment Research Center at L willingness to share instruments andmethodology, and to PaulHeist,

Research Psychologist, Center for theStudy of Higher Education,University

of California at Berkeley, forhis help and encouragement.

My most immediate and personalappreciation must go asalways

to my husband, RobinDraws, who has toleratedthe many versions of my

personal "being andbecoming". His encouragement andthat of Shirley major portions Brown who has--always creativelyand intelligently--typed and competence of the report, and MaryNelson who has with great zest possible for me to helped me with the finishingtouches, have made it and Philip finally complete the study. Fariyal Sheriff, Kay Snyder

Jung helped in a multitude of waysin both early and laterstages--per-

haps most importantly bybeing examples of thecreative intellectual impossible because style. At times, the completionhas seemed almost illness, by a major of the nagging inefficienciesproduced by a serious rules move and finallyby the anti-actualizingforces of Gesel/shaft the woods as well asin them. We and routines. Now, I am both out of maples and I am live in Oregon in the midstof a cluster of tall

professor of education atPortland State College. In this position which is focused I am excited about thepossibilities of my new work concentrate *a their on setting up aprogram forindividuals who want to

graduate studies on therelease of humanpotential--intellectual gifted-

ness andcreativity. TABLE OF CONTENTS Page

Preface xv List of Tables

Chapter 1 . 0 OOOOOOO 0 I. Introduction . of the CreativeIntellectual A. The Dimensions 2 Style 1. The CognitiveDimension 3 Dimension 4 2. TheAffective 7 . OO.. 3. The SocialDimension . 0

. 8 B. IdealizedConceptions of Societyand Man. C. Potential ofYouth for CreativeIntellectual . 15 Growth 1. The CognitiveDimension--Intellectual . 17 Potential . 2. The AffectiveDimension--Creative Potential 20 3. The SocialDimension--Moral andEthical1 Potential 23 4. Motivation, theunifying aspect ofthe cognitive, affective andsocial modes . 27

D. An Approach tothe Study of theCreative Intelleciaml Style 29 Related II. Insights, Theory andResearch Findings to the Creative Adult 41

A. Childhood ofCreative and EminentPersons . . 43 1. Acceptance andFreedom in theEnvironment. 43 2. Responsive andEvocative Qualitiesin the Environment 48

B. AdultAttributes of Creative andEminent Persons 53 the III. Research Related tothe Development of Present Study, theCreative IntellectualStyle: in Gifted Adolescents 67 A. A DescriptiveStudy of the CreativeIntel- lectual Style in GiftedAdolescents. 69 xii Page Chapter Program Designedto Foster B. An Experimental 85 the CreativeIntellectual Style 86 1. The ExperimentalProgram Results 88 2. Method and 91 3. Conclusionsand Implications 93 C. A New Focusfor Education 94 1. EducationRedefined o ******* and New Approachesto Learning. 99 2. New Skills 105 3. New Content andMaterials Setting and PopulationDesign and IV. Method: 117 Instrumentation 117 A. Setting 120 B. Population 128 C. Procedure forPhase II Assessment and Hypothesesfor Phase II D. Instruments 131 Assessment 133 1. FormalMeasures Measures--The CreativeIntel- 2. Informal 137 lectual Style . Measures--The FeminineDimension 138 3. Informal 141 4, Hypotheses 142 5. InterviewSchedules Phase II Testing 147 V. Results andDiscussion: 149 A. CreativeIntellectual Values 149 L. Formal Measures 153 2. InformalMeasures 157 B. The FeminineDimension. a

C. Implications ofthe Results onFormal Measures--The CreativeIntellectual Style. . 160

D. Implicationsof the Results onInformal Measures--The CreativeIntellectual Style. . 161

E. The Aestheticand SocialDimensions: Sex Stereotypes andSocial Sanctions 169 of the Results onInformal F. Implications 172 Measures: The FeminineDimension 176 G. Summary . OOOOOOOO Chapter Page

VI. Case Histories: A Study of Life Styles 179 The Social Leader Prototype 190 Mark Steel--Social Leader 196

The Studious Prototype ...... 209 Stan Hough--Studious 211 The Creative Intellectual Prototype 222

Carol Richards --Neo- Creative . . . 226 Katja Toth--Scientist-Scholar 245 Don Saxon--Romantic Rebel 260

Jane AddamsHumanitarian-Altruist . . . . . 274

VII. Epilogue , . 293

Appendix. . . . . 307 LIST OF TABLES

Chapter IV Page Table Phase II 1. Distribution of thePopulation in the Study by Boys, Girls,Totals in Experimental and Control Groups 123 California 2. Means for Grade LevelScores on the Reading ComprehensionTest by Boys, Girls, Totals in Experimentaland Control Groups. . . . 124 Means for Verbal IQ's onthe CaliforniaTest of .....__AaL.....yttMentalirit by Boys, Girls, Totals in Experimental and ControlGroups 125 Apti- 4. Means for Percentiles onthe Differential tud,a Tests forBoys, Girls, Totalsin Experi- mental and Control Groups OOOOOOO125 Percentile Rank 5. Mean Selection Scoresand Median on theNational MeritScholarshlp Qualitana Test by Boys, Girls,Totals in Experimental 126 and Control Groups

6. Means and Medians forParents' Education, Pather's Occupational Statusand Family Size 127 in Experimental andControl Groups

Chapter V Inventory 1. Mean Scores on theOmnibus Personalit for Boys, Girls andTotals in theExperimental and Control Classes 150

2. Mean Scores on theAllport-Vernon-Lindzey Study of Values for Boys,Girls and Totalsin Experimental and ControlClasses 151 Thinking. 3. Mean Scores on the Testfor Critical for Boys, Girls andTotalsin Experimental and Control Classes 152 4. Mean Scores on theStudent Interest SurveyV Scales for Boys, Girlsand Totals inExperi- mental and Control Classes . . 154

5. Distribution of the Three MostImportant Choices for Experimental andControl Classes onReasons for Occupational ChoiceAccording to Creative Intellectual, Social Leader,and Studious Reasons 155 xv Chapter V

Table Page

6. Percentages for Student ProfileCheck According to Studious, CreativeIntellectual, and Social Leader Categories 156

7. Means for the Acceptance of WomenScale 158 Distribution of Choices on theSelf-Actualization in Women 159

9. Mean Scores on Humanitarian-AltruismScale for Students in Experimental and ControlClasses (Phase II Testing) 160 I. INTRODUCTION

The young person todaypoignantly asks for aplace for himself, his dreamsand his abilities. He senses that he isf ini the midst of arevolution, not only intechnology, but in ideas and in thought--inthe very concept ofwhat it means to be human. Among gifted adolescentsthese feelings are particularly commonin a group which wehave called creative intellectuals. The creative intellectuals,as yet a relatively small group, areparticularly sensitive to the world of ideas andof humanisticvalues, and are acutely aware of the pastand of the future. This is the youth who reaches out, oftenuncertainly, as he triesto comprehend--through any and allof his senses--thespreading waves of change. He seems to realize thatonly by the use of reason andimagination in a framework ofcivic and personal morality can thisenvironment of change offerthe kind of reality whichSocrates chaLiacterized asgood, true and beautiful.* Increasingly psychologists arecoming to feel that te:healthy, psychologicallymature individual mustlearn to live, withinself-imposed moral standards, alife of creative expansion. Rexroth notes that Socrates sawthis morality, which.was founded on reasonrather than custom, "as subject tocontinuous criticism andevaluation in terms of the ever-expandingfreedom of morally autonomousbut cooperating persons, whotogether make up a communitywhose characteristic aim was anorganically growing depth,.breadth, 1.. [and] intensity ofexperience."1The aim then must bein

*In a sense his search formeaning.istar9phoed in adult quests anduncertainties. Both4dOietceht-and -.:adult feel the loss ofthe old centerspf,gravity,,=)thd-:Old personal and institutionalideologiei-HoWever,Y the average 'adult often refusesto face the new and/orrejects change as unreal or as anordeal while youth is moreapt to face the present, to lookinto the future, and tohave a sense of joy in his projectedparticipation in the frontiersof life. 2

preparing for an undecipherable future to meet life as it is "becoming" with flexibility but also with a theory for living. We must resist bringing too much order to realms of thought--including concepts of what one is to become- - too thoughtlessly and too soon.Man is undoubtedly evolving in both tie intellectual and spiritual realms. We must ask ourselves what direction we want this evolution to take. We are continually becoming, often unwillingly, more responsible for ourselves and for all of mankind. What are the routes to personal and social fulfillment? It seems unnec- essary to state that they must be in the direction of understanding, kindness and peace.What potentialities has youth for such a development of human powers and of the ability to use them in understanding and working. cooperatively with other human beings? As we move out of the industrial age into a new era which Bell has specified as the Post-Industrial society, we see that new models of education and even of the end product of this education--the individual- -are necessary. We take the position that the creative intellectual style, an attitude toward learning and life which approaches self- actualization, will be best for this new kind of society and will be personally rewarding for the individual who develops in this direction.

A. The Dimensions of the Creative Intellectual St le Why would the creative intellectual style be most appropriate?We believe there are many reasons, all of,, which can be subsumed under three different modes of human development: cognitive, affective, social. Today's world demands a high level of development in all of these modes. This developed talent results from self-discipline, which,, in turn rests on motivation to learn. Motivation is esseni- tial to the creative intellectual style. It serves as cat- alyst and organizer and without it even the best minds accomplish little. 3

The Post-Industrial society will depend more. and more upon the conceptual innovator. With this change toward greater valuation of abstract thinking and the intellectual process, there needs to be a simultaneous increase in the valuing of impulse release and aesthetic expression. In addition: there seems no doubt but that there must be growth in humanitarian and altruistia concerns in the society at large. We have viewed the creative intellectual style as prototypic for this new world and, in the idealized sense, feel there would be a balance among these three dimensions,* much as Maslow has spoken of self-actualized adults as having strength in cognitive, emotional and moralrealms.2 All individuals need to develop and to live at their fullest potential and the society needs such actualized individuals.

1. The Cognitive Dimension The sheer volume of new knowledge being generated and its projected high rate of increase points up the need for the kind of nind that can deal with new ways of process- ing and synthesizing information. Machines will be extremely useful, but civilization is dependent oz the human mind for high level generalization and synthesis ,..and for directing the machines.**Confronted by such staggering amounts of discrete information produced by an ever-increasing multiplicity of different specialties and, simultaneously, faced by the overwhelming need to understand what

*In actuality, there is a wide range-of differences within the creative intellectual style, that is, varying balances in terms of the cognitive, affective and social. **The fact that machines are taking over work means that the character of work is changing...Voctional education, as we have known it, is becoming inappropt.iate and education for everyone must be of the nature that will help the individual to become more human. Education must prepare each individual for an open future and help him understand the world and himself in ever-changing contexts. 4 it all could mean to mankind,it is obvioUs thatsociety needs those who can go beyondthe "given" by thepowerof imagination, abstract thought andintuition. Bronowski observes that increasinglyscholars in all areas arecalled 3 upon to deal withabstractionsand Bruner confidentlystates 4 thatir age is emerging as anintellectually golden one. Not only is trained intelligenceurgently needed, but we can also say that neverbefore has there been such a favtaxable convergenceof trends which wouldfacilitate and encourage the individualand the society towardintel- lectual excellence. Bell holds that theintellectuals will be the innovators of thefuture because ours is afuture- oriented society where theplanning function, essentially an intellectual process,is becoming cruciallyimportant. Innovation in the realm of conceptsand ideas has superseded in importance innovation inthe realm of things. Despite the convergence of trendsthat should facilitate and encourage conceptualinnovators, despite thesocial need for such individuals and despite a growingtolerance for eggheads, there is still stronganti-intellectualism in allstrata of American society. We agree with Mead that" . . tle have not created even on apilot experimental basis,the type of social organizationcapable of finding, recruiting and providing for theinnovative intelligence weneed."*5

2. The Affective Dimension Self-actualizing behavior and thecreative intellectual style in the finaland highest synthesis mustbe framed in an elegance andbeauty. In this discussion we are concernedwith two aspects of theaffective dimension:

11111MMI. The experimental programdescribed in Report II, The Creative IntellfstualayleinGifted Adolescents, was a pilot effortto foster such growthin four junior high schools and with approximately125 young people.6 We acki: nowledge that this was only oneeffort and, although desired changes in attitude seemed toresult, many of our original questions remained unexplored and many newquestions arose. 5

(1) the personal expression of elegance andbeauty, and (2) the appreciation of these qualities. In both situations Nietzche's observation applies: mere reason is notenough. Both reason and feeling are necessary;indeed, both must be fused, finally, though each may becultivated separately. Society will be far richer and individualdevelopment will be greatly enhanced if such growth isfostered. As Mannes says: "I cannot think of any human occupationwhich cannot be made more significant and more effectivethrough the enlarged'perceptions which acquaintance withthe arts nour- ishes."7Mannes continues by exploring the needfor a development of the senses to their highestcapacity--to hear, see, taste, smell, andtmlich with knowledge and judgment. This is in the tradition of Camus whoobserved that H8 CI . mancannot do without beauty. However, he. was fully aware of the strugglein which the artist must be engaged if he is .to be acceptedin the present era and particularlyin Western Civilization. For it was Camus's contention that the modern Westglorifies the rule of reason and leaves out the aestheticrealm: "We have exiled beauty; [while] the Greeks took up armsforher."9 Man needs beauty; therefore, societyneeds those who are not only intellectually creativebut are also creative in artistic expression, those who can add to ourculture by creating beauty in any endeavor which they mayundertake. The need to cultivate aesthetic* expressivenessis often acknowledged and there is generalagreementthat we are in the midst of a"cultural explosion."Ours is a rich society and the multitude can buyaesthetic pleasures with ease. There is also no doubt but that mass manhas more leisures,in which to cultivate his feelingsand has more

*Richard L. Tcbin, in his recent editorial,"Man as a Beast of Burden,"observes that "as recently as Woodrow Wilson' -s time it was necessary for the federalgovernment to. pass laws limiting a manin.heavy industry to ten hours per day, six days aweek. In the sieat'shops of Manhattan at the turn of the century, children ofnine and ten labored 6

might years ofeducation in whichartistic: appreciation self-expres- be fostered andcreativity as a majorform of encouraging but sion might bedeveloped. This' is all very honesty forces us toquestion the depthof American concern willingness to for fosteringcreative potential. And our independence of Yp accept thoseindividuals who do express understand- thought and impulse,and the depthof artistic forms, ing of those whoattend functionsand buy the art must also bequestioned. adult is not Research indicatesthat the creative (Taylor)10 and that the well acceptedby his fellowworkers classmates creative schoolchild is not wellaccepted by noted, the present and teachers(Torrance).11As we have interpreted as anindication cuitural explosioncould be And if we arewilling of a rebirthof interest inbeauty.* by sheer to measuregrowth of theaesthetic sensibilities Mannes who says quantity of exposure wemust agree with cultured all the ruefully, "We aregetting more and more 12There is no doubtthat more time: the figures sayso." are visitedand more concerts areattended, more museums music as well records(including thosefeaturing classical However, we cannot asBeatles) purchasedthan ever before. or creativeinvolvement be sure thataesthetic appreciation culture consumption areflourishing if wesimply measure individual has for and take noteof the amountof time the observes, "You cannot . such enterprises. As Mannes depths of theimpact."1` measure thequality ofattention or the

...... "14 ( hours a day. p. 22) Recently, as we twelve to fourteen possibility of a labor has beenconsidering the all know, Unskilled labor isbe- five-hour day and afour-day week. and similarlythere is less andless demand coming obsolete and even for the skilledworker, thewhite collar worker The human beingmust be occupiedin "middle management." demands of work. other ways thanby the familiar well as phys- We mean by beautythose spiritual as qualities whichby their fitness,propor- ical and sensuous moral pleasure. tion and balanceexcite keenintellectual and 7

3. The Social Dimension Finally, as we explore the dimensions of the creative intellectual style we must examine social and ethical growth in terms of cultural readiness within oursociety, We must also be concerned with direct ways in which we foster such growth. In the culture at large, we can point to an increasing recognition of the need for such feelings and expressions. On a crowded planet, sympathy, tenderness and generosity are infinitely more practical than selfishnessand cruelty. Huston Smith poignantly expresses mankind'sneeds and hopes in this way: It would be wonderful if mankind could "gocritical" in humaneness ; . heart and head are going to have to work patiently and in complement inseek- ing to preserve this great and lovely world which man has been given thus far, tolive.15 Certainly, there are few who would disagree with Bertrand Russell when he says that the good lifeis one inspired by love as well as guided by knowledgeand makes it clear that in the new world (the twentiethcentury) the kindly feeling towards others which religion hasadvocated will be not only a moral duty but anindispensable condition 16 of survival. Fortunately we can point to certain kindsof progress in terms of pro-socialactivity and an expansion of conscience. C. P. Snow, in evaluating the ethical status of the Western World, says that we oughtnot to forget, despite the horrors of the concentration camps-andHiroshima, 'the things that are to our credit. He suggests that we ....,Or... consider the care that the Swedes and Danesgive-their old . and poor, their prisoners and socialmj.a:fLts and that we remember that the British, too, show anincrease in moral sensitivity as they "attempt, howevergrudging,-to treat women as though they wereequal human beings." Snow continues: There are signs of a development of something vary rare in the world up to now,which one might call 8

of fairness,tol- . this amount moral kindness . . within thesociety of andeffective kindness erance aril nineteenthcentury would seemastonishing to man.17 andperfunctory However,institutionalized care souls andenlargetheir spirits. kindness cannotnourish men's find his owniden- that eachindividual must We acknowledge integrity of finalindependenceand tity, buthold that 18 through love. Too often men spirit isonly fulfilled and adrift. Riesman has ex- feel estranged,out of place inability oi manymen greatsensitivity the plored with in a worlddom- find meaningandself-fulfillment 19 today to city. machine andthe faceless inated by theimperturbable individual, a youngAlgerian,Camus Focusing on asingle and numbdespair inThe evokes amood ofhopelessness beings feelthey 20 As May says,"Modern human Strange17,. "21 This senseof alien- have los their senseof community. Certainly ithas been an ation cannotbe takenlightly. philosophers,"third force" overriding concernofexistential Gardner's socialcommentators. psychologistsand other excellence in acontext of suggestion that wemust seek individ- be a partialanswer. For some concernfor all may they findthemselves by Biblicalinjunction that uals the to dispel service toothers may serve losingthemselves in meaninglessness.

and Man B. IdealizedConceptions what manhas thought, History cantell usmuch about action, andwhat theresults how thoughtwastranslated into to knowthe past soas Certainly thereis a need were. how we havebecome mistakes andto understand not torepeat history as a further needto use what we are. There is a However,extrapolation means ofpredicting thefuture. information andperspective into thefuture fromhistorical What is pastis notnecessarily pro- alone isnot enough. and moreby is beingdetermined more logue. The future over As Rush hassaid,"[Man's] powers humanintervention. 9

22 his environment are increasing precipitately." He contends that man is intervening in the course of evolution in such ways that "whole orders of life" may be swept from the earth.* There seems to be little doubt that Dubos is right when he asserts that what happens to man is condi- 23 tioned largely by man's imagination and human will. The fact that we can do something about the future makes it imperative that we act responsibly and make the best plans possible. In order for human beings to be prepared for tomorrow's world, tomorrow's world must be envisioned and this vision must meet the requirements of the best human life pattern that we can conceive. We cannot be fully human in just any kind of world. We propose that one of the may:.. practical and intelligent ways to prepare for fiiqture is to construct open-dynamic utopian models of :'t,lety and comple- mentary prototypic models of the ideal human being. It is essential that models be conceived as open and dynamic. As Sanford** says, "The limits of human potentiality are still unknown; hence any conception of the ideally devel- 24 oped person must be open-ended." Sanford feels that it is both possible and desirable to develop such idealized images or conceptions of the human being and holds that they should be consistent with existing theoretical and empirical knowledge. In terms of the need for the idealized conception of society, Platt--without qualification-- says, "The world has now become too dangerousfor anything less than Utopia."25 There is currently much interest in

*In support of this argument, Rush points to the fact that Americans are rapidly destroying the wilderness frontier and states unequivocably, "When man obliterates the wilderness, he repudiates the evolutionary process that put him on the planet. In a deeply terrifying sense, man is on his own.ad6 suollevitt Sanford, Director of the Human Problems Institute, Stanford University, Palo Alto, California. 10 utopian conceptions of society,and recently an entireissue of Daedalus, the journal ofthe American Academyof Arts 27 and Sciences, was devoted tothe topic. These models of an ideal society, as isthe case with theidealized human image, must be consonant withcurrent theoretical and empirical knowledge. Thus, we hold that modelsfor creative social development andinteraction must be open anddynamic, i.e., subject to continualmodification. Further, they have the exceedinglyimportant function of serving asframes- of-reference for planned changeand as projected directions for development. The quality of thevision, the world we resolve upon, must be fit forthe joyfulhabitation of man. Utopian formulations must includestatements of the ideals and practices which willenhance the human condition. Platt suggests that through planning wemight derive future bene- fits from man's capacity forintervention: It will be a time when man canbegin to plan what he wants man to be, as eachindividual makes his personal plans today--a timewhen accident and drift will finally begin tobe replaced by conscious human values anddecisions.28 Examples of the need for andthe possibility of the use of the "ideal" or thetheoretical model can be takenfrom the sciences. It is well known thatthe ecologies of the.. natural world, as well as ofman's social worlds, are so intricately x7elated that planningis an absolute necessity if we are to escape chaos ordestruction. Every change affects the ecologicalsystem in many ways;therefore, every projectedmodification must be thoughtthrough with great care. There is considerable precedencefor theoretical constructs andprojections of this kind,notably in the sciences. We quote from Sears: However widely projections maydiffer, it is folly to reaard them as auseless waste of time. The geologist derives orderfrom the idea that surface processes movetoward conditions of maxi- mum uniformity--thepeneplain, rare or absent in actual experience. The ecologist solves many of his problems by viewingliving communities as working toward an idealized climaxcondition of dynamic 11

stability, an open steady state. In longer view the physicist looks upon our solarsystem as moving inevitably toward a condition ofentropy--that is, a minimum of energy free to do work.The mathe- matician, for his part, makes constant useof the idea of limits. All of these formulations arenot , only useful, but consistent with therules of experience based on observation..29 We submit that the theoretical,imaginative construction.of social utopias and prototypichuman models on the ,ba44.stlof the emerging needs of society,and consonant with .all .ghat is known about the nature ofsociety and man, is one of the mostjudicious and helpful enterprisesin which qualified people could engage. These are the speculative and holistic endeavors which, as Maslownotes, take from . . . courageand demand a willingness to: step. away the narrow platform of certainty."30 For such idealized constructs to bedeveloped and applied to the human condition itwill be necessary, as the philosopher Reiser contends,for a "new form of thought and orientation" to becomeoperative in the comingcivili- zation. Reiser continues: "The new vision cannot be an a priori super-positionfrom above. It must be the emer- "31 gent outcome of a creativeevolution on the human level. This creative evolution can and mustbecome, at least partially, a conscious endeavor. Thus we suggest that not only the past images of man bereviewed but that there be a primary focus on newprototypes which have evolved or are emerging. As Maslow sees the situation: One way of looking at the history ofmankind is in terms of the ruling image of man. If you look at it that way, there havebeen only four or five such images: The Renaissance image, themedie- val, the Catholic-Christianimage, the Athenian image, the Knight, and so on. Each of these images has occupied people for a coupleof centuries, but today we face as great a revolution as you can have. It is simply a differentconception of the nature of man. . . .32 We have already presented the idea ofself-actualization and the creative intellectualstyle as a prototype- ideal for human development. We would agree with Rexroth 12

by asking what mandoes who engageshimself in dialogue He uses his at his optimumand by replying: "He creates. mind and bodyto their fullestcapacities."43 Although for the this pattern ofgrowth seemsparticularly suited possible now Post-Industrial societyand more generally that there havebeen than ever before, wemust acknowledge similar in some historical antecedents --models which were concepts respects. Bruner cites theJewish and Chinese held in highest of the beautifulperson. Both cultures both intel- esteem anindividual who wasrichly developed individual was lectually andaesthetically. This ideal and sentiment " . one whoblended knowledge seen as 34 and action in abeautiful way oflife." by the Jew and The beautiful wayof life venerated which are beyond Chinese includeselements of greatness those usuallyassociated withcreative productiveness. cor humanity. We refer particularlyto a deep concern led Sorokin has studied anumber ofindividuals who have quality of altruistic beautiful livescharpe!terized by the power ofthese love. The drimary focusof the innovative individuals was humaneand their impact uponmankind was intellectual a resultof love as well asof exceptional love as their and imaginativetalents. With altruistic people chief source ofpotency, Sorokinfeels that these in the made the mostdeep-seated andlong-lived changes history of mankind.We quote fromSorokin: If we ask ourselveswhat sort ofindividuals have been mostinfluential in humanhistory, the answer issuch individuals asLaotze, Confucius, Moses, GautamaBuddha, Mahavira,Jesus, St. Paul, St. Francis ofAssisi, MahatmaGandhi and other founders of greatreligions, discoverersof eternal and livingincarnations of sub- moral principles, the short- lime unselfishlove. In contrast to lived and mainlydestructive influenceof auto- military conquerors,revolutionary cratic monavchs other histor- dictators, potent.atesof wealth, and ical persons,these great apostlesof spirituality and love havemost tangiblyaffected the lives, minds, and bodiesof untoldmillions, of many generations duringmillennia of humanhistory; and 7 13

they are tangibly influencing us at thepresent time. They had neither army and arms nor physical force nor wealth nor any of the worldly meansof influencing the historical destinies of nations. Nor;;, to obtain their power, did they appeal to hate, elnyy,,,greed, and other lusts of humanbeings. Even' theiethysical organism was not of the strong- est, kind..4And yet, together with a handfulof their followers, they morally transformedmillions of men and women, reshaped cultures and socialin- stitutions, and conditioned the course of history. They did all this by the mere power of their sub- lime, pure, and abundant love, by their unselfish spirituality and supreme wisdom,s5 In Report 1136we observed that eachof these individuals was a "master of his times," but alsobelonged to all times; he was a citizen oZ a community and astate, but also a contributor to the world order. Distinguished by his wisdom and compassion, he was aware ofthe inner needs of man and of the importance ofachieving a rapproche- ment with other aspects of life--withhis fellow man and with nature. All saw that life had basic unitiesthat must be understood and interpreted. We are arriving, as Maslow says, at a different conception of man--one that has grown out ofcurrent needs but has a kinship to prior images, as we sawabove, and that has been adapted from a few humanmodels, e.g., Sorokin's apostles of spirituality and love. We feel that ML.Dlow's formulation of the self-actualized individualwhose relationship with his society issynergic*37is a viable pattern and a suitable image for the newsociety. The question that must follow as we try to putthe specifications for the new image into effect is: What are the possibilities for the generality of humankind todevelop in these directions? Social philosophers contend that the wealth, medical

0110111117004111.111110 *Such synergic or unitary and cooperative relationships between man and his society are not a newconception. The Enlightenment ideal was that of a perfectadaptation of individual to society and societyto nature. 14

for an ever - expertise andeducationaladvantages available population wouldallow increasing segmentof the world's There is much of mankindto move into a"growth" phase. and learning both freedomand opportunityfor discovering in a varietyof cre- to live thegood life andfor growing As Reiserhas put it, wecould ative andexpressive ways. 38 rather than aWelfare State. become a"fulfillment" society possible In thishypothesized futureit seems quite and safetywill that the basicneeds forphysical comfort apparent whicharise have been met. However, new needs are which move us from the veryemergence ofintelligence and thinking. Platt feels toward newpatterns ofliving and evolutionary hor- that man isbeing pressedby "the great "power andprosperity mones ofknowledge andtechnology" into and intoincreasing tol- and communicationand interaction, planning -- pressingus, eranceand vision andchoice and coordinated human- whether we likeit or not,into a single kind."39 deChardin who Platt's viewcoincides withthat of the mostnotable change had long beforespeculated that potential. It was this in man willbe the raisingof human reflected inthe mushrooming "eruption ofinterior life," and technicaladvance, that of knowledge,research, thought conception of theevolvingnoosphere.'' led deChardinto his stopped buthas merelyshifted He held thatevolution has not of thematerial to therealm its emphasisfrom the realm this increasing use of thoughtand spirit. He felt that lead to the and developmentof mindwould inevitably that all mankind,even "planetisation" ofthe human race; hostilities, wouldbe those withapparentlyimplacable the ever morecomprehending mingled togetherand united by

moiNIIMINammillmelaellaNalmfismaartreNtram noosphere (fromthe *deChardinconceived of the mind), the realmof mind, asbeing analogous Greek word for living from thebiosphere, therealms of to and evolving from thelithosphere, or organisms, whichin turn evolved the realm ofinorganic earthlymatter. 15 and all embracingevolution of thenoosphere..40 Of course, we do not knowwhat the possibilities for realization ofthis kind of speculativethinking will be. However, there seems to be nodoubt but that there are pressures forsuch changes, the pressuresof human needs and the pressure ofadvancing knowledge. Beyond this, the explosion of world populationand the increase ofinter- continental travel produces anunprecedented need forhuman cooperation, what Reiser hascalled "worldunification."41 Not only are there theseouter or soctalneeds, but there are also inner orindividual needs that cryto be satisf.lad. As Maslow says, "Capacitiesclamor to be used and cease their clamoronly when they areused sufficiently. That is to say, capacities areneeds. . ." Maslow illustrates thisin many ways. He notes that human beings with fine bodies needto use their musclesand that people with the capacityto love have theimataut111amt and the need to lovein order to feel healthy. In terms of the creativeintellectual style as it appearsin gifted adolescents, we cannot but agreewith Maslow when he says, ff "People with intelligence must usetheir intelligence. . and when he further assertsthat poets must writepoetry 43 and musicians makemusic and those who need toconstruct utopias must constructutopias. In other words, to lead a psychologicallyhealthy life each humanbeing must make as full use aspossible of his potential. Perhaps one of the most promisingindications that change inthese desirable directions may occuris that the very buildingof utopian models for societyand idealized conceptionsfor human development serves tofoster growth in thesedirections.

Potential of Youth for CreativeIntellectual Growth Psychologically healthy young people*tend to make

111.1111NIMMIIMIIIMIIIMINNO111111111.1011~.111011..111111111111... Our studies show the giftedto be, as a general rule, more advanced inemotional and social development 4A than their agemates of average orbelow average ability.'-m 16 good choices and to growin self-fulfilling ways. In addition, youth, and particularlythose who are most intelli- 45 gent and sensitive, are generally opento the future as well as to the prevailingzeitgeist. They seem, far more often than is true ofadults, to be willing todeal with the most current of ideasand to contemplate newconceptions of the future--eventhose of a highly idealistic orutopian nature. All of this leads to(or perhaps is due to) a desire of these young people to usetheir minds. This is the group among whomWhite's "drive for mastery,"in terms 46 of motivation to learn,is most apparent. They want to realize their values and manywill probably do so if they are not forced toacquiesce to cultural demands.* In all of these ways certain of ourable young people showthem- selves to be predisposed tothe creative intellectualstyle. There is evidence that there is aproportionately increasing per cent of young peoplewho show such inclinations. We hold that there is a generalincrease in intelligence and in desireto engage in criticalthought; an aug- mentation of aestheticsensitivity; and a growth ofsocial conscience among our youth. Particularly, there is an expansion of the ability to comprehendthe world. As Mead has observed, "Man's abilityto comprehend his world and 47 conceptualize his place in it grows evergreater."

411111MMININIMF *A sociologist, Friedenberg,reports that gifted children, pecially the more independent,unconventional and creative ones, areoften the focus of hostile pressure brought to bear on them bytheir teachers and peers inorder to bring their behavior morein line with the norm forthe group.4b In a similar vein, Henry, anantiropologist, notes that the more creativean-3 contemplative students arenot well accepted in theschools and feel that lifewill not offer the opportunity tolearn or to search for thetruth but will, instead, demandthat the young person "go onin society and makemoney."49 17

1. The Cognitive Dimension--IntellectualPotential In the earlier discussion of the cognitive mode we were primarily concernedwith the more advanced levels of thought expressed in abstract thinking andconceptual . innovation. We recognize, however, that the generalpublic. and school people,, in particular, usuallythink of intellectual potentiaLjn terms of the popular conceptsof intellectual ability and achievement as mea_iured bytests; A, Certainly all of these are valid'aspectsofintelligence as we define it today. Interpreted either by perceptive social observers :J.. or in the idiom of the intelligencetests there seems to be little doubt but that today's young personis brighter and better informed than he has everbeen. After World War II a Scottish survey on school childrenshowed higher.: intelligence test scores than a similar surveyhad shown 50 a generation before. Tuddenham studied American soldiers in both world wars and found that thosefrom the last war. tested significantly higher. He reports that "performance on a group test of thekind usually described as measuring 'general learning ability' or 'verbalintelligence' has 2 -51To markedly increased from World War I to WorldWar II. " Not only do young people seem to be more able and better informed than they have ever been, butthey also appear to have greater talentfor keeping well informed. Recruits in the first world war typicallyread at fifth grade level, but the average inducteeof the second world war tested at tenth gradereading level. The talent for reading shown by the general public hascontinued to improve in the past two decades and the gifted andcreatively inclined young person reads very wellindeed.* Despite these apparent increases in intelligence

..1111.111010. *Report I on The Creative Intellectual St lein Gifted Adolescents has a detal ed discussion ofthe reading patterns of creative 4ntellecivals and othergifted young people 52

'.!." 18

ability, we would and in academicskills such as reading there be less thandiscerning if we did notrecognize that inquiring minds. are manyable students whodo not develop within Not all studentswith developedability and who test gifted ranges the academicallysuperior and intellectually commitment to ideas, have the kind ofmotivation to learn, which we have seen and openness topsychological growth intellectual as essentialto the expressionof the creative neither safe style. As Wolfle hasasserted, "it is . that high abilityis always nor . realistic to assume accompanied by highmotivation, that humantalent will over- The ride obstacles tofind its own way tofruition."53 focused energy andthe tenacity of purposedemanded for consistently high leveland originalperformance(effective style) is prob- behavior in the maturecreative intellectual Report on thePursuit ably a rare quality. The Rockefeller results from a com- of Excellenceobserved that excellence character and notes: bination of abilitywith motivation and "And the more oneobserves high performancein the dust im- and heat of dailylife, the more oneis likely to be pressed by thecontribution made bythe latteringredients."54 Fortunately, neweducational programsaim to Stimu- The new sci- late intellectualcuriosity andindependence. developed ence andmathematics programswhich have been what Bruner recently havehelped fosterintellectual talent, appeal has called cognitivepower, andhave had considerable A recent for the moreable and self-directedstudents. and progress reportof the Panel ofEducational Research Development to theU.S. Commissioner)f Educationasserted that these"programs are directedtoward the college-bound The PSSC student and attractthe more talentedstudents. lab- course, forexample, despite itsgreat dependence upon best with the ab- oratory work,appeals to those who cope 055 Thus stract and withthe greatgeneralizations. . . . superior we mightinfer that at leastthe intellectually segment of thepopulation has benefittedconsiderably from 19 the new programs which present modernconcepts in mathematics and science and which teachstudents to think like scientists. The question the schools must askis whether they. can and do contribute aclimate of sufficient challenge,: freedom and encouragement to foster theexcitement that keeps students learning all of thetime. The science and mathematics programs perhaps contributeto this but we.doubt if this is enough., Despite theefforts to change programs in social sciences, English and thearts, education generally falls .far short of such goals. In fact, many observers find little evidence that schoolsactively' foster intel,..y lectual curiosity and a spirit ofinquiry. Instead, they. reward the students who participatein social events and do their assignments with care. As Bay comments: The hunt for grades can beas much of an obstacle to intellectual growth as thestriving for social popularity; both strivings tare similarin that they aim at social acceptance instead ofindividual excellence of mind.56 The more able students are often nothappy with this state of affairs. Dressel and Grabow sampled 502gifted high school graduates from Michigan andreported that these students felt that their high school coursesprovided neither 57 stimulation nor involvement, norchallenge. Fishman and Solomon report that able college youthcharacteristically

11 . . . take issue with what they seeto be the irrelevancies of much of the present-dayeducation. To them it appears to be lacking in its abilityto prepare them for 'thereal world.'"48These and other studies seem toindicate that schools often do not offer thekinds of learning opportunities that appeal to gifted students. Such students characteristically want to discoverthemselves and what the world is all about, but do notfind that such opportunities aroffered.59Thus, motivation to learn and tobehave in the creative intellectualstyle, may actually diminish as students progressthrough school. 20

2. The AffectiveDimension- -CreativePotential There seems littledoubt but thatthe cognitive are moremarked powers asthey are testedand demonstrated parents, andit in able youththan was the casewith their has been mainly is apparent thateducational innovation May, directed towardproducing suchintellectual change. time writing in TheAmerican Scholar,terms the present a and collapsingpatterns."6° of "quickeningintellectual life people can expressthem- The question asto whether young have more direct selves morecreatively(inferring that they _ earlier decadesis access toemotionalpotential) than in perhaps moredifficult to determine. There is much reasonto assert thatmid-twentieth expression century is an eraof more labilityof emotional The than was thenineteenth or earlytwentieth centuries. elite in thetwenties exploratory behaviorexpressed by an of the largersociety. is now acceptableto major segments is more This may or maynot be taken toindicate that there others and it may ormay sensitive awarenessof self and expression and ap- not relate to anextension of aesthetic preciation. In the sectionentitled theAffective Dimension, expression andthe we exploredthe human needfor creative and to accept readiness ofAmericans toappreciate beauty of understanding. We con- the aestheticand intuitive ways for the future cluded that theshining visionthat is needed that is anaspect comes from anintellectual suppleness it is vital that our of creativeexpression. We feel that in- youth, if they areto move towardself-actualization, aesthetic appreciation. creasein perceptualreceptivity and beauty of theworld. They must learnto reach outand grasp the

ONOWIIMENNWIllrlrararrillmereseramwsMalranamme Chicago sociolo- *Robert Havighurst,University of rated that for manyyears it wasimpolite gist, recently comm social class, American societyabout either sex or to talk in discourse, but that now sexhas become apart of polite while social classis still alittleobscene,61 23.

Certain students appear to understandor accept the possibilities of cosmic consciousnessand validity of such feelings as those expressedby Whitman decades ago: The ocean filled withjoy--the atmosphere all joy! Joy, Joy, in freedom, worship,love! Joy in the ecstasy of life: Enough to merely bel Enough to breathe! Joy, Joy! All over Joy.* Susan Druding,a young Ph.D. candidate in biology, spoke not only for many of her Berkeleycounterparts but also for an increasingly idealistic student population throughout the nation, when she declared: have great hopes formy generation, despite all the doomssayers. Andeven more for the next one. think peopleare feeling more concern for each other every day. I'm convinced that we're all "destined for joy"as a French poet once said, even though there seems to be a permanent con- spiracy against it062 Many of the more able studentsare vitally concerned about the matter of incorporatingmore emotion and feeling into education. Our own research with gifted adolescents indicates that their need is to becomepersonally involved with their education. Freedman** has found that able college students hope foran aesthetic and personal enrichment 63 that college experiences rarely give them. Two of the four goals which Freedman ascribes to thegifted students he has studied pertain to the matterof incorporating more feeling into education. One of these relates to the introduction of unity into the intellect and thepersonality. Students would seem to understandMurphy's view that every experience contains primitivesensory and visceral components 64 as well as higher order constructs. A second goal, the freeing of the impulse life ofman, attributed by Freedman

*Whitman was undoubtedlyan unusual Victorian but expressed1 well the cosmic consciousness whichemerged in unusual human beings throughout the centuries.

**The college students Freedmanhas described represent, he says, an avant-garde at themore prestigious colleges. 22 to the college youth, is made morespecific when he says, "College students are increasingly unwillingto accept education as a grim competitive affair. They want more zest, more gusto, more lifethan has been available at most colleges and universities in recentyears."65 In wanting to partake of more experience, to makefull use of the intuitive, subjective and emotional, and toexperience more deeply, today's students seem to. beaccepting Hawkins' view that " . . some things are best knownby falling in love 66 with them." If we are serious about the cultivation ofcreativity and not merely infatuated with the glamour ofthe term, we must realize thatit implies both self-expression and aesthetic development. It involves, for youth, intense and personal revelations and it meansthat as educators we must provide waysto cultivate an appreciation of art and beauty. A cursory review of public schoolcurricula and teaching practices will reveal tothe most casual investigator that there is little time oreffort spent upon cultivating individual expressiveness andartistic appreciation. However, if we desire "full humanity,"the creative potential must be developed. The inner self must be encouraged to emerge. The young person must be allowed and even asked to deal imaginativelywith new ideas and experiences. Only by expressive growth, touched offby a desire to find fresh images andinsights with which to understand reality, can youth gain a senseof self or a construct of the world in which he lives. Unfortunately, as we have noted earlier, therehas been little attention given by educatorsto the more humanistic and aesthetic aspects of thecurriculum until recently. In fact, the school day continuesto be loaded with mathematics and science offerings, that is to say,weighted toward the cognitive rather than theaffective. Maslow indicates that pre-verbal thinking is oftenignored or misunderstood and that schools, if they areto be adequate, must 23 r e find ways to help children discover the richness and vitality that is within themselves. It is not only the children who find their expressiveness curtailed; artists also feel out of place in a technological society. Because of this, Krutch feels that those who express themselves creatively 67 tend to feel "alienated" in our culture. Thus, sending students to school is no, guarantee that they will encounter conditions in which individuality and creativity will emerge. School rarely offers the time or the place for intense aesthetic involvement. Educators say that they want creativity, but there iz often little effort to set the stage for it. The curriculum does not offer "equal time" for "falling in love"--either with the aesthetic endeavor or one'sfellow- man_or woman.

3. The Social DimensionMoral and EthicalPotential The budding of a social conscience in this century and the apparent flowering of an intensealtruistic and humanitarian awareness and concern in today's youth have been widely noted. The students which Freedman has studied seem to exemplify the qualitiesof creative intellectuals in the cognitive and affective mode. In addition, he reports that they have a strong social conscienceand are asking for the establishment of the ethic .ofsocial service

68 F. as a powerful.motive in modernlife. Pope, in an essay prepared for the Golden Anniversary White House Conference on Children and Youth, commented: "It seems obvious that the coming generationwill 'be fare. -3 more sophisticated aboutsocial possibilities than their.. parents were"c9 Five years later teenagers seem to be fulfilling this prophecy. A recent issue of Time reports that in 1965 "folk. rock"--big-beat musicwith big-message lyrics--has taken over. These lyrics are concerned with everything from the P.T.A. to Viet Nam, fromintegration to domestic morality. As Time puts it: 24

Where once teenagers weretoo busy fruggingto pay much heedto lyrics, most ofwhich were un- intelligible banshee wailsanyway,-they now listen with ears cocked andbrows furrowed.The rallying cry is nolonger "1 wanna hold yourhand," but "I wanna changethe world.070 This expression of socialconscience now notedin the adolescent mass has beenapparent for sometime in the able activities such as college student. Freedman asserts that the Peace Corps andthe Civil RightsMovement demonstrate that the ethic ofsocial service has inrecent years assumed He con- more importancein the lives ofcollege students. . . that cludes his remarksby saying, "I amconvinced . if we can refrain fromblowing ourselves upin the next decade or so, collegeyouth will makethis a much better "71 world. Sanford sees the aimsof what he callsthe "best students of the presentgeneration" as quitedifferent from the goals of thegeneration that now mansthe establishment. "want He remarks that manyof today's mostable young people their to be educators andreformers. They want to nourish humanity and that ofothers."72Others have alsodocumented this desire of ableyouth to serve andnot just for a summer or as apastime. Fishman and Solomon,in their discussion of pro-social valuesin youth, note,"youth are talking increasingly about fusing'movement' work with adevelop- 73 ing career line. That the students areresponding in this wayto stimuli is an em- the prevailingsocial and psychologizal pirical fact which we mayor may notbe able to explain interesting problems now, butwhich certainly presentssome of prediction tosocial scientists. It seems reasonable 74 to assume, as somesocial philosophersdo, that youth which attune them to have especiallysensitive antennae social change. Not only is youth awareof the wave front

A11 the more reasonto bring them intodiscussions occasion- and seriousdialogues--and foreducators to listen ally. 25 of change, but they maybe producing it. Fishman and Solomon report that the socialaction of youth ismaking a difference in thesociety. Students want to engagemeaningfully insocial action and they are alsoasking that educationhelp them in finding ideals by whichlife can become moremeaningful and values by whichintelligent moral andethical decisions technolog- can be made. They recognize theviolence, the ical,emptiness-and- theimper6onality of the agebut thy resist bitterness andspiritual blight. They expect something more from lifeand many haveasked for philosophy seminars and other waysto discovertheir better selves. Youth h'as an emotionalhunger for belonging,for fidelity They wish to a group, to anidea, to truth, to anideal. them- to become anintegral part ofsomething larger than ancient,Apos- selves. Many accept and wantto act upon the but be ye tolic word: "Be ye not conformedto this world, transformed by therenewing of yourminds." If we seethe socialdimension as a vitalaspect intellectual style, we of student growthin the creative being made, must try to determineif specific efforts are Do particularly by theschools, to fostersuch growth. Do we give we teachstudents to beresponsible to others? in them opportunitiesto exercisetheir responsibility into authentic socialsituations and to puttheir idealism ethical under- effect? Do we help studentsreach moral and standings about their ownlives?, Do we makeadult models templates visibleand available and thusgive students against-which to testtheir own valuesand frpm which to learn new ways ofliving, giving focusto their,lives? stu- Do we supplyopportunities fordiscussion. which help dents learn to makechoices based upontheir values? There is recognitionthat educationmust be con- the edu- cerned about thesematters. Drucker believes that

. not primarily with cation for tomorrowshould deal " . . economic matters,but with basicvalues--moral, aesthetic 26 andphilosophical."75Unfortunately education has neglected these moral and social aspects of human needs. Taba asserts that the schools have neglected intergroup relations:

. . . there is agreement that at present there are not enough skilled administrators and teachers to advance intergroup relations wisely. [In the preceding decade there were efforts in this direction but this] is now slackening under the pressure of the movement "back to thefundamentals."76 And Mead comments on how difficult it is foradolescents to play meaningful and vital rnles in thelarger society: "So far very little participation has beenoffered to young people in the major task of ourtime, the absolute necessity of saving the human race fromeradication."77 She observes that youth often finds it dangerousand unaccept- able to put idealism into effect. If, as Gardner asserts,

man has always, " . . shown a compelling need to arrive at conceptions of the universein terms of which he could 1178 L tg.ra.cula life fe asmeaningful, we have done little to meet this need in our educationof young people.As Gardner says, "Unfortunately we havevirtually no tradition of helping the individualachieve such commitment [to the development of individuality, tofinding universal meanings, and to employing his intelligencewisely in terms of the 79 social good.]" Few schools provide opportunities forseminars or group guidance inwhich moral and ethical issues canbe pursued and where the search formeaning is approved dialogue. Taba found little use being made of"guidance and counseling as a way of helping individualsand groups in 80 school ." Although there is much recognition of theneed for adult models and philosophicalguidelines, there are few efforts in our schools to introducestudents to the typespecimen or the exemplar who by his verysuperiority can

inspire able youth. As Mead has observed, " a . . goodness,

to make an appeal to the . . . adolescent, must be cast in a heroic mold. If it is not, many of the most gifted 27 01 will find all the ideals of their generation meaningless. Not only must there be contemporary heroes for these young people, but these models must be presentedappropriately. As Maslow commented, imitation, even of such people [ "saintly sages"], is a bad thing. The thing that seems to me to be most useful for post-pubescent kids is that itgives them hope--it is possible that there are such wonderful people. You can't think, therefore, that everyone is a bastard. Don't trust anyone, everyone is out for himself, watch yourself in the clinches, hit him before he hits you. You know, that sort of thing?But it is possible that human beings can be wonderful and our young peopleought to know it.I Psychologists have been as unconcerned as educators and have given little emphasis in research and discourse to social concern, brotherly love and the searchfor self- actualization. As Maslow comments, "It is amazing how little the empirical sciences have to offer on the subject oflove."8'

4. Motivation, the unifying aspect of the cognitive, affective and social modes How can students be helped to develop and usethese three modes of expression--the cognitive, affective and social? To develop the zest for learning and experiencing that permits expression of the creativeintellectual style? To form the self conception that will bringstability and pattern to the striving for long-range goals andultimate self-perfection, and that will lead to the developmentof a personal style in thecreative intellectual genre?"

*This was perhaps more the case in 1954 when Dr. Maslow expressed this concern. He'stated that at that time only Symonds' Dynamics of Human Ad'ustmentand Sorokin, in various writings, including aaklultolLJAALts,listick...... gt and Behavior, were not silent on the subject oflove. Since then we have had Fromm's The Art of Loving(1958 and a plethora of sex manuals which are now being excoriated as treating love as a "thing" or technique. "It must be understood in what Allport has called propriate striving that the goals are neverattainable, e.g., 28

To develop the "other-regarding sentiments" thatwill make growth motivation and self-actualization possible? The most important consideration, as we contemplate growth potential in the direction of the creativeintellectual style, is the motivation of the individual. We see this deriving from interests and abilities which we havediscussed under the cognitive, affective and social modes of expression. In terms of motivation itself we accept the higher order striving which Maslow has termed growthmotivation as most descriptive of the processof becoming which we see as central to the creative intellectualpredisposition. As we study the able adolescent in the secondary school setting we can perhaps make this generalstatement more meaningful. Growth motivation, when applied to the young person in school, must beviewed in the most general terms. In other words, we feel that it is not appropriate to discuss motivation as a minor technicalproblem that can be dealt with by giving gold stars and "A's" for effort. We hold it to be, instead, much broader in scope,probably embracing many aspects of the environment as well as some fundamental individual variations--innate differencesin awakeness, awareness and total sensitivity. The way we educate and challenge, the models we supply(loes the teacher stir the imagination?) and what we value in our society will all make a difference and must be kept in mindif we went to rescue the talented from a lack of focus,lowerl aspiration and habits of mediocrity. For those who characteristically lack zestwho either plod or lack persistence--Goete's statement may suggest appropriate treatment: Treat a man as he is, he will remain as he is; treat a man as he could be and shouldbe and he will become as he could

the scholar's discoveries lead to more and more questions? etc. It should also be noted that Jung defines personality similarly--as an ideal state of integration toward which the individual is tending, not the accomplished fact but the projected outcome of growth. 29

and should be. Zest for learning is often much nearer to the surface than we ever realize.When given a chance to become involved with important thoughts and issues through philosophical seminars, group discussions andindependerV.; study, gifted students generally show high motivation. Our own research conducted in the Lansing Public Schools has indicated that a large proportion of able ninth graders are deeply interested in learning and the pursuit of ideas. A careful study of the protocols of their recorded class discussion shows that they can handle important concepts and basic social issues easily and that they want to deal 83 with matters of consequence. . . Motivation to 'learn involves a zest for the task at hand and an ability to lose oneself in one'smaterials, in a state of being as it were. However, for the most tcoic form of motivation there must be an acceptance of "becoming" as well as "being."As Allport says, mature striving is linked to long-range goals. He continues:

[the] process of becoming [is] . . . a matter of organizing transitory impulses into a pattern of striving and interest in which the element of self- awareness plays a large part. . . . From adolescence onward, however, the surest clue to personality is the hierarchy of interests, including the loves and loyalties of adult life. When we know a person's ordo amoris we truly know thatperson.84

D. An Aeroach to the Studof the Creative Intellectual SStyle There are many ways to understand human development. However, we need to have, if we are to gain insights into the more advanced kinds of such growth, more thandescrip- tions of structures and mechanisms. The major emphasis of psychology for many years has beenobjective and operational. Excellent tools of inquiry have developed out of these behavioristic and logical-positivistic approaches, but these emphases upon physiology and behavior have made it difficult to study the most important aspect of being 30

criticized human--the innerexperience. Psychology could be has much as Dubos hascriticized biology, ascience which elementary struc- been immensely successfulin describing the to tures and processesof the body machine,but has tended 85 neglect the study ofliving as experience. Sanford contends that researcherswho fragment thehuman being and study the "bit" or"part" or "variable" mayclaim that they will later put theseparts together andin this additive way get apicture of the whole. He holds thisreasoning faulty on two counts: (1) we cannot assumethat the parts will add up to anymeaningful whole, and(2) most psychologists whose studiesareatomistic makelittle effort to 86 formulate the meaningfulgeneralization. Maslow says much the samething: Many psychologists arecontent to workwith but a portion of thehuman being, indeedmaking a virtueof such limitation. They forget that ultimately their taskis to give us aunified em- pirically based conceptof the wholehuman being, This takes i.e.,(.4, philosophyof human nature. courage anddemands a willingnessto step away from the narrowplatform of certainty. Such certainty is of necessity narrow,for the reason that our knowledgeis insufficient toallow us to be sure ofanything but smallbits of the complex be that human problem. . . The fear seems to once we admitcreativeness we mayinvolve ourselves with all sorts ofpoets, artistsvalusicians and other questionablepeople who don'thave a Ph.D. in psychology and aretherefore clearlysocial climbers without anyright to knowanything about humannature.87 "The study of lives"is a phrase oftenused by Murray beings must bestudied to Qxpress hisconviction that living 88 or should as livingwholes. Certainly not all research can take the form ofcollecting lifehistories; however, we bits of contend thatstudying the isolatedand fragmented needed an- many peopledoes not give usthe most basic and of the swers. Fortunately, psychologyis, perhaps because influence of thosewith clinicaltraining,* beginningto

Bruner, the presentpresident of APA, andHobbs, the incomingpresident, exemplifythis trend. 31 give increasing recognition to the reported experiences of human beings and to phenomenological subject matterin general. As Koch reported in his Epilogue to the three, volumes of the APA's Study I, "an important and quite general trend of the essays is an increased recognition of the role of direct experiential analysis in psychological science."89 As psychologists deal with introspective reports and recognize that the data of psychology canconsist of inner experiences rather than simply overtobservables, the practitioners not only take on more difficult conceptual and operational tasks but also move toward morecomprehensive and socially significant findings. Such research is simply more true to life. As White says, a phenomenological ap-

st proach such as the study of lives, . is neither rapid nor easy, but it has the supremevirtue of being adapted to the nature of its subject matter. It keeps specific findings from falling out of the life configuration that 90 gives them significance." In an earlier book, White has pointed up the social significance of such studies and stressed the need for a more complete understanding of modern manand of human nature, noting particularly that: Now that man has become so az*oubled about himself, so alarmed at his ineptitude in organizing a social system to suit thesmall world created by modern communication and modern scientific discoveries, he urgently needs to know more about his own potentiality forconstructive growth. He can no longer afford to distortthe universe by knowing truth partially, to distort his self-knowledge by leaving out those very features of his development that give him a chance to guide hisdestiny. He deserves a picture of himself that will not omit the higher human qualities of trying to understand things and change them for the better. [And yet] there are scarcely any systematic case records of great fortitude, rare heroism, unusualcontra. bution to the arts, of special success of grasping and solving important social issues. The natural growth of personality and the higher flights of human achievement have been given almost no repre- sentation in man's current ideas abouthimself.91 32

The need then is forpsychological studieswhich will give us morecomprehensive insights intohuman functioning and supply framesof reference inwhich we see man encountering experiences andwhich will also lead usbeyond We the present intcunderstandings of humanpotential. hold that man'sessential being is not in anyfixed endow- ment, but in the'becoming' he accomplisheswith the raw materials of his life. I. INTRODUCTION

"The Trial andDeath ofSocrates," 1. Kenneth Rexroth, 31. Saturday Review,' Vol.48, September11, 1965, p.

Intellectual Style A. The Dimensions ofthe Creative Personalitz (NewYork: 2. Abraham H. Maslow,Motivation and Harper and Brothers,1954). Process,"Scientific 3. Jacob Bronowski,"The Creative American, Vol. 199,September, 1958, pp.58-65:

4. Jerome S. Bruner, zir::),rOnKnot'theLeftHand (Cambridge: TheBelkni.0.PiiiicThkiiraUhlkiltir'Pedds, 1962). Cultural Evolution(New 5. Margaret Mead,Continuities in Haven: Yale Universitytress, 1964), p. 247. INTELLECTUAL STYLE 6. Elizabeth MonroeDrews, THE CREATIVE IN GIFTEDADOLESCENTS;ainaArlasts2mleaLasturALAp- and Curriculum,Report II in a series proach to Counselin Branch, TitleVII, of three: 'final Report forthe Media Act, ContractNo. 7-32-0410-140, National Defense Education College of Educa- U.S. Office ofEducation (EastLansing: tion, MichiganState University,1965). "Culture--Bogus andBona Fide,"Teachers 7. Marya Mannes, 1961, p. 184. College Record,Vol. 6.6, December, Myth of Sisyphus(New York: A Vintage 8. Albert Camus, The 137. Book, A Divisionof RandomHouse, 1955), p.

9. Ibid., p. 134. of Burden,"Saturday 10. Robert L. Tobin,"Man as a Beast Review, Vol. 48,August 28, 1965, p.22. Description ofthe.%Cre- 11. Calvin W. Taylor,A Tentative Department of sychology, Universityof Utah,meographed.)ative Individual, Guiding CreativeTalent (Englewood 12. Paul Torrance, 1962). Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc.,

13. Mannes, p. 185.

14. Ibid., p. 187.

33 34

15. Huston Smith, "Twenty Years of the Atom,"The Nation, Vol. 195, December 15, 1962, p. 423.

16. Robert Egner and Lester Denonn(eds.), The Basic Writ- ings of Bertrand Russell (New York:,Simon and Schuster, 1962), p. 372.

17. C. P. Snow, "The Future of Man," The Nation, Vol. 187, September 13, 1958, from the seriesSciegErgEnlope, pp. 124-125.

18. Erich Fromm,"Values, Psychology andHuman Existence," Abraham H. Maslow(ed.), New Knowledge inHuman Values (New York: Harper andBrothers, 1959).

19. David Riesman, The Lonely Crowd ('NewHaven: Yale Uni- versity Press, 1961)7

20. Albert Camus, The StrangerNew York; A. A. Knopf, 1946).

21. Rollo May, "The Origin and Significance of theExisten- tial Movement in Psychology," Rollo May, Ernest Angel,and Henri F. Ellenberger (eds.), Existence: A New Dimension in Psychiatry and Psychology(NeuTTork:§TircMITWEcslisMg Co., Inc., 1958), p. 56.

B. IdealizeconsofS...ocie,Vand Man

22. Joseph H. Rush, "The Next 10,000 Years," alasilxat7 view, Vol. 41, January, 1958, pp. 11-13.

23. Ibid., pp. 11-13.

24. Rene Dubos, The Torch of Life .(New York: Simon and Schuster, 1962).

25. Nevitt Sanford, "Ends and Means in Higher Education." Address given March 5, 1962, Seventeenth NationalConference on Higher Education,Morrison Hotel, Chicago, Mimeographed, p1. 26. John R. Platt, "The Step to Man," Science,Vol. 149, August 62.1965, p. 612.

27. "Utopia," Daedalus, Vol. 94, Spring, 1465. Entire issue.

28.. Platt, op. cit., p. 612.

29. Paul B. Sears, "Utopia and the Living Landscape," Daedalus, Vol. 94, Spring, 1955, pp. 474-486. 35

30. Manas, Vol. 18, No. 30, July 28, 1965, p. 4,quoting Abraham Maslow in Humanistic Viewpoints in Psycholux, ed. Frank T. Severin. 31. :)Oliver L. Reiser, "Synthesis as the Function ofPhi - losophy" Reprinted from Darshana, Vol. 1, October, 1961, by Psychosynthesis Research Foundation, "Valmy," Room314, 527 Lexington Avenue, New York, N.Y. 10017, p. 6.

32. Transcript of taped interview with Abraham Maslow, by Elizabeth Monroe Drews, April 13, 1965, p. 1.

33. Kenneth Rexroth, "Gargantua and Pantagruel," Saturday Rem view, Vol. 48, August 28, 1965, p. 20.

34. Bruner, op. cit., p. 119.

35. Pitirim A. Sorokin, "The Powers of Creative Unselfish Love," Abraham H. Maslow (ed.), New Knowledge in Human Values (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1059), pp.16-11.

36. Drews, THE CREATIVE INTELLECTUAL STYLE IN GIFTED ADO- LESCENTS, 2214.21.1.

37. Abraham H. Maslow, "Synergy in the Society and in the Individual," Journal of Individual Elycholoao Vol. 20, November, 1964, pp. 11117.11T.

38. Oliver L. Reiser, "The Integration of Knowledge," Julian Huxley (ed.), The Humanist Frame (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1961), pp.23g723757-

39. Platt, op. cit., pp. 212-213.

40. Teilhard de Chardin, The Phenomenon of Man (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1959).

41. Reiser, Darshana, op. cit., p. 6.

42. Abraham Maslow, kit1niaEsztriAL2aolEtkas(Prince- An Insight Book,DVidNoitrand Co., Inc.,1962), p. 144.

43. Ibid.

C. Potential of Youth for Creative Intellectual Growth

44. Elizabeth Monroe Drews, Student Abilities ouinq Patternsand Classroom Interaction; Final Report of',the Cooperative Research Program, 608, U.S.' Office ofEdUdation, "The Effect of Homogeneous and Heterogeneous ,Ability Group- ing in Ninth Grade English Classes with Slow, Average,aLid Superior Students" (East Lansing: College of Education, Michigan State University, 1963). 36

"The Social 45. Donald O. Hebb andWilliam R. Thompson, Significance of AnimalStudies," Gardner Lindzey(ed.), Addison- Handbook of Social Pscholo , Vol. I (Cambridge: Wsley ublishing Co., Inc.,1954), pp. 532-561.

Robert W. White,"Motivation Reconsidered: The Concept 46. 66, September, of Competence,"Esystologisaajleview, Vol. 1959, pp. 297-33. and His Enemies," 47. Edgar Friedenberg,"The Gifted Student Commentary, Vol. 33, May,1962, pp. 410-419. Random 48. Jules Henry, CultureAgainst Man (New York: House, Inc,,1963).

49. Mead, 22a.92111., p.243, Scottish Council forResearch in Education,The Trend 50. University of LondonPress, Mgr'of ScottishIntelligence (London: in World Wars 51. Read D. Tuddenham,"Soldier Intelligence I and II," AmericanPsychologist, Vol. 3,February, 1948, pp. 54-56. INTELLECTUAL STYL2 52. Elizabeth Monroe Drews,THE CREATIVE Motivation to Learn: Attitudes, IN GIFTED ADOLESCENTS; Final Interests, and 1:2Aues, eport I in a seriesof three: Research Program,E2, U.S. Office Report of the Cooperative in Su- of Education,"A Study ofNon-Intellectual Factors perior (Average, andSlow) High SchoolStudents" (East Lan- sing: College of Education,Michigan State University, 1964). American Psycholo- 53. Dael Wolfle,"Diversity of Talent," aUl, Vol. 15, August,1960, p, 537. The Pursuit ofExcellenceEduca- 54. Rockefeller Report, New tion and the Futureof America, areport on education 'tork: Doubleday and Co., Inc.,1959), p. 47. of the Panel onEducational Research 55. A Progress Report the and Developmentto the U.S.Commissioner of Education, Director of the NationalScience Foundation,and the Special President for Scienceand Technology,Inno- Assistant to the trIr vation and Eeriment in Education(Washington, D.C.: vernment rtang Office, March,1964), p. 51. Christian Bay, "A SocialTheory of HigherEducation," 56. John Nevitt Sanford (ed.),The American College(New York: Wiley & Sons, Inc.,1962), p. 991. 37

57. Paul Dressel and John Grabow,"The Gifted Evaluate their High School Experience,"Exceptional Children,Vol. 24, May, 1958, pp. 394-396.

58. Jacob R. Fishman and FredericSolomon, "Youth andSo- cial Action: An Introduction," The Journalof Social Issues, Vol. =2Q4 October, 1964, p. 22.

, 59. David Mallery, Hi h School StudentsS eak Out (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1 62 .

60. Henry F. May, "The StudentMovement," The American Scholar, Vol. 34, Summer, 1965, pp.387-400.

61. Robert Havighurst, Lecturedelivered in Bellingham, Washington, on July 20, 1965.

62. Betty H. Hoffman, "How AmericaLives--Coeds in Rebel- lion," Ladies Home Journal,Vol. 82, October,1965, p. 170.

63. Mervin B. Freedman, "Roots ofStudent Discontent," The Nation, Vol. 200, June 14,1965, pp. 639-643.

64. Gardner Murphy, Freein Intelli ence ThroughTeaching (New York: Harper &ro hers, 1 1 , p. 36.

65. Freedman, op. cit., p. 71.

66. David Hawkins, "The IngormedVision: An Essay on Sci- ence.Educatjmn," Daedalus, Vol.94, Summer, 1965, p.539.

67. Joseph W. Krutch, "TheCreative Dilemma,"gitUrda Review, Vol. 47, February 8,1964, pp. 14-17, 5 n the same Issue acompanion article alsoentitled "The Creative Dilemma" is written by JamesBaldwin.)

68. Freedman, op. cit., p. 641. Eli 69. Liston Pope, "TraditionalValues in Transition," Ginzberg (ed.), Values andIdeals of American Youth(New York: Columbia University Press,1961),5772Yr2 5. (Reverend Pope is Dean of YaleUniversity Divinity School.)

70. Time, Vol. 86, September17, 1965, p. 102.

71. Freedman, 2214.E.11., p. 643. Nevitt Sanford, "The HumanProblems Institute and Gen- . 72. eral Education,"Daedalus, Vol. 94, Summer,1965, p. 661.

73. Fishman and Solomon, op.cit., p. 24. 38

in Our 74. "A Challenge to MoreConscious Participation Evolving UniverseText of anEducational CenterBraInstorm- ing Session," AAUWJournal, Vol. 58, May,1965 (an interview with BuckminsterFuller).

75. Peter F. Drucker, "AmericanDirections:. A Forecast," Harper's, Vol. 230,February, 1965, pp. 39-46. (ed.), 76. Hilda Taba, "IntergroupRelations," Eli Ginzberg Values and Ideals of AmericanYouth (New York: Columbia inlversity Presf.:, 1961, p.207. (ed.), 77. Margaret Mead, "The YoungAdult," Eli Ginzberg Values and Ideals of AmericanYouth (New York: Columbia University Press, 1961), p.50.

78. John W. Gardner,Self-Renewal The Individual and the Self - Innovating Society ew York: per an ow lis ers, Inc.,1963),p.102

79. Ibid.

80. Taba, op. cit., p.206.

81. Mead, p. 50. Personality., op. cit., p.235. ..*62. Maslow, Motivation and ADO- 83. Drews, THE CREATIVEINTELLECTUAL STYLE IN GIFTED LESCENTS, Report II, op.cit. Psvchia- 84. Gordon Allport,Becoming: A New Dimension in ±ExanLysycholasx (blew Haven: Yale Universitress,1955), p. 29.

D. Aneils25:521.1y22122tayofgleCreative Intellectual Slap. Scholar, 85. Rena Dubos, "HumanisticBiology," The American Vol. 34, Spring,1965, pp. 179-198. Nevitt Sanford, "WillPsychologists Study HumanProb- 86. 1965, pp. lems?"AmericanPsychologist, Vol. 20, March, 192-202. PsycholoQV, 87. Abraham Maslow,Humanistic Viewpoints in op. cit. in Personality 88. Henry A. Murray withstaff, Explorations (New York: Oxford UniversityPress, 1938). 39

: A 89. S. Koch, "Epilogue,"in S. Koch (ed.), Pscholo Studof a Science (New York: McGraw-Hill, Vol. 3, 199 , pp. 72 -788. York: 90. Robert W. White (ed.),mesiggyauttma (New Atherton Press, 1964), p.xiv. Holt, 91. Robert W. White, Lives inPro ress (New York: Rinehart and Winston, 1 II. INSIGHTSTHEORY AND RESEARCH FINDINGS qELATED TO THE CREATIVE ADULT

Studies of creative and productive adults, particularly those reported by MacKinnon and hisassociates"and Roe,2have suggested certain dimensions which have helped to give us focus in our depth studies of creative intellectual adolescents. Roe has done careful psychological studies on the background and the personality characteristics of outstanding male scientists and the extensive studies of MacKinnon et al. have included not oniy research scientists; but also creative writers, mathematicians, graduate students, medical students, architects, and military officers and personnel. Research done in a somewhat similar style on the college student and conducted by McConnell and his co- 3 workers has also been helpilul.* In addition, we have gained insights by reviewing the work that Maslow has done on self- actualizing adults4and also by drawing from the area of investigation often termed the "study of lives," particu- 5 larly as this has been defined and pursued by Murrayand White.6 We will make some direct reference to information reported in biographies of highly gifted peop1and will particularly use this as illustrative material. In addition, we will allude to an extensive psychological- biograph- 7 ical study of four hundred eminent people by the Goertzels, and to a similar study conducted byCox.**8

We have used the Omnibus PersonalitInventory developed by this group of researchers for tIeir studies of gifted college students) to help us gain insights; into creative intellectual development in younger adoleAtents. **We will also draw occasionally from Terman's classic longitudinal study of fifteen hundred outstandingly able California school children selected in the 1920's. These teacher-nominated children were chosen on the basis of Stanford-Binet IQ's of 140 or over.9

41 42

In the review of thesematerials our efforthas been to extract someof the morechaeacteristic features of theseoutstanding individualswhich were apparent as draw they developed andwhen they reachedmaturity, and to would from these commontraits and modes ofadjustment that We wanted be helpful instudying the giftedadolescent-. to know how thechildhood of adults whoachieved eminence differed from the early yearsof theircontemporaries, and motivational qual- to better understandthe personality and ities evidenced bythese adults that setthem aside from from their fellow men. We will usenon-abstracted material biographies to try to avoidthe lifeless andmechanical effect that lists oftraits can produce. The portrayal in- of a model of manwith nothing insidewould do a gross justice to thesecomplex andidiosyncratic individuals. At the outset ofthis review, it mustbe clearly understood that anyinsights which weclaim must be regarded of the infer- as tentative ones. We do not know how many adult as- ences we drawfrom both thebiographies and the sessment studies canbe applied to the youngfor a number retro- of reasons. These studies ofcreative adults are spective, and memory atbest is partial and moreor less of the distorted.Another matter thatmakes prediction behavior of the youngfrom "facts" abouttheir elders difficult is that theWeltanschauung is changingrapidly. Bettleheim includes thisin his discussionof "the problem most importantly, of generations."1'° finally, and perhaps and is the fact that,although there areseveral excellent extensive studies,the total volume ofthe work leads us research to conclude thatthere has beenrelatively little done on thecreative adult. As we considerwhat needs to beunderstood if we study of are to reducethe unknowns inthe developmental personality, it is quite apparentthat many questionshave not been asked inthe ongoing studiesand that the answers In to formulatedquestions are still farfrom complete. 43 addition, the samples of creativeadults studied represent only a very small proportionof all who mightbe chosen as creative. For example, a largenumber of studies have concentrated on scientists, andmost of the originaland effective individuals selected forsuch studies havebeen men. There have been fewinvestigations of tnesocially creative and of those with ahumanitarian bent beyond Maslow's study of self-actualizingadults, and too little research has concerneditself with creative women. In spite of the deficiencies of thestudies which describecreative behavior in adults, they representpioneer efforts in an important area and, as such can serveas a valuableframe of reference for an evenless frequented areafor study-- - creativity in adolescence. Biographies add anotherdimen- sion and represent the artrather than thescience of trying to get into anindividual's skin, sharehis fears and hopes and the intenseexperiences--loneliness,joy--that life. change him. The focus throughoutis with the interior

A. Childhood of Creative andEminent Persons We have concluded from ourreviews of the studies of the creative adultthat an environmentthat is free and accepting, responsive andevocative is a vitallyimportant factor in the developmentof effective andproductive be- decision was havior.11As we reviewedthese reports, our within its bound- to define environmentbroadly and include aries not only theunusual opportunitiesfor learning, including exposures to arich and complexculture, but also the adults who playsignificant roles.

1. Acceptance and Freedomin the environment The studies generallydemonstrated Vat anenviron- ment which is at onceaccepting and free isof primary importance as a meansof meeting certainbasic needs for all 44 children.* In the early environment ,)f most of thesecre- ative and eminent adults, therewas at least one person who had been supportive, nurturant, and/or affectionate. It did not seem to be necessary for there to bemany sources of support and encouragement but it appeared essential that each have a source outside himself atsome time dcring the formative years. Beyond this atmosphere of acceptance many of these adults seemed to have enjoyedmore than the usual amount of freedom as they grew up. This freedom allowed the individuals to develop in unusual and idiosyncratic ways. Roe found that most of her eminent scientistswere placed on their own resources a large amount of the time and often very early. MacKinnon reports that the highly creative architects he studied enjoyed exceptional freedom and opportunities for self-development. In addition, he observes that there was a "certain distance in the relationship of the child to his parents [but also] . . anab- ."12 sence . . of psychological exploitation. The

*Many psychologists have dealt with the concept If basic needs. The particular concept referred to in thi context is Maslow's "hierarchy of basic needs." The basic needs are physiological, safety, belongingness (love), es- teems and self-actualization. These are organized in a "hierarchy of prepotency" and they gratification is understood in terms of "degrees of relative satisfaction." This means thPA; physiological needs (i.e., hunger) must be somewhat sLisfied before the need for safety arises, that an indivi,Aal must feel relatives safe before the love of others is needed, etc.Until the basic needs have been satisfied, an individual's behavior is referred to in terms of "deficiency motivation"; on the other hand, when those needs have been gratified, behavior is thought oS in terms of "growth motivation " - -ache distinguishing characteristic being the freedom to cope more efficiently with external (to the organism) situations, having been freed of the demands of lower needs. The careful readPwill note that Maslow's idea will be used ex:ensively as a point of reference. The rationale for this is twofold: (1) His assumptions, procedure and conclusions are similar to those of the researchers, and (2) While others have advanced theories similar to Maslow's, clarity demands a single frame of reference yielding a consistent pattern of terminology and concepts.13 45

Goertzels note that among their four hundred it was not uncommon for young children to be sent awayfrom home for special schooling. This environmental freedom means, then, that the parents of these children accepted a wide range ofbehavior and also allowed their children to spend muchtime alone or away from home. MacKinnon's finding that three-quarters of his creative architects were introverts asadults may be relevant. He notes that'"experiences of aloneness,shy-; n14 ness, isolation, solitariness were common. It cannot be concluded that these experiences weredistaste- ful although Taylor* observes that most teenagersfeel psychologically naked unless they are in a group offour or five. A number of these adults in their earlychildhood seemed to develop a liking for solitude. Robert von reumann, the artist, whose style of life was portrayedin the Being and Becoming.film Seres, reported: At nine or ten my parents moved into the country along the side of a river--there were swamps very close and it was a very simple matter tochange human companionship for a great variety ofanimal and bird and insect life (which havebeen inspiration for my art all through my life). I never felt lonely or that I was missing something to notbe in ;he teenage crowd. I occasionally explored the countryside with a few friends. Carl Santurg once called such an opportunity for apersonal retreat "creative solitude." We do not know, of course, whether these people sought out solitude or were"forced intoit initially. The Goertzels reported that many of the eminentadults whom they studied had been rejected by playmateswhen they were children. Roe observed that a high percentage ofher scientists had lost a parent early in life and, as wasnoted above, were on their own agreat deal in their youth.

10=1..11wwle.111MIIMI1111111011111mINIMMKJIIIIII *Harold Taylor, former president of Sarah Lawrence, was the philosopher inFilm Number Nine of the Being and Becoming Film Series. 46

of eminent adults After reviewingthe life histories Barron has observed: rebellious in youth A person who isneither shy nor is not likely tobe worth afarthing to himself nor to anyoneelse in the yearsof his physical maturity.15 both shy As a childEleanor Rooseveltdescribed herself as bad-mannered and awkward. She felt she wasunattractive, inthese early and, perhaps,unlovable. Crushing events of self-doubt--the years maywell have addedto the burden sixt.of her death of herbeautiful motherwhen Eleanor was of her adoxed father whenshe was nine,and of the older Yet despitethese two littlebrothers soonafterward. and learning. events she wasable to findsolace in books student She became aconfident, buoyantand independent eagerly when she entered aschool in Franceat fifteen and herself at sixteenwhen she explored Florenceand Paris by Suffering may toured Europewith a much-lovedteacher. to creative well bet asFrankl has suggested,one route 16 fulfillment. As.we reviewed thelife historiesof outstanding loved to adults it appearedalmost axiomaticthat all had formal aca- read as children,but that lovefor school and seen as demics was anothermatter. School was frequently inane. The a drearyroutine, confiningand sometimes proportion of theindividuals Goertzelsnoted that a large Roe rein their studyactively dislikedschool, although their academicpursuits. portsthat her scientists enjoyed seclusion were In any event,whether independentstudy and

evidence that sci- *There seems tobe considerable highly gifted ones, aremorestudious than -; entists, even later life. A many otheradults whoattain eminerce in graduate studentsshowed thosemajoring recent study of great dealbetter. in science likinggraduate school a very enrolled inhumanities and thearts. than those students artists and writersfre- It is also commonknowledge, that of school,whereas it hasbecome almost quently drop out the Ph.D. a truismthat successfulscientists today hold 47

imposed by cir- .first sought orwhether such isolation was profit cumstances, creativeadults seemed toaccept and children. The by opportunitiesto be alone whenthey were apparently was need, desire andcapacity for self-communion Helen developed early inthe lives of theseindividuals. reminiscences Keller and HelenHayes both commentedin their adults of childhood thatsharing the languageof cultivated them the finest through the writtenand spoken word gave in mental rehearsal of thoughts torecite and reflect upon Miss Hayes spokeof in the hourswhich they spentalone. who the insight ofher acting coach,Constance Collier, understood thatwhether or not theeleven-year-old Helen-. taste comprehended whatshe was reading,she was acquiring a about the child for good words. When adults complained and incom-. being asked tomemorize theintricate, sensual prehensible "Ode to aNightingale" by Keats,the drama coach What replied that itdid not matterwhether sheundersLood. nothing to do -- did matter wasthat when she wasalone with her head, instead of somecheap little tunerunning through Lie wouldhave those lovelywords in there. Helen Keller, almostimmediately uponlearning tc, reading to herself read braille at ageseven, preferred from bookshelf over beingread to. She liked to wander if she understood"only to bookshelf,sampling at will even [entire] page."The one wordin ten or two words onan al- barely understoodbecame, by somemiraculous process, reported, "Everything most completelyusable. Miss Keller memory." I found inbooks that pleased meI retained in my she could She speaks ofretaining wholesentences which when she began not comprehendat the time andyet afterward would flash to talk andwrite, "these wordsand sentences friends wondered atthe out quitenaturally, so that my 17 richness of myvocabulary." An article inaryters, writtenabout Miss Keller not been when she wassixteen, commentedthat her mind had vitiated by the banaland base. She was in loveinstead 48 with "noble thoughtsand with the charactersof noble men plasticity and women." Talent for symbol usageand great (both human quaaities)helped make her thekind of human develop- being she was capableof becoming, Her direction of ment was, in theseformative years,precariously dependent (as is true with allchildren) upon the kindof ideas and images that foundtheir way to hermind. In Helen's case these exposures were,for the most part,to the finest examples of human growthand expressionand undoubtedly contributed to herloving-kindness, hercurious and active Through her reading mind and herreceptiveness to beauty.* deep and the peoplethat she knew shehad early developed a commitment to largermeanings of anaesthetic andphilosophical sort.

Qualities in theEnvironment 2. Responsive and Evocative Not only did thestudies reviewedindicate that offered an environmentthat was bothaccepting and free for all child- certain basic securitiesthat are requisites through the pub- ren, butit also became clear asWG sifted lished reports that manyof the environments wereremark- childrenp in terms of ably responsive tothe needs of the supplying answers totheir questions,materials for them observed--books for themto to work with,and--as we have intellectually responsive en- read. The importance of an psychologists and so- vironment has beendiscussed by many would seem to support cial scientists,and our evidence biographies of eminentpeople this conclusion. However, the show that theirearly environments wereactively evocative abounded as well aspliantly responsive. These environments challenge and did far morethan in richness,complexity and

*It is interestingto reflect uponMacKinnon's report that thehighly creative adultsin the IPAR studies vivid and accuratechildhood memories. have had unusually the materials Was there an unusualmental plasticity or were that were storedparticularly rich andmeaningful? 49 supply answers to the child's questions. Generally speaking, a responsive environment could be said to be a good learning climate. In such environments, parents and other adults try to respond to the child'sin- quiries and his independent efforts to make discoveries. When such information is at a high level of excellence-and has its own charm--beckoning and holding power--we feel the environment could be called evocative as well as responsive. In other words, it does something more than give adequate and responsible answers to a child whohas been the primary'instigator.A utopian conception of a learning environment would include opportunities offered for the child to engage in the great conversations of the `time and, occasionally, to join in the dialogues out of the past. It would offer and introduce PL,o the child adult models who . 43:z,,nplify many varieties of'excellence and fine libraries, museums and labcxatories. Maslow describll,.s the ideal education as follows: "It is life-long, it isorganigmic-- not just verbal or bookish--it is ubiquitous, and it must . be intrinsically rewarding."18 In such an environment the child would meet his culture in its most appealing and exciting patterns at concerts and lectures, where he would be accompanied by adults who are genuinely engaged bythese intellectual and aesthetic experiences themselves. The environment of most of the outatandingindivid- uals who were children in the nineteenth century andearlier was both responsive andevocative.19 When young, these people were introduced to the current artistic andscientific cultures through excellent libraries, highly qualified tutors, and interchanges with gifted parents and family friends. Goethe was often accompanied by a secretzry who recorded his remarks (certainly an indication thatwhat Goethe had to say was worth listening to):John Stuart Mill was asked to write scholarly papers on the same topics his father pursued and these papers were carefully read and criticized not only by his father but other scholars 50 as well. Bertrand Russell, an orphan at three, did not attend school until he entered Cambridgeat the age of eighteen but he had free access to his grandfather'sfine library (his grandfather haa been a liberalPrime Minister of England) . Prior to Cambridge, Bertrand was tutored and had the opportunity to engage in manyinterchanges with his relatives and learned family friends. As a Cambridge undergraduate, he was given almost immediaterecognition by a professor, Alfred North Whitehead, and thetwo were soon co- authoring learnedtreatises, a collaboration which culminated in the publication ofprincalalathematica. Others who have made unusual conceptual contributions benefl ted from the richness of familytradition as well as from the availability and evocativequalities of scholarly materials. There were many outstanding individuals among Frank Lloyd Wright's relatives, atightly knit Welch-Unitarian group that had settled in a Wisconsin val- ley. His uncle was a close friend of Jane Addams,his aunts were talented, active andoutspoken, and his father--although he did not achieve rei.)wn--gave continual drama tothe creative process by his efforts in the graphic arts,his poetry (which he sometimes presented in publicrecitations), and his sermons (delivered when he was intermittentlyemployed as a minister). Charles Darwin undoubtedly benefitted from the work his grandfather, Erasmus, had doneand in many ways built directly on theolder man's theories which were as strongly held and asunconventional as those of the younger Darwin, According to the Goertzels, one-half of theiremi- nent subjects came from opinionative familiesin which scientists, humanitarians and reformers dominated the scene and expounded regularly. One of the most unusual and fruit- ful of educational and total environmentalpatterns was that experienced by William and Henry James. Their father described his vocation as follows: Say I'm a philosopher, say I'm a seeker for truth, say I'm a lover of my kind, sayI'm an author of books if you like, or best of all, just say I'm astudent.20 51

From this viewpoint itseemed a natural stepthat father and sons would spend adecade (the boys'adedegcent years) studying and living inmid-nineteenth century Europe' aswell as in examiningthe Westernintellectual heritage in-many languages and manydisciplines. Both Julian and AldousHuxley grew up in anatmo- sphere that elicited manyintellectual and creative responses. The...e grandfather, ThomasHuxley, unquestieaably provided them with a modelof excellence in thescientific realm and their environment wasfilled with adults ofemi- ne-ce in the areaof the arts as well. Aldous was a grand- nephew of Matthew Arnold. As a result, Aldous,the novel- ist, and Juliano. thebiologist, were able tobridge the gap between thetwo cultures andbecome gifted generalists. When we study what Whitecalls the "higherflights of humanachievement"21 it seems that such individuals benefitted from their heritageof a milieu that wasboth economically and intellectuallyrich, However, there have been gifted young peoplefrom relatively barrenenvironments who were fortunate enoughto have been recognizedearly and transplantedinto situations that bytheir great responsive and evocative powerwould seem to haveallowed the gifts to be morefully realized, Michelangelo, as a fourteen-year-old, was already arecognized sculptor and draftsman and, as a protege,sat at the dinnee tableof Lorenzo the Magnificent,listening to theconversations of some of the mostgifted men of Europe. In some homes that wereeconomically impoverished, certain gifted young peoplefound intellectual encourage- , -, the ment. Although CharlesPickenecame from a home where poverty must be described asdesperate (hislatherwas sent to debtor's prisonwhen Charles was ten yearsold), there was always aninterest in learning. Infactiies' mother began to teach him at agefour. In addition to thisteach- .ing at home, he hadonly a few years offormal schooling. However, one of the mostnoteworthy parts of hisenvironment 52

had read was the factthat he had learned toread early and such books as TomJones, The Vicar ofWakefield, Don Quixote old. and RobinsonCrusoe by the time he wasseven years When he was a teenager,it was said that"he educated himself" throughassiduous attendance atthe British Museum reading room. There were other aspectsof responsiveness in his environment. His parents, friendsand associates greatly enjoyed thestories he inventedand told and all (between that he wrote. During the years heattended school tales and twelve and fourteenyears of age) he wrote small Between the took the lead inyheatricals among theboys. re- ages ofseventeen and nineteen,he was a parliamentary porter and by thetime he was twenty-one,he had published his first literarysketch. In the twentiethcentury, outstandingteachers, excellent librariesand bookstores, aswell as laboratories with and studios haveserved to supplygifted young people the answers to theirquestions and to suggest newqueries. Again we see a penchantfor reading as thetalisman of their sub- talent. Roe and Goertzeisreport that most of jects early becameavid readers andalmost all came from friend were homes that valuedlearning. Enrico Fermi and a reported to havehaunted the book stallsof Florence search- White- ing, as teenagers,for unusual treatisesin science. "initial momentum" was of head mentioned thathe felt that of great importanaeif there was to belater productivity note and cites the caseof Harvey Cushingwho was far advanced in hisunderstanding ofmedicine at age seventeen because he had beenclosely associatedwith his father and grandfather who wereoutstandingphysicians.22 Early opportunities inthe arts have alsobeen noted fog those who attainedeminence in this area. Almost all parent with strong of MacKinnon'sarchitects had at least one it "In artistic interestand/or talent. As MacKinnon puts most cases one orboth of the parents wereof artistic tem- perament and considerableskill. Often it was themother who, in the architect's early years, fosteredhis artistic potentialities by her own example as well as hertuition."23 There seems no doubt that the home n=or most of theseeminent people was an inportant and sustaining influence. We have discussed the elan and the excitement that was, apparent in many of theseenvironments and which appeared to be significant in the development ofthe creative intel- lestual style. We have seen these external factors as strong an41:%pervasive. Given this dynamic, we ask what are the emergent personal qualities in the adult which are charac- terist44 of this creative style of life. Our effort in the next. section has been'to extract certain onesthat appear to be significantin the lives of almost all creative adults.

B. Adult Attributes of Creative and EminentPersons, In a review of these materials, itbecomes clear that there are certain qualitiesthat are quite consistently found in creative adults. However, arriving at meaningful generalizations about such people is not easy.We might say that they are similarto Maslow's group of self-actualizers in that

. they are simultaneously very muchalike and very much unlike eachother. They are more completely indivilual than any groupthat has ever been described, and yet are also morecompletely socialized, more identified with humanitythan any other group yet described.24 We will, however, attempt a synthesisand suggest traits that seem most universal. One observation made in a number of the studies concerned withproductive and recognized adults is that these individualswho produce in ways that are highly valuedby their societies are alsogifted intel- 25 lectually. Another finding has been that thehighly creative individual is also apt tobe psychologically healthy. In other words, he is seen asdeveloping in optimum ways, especially in the direction of maturityand self-actualization. The terms used by "third force" orgrowth psychologists 54 to describepsychological maturity--such as opennessto new experience,intellectual orientation, andautonomy -- are synonymouswith the descriptive termsof the researchers and theorists concernedwith creativity. This emphasis on the positive relationshipbetween creativity andmental health is in directcontrast to the idea thatgenius is related to instability or eveninsanity,* an idea that has been well entrenched inthe popular mind andwhich was en- 26 couraged by such earlywriters as Lange-Eichbaum and 27 Lombroso. However9 Barron reports that manyhighly creative individuals do havequalities, such as willfulness or high impulseexpression or seeminglydisordered ways of living, which are in contrastto the usual smoothfunction- ing that has been termedgood adjustment. But in the case of .these highly creativepeople, their "maladjustments"do not become debilitating. It is not that they do nothave "problems"--they do; they seem tobe able not only to cope with them, but perhaps evento benefit from them. Barron has commented that thehighly creative peoplein his study are, in fact,"crazier and saner" thanthe averageperson.28 Related to this is Maslow'sview that the resolu- tion of dichotomies ischaracteristic of self-actualizing people. Psychological characteristicsthat are found to be antagonistic.in normal orunhealthy persons are found to be compatible inthe creative person. Many of these

',We cannot completelydiscount the idea that many geniuses may be mentallydisturbed. However, even if we accept that this hasbeen the case, we neednot also accept it as predictive ofthe lot of creativepeople in the future. The world has beenactively hostile to theinnovator throughout recorded history. His presence upsets theroutines of living and serves toremind all those who simplywant to get on with livingthat they might do and besomething more if they had the will andthe wit. Some social revisions along suggested utopianlines might result in agenius population without seriouspsychological wounds and scars. 55 contradictory qualities which become synergic in self-actualizing people and, to perhaps a lesser extents in all highly creative people can be discussed under the dichotomous qualities often held to be either masculine or feminine. Our studies have led us to agree with the findings of Maslow and Barron that highly developed individuals are apt to be simultaneously-iiisculine and feminine. In other words, within this Creative-intellectual subculture, the adults tend to transcend sex stereotypes. The male and female creative styles become more like one another as creativity becomes more marked. Such highly creative peop.te are individuals of complex personality structure--simultaneously masculine and feminine, independent and dependent, detached and involved, rebellious and accepting, ruthless andkind, aggressively extrovertive and contemplative, self-confident and self-critical, active and passive. In terms of intellectual expressiveness, the creative person typically lives comfortably with many polar styles: creative and intellectual, cognitive and affective, logical and intuitive, struc- tured and open, specialized (specialist) and general(generalist), scientific and humanistic, theoretical and aesthetic, realistic and mystical abstract and concrete, being and becoming. More specifically, the men frequently show an aesthetic sensitivity and an awareness that hasbeeii:-termed feminine. Many are inclined toward poetry and philosophy, and at least some are humanely concerned and surprisingly lacking in prejudice. These qualities are sometimes apparent in scientists and mathematicianW.as wellas in artists, writers and musicians.Although theculture.labels these attributes feminine, the males who possessItimglire often described as highly independent and achievement. oriented; in other words, masculine. - Highly creative women who have von recognition for their achievements are found to be similarly complex.Many of them are willing to break with convention and become 56 intellectual, independent anddetermined. At.the same time, a review ofthe literature revealsthat most of the truly outstanding women remainaesthetic, humaneand'intuitive. These persons have resolvednot only many sexrole polarities, they alsoignore traditionalboundaries of time realists and head- and emotion. They are feet-on-the-ground in-the-cl,ouds idealists wholive in the past, presentand abandoned future. It would seem thatchildhood need not be for adulthood ormaturity, for these persons aresimultane- ously innocent andsophisticated, frivolous andserious, impulsive and disciplined,casual and intense. The spontaneous and fantastic arerarely suppressed by aregard for traditional standardsof decorum or dignity. A compul- sion for emotionalconsistency is notcharacteristic of these highly creativepeople. Furthermore, they do notfind their concern for society and mankind inconflict with personaldesires ld can be at onceidealistic and selfish,idiosyncratic and ability cooperative. This, no doubt,contributes to their to conceive of and act uponlong-range goals withunusual dedication and commitment.A fund of egostrength would seem to sustainthese individuals andcontinually replenish for the psychological reservesand resiliency necessary dealing with a complexself and a worldin need of guidance. For they not only tolerateinner diversity butalso take upon themselves verylarge burdens inthe name of humanity. They shoulder theirmissions with a "senseof destiny" and a feelingthat they can make adifference in the world. There is a notable lackof capitulation towhat Aliport g54.0 designates as tribalmorality and Maslow hascalled encul- turation. These qualities areapparent in men and women alike. Margaret Fuller, whenpredicting the eventual emergence ofAmerican literary genius,commented: It is sad for thosewho foresee, to knowthey may not live to shareits glories, yet it issweet, 57

too, to know that everyact and word, utteredin the light of that foresight maytend to hasten or ennoble itsfulfillment.29 Albert Einstein was widelyrecognized for not only his genius but also as aself-actualized person withexcel- lent mental health. Levinson.remarks that althoughEinstein was shy and gentleand sometimes remote fromothers, he had a wide range ofinterests--many friends, hiswork, music, 30 the sea and other phenomena ofnature. His friend T. H. Bucky commented that Einstein had cometo terms with himself and the world aroundhim. He knew what he wantedand he wanted only this to understand withinhis limits as a human being thenature of the universe andthe logic and simplicity of its functionin;, He knew there were answers beyond his reach, but thisdid not frustrate him. Hewas content to go as far as hecould. Einstein's friend, Albert Schweitzer, although presenting animage at once more aus- tere and more authoritarianthan that projectedby Einstein, was equally concernedabout making fundamentalcontributions to humanity. As Cousins comments: The main point about Schweitzeris that he helpee make it possible fortwentieth-century man to unblock his moral vision. The greatness of Schweitzer--indeedthe essence ofSchweitzer- - was the man assymbol. More important thanwhat he did for others was whatothers have done be- - cause of himand the power of hiSexample.31 As adults they are highlyautonomous but as MacKinnon observed, their independenceis in the realm ofideas rather than of behavior. In this realm they are courageousand willing to risk much inthe pursuit ofunderstanding and what they hold to betruth. JohnSartMill, after long consideration of the ratherenigmatic` problem of human happiness, concluded that thegreatest and most lastinghappi- ness..derived from thecontemplative life; fromthe exercise of theidtellect andof the emotionsaAhey interfuse and harmonize' with the intellect. Hewriter??

A cultivated mind . . finds sources of inex- haustive interest in all thatsurrounds it; in 58

the objects of nature, theachievements of art, the imagination of poetry, inincidents of history, the ways of mankind,, pastand present, and their prospects in thefuture 32 It becomes clear, then, fromthe review of the literature on such adults that oneof the characteristic orientations of creative intellectualsis that of preoccupation with ideas, not just occasionally oroften, but continually. It is an enthrallment that growsand endures for the lucky ones all of theirlives. As he was dying John Dewey avidly read the dictionary and savoredthe infinite forms of expression available to all men whoread. In like manner, Oliver Wendell Holmes once said,when asked about his amazing accomplishments that continueduntil he was well past ninety, "It is necessary to caredesperately and to care all of the time." It is said that Newtondiscovered the law of gravity by alwaysthinking about it. At some time during their development, theseunusual people acquire a deep need to continually relishand reformulate ideas. They may or may not be facile inexpressive modes, but there is always a profound andcontinuing commitment to the contemplation of ideaswhich interest them, and they tend to be interested inconcepts and generalizations that will give them an ever greatercomprehensivity in the understanding of themselves and the cosmos. Many of them, as did Schweitzer, felt a supremeidentification with other human beings. Teilhard deChardin was also profoundlyat- tracted to the more fundamentalaspects of human existence. He particularly contemplatedthe evolutionary process which leads to new tees andhigher degrees of organization, new patterns of cooperatiork amongindividuals, and new ways of coming to human fulfillment. Maslow has placed the search forknowledge next to the summit in his hierarchyof needs; transcended only by the desire for beauty. As we noted earlier, "mare reason" is not held to be enough by themost productive and broad- gauge geniuses. They also want elegance andrefinement, 59 on the cnehand, and, on the other,move to.an almost mys- place of emotionand,passion in tical acceptance of the .r. s,..) the human life. LT#ismore'advanceddOelopmental characteristic of the:viftedAdneralist,the great humanitarian, mystic is more apt to,emergein the philosopher andthe I.. the middle years oflife 'Bucke found few examplesof "cosmic consciousness"belowthe age of thirty-five and Maslow's self-actualizers wereusually at the primeof life 34 or beyond. The creative contributoris not time bound;his mental eye scans thedimension of time as far asknowledge and imagination willtake him into thepast and into the future. The effort is always toachieve a more comprehensive world view. Russell notes, ashe'discusses remarkable individuals who have tendedto mold the historyof their eras, that they areconcerned with the largermeanings, with the ultimates ofhuman existence. A narrow, partisan, provincial, confined, rigid, orilliberal way of looking at themselves, societyand the cosmos isunsatisfactory; they strive for a worldview, a Weltenschauungthat is as comprehensive as possible. The concern with mentallife and ultimatesnotwith- standing, the generality ofcreative and self-actualizing adults are intenselyinvolved with many aspectsof their immediate environments. Maslow has commentedthat; they are realisticallyoriented and acceptthemselves, others and the natural world.,This is done withspontaneity and an enduringappreciation for theeveryday_aspelsts/9f life. As he remarks,"Self-actualizing people havethe,wonderful capacity to appreciateagain and again, frhlyand naively, the basic goods oflife, with awe, pleasure, Wqrldenp-and even ecstasy ." He continues, "It isprobable that this acute richness ofsubjective expefience is anaspect of closeness ofrelationship to the concreteand fresh. 11 William Blake expressesthis: He who kisses.the joy asit flies LiVes-in eternity's sunrise. 60

and outerworlds by amind Thus this opennessto the inner itself mergeswith that is fullyalert andfree to express spiritual ormysticalexperiences. ability tohave profound an adults who are It is alsoquite clearthat these self-actualizing areunusual inthe notablycreative and/or emotional physical sense aswell as intheintellectual, level, zestfor life and moralrealms. Their high energy by psycholo- general healthhas been noted and excellent also appar- 3637 made carefulstudies and is gists ' who have reader of therecords ofthe ent to eventhe occasional By studyingthese we higher flightsof humanachievement. unlimitedstrength individ- come tocomprehend thealmost brought tobear on theachieve- uals such asSchweitzer have would seem It is thisquality that ment ofhuman oneness. such anindividual couldhave to havemade itfeasible that the lives ofeveryone,but it is created adifference in individuals havegarnered also possiblethat these rare and vitalityby usingit to and enhancedtheir strength advance thehuman condition. what weconsider to In summary, wehave reviewed studies andbiographical data be pertinentpsychological how thesemight contributeto with an attemptto discover adolescents. The generalized the understandingof superior intellectual asbeing muchlike description ofthe creative adult, i.e., anindividual whois Maslow'sself-actualized affective, andsocial modes. highly developedin cognitive, the universaliden- This, then,is theprototype-ideal or each creativeintel- tity. In terms ofhuman realities, much like allothers, buthe would lectual wouldnot only be also be verydifferent. the greatsfrom Obviously noindividual, not even construction inall respects. history, fitsthe idealized intellectual orthe fullyself- The typespecimen creative However, such abalanced actualized personareartifacts. the Greeksjust as thebeauti- development wasesteemed by Chinese wassaid tocombine ful personof theHebrews and 61 great strengthsin the three areas. In the above ways all highly creative people --menand women, old and young,artists and scientists--have much in common. They also ex- All hibit greaterdistinctiveness than any other group. show d wide range ofvalues and capabilitieswhich encom- And with a pass masculineand femininecharacteristics. few, this extends beyondself-expression to agenuine social self-actualizing and fully '» concern. The concept of the functioning adult embracesthese ideas, This self-actualized individual has been seenby Maslow asrelatively rare and as having an unusualand complexpersonality. As he says, In these healthy people wefind duty and pleasure to be the same thing, as arealso work and plEy, self-interest and altruism,individualism and selfishness. We know that they arethat way, but not how they get thatway.8 The review of researchconcerned with ableadolescents that follows presents aneffort we have made tofind out more about the creativedisposition and stylein the high school years. II. INSIGHTS, THEORY AND RESEARCH FINDINGS RELATED TO THE CREATIVE ADULT

1. For more than a deee, MacKinnon and his associates have made extensive studies of the personality characteristics of creative people. A variety of papers represent- ing their work is available in the publication, TheCreative, Person (A conference presented at the Tahoe Alumni Center, October 13-17, 1961), The Institute of Personality Assess- ment and Research (IPAR), University of California, Berkeley. The use of the term highly creativeperson in this chapter refers to individuals similar in characteristics to those described by the IPAR group.

2.. Ann Roe The .11aking of a 'Scientist -(New York: Apollo Editions, Dodd; Mead and Co., 101=

3. T. R. McConnell and Paul Heist, "The Diverse College Student Population," Nevitt Sanford (ed.), The American Colle e (New York: John Wiley and Sons, 19n777EraPub- 1 cations are available at the Center for the Study of Higher Education, University of California, Berkeley, California.

4. Abraham Maslow, Motivation and Personality (New York: Harper & Brothers, 0311%

5. Henry Murray, Ex lorations in Personality (New York: Oxford Universityress, 1

6. Robert W. White, laves in Proress (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, I9 , an o ert W. White (ed.), The Study of Lives (New York: Atherton Press, 1964). 7. Victor Goertzel and Mildred G. Goertzel, Cradles of Eminence (Boston: Little, Brown and Co., 1960.

8. Catherine Cox, Genetic Studies of Genius: The Earl Mental Traits of Three Hubdre4Getiltises;Vb1.2 (Palo Alto: Stanford University Press, 1g1T).

9. Louis Tean and others, Genetic Studies of Genius: Mental and Ph sical Traitsof a Thouiand Gifted, Vol. I; he romise of youth: ollow-u Studies of ahousand Gifted dEITZTE7707III; Theifted Child rows VtgedigirigTgrs'Follow --u of a Su erLor Grou , Vol. IV; VEgGifiLiGrou at M d L fe: h r iveears' Follow-u of the Superior Child, Vo a01 to: tanfordniver- sity Press, 1925) 7

10. Bruno Bettelheim, "The Problemof Generations," Daedalus, Vol. 91, Winter, 1962,pp. 68-96.

63 b4

A. Childhood of Creative and EminentPersons

11. J. McVickers Hunt, Intelli enceand Ex rience (New York: The Ronald Press Company, 191

12. Maslow, op. cit.

13. MacKinnon, The Creative Person,2p.-cit., p. V-18.

14. Ibid., p. V-20.

15. Frank Barron, Creativit and Ps ychological Health, isersozori.iziarnt.i.aritiv.s1...'reen%Prince- to/a11.-v66-mataria-co., Inc., 19 3).

16. Viktor Frankl, From Death-Camp toExistentialism: a Ps chiatrist's Path to a NewTherapy (Boston: Beacon Press, 1 9

17. Helen Keller, Story of My. (Original copyright, 1902, New York: Dell Publishing Co., Inc.,1961).

18. From a transcription of an interviewwith Abraham Maslow conducted by Elizabeth Drews, April13, 1965.

19. Cox, op. Fit., Goertzel and Goertzel,op.zsit..,and other biographers.

20. William James, The euaciataoliszalakax(Chicago: William Benton, Publisher, EncyclopediaBrItannica, Inc., Great Books of the Western World,1952), p. v.

21. White, Lives in Progress, op. cit.

22. Lucien Price, ...... as.....tesoTortkDiclot1Whitehead(Bos- ton: Little, Brown and Company, 1954 , p.284.

23. MacKinnon,op. cit.,p. V-17.

B. Adult Attributes of Creative and EminentPersons

24. Maslow, op. cit., p, 232.

25. See Roe, op. cit., and Frank Barron,"The Psychology of Imagination," the ScientificAmerican., Vol. 199, Septem- ber, 1958, pp. 151-166. In reviewing these reports and others, it is quite clear that theindividuals selected have been of superior intelligence and areable to think clearly and creatively. Many of those selected by Maslow as self-actualizedhave been described by other writers as highly intelligent or of genius level. Maslow reported that they typically prefer to concentrateintensely "on some 65 phenomenon or question" and do not carefor "chatting or party-going."MacKinnon's staff, using an adjectivecheck list, chose "intelligent" as verydescriptive of the creative architects studied. A large number of these architects (88 per cent) also checkedthis adjective as self- descriptive.

26. W. Lange -Eichbaum, The Problem ofGenius (New York: The Macmillan Company,0311=

27. C. Lombroso, The Man of Genius(London: Walter Scott, 1891).

28. Barron,Esycholoqx..,,,4gLi..nationOfIr, op. cit., p. 164.

29. Buckminster Fuller, Ideas and Interities: A S ontane- ous Autobio_ra hicalDisclosure g ewood1 ffs, New Jersey: Prentice- all, nc.,1=7 p. 69.

30. Harry Levinson, "How Good Is YourMental Health?" Think, March and April, 1965, pp. 24'28.

3l. Norman Cousins, "What Matters AboutSchweitzer?" Satur- day Review, Vol. 48, September25, 1965, pp. 30-32.

32, John Stuart Mill,tltirertelitarianiszandRere- sentative Government (NewYcic:119501,p.17.

33. Richard Bucke, Cosmic Consciousness(New York: E. P. Dutton and Company,TM, M3).

34. Maslow, .2121911.

35. Ibid., pp. 214-215.

36. Bucke, op. cit.

37. Maslow, op. cit.

38. Abraham H. Maslow, "PsychologicalData and Value Theory," in Maslow (ed.), NewKnowledgeinHuman Values (New York: Harper & Brothers, p. 32. III. RESEARCH RELATED TO THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE PRESENT STUDY, THE CREATIVE INTELLECTUAL STYLE IN GIFT-0D ADOLESCENTS

The present. reportAA,:the., final onein a series of three, all of which have'''beenprimarily-tOnCerned,4th-the creative intellectual style ingifted' adolescents. Our focus throughout is on the adolescentswho read, think-and imagine, and our effort is to discoverthe determinants that have given telling shape tothese lives. The following descriptions should serve tointroduce the three reports and indicate their relationship to oneanother.

Report One: THE CREATIVE INTELLECTUAL STYLEIN GIFTED ADOLESCENTS; Motivation to Learn: Attitudes Interests and Values, "A Study ofNon-Intellectual Factors in Su- perior (Average and Slow) High SchoolStudents."1This report described in detail themotivational patterns of .almost one hundred adolescents *who chose for their self- description the creative intellectualtype. We were par- .., ticularly interested in exploring theintellectual, creative and ethical dimensions of theirpsychological growth. We also studied the characteristicdifferences between the creative intellectual andother types (studious and social leader) of gifted and non-giftedstudents. The belief that such growth would beinhibited and eventually stunted or warped if the young person'sdevelopment toward identity did not find aresponsive and evocative environment prompted.our second sthdy.

*About twenty per cent of the totalpopulation of able students studied chose thiscategory as aself-description, twenty per cent chose aacial leader and sixty per cent described themselves as studious.

67 68

Agmalmv THE CREATIVEINTELLECTUWSTYLE INGIFTED ADOLESCENTS; Beinand Becomin ACosMic A roach to CouninandS.LrEiculum,"The Effectivenessof Audio- Superior Visuals in ChangingAspirations ofIntellectually 2 behind, Students," Phase I. This report satesthe theory and results from, anex- and describesthe development of college- perimental careers-socialstudies program for project was orig- bound ninth graders. The focus of the studied the needs inally on "careertraining," but as we gifted adolescent and the pres- and potentialitiesof the world, we realized ent status of careers,knowledge and the for making a career that fourteen orfifteen was too young choice would choice. And we alsorecognized that such a not resolve the morebasic problemswith whiCh'eddh young of person must cometo terms:'discovery and acceptance the himself and his placein the world. We_ felt that-for intellectual dis- gifted adolescent anintroduction to the living ciplines and tothe creative styleof thought and should replace anemphasis on careers.We redefined our project, submitted arevision of theoriginal proposal, ten and developedand tested a newcurriculum featuring which presented style-of-life filmsand a text-anthology and human worlds. the natural,technological, aesthetic

IN GIFTED Report Three: THE CREATIVEINTELLECTUAL STYLE of Stu- ADOLESCENTS; Process andProduct: A Reassessment dents and Program,"The Effectivenessof Audio-Visuals Stu- in ChangingAspirations ofIntellectually Superior 3 dents," Phase II. The present reporthas two foci--one report and anelaboration of thefindings of the first the other an effortto test thestrength anddurabili:ty study. of the attitudechanges reportedin the second The former is adepth explorationof the psychological characteristics anddevelopment of thecreative intellec- student inter- tual style throughlife histories based on patterns views. The modal historiespresent a variety of 69

of development amongcreative intellectuals aswell as draw comparisonsbetween the creativeintellectual and other types of giftedstudents. The later focusis a reassessment of theeffectiveness of thecurriculum revision mentioned above inReport II. To do this,i.e., to re-evaluate the program, weagain administeredthe tests which we had usedto compare theexperimental and control groups when weevaluated the formalstudy. The re-testing was done one yearfollowing thetermination of the program.

A. A Descri tive Studof the CreativeIntellectual Style n fted Adolescents In our first report wehad observed thatstudiis of the gifted havefrequently sufferedfrom over-simplified criteria--a failure torecognize thecomplexity of theprob-, second study lem. Similarly, it was ourcontention in the that educational programsdevised for ablestudents fre- challenge. quently lack subtlety,complexity and sufficient We held that the currentdescriptions of thetalented and to much of the educationwhich they aregiven do not seem be valid for today'sworld. We will reviewin some detail the premises held,the hypotheses drawnand the results reported in alese twostudies as wellas the modifications prior in direction which wehave made as aresult of this research and whichcontinue to serve asguidelines in the present work. The research upon whichReport I was based wasour dimensions to the first closely definedeffort to add new understanding of theseable young people,particularly their motivation to learn andtheir potential forpsychological qualities, beyond growth. We wanted todiscover some of the achievement, that high intelligence andnoteworthy academic learning would help usidentify those studentsmost open to about the world andabout themselves. In searching for an appropriate name forthis group we decidedto combine two 70 terms and thus calledthem creative intellectuals. Crea- tive,, as we have usedthe word, relates tothe more original and subjective, theaesthetic and intuitiveforms of expression, while intellectualrelates to theobjective and the rational. It is our belief thattoday's world needs the talented individualwho is highly.deirelopedin both realms and who has( asocial conscience as well. We also believe that each individualis warped in his'growth,and perhaps stunted, if developmentof potential is notculti- vated in these threeprimary modes: cognitive, affective and social. In 1959, after five :yearsof intensive studyof the literature and afterpreliminary researchefforts which involved several hundredgifted adolescents,* wedeveloped three type-profiledescriptions, creativeintellectual, studious and social leader.** Following a pilotinvesti- gation, we did extensivetesting of four hundredgifted high school students duringthe school year1960-61. Through this study of non-intellectualfactors (usingobservations, interviews, questionnaires, aswell as attitude,personality and value scales), wefound that studentswho identified

*In 1954 we began todocument our observationsof the gifted child and wehad our first criticalthinking seminars in the junior highschools in Lansing,Michigan. **Although we used these threetypes as modaldescrip- tions, we were fully awarethat they representedapproxima- tions and over-simplifications. Data on these youngpeople, beyond the usual achievementand ability scores,provided ample evidence that they arevastly different fromeach other. Interests, depth and strengthof responses and styles of thinking, allshow that this gifted groupis variable to the widest rangeof extremes.. Bright young people not only have moretalents than others butthey present us with more unusualcombinations of talents andstyles. The boy scientist issometimes a poet as well,and the May Queen may take computerprogramming on the side. There are limitlesscontraditions and inconsistencies. (For a more completestatement see "The FourFaces of Able Ado- lescents.t)4 71 themselves as creativeintellectuals were markedlydiffer- who by self- ent from other ableadoleszents, i.e., those definitions revealed themselvesto be eitherAudious or and life social leader in theirorientation toward school might in general. The motivational emphasisof each type be summarized as follows: Type Profile Kind of Achievement orMotivational Emphasis, Creative IntellectualDrive to deal withintellectual and philosophical matters,to be both contemplative andindependent. Ori- ented toward scholarly,theoretical, aesthetic, complex,and original approaches. outstanding man- Studious Drive to perform, in ner, in the areasdefined by parents and teachers as"school learning." Strong desire to gethigh marks and to measure up tothe expectations of those inauthority. and money, a Social Leader Drive to acquire power need for socialacceptance by peers and a desire to bepopular and to dominate and to engagein entrepre- neural activity. Strong interest in creature comforts. It can be seen fromthese summary statementsthat the group of youngpeople most unlikethe creativeintellectuals in theirorientation to learning werethose who identified themselves associal leaders. Test results indicated that this latter grouphad a relative lackof interest in ideas,especially those of aphilosophical, theoretical and aestheticnature, and weresignificantly more dogmatic and rigid thanthe creative students. In addition, results of a problemsolving test, indicatedthat the mean critical thinking scorefor the creativeintellectuals was significantly higher thanfor the social leaders. However, those superior studentswho chose studious as aself-description were alsosignificantly less interestedin intellectual matters and lesscreatively inclined than werethe creative intellectuals. The studious young personis not so aptito 72 lose himself in contemplation,to want to deal withcomplex- ity, nor to prefer new andimaginative ways of thinking. In contrast to the other two types westudied, those who chose the self description ofcreative !:_ntellectualrhowed themselves on a variety of measuresto be idea-oriented, independent and individualistic inthinking style, to have aseif-sustained interest in learning and tobe tolerant of and concerned for theirfellow' human beings. In Study- ing the scales and specificitems that seemed tocharacter- ize most clearly these morecreative adolescents,it was apparent that there was asurprising congruence inatti- between them and highly crea- tudes, interests and values I tive adults. Beyond this, there wereindications that a number of adolescents showedthe qualities of social concern apparent inself-actualizing adults, and afew appeared to have the contemplativeframe of mind of thephilosopher- 5 generalist. Some of the varied interestswhich creative intellectuals chose as importantto them, and which seemrele- vant to an appreciation Pndunderstanding of, and ability to cope with themany-faceted modern world--emergingknow- ledge and the new natureof work -are worthy ofmention here. Selected items from theOmnibus PersonalityInventory (one of the instruments usedin the study) whichdistin" guished* the creativeintellectuals from otherable adolescents studied, arelisted below:

The Aesthetic Orientation: Expression and Appreciation I enjoy listening topoetry. I like to read serious,philosophical poetry. Ilwelwarmml *Choices by creativeintellectuals, studious and social leaders Ion separateitems of theOPI) were tested for differences bythe cvii square. Each item is in aposi- tive form (some havebeen converted fromnegative terms) and all reported were'chosen' significantly moreoften by creative intellectualsthan )y the studious,and social leaders. 73

When I go to a strangecity I visit museums. I enjoy spendingleisure time writingpoetry, plays, stories, esays. I leave the radiotuned to a symphonyconcert rather than to a program ofpopular music. I like to listen toprimitive music. I enjoy hearing agreat singer in opera. I have spent a lot oftime listening toserious music. As a youngster, Ideveloped a stronginterest in intellectual and aestheticmatters.

1. I tend to make friendswho are rathersensitive and artistic. I like:,to read aboutartistic and literaryachievements.

The Contemplative Mind: Critical and AbstractThought sub- I enjoy reading essays onserious or philosophical jects. I like to discussphilosophical problems. I have found myselffrequently, when alone,pondering such abstractproblems as free will,evill.etc. I enjoy solving problemsof the kind foundin geometry, logic, philosophy. I prefer a long, ratherinvolved problem toseveral shorter ones. I would like to enter aprofession whichrequires much original thinking. I like assignmentsrequiring originalresearch work. I have a great desireto learn newthings. I would enjoy writing a paperexplaining a theory and presenting arguments for oragainst it. I like assignmentswhich require me todraw my own conclusions from somedata or body offacts. I prefer not to have aprinciple or theoryexplained; I would rather tryto understand italone. I would enjoy writing apaper on thepossible long-term effects or outcomesof a significantresearch discovery. I enjoy writing acritical discussion of abook or an article. I am more interestedin the criticalconsideration of ideas than in thepractical applicationof them. 74

Ideas appeal to me more than facts. I prefer the man of ideas to the practical man.

The Open Mind: Liberalism and Tolerance , Each person should interpret theBible for himself! When it comes to differences of opinionin religion, we should be carefulto compromise with thosewho believe differently than we do. Not all elements of Communism are worthless. There is nothing wrong with the idea ofintermarriage between races. Our way of doing things in this nationwould not necessarily be best for all the world. I do not find it particularlydifficult to give up ideas and opinions that I hold. When you make important changes indirection you do not always make things worse. If you start trying to change things, you maywell find ways ofimproving them.

The Humane Sentiments: Optimism and Altruism One must not resignedly accept a bleakworldanean uncertain future. In this uncertain world, we mustnot only provide for ourselves and our families, we mustalso attempt to help the world at large. "Eat, drink, and be merry, fortomorrow you may die" does not make very good sense. I find fault, with anyone who triesonly to grab all he can get in thisworld.

he Independent Stance: Resistance and Rebellion I disagree with statements and ideasexpressed by my classmates. When someone talks up against certain' groups ornation- alities, I always speak up againstsuch talk, even though it makes me unpopular. It should not be a rule of thumb toavoid friendships with persons whose ideas make themunpopular. I have always hated regulations. It means a great deal to me tobe different. 75

Unquestioning obedience is not a virtue., A person need not adapt hisideas and his behaviorto the group he happens to be with atthe time. If young people get rebelliousideas, they shouldnot feel they must get over them andsettle down.

These creative intellectuals withthe strong aesthetic orientation, the contemplativeand open minds,the humane sentiments and theindependent stances have, aswe have seen, well developed views onlearning and theyalso have definite ideas about what aschool and a teachershould (an be. They indicated on the SpudlntInterest Survey III informal instrument which we hadused for a numberof years and had adapted fIr the studyof types) thatthey would like to spend more timediscussing and learningabout new ideas in school. They have described theideal teacher as one who encouragescreative research andindividual projects, who is intellectuallycompetent, and who willlead discussions in which philosophical,moral and ethicalideas are considered. In a similar vein, theyhave described the ideal school as onewhich has philosophyseminars, de- bate teams, science and literatureclubs, and especially one which has afine library and allowsstudents. the freedom to use it. These creative studentshave indicated that they wanted and expectedto work (study)during:non-scheduled hours (freetime) and in their own idiosyncraticways.6 We might say that they readwith a purpose andcontinually. They particularly liked toread at advanced levels: the classics, philosophy andreligion, high-level sciencefiction, far-out poetry, socialsatire, plays, seriousnovels and outstanding newsmagaLines. From these test results(particularly the Omnibus Etuoralktelatatam, theAllport-Vernon-Lindley Study of Values, the Rokeach and the ACE alticalThintinalestaIOIEJ),and from interviews, observations and recordeddiscussion sessions .in the classroom, andinformal conversations aswell as from the 76 questionnaires (SIS III) which askedabout their attitudes toward school and teachers(and included questions about the student's present style oflife and hoped-for future style) we have concluded that there were anumber of personality characteristics whichdistinguished the creative intellectual from his equally ablecontemporaries. As a result of studying and clusteringhundreds of items, scores, ratings, and statements by studentsand reviewing our recorded impressions we willattempt to express salientat- titudes, interests and values ofthese creative intellectuals. From this we hope to give thereader a picture of the kind of young person thiscreative youth is. The statements used are either quoteddirectly or paraphrasedfrom items which have been shown by ourstatistical studies to clearly discriminate the creativeintellectuals from the social leaders And, for the mostpart, from thestudious. They are offered as a summarydescription of thecreative intellectual style in giftedadolescents. Our findings show these youngpeople to be unusually open and thus tohave an exceptional awarenessof reality within and without themselves. This opennessischaracter- ized by both a passivereceptivity and an activeseeking. They revel in "being," findlife thrilling,'and extol aesthetic awareness andsensitivity--enjoying the cadences of poetry, thecounterpoint of music, thevisual impact of graphic arts. They report not onlyreading poetry but listening to it andoccasionally trying towrite it. With many, seriousmusic and even opera(a hard taste for Amer- icans to develop) arebudding interests. They particularly like to read. In interviews and onquestionnaires they indicate catholic reading tastes.* As, we noted earlier,they read

Some of these statements havebeen published previously in an articleentitled "Profile ofCreativity. "7 At science andscience-fiction, philosophyand religion. try their times they sampleRussian novels intranslation and They delveinto the beginningFrench on French original's. ESP and off-beat and the non-required -- essaysand poetry, read whileteachers magic, hypnotism andwitchcraft--and they Although teach (not aparticularly endearingpractice). levels, theywill they characteristicallyread at advanced they don't read anything, "'wenthe telephonebook although liter- like the plot" andwhen sent to thedictionary often They really "fall in,"returning words and pageslater. to start port reading at alltimes "while waitingfor things read they and waiting forthings tostop.''' And when they "character- look for deepermeanings and forcomplexities, than ization, style andform" in literatureappeals more They the 1-2-3 of action orthe 3-2-1 ofSpace Ageaction. two-dimensional, want threedimensions andmorefor. them the complex andlargely two-tone mock-upfalsely represents a uncharted world. for fuller This openness topossibilities makes alterna- awareness. They report liking"to consider many mentalities--they see tives."Theirs are not theslogan "there are only the fallacy in suchover-simplifications as right (or yoursand two sides to everyissue: wrong and "one right" orthe mine)." They reject theconcept of the this groupgives "cle cut" answer. Quite understandably than social studies as a"best liked"subject more often do other students. in realms They also enjoyfree-ranging exploration As they other than the arts,reading and socialstudies. ideas even ifthey're say, theylike "to foolaround with new useless" and "to learnnewthings."They love to solve dimensions; puzzles problems--tic-tac-toe andchess in three myth as well assymbol. of all sorts--andto work with And as they Geometry andphilosophy havestrong appeals. that allows, even re- look ahead theywant an occupation quires, originalthinking. .78.

Paralleling this open,searching behaviorand their ever-increasing range of awarenesswe see agrowing trust in the reality oftheir own perceptionsand an unwilling- statements with- ness to acceptauthority andauthoritarian they often"dis- out criticalexamination. They report that "to agree withclassmates and teachers"and are willing hold ideas that agree withpeople who areunpopular or who They asserttheir areunpopular" if theseideas make sense. things independence in many ways,saying they want"to figure theory explained" out for themselves." They "do not want to giveprescrip- or for"teachers to outlinein detail," or be per- tions as to justwhen and in whatstyle work must formed. Along with this trustin their ownperceptions comes and unique a strongliking for autonomyand the original prefer known ways approach. They indicate thatthey "do not "interpret of solving problems orthinking." They prefer to deeply the Bible" forthemselves,' even thoughthey are often willingness to explorethe religious. Such openness and unknown and theunusual leads to awelter ofuncertainties, "do not ambiguities, andunsettled issues. In fact, they like want to know how aproject will turnout" and they incongruities and new artforms--the atonalin music, the they non-objective in art. All this is takenin stride and (as well as mankind's have confidencein their own ability aptitude) to develop neworganizations and newpatterns and, in Camus'sterms, "to bringmeaning to chaos." Courage to face andexplore the unknownis not only apparent when thesestudents deal withideas but also in relation to theircontacts with peopleand the world at try "a new school" large. They report thatthey would like to to home and the and "visit newpie:es."They are less tied will- family than any other groupof teenagersand express a away" ingness to "leavehome" even to thepoint of "running and "losing contactwith parents" if necessary. 79

Today there is muchtalk of delayedadolescent re- cer- bellion but forthese creativelyinclined adolescents early. tain forms ofintellectual and socialrebellion come if it makesfor They have the courageto befriend--"even unpopularity"--their odd andunaccepted classmates,e.g., out- boys who aresensitive andaesthetically inclined or minorities) that theingroups groups(the underprivileged or isolate and/or attack. Theirimagination and free-ranging sen3itivity helps them tobe empathicand seeanotheris. world "as if it were ourown." They reportunderstanding in other the reactions andfeelings of peoplewho lived times as well asthose of other racesand religions. and thoughtful Often the adolescentwho is creative Observations may be moresocially concernedthan sociable. typescripts ofrecorded of classroombehavior and study of class discussionsshowed that thesestudents'talked.soMe- However;de- wnat less thanother equally ab:Leteenagers. introverted; they spite,a tendency towardbeing quiet and thorougUy enjoydiscussions in depthin small groups; They particularly liketo contemplateman's future. Their independenceand love forcontemplation-may and for "riding be the counterpartof a dislikefor crowds least the boysdo around."They rarely dateearly and at things".as a result'-(The not considerthemselves "out of girls seem to feelthis particularsocial pressure more and are generally keenly.) Although they arenot uncouth sense, clean, they oftenresist high polishin the social dress tothee"teenage preferring casualand individualistic unwilling to adapt uniform."As they stateit, they "are the group." their behaviorand ideas tothe demands of They believe inboth love andlogic in the very for man- broadest senses ofthe words. Love is a concern is.a de- kind and a beliefin humanpotentialities--logic they bring light in organizingand orderingthe complexities occupied withthings as they into awareness. Thus they are may often be should be, contendthat the "triedand true" 80

obedience to the "tried andfound wanting," andfeel that But above rules and customsis not necessarily avirtue. seem-to all, rather thanbeing cynical andnihilistic they Many have retained a senseof awe and wonderand hope.. reflected, "What ashining seem to agreewith Millay as she of cre,:t- creature is man."Most feel that manis capable simply--but by develop - ing a betterworld--not quickly or ,within ing his ability tothink and to care,the potential him. rate high on These creativelyinclined students leaders* aesthetic andtheoretical scaleswhile the social political (power are higher oneconomic(materialistic) and this latter groupspi:- and status) values. We have called hold.office0o cially inclinedbecause of theirdesire to described be popular, andto run with theright crowd--what,is Society?r"8 They often "The Adolescent, : . by James Coleman as , books and space prefer stadiumsand parking lotsto library to games" and. for study andthey preferteachers who "go around- -real "have schoolspirit" and who"joke and kid the point ofconviviality. smoothies."They are social to students in The gifted onestalk more than anyother able However, their the classroom andstudy less whenout of it. have charm andkilow grades are usuallyadequate--since they do the;choices how to use it. They read littleand when they Most of all they are sportsand boy-meets-girlthemes. non-demanding, not tostand want school workto be easy and in the way ofhaving a good time. They live in thepresent and showlittle inclina7: ideal assignment tion for lifetimelearning. For them, the

*Members of this groupcontend more oftenthan is, gifted adolescentsthat they are average. true of other inventories,, Their scores onattitude, interestand value confirm that at leasttheir "outlook" is would seem to students average. And since 60 percent of the average social leadersthere is a certain describe themselves as the "adon reciprocity in thisinsight. We might say that lescent society" has asocial leaderorientation. 81

"requires little study orthought once it islearned." They prefer the "tried andtrue" to the examinedlife, the "known" to the "unknown," the"old idea" to the "new,""facts" to "ideas," the "here andnow" to the "far away andlong ago" or the "emergentfuture."They do not want tothink deeply or to planahead. Life on the surface''suits them well. They value pleasure, moneyand power. Hedonism may take the form of conspicuousescapism into idle weeksin the sun or conspicuousconsumption in the formof sports They cars, swimmingpools, and a multiplicityof cashmeres. do not "blame anyone fortrying to grab all he canin the when young and feelthey ..:z world."Many admit to stealing must always be vigilantagainst the wiles ofothers--"if you get tricked youhave just yourself toblame." Living in the present, theyhave no desire tochange the world or themselves. They seem 'to agreewith both the optimist who says this isthe best of allpossible worlds As and the pessimist whois afraid the optimistis right. they say, "We can't solve ourproblems anyway" and"Change will probably makethings worse."With no hope forimprove- ment, "Only a fool wouldchange his way oflife."They feel that the "way inthis nation is best forall" and do not seem squeamishabout imposing iteven withforce. Some have commentedthat they want theworld to remain as it is and they want to runit. Many of the giftedstudents in this group areextremely popular and arealready making headway in running theschool. The high-achievingstudious want to learn but are proficient in academicrather than creativeperformance. They work hard(studying more hours per weekthan any other adolescent group) but tendto lack imaginationand intellectual Initiative. They seem all too willingto fit into

*Such shallow lives maybe adequate if they are not questioned andfound wanting as in theDeath of a Sales- man. 82

the conventional academic norm of followinginstructions, taking examinations, and solving the problems setforth by teacher and textbook. Although Riesman has despaired of the vitality of the Protestant Ethic, this group seemsto find "hard work a good thing"inand of itself. They are attuned to what parents and school(particularly school) expect. They tend to conform -towhat teacherSdemand or even to what teachers suggest. Since teach6rs' expectations, behavior, and attitudes are more often thannot at odds with the dominant teen-age culture, this meansthat these students generally put their school workaheadof pleasure. They are not often school leaders, 9out they dotheir 'work and they turn it in on time. They f!:&'w not behighly Cre- ative and original but many are higr:Jy..roductive in terms of such things as the number ofproblev; completed or the number of words in a theme. Many of these high achievers want toknow just how to do something and when it mustbe completed; but they are not so interestedin knowing the "why" of facts as are some of the others. They want assignments to be explicit. They prefer to use textbooks andworkbooks if given a choice, and they are the one group who do extraworkbook exercises just for fun. In college they tend to preferlectures to discussion groups--they sometimesdescribe discutsion groups as a sharing of ignorance. They do not want the professor to ramble or to digress or to tell funnystories; they' want him to lecture from an outline sothey can puttheielbwn notes in an outline form andmemorize them. Their feeling for logic is good; their senseof organization superb.' They "want a place for everything andeverything in its place." However, this means that they oftenreject learning 'approaches that lack an apparent structure andavoid tasks that are oriented to means ratherthan ends.- They sometimes feel that learninglorlearning's sake may interfere with getting ahead in the world. For them, education must be instrumental. 83

In our exploratory research on the students who described themselves as the studious type, we foundthat they typically said they read to be well-rounded and to help their grades. Among school-year interests, recreation rated lowest (both in relation to all other interests checked and compared to choices made by other groups), and school subjects proved very popular. In their future lives, they want to be hard-working and conscientious, to help others, and to live by the rules. They like a schedule that is "set" and a life that is "or- dered." They tend to be deadly serious and sometimes they take themselves that way. However, they are neat and attractive--the girls are often very pretty--and they make fine, upstanding citizens.They will be excellent employ- ees. They may not scintillate at parties but they will shine on their monthly reports. They are punctual and not a little punctilious. These students by their orientations--the.creative and humanistic, the status-seeking and materialistic,and the traditional-instrumentalists--reveal themselves asyet only in terms of attitudes and fledgling behaviors. They are still uncertain as to how theywill pattern their lives, what will be allowed, what will be available, what will be encouraged. If we believe that the open mind and the open society are superior to a closed mind and a materialistic, hierarchical society we should try to foster creative, flexible behavior. There are many students who waiver between the open, seeking approaches and the closed, non-intellectual behaviors. And even the most uncreative show inclinations toward liking freedom and spontaneity as they describe their ideal selves. Facilitation of creative behavior comes from several sources. First, there must be acceptance and valuing. But undiluted tender, loving care is not enough--there must be exposures and challenge. Students cannot bef:aware of and perceive that to which they have not been exposed. And 84

experiences that are they will notrespond to proffered flexibility dull or unchallenging. They want freedom and' control overtheir (an "opensystem") and to assume some their own liVes owndestinies, to bring reasonto bear on They believe in and eventually onthe lives of others. the study plannectchange as aresult ofself-examination and themselves, of society's needs. To do all thisand to enjoy for op- in the. most profoundsense of theword, they plead portunities to read atadvanced levels andto have seminars the where implicationsand meanings canbe explored and individual consciousnessenlarged. We will make a mostmoderate anddata-based state- that ment if we reportthat the creativeintellectuals find In only rarely doteachers or schoolsfulfill these hopes. been fact, most of this groupwhom we havesurveyed have conventional school programs- - quite unenthusiasticabout the of the and some areexceedingly harsh intheir judgments perhaps even usual.pedagogical procedures. They want and schooling than they expect a great deal morefrom their evocative and feel they aregetting; their pleais for an to master every- responsiNd environment. They seem to want utopian school- - thing, eventhemselves, and theydream of a Island9 perhaps similarto the onedescribed in Huxley's described by Roger (or they might evensettle for the one offers flexi- Ascham in the sixteenthcentury )- -one which These qualities bility, freedom,challenge andstimulation. also by psychologists in a learningenvironment are seen effective educational and educators asessential for any the program,* but they arenot patternstypically found in

*It should be notedalso that thespecifications school given bythe creativeintellectuals for an ideal given by the averagestu- were quitedifferent from those educational dreamsof the average dents. evidently the dreams adolescent do nottend to agreewith the experts' already noted weremuch like thoseof the which we have It would seemthat creative-intellectual,able adolescent. is fairly wellsatisfied with thetext- the average student sports and book-recitation routineand the emphasis on 85 schools, as bothHughes and Flandershaveshown.10 indicated, they As the creativeintellectuals have philosophy and seldom are assigned ateacher who discusses the schools as encourages originalresearch, and-they see in the normal offering littleflexibility. We must conclude is not apt course of eventsthat the creativestyle in youth This means that to be matched bycreative environments. human certain essential linksin the ecologyof these young supplied cre- beings are missing andthat unless theseare Further, the morehighly ative development maybe limited. on creative a student isand the more eagerhe is to learn his,own, the less apt heis to find aschool environment apt he is tofind that will fit--and,conversely, the more than an asset. his school experience aliability rather

to Fosterthe Creative B. An Ex erimentalPro ram Desi ned Intellectual Style that a carefully It was the thesisof this research ma- planned school programwhich makes useof challenging approaches could cor- terialr and allowsfor individualized the morecreative rect the educationaldeprivation which psychological students report. And it might alsostimulate counterparts openness and moreinterest in learningin their but who are intellectuallyable, havecreative potential, have not developed acreative style. efforts were As we developedthe new program our of ex- concentrated onbringing studentsto a dynamic way said, refers to"com- periencing existencewhich, as May has In a very realand intensely ing into being,becoming

of the utopian activities. If he hasformulated dreams that theycoincide remarkablywith school it would seem this is the existing educationalprograms. It may be that adults find the opensystem adisturbing one group who as in the Ordeal and thus havethe problemsHoffer delineates Harper and Row,1963) and Fromm has of Change (NewYork: Farrar and described in Esca efrom Freedom(New York: Rinehart, Inc., 9 1 86. practical way, there is only oneultimate "career," that 12 of self-actualization in theMaslow sense. To foster this point of view we had tohelp young people acceptthat a "search formeaning" should be continual,with no comfortable termination-point of thoughtaccepted as an adequate goal. Our aim, then, was to develop a programwhich would help academically talentedadolescents assume a greater measure of responsibilityfor their own educationand become aware thateducation is integral andcontinuous with all of life rather than boundto textbooks, classperiods and school attendance. In other words, we wantedto help students re-define education. This meant that theymust learn to employ and value awide range of resources,materials and learning settings. We continued to studythe attitudes, interests and valueswhich we had begun toin- vestigate earlier and 'havesummarized above. We not only felt that these are centralto the creativeintellectual style and self-actualizationbut are also bestfostered by new approaches to learning. These new approachesdemand new methods(e.g., discovery methods replacedmemorization and recitation) and newcontent (the readingmateriels featured primary sources atadult levels and thefilms portrayed creattve adultswh6 discussed their life patternsand philosophies). Broadly speaking, the effort wasto increase motivation to learn; resistanceto conformity pressures; openness topsychological growth, to newexperiences and to humanitarian-altruisticattitudes; and to reduceprej- udice, dogmatism andrigidity. In addition to attempts to change attitudes, wemade an effort to increasecritical thinking skills. And finally, emphasis wasplaced on the self-actualization needs andpotentialities of the girls as well as theboys.

1. The Experimental Program More specifically, the newcontent and materials 87

a. and Were documentary-biographicalfilms which we produced a textbookwith an unusual emphasis andformat which we developed. There were ten films in theB0 2.n and Becoming (4. Film Series,* and eight ofthese dealt with thelife styles and value systems ofcreative and sociallyconcerned adult prototypes. The film models," Lou: menand four women,** were chosen fortheir qualities Of originalthought and personal integrity. The intruduatory'filmdeals with the concepts of being and becoming,presents four creativecol- is lege students as models, anddiscusses the ideas behind the films and the text. The finale film wasdevoted to a discussion of the creative processand of social responsibility by the eight models. The film series was precededby a flexible anthology, the FourWorlds Textbookl*** whichintroduced the stu- 4 dents not only to a wide rangeof heroes, bothcontemporary and out of the past, butalso to significantideas and crucial issues. This was an open-endedbook which presented the natural, aesthetic,technological and human worldsto the students and invitedthem to examine sourcesand ideas critically, to.make revisionsand deletions, andto add new materials. In essence, they were todevelop their own cosmologies. Both the text and the films wereused in a context

*Mr. Douglas Knowlton was theable and imaginative film-maker. Interviews and scripts werethetask of the project director. Arlis ThornbladeSteWart assisted. **Film models: Eugene Petersen, historian Kay Britten, singer Mary Coleman, judge .JorrenEiseley, natural scientist Robert von Neumann, artist Anne Roe, social scientist Barbara Radmcre, radiologistHarold Taylor, philosopher ***Many teachers and counselors aswell as students contributed to this textbook. Particular thanks is extended to: William Helder, Jack Riley,Arlis Thornblade Stewart, Robert Trezise, Jane Ward andCharlotte Whitney. 88

of class discussion.*As films were shown they wereaccom- panied by mimeographedtypescripts which provided avalid base for student commentary Students were encouragedto present their viewpoints orally, a newexperience for many, and to engage in*confrontations and dialogues withtheir pews andteachers--using as subject matterthe issues raised in the materials or by thestudents themselves:... Asthese developed, verbal interchangeranged from the concreteand personal to the abstract andphilosophical. It was hoped that studentswould'abstract and generalize and--after carefuland criticalthought--internalize those attitudes which theyencountered that hadappeal for -.0 - them. Although part of the effort ofthis research .was to test role model identification,it was not expectedthat this would be the solevehicle of change. It was felt that experiences relating toindependent associationsand activities and free discussion ofissues would contributesig- nificantly to attitude changeand thus to theeffectiveness n.. of the program.

2. Method and Results The creative intellectual style wastested in this research by the followingstandardized instruments: Omnibus Pe+_rsonallitom Inv.etwo, Allport-Vernon-LindzeyStudy,of ACE Critical Thinking Test,Form G, and the RokeahDogmatism and Rigidity Scales. In our previous work wedeveloped several informal instrumentsto supplement theseformal measures. The following were used: Student Interest Sur- vey SFales(incorporated into the StudentInterest Survey V), the Reasons for Occu ationalChoice, the Student Pro- file Check and the rating. The feminine dimension embraced aspecial aspect

*A project summary filmhas been prepared which showS the development and useof materials and whichfea- tures students in the programdiscussing major ,issues. 89

instruments, of the creativeintellectual stylein that two Self-Actualization inWomen, Accept ofomen Scaleand In terms were concernedwith self-realizationin women. in a third of a more universalbase we werealso interested Scale, which wasde- instrument, theHumanitarian-Altruism explore veloped while the coursewas under wayand served to in the program. areas thathad become astrong focus and the belief These values,i.e., social concern and creatively, that girls shoulddevelop intellectually developed. We seemed moreimportant to us asthe program noted reac- found, as we observedthe classdiscussions and prejudice wasexpressed tions to the films,that considerable ways. " against girlsand women who behavedin self-actualizing exhibited by boyswho alsoexpressed.' This p..ejudicemainly was stereotypically asso- strong feelingsagainst othervalues of humane ciated with women. Among these wasthe valuing appreciation of the ways ofthinking and behavingand an Boys* typically aesthetic realmand the naturalworld. doing things--rather valued technologicalchange-making and reverent view oflife. than taking a morecontemplative and emphasis As a result ofthe ,program andthe special style and thefeminine given to thecreative intellectual group dimension, it washypothesized thatthe experimental in the would be higherthan the controlat post-testing aestheticism, following areas:'originality,complexity, introversion(philo- theoret-calorientation, andthinking hypothesized that , sophicalcontemplation). It was also end of theexperiment) test the experimentalswould (at the and express fewerdogmatic higher in criticalthinking skills

of boys whotested high onthe Ac- *A small group cre- Scale testedsignificantly higher on EIRtanse91Komen tested low onthis scale. ativity scalesthan boys who of thissub-study are notreported Although the results into the attitudesof_boys here, we plan toinquire further creative potential, areunusually open- and men whoshow high elevated minded and value womenas humanbeings in the m.,t, definition of theterm. In this context we usechc term reverent as Schweitzerused it, i.e., reverencefor life. 90 and rigid attitudes. In addition, several hypotheses were drawn to indicate that we expectedexperimentals to show (at post-testing) more interest increative intellectual present and futurelife styles; and others were deawn to show that in the secondary focusof this studythe feminine dimension, we expected more valuing ofself-actualization in women and of humanitarian-altruist'sbehaviors: Altogether we administered eleven post-tests'and reported results for the control andexperimental groups by totals, girls and boys.For the totals we discovered that our hypotheses were borne out,that is, the experimental students scored significantly higherthan the controlson the OriaLnalin, lustinazionand Theoretical Ori- entation scales of the Omnibus and higher (but not significantly so) onthe Estheticism and Complexity scales. We found that the experimentalgrou0' scored higher on the Theoretical scaleof theAllport-Vernon-

, Lindzey Etuaysajalues, but not onthe Aesthetic scale of the same test. They also scored significantlyhigher on the ACE CriticalThinkTIG,the CreativeIntel- lectual scale, Student InterestSurvey V, and checked more creative intellectual reasons forchoice of a future occupation on the Reasons for OccupationalChoice. No totals were computed for theAcceptance of Women Scale,Self-Ac-i'' tualilation in Women instrument or theHumanitarian --Altruism Scale since it seemed inappropriateto combine scoreswhich held very different meanings forboys and girls. The experimental girls followed apattern similar to but not identical with thepattern followed by thetotal' group. They scored significantly higherthan the control group on the Estheticism,TheorPtical Orientation andThink- ina Introversion scales of the911111114A.Elugyalitx.Taxtakaat higher on the Aesthetic, scale of theA-V-L Study ofValues, showed more critical thinkingaptitude on the ACECritical Thinking Test, Form G, scored higher onthe Creative Intel- lectual scale, Student InterestSurvey V and checked more creative intellectualreasons forchoice of a future occu- The experi- pation on the Reasonsfor Occu ationalChoice. Accept- mental girls alsoscored significantlyhigher on the choices ance of WomenScale and on both theIdeal and Real instrument than the con- of theSelf-Actualization in Women trol girls, and theyalso scored higher onthe Humanitarian- Altruism Scale. Finally, the experimentalboys testedsignificantly higher than controls onpost-test results onthe Theoretical Orientation scale of theAllport-Vernon-LindzeyStudy of, Values, the ACE CriticalThinking Test FormG, the Creative made more Intellectual scale, Interest Check creative intellectualchoices on theStudent Profile instrument, more of and on theSelf-Actualization in Women, the wife they them chose the creativeintellectual woman as would proLably marry(Real choice).

3. Conclusions andImplications through At no point, as wedesigned and carried tempted to change this experimental program,have we been We still oureducational objectivesin fundamental ways. and believe it is ourtask to teach youngpeople to think aim and it is anaim entirely to care. This must be our in today's so- compatible with thepossibilities inherent Our expe- ciety and thepotentialities intoday's youth. not only rience hasintensified our beliefthat programs can be butmust be designedto promoteself-actualization. for the self- We have accepted as ourpreferre -q. definition that these arethe in- actualized adultMaslow's statement acknow- dividuals who arecreative in all ofthe generally altruistic, dedicated, ledged ways, aswell as being," . . . a13 hold self-transcending, andsocial. In other words, we themselves. that the properstudy of youthis the world and complextcy of thisworld, They must discoverthe breadth and condition, and strive develop a sensitivityto the human themselves for a sense ofself--to be, toknow, and to get 92

".; 4., philosophy to in hand. This means thatthey must find a In live by as well asa lifestyle that isattractive. lifq.style, choosing andfashioning theirphilosophy and selves. young peoplemust aim to surpasstheir present were in no way As we observedabove, these views convic- diminished as wecontinued our work. In fact, our of the tions grew--as wegained insightsinto the lives extraordinary humanbe- adult film models,read about the the reac- ings featured inthe text-anthology,and studied and life tions of teachersand young peopleto the values promote human patternsexemplified--thateducation must must applyto gifted well being. This concept ofwell being Students adolescents as well asto the largersociety. fulfillment of po- must understandtheir own needsfor the awareness. tential--to live alife of reasonand creative themselves, also And they must, asthey learn tounderstand strangers with come tounderstand othersand stop being "The critical one another. As AshleyMontague asserts: is one oflearning social and educationalproblem of today freedom of how sharedrelationships may befostered and inquiryaccelerated."14 usual text- As we studiedthe typicalclassroom, the curriculum content;and recitation paradigm,and the common people to this as weobserved thereactions of able young what we educational process, wecame to seethat much of Thus a so- do socializesand controlsbut does not free. individual often emerges cialized, controlledand conforming autonomous. from our schoolsand he is notapt also to be between our We came to theview that thereis a great gap for individualityand educationalmyth--that we educate reality of ourschool programs. personalintegrity--and the Perhaps an educationthat fostersindividual fulfillment issues isimpossible and stillremains sensitiveto ethical effort to realize but 'ATe felt that wemust at least make an try to educate our aimsand must, despiteour ineptness, for competenceand compassion. 93

C. A New Focus forEducation15 Both this experimental program and ourother re- search16led us to accept these aims ofeducation and convinced us that educational innovations areparticularly needed in the social studies-humanities area. As we mentioned before:'we realized that our ownefforts to develop a new program would be exploratoryand tentative, but we also came to believe that there was noalternative but to make the effort. Our conclusions have been thatthere is a vital need to demonstrate andhelp young people find more democratic and humane ways ofliVing. We suspect that many of the present patterns of education donot do this. Edu- cation which conditions children to repeattextbook formulas and to unquestionably accept teacherdictum, which concentrates on the problems of the past andteaching children as if they were all alike,obviously, does not prepare young people to become self-actualizing.And it does not prepare them to live in today's society. The changes we suggest will entail rethinking every aspect ofthe educational program and will involve helpingboth the teachers and young people understand what this differentkind of education is all about. We felt that both teachers and studentswould come to care more about education if they weredirectly involved in the program change themselves(they helped, in our program, to make theflexible textbook and served asconsult- ants to the filmmaker), It is our conviction that changes can be made whichwill increase motivation to learnand cultivate an openness of mind andheart--both necessary for self-actualization. Such a reconstruction of education will be most apt to occur:

. (1) if education is redefined and students come to accept its new meaning, (2) if new skills and ways of learning aretaught, and, (3) if curriculum content is revised. 94

These approaches areheld to be fundamentalif the aim of educationis to teach young'peopleto think critically and creativelyabout themselves andtheir society. Each point is discussed morefully in theremainder of the chapter.

1. Education Redefined The considerationsdiscussed in thepreceding pages education which has a have led us tostrongly recommend an This will not be an easy newemphasis--self-actualization. redef- task for it willdem,nd, to aconsiderable extent, a inition of education. If students areto develop their 17 vis- intellectual and creativepotential they must have a must learn to live ex- ion of what theymight become, they amined lives and beginto search for alife philosophy. for his own edu- And each will haveto become responsible opportunities to searchfor cation. Students who have had responsibility for theiredu- a lifephilosophy a11 to take cations have respondedfavorably. One who had spent a half year in such a programremarked, "It hashelped me I fit to understandthe problems ofthe world and where eyes have in to help solvethen. It seems as though my been opened." We believe thateducation must beredefined for well, many students,and sometimes fortheir teachers as responsibility for their own if the students areto assume educated" education. Students often feelthey are "being that an educationis something thathap- by outer forces, ., understand that they can pens to a personbut they do not We must, make it happen orhow they canmake it happen. ask several questions:

*All students' comments areverbatim statements involved in our new made by college-boundninth graders (five classes a weekfor a semester)planned to program and--of course- - foster self-discovery,independent learning self - actualization. 95

How can we help students to thinkcreatively about their lives? How can we help students to become more'ully aware of themselves and how they learn and howthey feel? How can we help students to become moreindependent in their efforts to learn? How can we help students to work towarddeveloping a unifying philosophy of education andlife? The task of attempting to answer thesequestions and solve these problems is of centralimportance to each student and to all teachers but the answersdo not come easily. We must enlarge our understandingsof self psychology and the construct ofself-actualization; we must try to understand the learning process betterthan is now the case; we must do more thangive lip service to teaching students to think; and we must prepare newmaterial--attractive in format and significant incontent--for these tasks. The learning environment must become morerespon- sive and evocative than it has beenin the past and teachers must become more skilled as counselorsand consultants. If we are serious about producingchanges in this direction, one of the most effective meanswill be to help the student understand and accept theobjective of self- actualization. He must realize that thepoint of his education is personal growth--intellectual,emotional and moral. To the extent that this becomes a keymotivating force in his life, he will be apt to movein that direction,and, because he rehearses the ideas frequently,his learning will be more lasting and meaningful. Students seem to come to this viewpoint readily. As one said: The people in the [Being andBecoming] films are still learning, aren't they? I used to think that when you memorized your schoolwork,that was all you had to know, butthese people are still trying to learn something new allthe time. We are suggesting that the concept ofself-actualization become a clear and conscious one forthe students and for teachers as well. The very act of conceptualizing theidea 96

will lead to a morecomplete and a higherlevel of understanding. In accepting such adirection of developmentas being possible, we agreewitn Julian Huxley: "The next devel- decisive step inevolution will be the fuller opment ofself-consciousness."18This parallels the more optimistic view of mantaken by the "thirdforce" psychol- forward ogists.* For example, Allport,in discussing the thrust of "becoming," sees mannot only as a"self-conscious" but also as a rationalcreature who createshis own style 19 healthy and his own future. The consensus isthat, given a direction of Of organism and a responsiveenvironment, the growth and the choicemade will probablybe good. The student who isseeking an identitymust clearly understand that this processcannot be one ofsimply confirming himself as he is;rather, the processmust be one of attempting tobecome all that he canbe. In addition, students will need tou,derstand that educationcontinues throughout life and isintegral with allaspects of living. For this to happen, thestudent should notonly be conscious of the need to growbut he also mustbegin to reach out into the surroundingworld and begin todiscover various life styles. Gradually, he will cometo unite these new led ideas with hisexisting images. Class discussions, by an empathic, warmand self-revealingteacher, will help 20 this to happen. There seems littledoubt that students will take such selfrevelations seriouslyand become deeply centering on life philos- involved. After many discussions ophy, one studentcommented: Class discussions helped meto understand that people are not machines. They are really living

Among the "thirdforce" psychologists areG. Allport, C. Bilhler, E. Fromm,K. Goldstein,R. Mai, A. Maslow, G. Murphy, C. Rogers andH. Sullivan. creatures with manyvariable feelings andinterests. Before this class was opento me, I alwaysthought a person wasjust the kid next door ormy teacher, but now I know moreabout the deep personbehind this face. If we want to help astudent becomeresponsible for his own education, wemust make it clearthat we consider this to be his taskand are willing tomake itpossible. We must define learningin those terms,telling students improve and become they can, of their ownvolition, change, and educated. After a semester ofreviewing world ,ssues contemplating life styles,another studentobserved: The understanding ofmyself has increasedgreater than anything else. No other classhas even considered the individualimportant. I thinkthis class shed light onthat for most of us. Demonstrating--through odels orfilms--how others for come tounderstand themselves andtake responsibility there their lives can beparticularly helpful. Of course, must be leeway(saying, in effect,there are many ways- - choose one that suitsyou), and time(hours and days, not minutes), as well asmaterials that havebuilt-in flexibility and by their verynature ask forindividual adaptations be forced, of course. and innovations. None of this can the There must be onlythe suggestions,the models, and the shy opportunities forself-direction. Sometime; even "What will respond asdid one very quietboy who concluded, better way is there for youto look atyourself than by bringing yourself outfrom hiding?" Forcing students to beindependent isneither ap- push propriate noreffective (althoughmother robins do best, instead, their young out ofthe nest). We feel it is he to suggest andif the student isfearful and unready, I will can, ineffe,.;t, say, "I willnot be responsible. who are in- learn only whatI am told." However, students tellectually able andpsychologically healthytake to responsibility andindependence readily. One boy remarked: This course hasstimulated me intofinding hundreds of things I neverrealized or even hadthe slightest inkling of. I never knew that deepphilosophical theories could be sointeresting and captivating. Many things like, EDUCATION;God and Evolution; HUMANITY. Such students have not been reducedto passivedependency. Our surveys have repeatedlyshown that superiorstudents generally choose as an idealself an image ordescription which approachesself-actualization, althoughthey may feel in reality that they fallshort of the mark. In its most general meaning,to be educatedis to learn to live. Although students may onlyvaguely understand learning as alifetime task, all students cancome to see their education as afull-time endeavorwhich, in the broadest sense, consumes everywaking hour. Students must see that there are manyintellectual andcreative pursuits (non-symbolic as well assymbolic, humanistic aswell asscientific) in which they might engageand which will make a difference bothto the student andto the world in which he or she lives.One girl commentedafter reading for several weeks in theFour Worlds Textbook: I have been reading so many newthings, about different aspects of theworld and all theproblems that exist. Even though I'm alittle thing in a great world, I can contributeby just trying. Education and knowledge shouldbecome open systems with the studentcontinually learning todeal with more of himself and more ofreality. As Margaret Mead says,this of the stage onwhich can resultin " . . an enlargement in educa- everyindividual acts."21 To participate fully tion, students mustlearn the art ofadequate experiencing and be given trainingin perceiving andimagining. School and learning canbe an illuminating andentertaining experience or a dull andpedantic one. To augment awareness and social participation wemust, as Ojemannhas shown, help each student notonly take responsibilityfor his own development but comprehendthe dynamics ofhis behavior as 22 present-day well. Such understandingswill counteract tendencies to abstractcognition and learningfrom their 99 living context. Learning must never be seen--by the student, the teacher or the researcher--as independent from the learner or from the total environment in which he lives.

2. New Skills and New Approaches to Learning If we accept as a thesis that democratic and mutu- ally supportive ways of living together are good ways, we must realize that we endorse hope As Gardner says, ti democracy demands a 'certain optimism concerning mankind."23This optimism is even more apparent if we endorse self-actualization as an appropriate and necessary educational goal. 'The concept of helping young people to become self-conscious, rational beings who create their own style and their own future is utopian in themost modern and idealistic interpretation of the word. This view sees youth as "effective," not merely reactivet.as respond- ing creatively, not simply coping, and as planning rather than just managing. Thus creative problem solving, as Dewey has pointed out, is not only the common denominator of the scientific 24 method but also the method of political democracy. How- ever, a sense of personal effectiveness and the development of talent in creative and critical thinking skills usually do not occur spontaneously or by accident. By one means or another, and to the extent that the talent ismastered, people learn to think. Our thesis is that otLjna_zeoale can be taught to think but we are forced to agreewith some of the children who comment, "People say thinking is a good thing--especially for children. But they don't tell us how and they don't give us anything very important to think about." Fortunately a few research workers have taken these directives seriously. Bruner has explored problem solving-- particularly discovery methods--in the Process ofEducation25 and, more recently, has looked at the more subjective aspects 26 of the process in On Knowin : Essa s for the Left Hand 100

Gallagher has reviewed currentresearch in what iscalled . "productive thought "27and both he andGuilford28shave studied certain aspuits ofcreative thinking inchildren and adolesdents. Tortynce also has exploredthis area and developed add tried outimaginative ways for teachingschool children to thinkcreatively.29 Taba has done a long-term and Carefully thought-throughstudy concerned withteaching 30 children to think in thesocial studies area. Suchman has developed ingeniousapproaches to group andinaividual problem solving called"inquiry process"31'and the'cience and mathematics researchand curriculum teamshave made great progress inre-writing curriculummaterials in these areas andincorporating problem solvingand scientific think- 32 ing into programs of study. Learning to think and to learn arecrucial to the process ofself-discovery. A sense of identityand "full humanity" can only come whenstudents have learned tocol- lect a wide range ofinformation, to evaluateit carefully and to make wise decisions. As Tillich has noted, aman 33 is never more human thanat the moment ofdecision. How- ever, it is ourcontention that manystudents (including many who havehigh intellectualpotential) will not maintain an eagerness tolearn and a willingnessto think if there is no opportunityfor them to practicethinking and problem solving in school. Without opportunities tomake discoveries and choices interms of their ownthoughts and wishes-m-to fulfill theirhumanity through momentsof decision--students will find itdifficult to discover them- af- selves. In other words, theexercise of choice is an firmation of selfhood. Talent in managing realitywithout (the outerworld) and within (the innerworld) will increase as studentslearn to take responsibilityfor their education. They will im- skills and because, prove bothbecause they practice these i. each act of independentdiscovery (about themselvesand the world) will givethem a sense of power. Engagement 103. in thinking (rather than merely memorizing) willalso allow students, as Dewey suggested, to internalizetheir learn- ings. Such processes--discovering on one's ownand putting ideas into one's own words - -will also enhance thestorage and retrieval of ideas. In building a program that will fostercritical thinking, ample opportunity should be given forstudents to "try out" ideas, add new insights, and maketheir own decisions. We also felt it was necessary thateach student understand that such independent learning andproblem solv- ingis important, and also that he understandwhy it is important. Some of the major propositions tobe kept in mind and communicated to the students follow: Students must choose areas of learninor roblemswhich appeal to them. They will learn best if thereis a "thorn in the flesh" (Northrup's term formaterials which rankle and then instigatethought) and if they really want to know something. If vital and controver- sial issues and a wide range of possibilitiesand alternatives are presented, students are aptto find problems that appeal or they may,j)erhaps,fashion a new problem. When introduced to new possibilities andgiven the opportunity to make choices, one studentsaid: There were many things I found interestingI probably never would have discovered on my own. Art and music were much more interestingand alive than I thought they would be. I learned I got more out of the Satmdal...... riewthan Motor Trend. Students must learn how to think flexibland creatively. Idea-tracking and brain-storming in free-form group discussions can help each student go far beyondthe limits of his usual perceptions andunderstandings. Oral expression of thoughts may also lead to"Inner Dialogue" which Jung considered an imperative forself- discovery. We believe that the classroom should provide 102

manyopportunities for such oraldiscourse and dialogue in a non.-judgmentalatmosphere and in openunstructured 4tuations. What we have termed "theconversational dialectic" could provideopportunities for exchange and paraphrase thatwould directly enrichthe student's Other kinds of discovery cancome . symbolic skills. from the opennessdiscussed earlier (see"Education Fedef4ned") which flexiblematerials and anaccepting teacher will encourage. Beyond rioosing an areafor study and finding howbest to expresshimself in talk - should be taughthow to ingwith others, the student 'n wide-ranging ways. no, to If theare to-solveroblems students must learn neralize frm data and torouideas in mmAngfAl will Qlso clusters. If the student learnsto search he begin to ask questions. If the classroomclimate is accepting and theteacher and materialsevocative, stu dents Should Pr9duce a largenumber of viablehypotheses and theories. Teachers can, by example,show how this issues 4.8 done. We feel that bypresenting important as well as an arrayof solutions andcertain unifying Pring4Xesl.studens canbe helped to choose,to try out and to form moreintelligent hypotheses. It is paportant to remember thatin teaching criticalthinking there should be a warmand acceptingclassroom climate, Students will need to feelaccepted as well as challenged. Further, speculation, searchand discovery wil.l,probably notoccur.if the teacherinsists-that there only one way to do aproblem or one right answer and willnot tolerate theeducated guess. ;; One student recalledthis incident from his experience in .,the eighthgrade: Last year in a science course,I couldn't work out one of theproblems in the way theteacher it, and got 54Pwad us. X thought a lot about the answer in.anentirely different way,but OP teacherwouldn't ,accept it. She said it 103

wasn't right becauseI hadn't doneit the way the book said. what Students must be tau htto form ideasand ima es of/0.11MIV " 4 " BighIReitaxmuEtseapratemodels and thepries that-teachers will use Main phenomena. This will mean that they must models, theories andgeneralizations and students characteristically ,Plift"'thinkingby showing analOgies be- how to draw relationships,parallels and components tween seemingly unrelatedevents. Such common Teachers- are essentialaspects of theorybuilding. bring must be able to helpstudents usetechniques that of diverse together (in probablerelationships) an array fragments phenomena. Thus students can cometo see that related, (what appears to beunrelatedknowledge) can be of alter- unified and explained--andoften in a number teacher` native ways. Such efforts onthe part of the do not go unnoticedby the students. One student commented: This is my firstexperience with ateacher who helps us when we wantto deal with"important" issues, like "WhitherMankind?"I guess a teacher needs to bepretty specialto be interested in what wethink when we'rein ninth grade and to help usthink problemsthrough. make Students must learn vier to tent hothesas and to optimistic skepti- crk.....IL..calnents. An attitude of student must feel cism is basic toproblem solving--the tested that answers areavailegle but thateach is to be key against logic andinformation. If materials on issues which studentsread containseveral alternatives and these arevividly and cogentlystated, students, shal- 4. by comparingpossibilities, may cometo recognize low reasoning and nonsequitur conclusions. In an open forum with intelligentteacher leadership,they may recognize distorted andincompatible statementsand pointless questions. As one studentsaid, "Before, I.. often reached aconclusion by emotionrather than

hee 104

We reasoning. But now it's theother way around." believe that thiswill happen if wepresent examples of adults who arethinking critically. We also believe teachers can make acontribution by settingthe stage understand that for discussionsand by helping each one other students coulddisagree with hisideas while re- specting him as anindividual.

Students must final]."realize that at some int the will have to make adecision and take astand. They must see that makingchoices is a skillwhich goes beyond tracing,relating and evaluating,to the realization that the attitudesand actions ofeach individual It is at this are vitalforces in the livesof others. point that the student maylearn the meaningof respon- best learn to take sibility. We feel that students can know a standand make a, responsiblechoice by coming to that adults who areinfluential in oursociety, teachers included, think thingsthrough, makedecisions carefully of and have ethical concernsabout the consequences find that many their decisions. They will, of course, adults and many oftheir studentfriends do not seem to make eitherethical or logicaldecisions, that they do not characteristicallyexamine theassumptions they hold or do not regularlycheck for bias andprejudice before they make astatement. Free discussion canmake two-way con- a differenceparticularly when there are versations and whenstudents and teacherslisten to enlight. one another. The student'sconscience becomes ened and stabilizedthrough confrontation(discussion). One student summarizedher feelings asfollows: When a teacher talkswith you, not-at yo-7he really seems to careabout you and notjut that you memorizehis lessons. When he really listens to what you say,it makes you feellike you areaccomplishing something. You feel like a real person. 105

There are, of course, many waysin which a student can developintellectually, search for truthand solve prob- given lems. Many definitions andspecified steps have been for such activities asscientific thinking, creativethink- ing and critical thinking. No effort to generalize cancover all possibilities; neither can weeven predictthe order in which any given individualwill proceed. A teacher will often understand how a givenstudent thinks if there are frequent class discussionswhich meet some of therequire- ments of critical andcreative thinking. These may be struc- tured in the manner similarto the "20 questions"approach, 34 which Suchman used ininquiry training, the Socratic method, 35 which Oliver used in teachingsocial studies; or quite unstructured as in the freediscussions in ourexperimental program and which wehave called the"conversational dia- 36 lectic." In all of these approaches,the important thing to remember is that actionand personal involvement onthe 37 part of the student contributeto learning andchange.

3. New Content and Materials If we take our stated purposeseriously, i.e., if we want studentsto become self-actualized--toexperience themselves as worthwhile andunique individuals whoat the same time have a senseof shared purposeswith others--we must change the materialsin the curriculum. Gardner puts it this way: If we believe what we professconcerning the worth of the individual, thenthe idea of individualful- fillment within a frameworkof moral purpose must become our deepest concern, ournational preoccupation, our passion, ourobsession.38 We know that young people are,to a very large extent,what they experience. If we want them to develop asense of integrity and a socialconscience they should beexposed to individuals whoexemplify these qualitiesand to mate rials that presentimportant theories orphilosophies of a humane andsocial nature. A student who had beenreading 106 widely on world issues and in biographies commented,"Albert Schweitzer's reverence for life made the biggest impression on me. He always loved his fellow man and helped him whenever he could. This may serve, in some measure,to balance the daily diet of scandal, sex and crime which massmedia offer. Special materials will have to be prepared sir ye, as Robert White says, [there are] scarcely any systematic case records of great fortitude, rare heroism, unusual contribution to the arts or special success with grasping and solving important social issues. The natural growth of personality and the higher flights of human achievement have been given almost no rep- resentation in man's current ideas ofhimself.39 Young people will not be able to redefine education and learn new skills and approaches unlessthe content and the means by which this content is presented arechanged in dramatic ways. For a decade the "curriculum revolution" has been underway but it is only now beginning to touch social studies and the humanities. With appropriate materials in' these areas, students will not only develop an adequate grasp of the intellectualdisCiplines, but they will be more apt to rlevelop an adequate conceptionof knowledge and of self. They will learn theranee and possibilities of human excellence if they meet "significantothers" and if they are given an opportuniAyto "stand on the shoulders of giants." In this way, creative expansion may become their modal behavior style, and they may avoidtypical student behavior--where answers are given too quickly,knowledge is treated too cursorily, and even careers arechosen hastily and carelessly. Thus, behavior can become self- transcending rather than self-confirming. We must examim our offerings to students and attempt to fill in the gaps and to supply materialsthat will be important aidso constructive growth. We can show how man shapes his environment, we candepict human beings with a sense of destiny ratherthan focusing, as White says psychology has done, " mainly on man's irrationality and 107 helplessness,"" Materials that present such idea's and concepts can make a very greatdifference to a singlestu- dent or to a group of young people. One student whofelt he had changed commented, Harold Taylor, the philosopher, is themost interesting person. He broke my idea of aphiloso- pher because he doesn't just thinkabout something, he does something! As Mumford has said, man is "theunfinished animal," he is influenced by what he sees andhears and reads, The final stage of his growth is notdetermined by his biological past; it restswith himself and is partly determined by his ownplans for the future.41 The inLividuals whom otudentsmeet and the materials that students read should releasethem from the limitations of the classroom and shouldtake them into theartist's studio and the scientist's laboratoryand, more importantly, the young people should come tounderstand how these individuals think. One student reacted to thestyle-of-life film of a philosopher-artist: Robert von Neumann was an excellentexample of the artist who really thinks abouthis work, likes it, and expresses the thought,beauties and actions of nature. He seemed very dedicatedhischosen field was a way of life and hGloved it. Students should also be introducedto kinds of reading, such as magazines of criticalcommentary and scientific journals, quite unlike "schooltype" materials. Adolescents, and especially thosewho are intellectually superior, are able tothink abstractly and reflec- tively, can deal with importanttopics and have a concern .42 for what Eriksonhis called fidelity Teaching materials should be developed with theseconcepts in mind. Students are aware of thecomplexity of the modern world,and they know we are living in an eraof accelera:,ed change,but we have notgiven them a metalanguage ormetaskills which 43 will allow them to deal withthe continuity of change. Although we may not be able to provideall of the needed 108 information, languageand skills for dealingwith the future, we can showstudents how otherscontemplatereorganization44 45 or even"invent the future." For those who areconcerned with thepersonal development of youth, whofeel that our existingofferings sustenance are notproviding adequateintellectual and moral and who areinclined to do somethingabout the problem, com- 'munication researchoffers some direction. For example, investigations have shownthat materialsshould be believ- such as the actual able. In other words,respected sources statements of esteemedindividuals will carrygreater impact (e.g., than less vividlystated and lessvalued conclusions from a secondary sourcesuch as atextbook.)* A student comment points upthis observation: It seems to me thatPresident Kennedy wastalking directly to me when hesaid, "Ask not what your country can do for you: Ask what you cando for That really inspires meto want yourcountry." before to do somethinguseful. I never considered that one per sun couldmake a difference. Beyondthig4it is well to keep in mindthat students will they are be more apt toremember and thinkabout ideas if doing this thinking. given the symbols(words or labels) for motivation to learn Thoughts, includingattitudes such as rehearsed often or tofind out, are symbolicacts which are should be and, if teachingmaterials are tobe effective, behavior tied to real actsand are thereforeapt to produce 46 that strike changes. Such relevance,i.e., materials they know and under- students as beingrelevant to a world stand; will be mostapt to producebehavior changes and learning.

*Students 'will needto be taught toevaluate sources in "New Skillsand New Approaches carefully as wasAmd4cated learn to respect re- to Learning."They can, forexample search findings morethan hearsay. III. RESEARCH hi.,JATED TO THEDEVELOPMENT OF THE PRESENT STUDY,; THECREATIVE INTELLECTUAL STYLE IN GIFTEDADOLESCENTS'`

STYLE 1. Elizabeth Momme Drews, THECREATIVE INTELLECTUAL IN GIFTED ADOLESCENTS;Nicatija:Litn: Attitudes, Rep9r:b an;a-s9ries of three: Final =nterests,and Values Office Report of the CooperativejtesearchProgram, E-2,'U.S, of Education, "A Studyof,Non-Intellectual Factorsin Su- perior, (Average, andSlow) High SchoolStudents" (East Lansing: College of Education,Michigan StateUniversity, 1964). INTELLECTUAL STYLE 2. Elizabeth Monroe Drews,THE CREATIVE IN GIFTED ADOLESCENTS;alaamajg

A. A DesicriaLWLAWly ofthe CreativeIntelleCtualstyle In Gifted ao lescents Adoles- 4. Elizabeth Monroe Drews, "TheFour Faces of Able cents," Saturday Rev_, Vol. 46, January 1911963, pp. 68-71. gains for 5. As Gardner points out,there are practical the individual whois generally welleducated. He believes there may be.overpro- that " . . . evenin our own society .duction of educatedtalent in specificlines. .:4100ed,' on many occasions in thefuture therewillTiM,an'imbalance between the number of mentrained foi-C.44*nline of .work and the number ofjobs available. Attempts will be made to minimize thisthrough accurate forecastsof manpower

111 needs, but experience with such forecasts has been discour- aging. The alternative--and the wiser course--is to educate men and women who are capable of applying excellent fundamental training to a widerange of specific jobs. "Nothing contributes more damagingly to the unemployment of educated talent than rigid specialization..and attitudes supporting this specialization. The future is necessarily hazardous for the individual who trains himself to do a specific job, receivesan advanced degree for that line of work and believes that societyowes him a living doing it. If technological innovations reduce the demand for his specialty, he has nowhere to go.On the other hand, if he is broadly trained in fundamental principles, and knows that he may have to apply those principles in varying contexts over the years, he is,ina position.to survive the ups and downs of the job market." .(John W. Gardner, Excellence: Can We Be E. al and Excellent Too? [New York: per and= rothers, 19.1 pp. 7:2:7377-

6. Roe in her study of outstanding scientists (Anne Roe, The Makin of a Scientist [New York: Dodd, Mead and Co., pollo Edition, 1 55 acKinnon in his assessments of highly creative people (Donald W. MacKinnon, "The Nature and Nurture of Creative Talent," American Psycholuitt, Vol. 17, 1962, pp...484-495), and the Goertzels in_their. review of the biographies of eminentmen "andwomen fVictor and Mildred Goertzel, Cradles of Eminence [Boston: Little, Brown and Co., 1962]) all report that these individuals_ who were leaders in their fields indicated a similar desire for freedom and challenge in education and an equal dis.;. taste for teacher-assigned drill and memory work.

7. Elizabeth Monroe Drews, "Profile of Creativity," National Education Association Journal, January, 19632.pp. 26-74E

8. JaMes S. Coleman, The Adolescent Society (New York: Free Press of Glencoe, 1961).

9. Aldous Huxley, Island (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1962).

10. The recent research involving classroom observation and study of teacher behavior by Marie Hughes at the Uni- versity of Utah (Marie M. Hughes, Developm2aLofthelleans for the Assessment of the Qualit of TeachinIn the frig7 mentar Schools Salt lake City: the University of Utah's:: 1 9 , and Ned Flanders at the University of Minnesota and the University of Michigan (Ned A. Flanders, Teacher Anfillalaa.11111-L2tgelELTALAE:L2LSftg&nrAMNI'til Final Report oftheCoAieratiiititegiardhProgarnU.S.Office, of Education [Minneapolis: University of Minnesota, November 30, 19601) makes this very clear. Both investigators have done their studies with funds provided by the U.S. Office of Education.

112 Foster the Creative B. An ExperimentalProgram Desi ned to Intellectual Style Origins andSignificance ofthe-Existen- 11. Rollo May, "The (eds.), Ex- tial Movementin Psychology,"Rollo May Ital. Mew istence: A NewDionsionararagatar.142222912192 1757177basic Books, Inc., 1 5 p. 12. Personality, (NewYork: 12. Abraham Maslow,Motivation and Harper & Brothers,1934 77 (Prince- Abrahar Maslow,Toward a Psychologyof Being 13. dostrand Co., Inc.,1962), ton: An Insight Book,D. Van p. and HumanRelations 14. M. F. AshleyMontague, Education 4. (New 'fork: Grove Press,19581, p.

for Education C.. A New Focus .s,; e, va 97474*, chapter,"Self-Ac- 15. This section wasadapted from the A New Focus inEducation," in the1966 ASCD tualization: the School. Yearbook entitledMental Health andLearning in Abilities, Groupial 16. Elizabeth Monroe Drews,Student Interaction, FinalReport of the Patterns, and Classroom Education, Cooperative ResearchProgram, 608,U.S. Office of Homogeneous andHeterogeneous AbilityGroup- "The Effect of and ing in Ninth GradeEnglish Classeswith Slow, Average, Superior Students"(East Lansing: College of Education, Michigan StateUniversity, 1963). Versus the Specialist 17. John E. Arnold,"The Generalist Development," The CreativePerson, The In- in Research and (Berkeley: stitute of PersonalityAssessment and Research University of California,1961), Chapter XX. (The proceed- ings of a conferenceheld at the TahoeAlumni Center, October 13-17,1961. Donald W. MacKinnonDirector.). Julian Huxley 18. Julian Huxley, "TheHumanist Frame," in (ed.), The HumanistFrame (New York: Harper and Brothers, .1961 ) pp. 13 -48. Becomin : A New Dimension3 aEashIA7 19. Gordon Allport, Press, 1955). try andaycholociy,(New Haven: Yale University and documented 20. This point of viewhas been explained R. Rogers. See Client-Centered experimentally by Carl On Therapy (New York: Houghton MifflinCo., 1951), and Becoming a Person(Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co.,19617.

113 Cultural Evolution(New 21. Margaret Mead,Continuities in Haven: YaleUniversity.947757757:1- at the State Ralph H. Ojemann,"The Human Relations 22. Mental Healthin University of Iowa,"Basic122Eplaches to reprint seriesfrom The.Porsonneland Guid- the Schools, a American Personneland ance Journal(Washington, D.C.: ZUTERWrnsociation, 1960). cit., p. 154. 23. John W. Gardner, pp. Education (NewYork: Macmil- 24. John Dewey,Democracy in lan Co., 1916).- Education(Cambridge: 25. Jerome S. Bruner,The Process of The HarvardUniversityTggi7770077---"' On KnowinaL_Es2majorthe Left Hand 26. Jerome S. Bruner, university Press, (Cambridge TheBelknaFTEggrof Harvard 1962). "Productive Thinking,"Review of 27. James J. Gallagher, Russell Sage Child Develo mentResearch, Vol. I(New York: oundatIon, 141,76g:To.381. P, R. Merrifield,Anna B. Cox,_Creative 28. J. P. Guilford, School Leyea,Co-' Thi2:ikin:igngiLldrep....thNo, 73 U.S. Office ofEduca- 4ieAtiiiRdiieaF611 roject California, 1961). tion (LosAhgeles: University of Southern lasualsrtatimialeat(Englewood 29. E. Paul Torrance, 1962). Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc., Investigator), SamuelLevine, 30. Hilda Taba(Principal School Child- and FreemanF. Elzey,Thinking inElementar ProigaR37074, . . Office ren,Cooperative Research State College, of Education(California: San Francisco 1964;. School Programin 31. J. RichardSuchman,The Elemertar 3,a, Title V I,ProjectNo. 216,4.D.E.A., Scientific In published Urbana: Grant No.7-11-a3-6, June, 1962. (Also University of IllinoisPress, 1963.) Progress Innovation andExperiment inEducation, A 32. Parigna7MaTIBEZTRearch andDevelopment Report of the Director of the to the U.S.Commissioner ofEducations the Foundation, andthe SpecialAssistant to National Science (Washington, D.C.: the Presidentfor Scienceand Technology U.S. GovernmentPrinting Office,March, 1964). Be (New Haven: Yale Uni- 33. Paul Tillich,The Courage To versity Press,1952).

114 34. J. Richard Suchman,

35. Donald Oliver, Harvard Graduate School ofEducation.

36. Elizabeth Monroe Dvews, THE CREATIVEINTELLECTUAL STYLE IN GIFTED ADOLES,_ "TS;Bei121miiLisiASal'nisApproa.,ch_ 12Sounserriculum, Report II, 221 cit.

37. Bernard Berelsor and Gary Steiner, HumanBehavior: An Inventory, of Scientific Findings(New York: Harcourt, Brace and World, 19g21771"---

38. John W. Gardner, op. cit., p. 1.41.

39. Robert W. White, Lives in Pro ress(New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, , p. .

40. Ibid., p4 5.

41. Lewis Mumford, The Conduct of Life(New York: Harcourt, Brace and Co., 1951),677g.

42. Erik Erikson, "Youth: Fidelity and Diversity," Daedalus, Vol. 9i, Winter, 1962, pp. 5-27.

43. Bruner feels that mathematics isthe most general of metalanguages, noting that it providesthe forms and patterns in terms of which regularitiesin nature are comprehended. He also feels thatpoetry performs a similar function in that it helps with the searchfor likenesses beneath the surface of diversity andchange--is a vehicle for searching out unexpected kinship. (Jerome Bruner, "Education as Social invention," The Journalof Social Issues, Vol. 20, July, 1964, pp.21-33.)

44. Robert Theobald, Free Men and FreeMarkets (New York: Clarkson N. Potter, Inc.,106S).

5. Dennis Gabor, Inventing the Future(New York: Alfred A. Knopf, Inc., 1964).

46. Roger W. Brown, Words #ndThings (Glencoe, Illinois: Free Press, 1958).

115 Sr) IV. METHOD: SETTING AND POPULATION DESIGN AND INSTRUMENTATION

A. Setting' In an effort to understand the problems of educating able youth,** it is necessary to keep in mind the importance of the totality of the environment in which the individual lives. In addition to the school, his environment includes the family, peer and community cultures with which he comes in everyday contact and which have a role in shaping his interests and attitudes. In introducing this chapter, we will consider the character and contributions of the environment and describe the general social- cultural milieu of the city of Lansing, in which this study was conducted. Lansing is a Midwestern city with a populatin of 120,500 (July 1, 1963, estimate), the adjoining city of East Lansing has a population of 45,000 including Michigan State University students who live on the campus and in East Lansing. The metropolitan area has a population of over200,000.1 The major economic force in Lansing is the motor vehicle industry; which as recently es 1958 accounted for 83 per cent of the total manufacturing output.2 Government spending (Lansing is the state capital) is the second major economic support with 24,000 people employed in state of- fices. The third economic force in the area is Michigan State University, which not only employs a large number

*This description of the setting is similar for Re- ports I, II and III, THE CREATIVE INTELLECTUAL STYLE IN GIFTED ADOLESCENTS. "The position taken in this research is that the education of gifted adolescents should include among its aims the development of identity, of motivation to learn, and of openness to change and purposively work toward these ends.

117 118

students of people butalso contributesapproximately 36,000 economy. (at all degreelevels) to the general consumer for a large The Universityand the stategovernment account in the number of theprofessional andwhite-collar workers most of theUni- area. It should benoted, however, that rather than versity facultylive in .last Lansingand Okemo influence Lansing proper, andthus there may beless direct than would be of the University uponLansing young people expected. there are Other than thesethree major concerns, affect few largeindustries or importantenterprises which large number the Lansing area'seconomy orwhich employ a compared to larger of people. This kind ofcommunity, when certain metnopolitan areas,creates for theadolescent a opportunities and narrowness inthe diversity of career Typically, ado- life experiences towhich he is exposed. less ex- lescent boys andgirls come intocontact more or excepted, who arein clusively with adults,their teachers This re- the same occupationalcategory as theirparents. limits aware- stricted exposure topossibilities undoubtedly choices and lifestyles ness ofthe wide variety of career especially which are availablefor all adolescentstoday and Even if a student for those who areintellectually gifted. it may not be rec- exhibits precociousability in an area, will ognized, and almostcertainly such agifted student who might not be broughtinto close associationwith adults (unless be models ofexcellence in thatparticular field The result isthat the precocity isshown in athletics). the recog- the youth withunusual talentwill not receive to flourish. nition andencouragement neededfor his talent Particularly, he isnot apt to receivespecial instruction and guidanceif he showsunusual intellectual excellence.*

approval, as well *Pressey indicatesthat much more individual guidanceand instruction, aregiven as much more than is true if the excellenceemerges inathletics or music 119

From the standpoint of supplying the creature comforts and the educational basics, the situation in Lansing is a good one. Economically and educationally the Lansing citizen is above national norms. The per capita income for the Lansing area in 1958 was 6 per cent above the national 3 avevA:age. In 1959, the median number of school years completed for parents by a sample of 331 Lansing students with 4 average ability was 11.5 for fathers and 11.8 for mothers, as compared with a national median of 10.6 in1960.5 The parents of superior students in the Lansing schools were, as might be expected, even better educated than the average parent. In the 1959 study, the median number of years spent in school was 12.4 for the mothers and 12.5 for the fathers of all students in the ninth grade identified as having IQs of,120 or above.6 The mere existence of a good environment may not mar that a student will or can take advantage of the offerings. Within the Lansing area, there is a remarkably wide range of available recreational and cultural c-pportun- ities, and the bordering city of East Lansing and the Uni- versity that is located there offer outstanding programs of an aesthetic and intellectual nature. In fact, even though the Lansing-East Lansing complex cannot be called a "big city," it offers an exceptionally rich variety of cultural and recrea%ional opportunities that are often available only in thc largest cities. It is possible to attend a wide variety of concerts, art exhibits, dramatic presentations, lectures and civic activities. Beyond this, museums; the cyclotron, the computer laboratory and the when the gifts are purely intellectual. He notes that when intellectual gifts are recognized the effort is ofteb: made to discourage their development (usually in the name of social adjustment) rather than to facilitate it. (Sidney L. Pressey, "Concerning the Nature and Nurture of Genius," The Scientific Monthly., Vol. 81, September, 1955, pp. 123 - 129). 120

at convenienthours.? planetarium areavailable on the campus richness of this en- However, despitethe obvious schools vironment, most ofthe able studentsin the Lansing and intellectual have littlecontact with theaesthet opportunities (Lan- rea7ms. In contrast,the recreational areas) are used sing is near anumber of lakesand wooded to be able toparticipate extensively. Most families seem lack clothing orfood- - in some form ofrecreation, and few fit. However, students tend tobe well fedand physically than to be able they are more aptto know howto catch fish and they prob- to identifythe surroundingflora and fauna, than they doclassical ably understandmotorboats better music. Despite the factthat many ableLansing students cultural do notparticipate in theseemingly accessible to become events, most are awareof the artsand would like to be that consumersin this area. The problem appears about them. they do not knowhow to engagein the culture for There appears tobe a lack ofparental encouragement intellec- participation in orsampling of theaesthetic and Students takemusic lestual offeringsof thecommunity. in their homes sons but manyneither listento good music In a surveyof nor attendconcerts withtheir parents. program in ninth graeastudents in anaccelerated English 1964, it wasfound the Lansingschool systemmade in May, of the girls that 43 per centof the boysand 26 per cent almost all, ofthe had never attended asymphony, although like to. Sim- boys and thegirls reportedthat they would cent of thegirls ilarly, 80 percent of theboys and 91 per 50 per cent ofthe boys had never seen aballet, although evidenced a desiretoattend.8 and 96 per centof the girls

B. Population the research The presentstudy is thesecond phase of Report II on which we havereferred to inChapter III'as 121 the CREATIVE INTELLECTUALSTYLE IN GIFTED ADOLESCENTS. The report was subtitled Beingand Becoming: A Cosmic hp roach to Counselinand Curriculum and wasconcerned with the testing of attitude change asthe result of a specially developed program(films, text). At the time the students were introduced tothis program they werebe- . ginning the ninth, grade. All Lansing junior'high students who scored at least two yearsabove their grade levelin reeding comprehension,* i.e., readat eleventh gradelevel or higher in May,1962, were selected as theparent population. In June, 1962, the 243students (maximumsample)** who had been chosen from thisparent population wereassigned randomly to an experimental orcontrol class by theassis- tant principal in the fourjunior high schools.***They remained in these classesthroughout the 1962-1963school year, although theduration of the experimentalprogram was from September,1962, until February, 963. In the fall of 1963 the studentsentered the threeLansing senior high schools.**** The attendance at thethree high schools

ablEikUNIIINENIM411.MowswEVIsssfamsmoll *Because a large part of thestudy involvedreading materials written on an adult(college) reading level, the students in the population wereselected on the basisof their comprehension scores on areading test rather than on an intelligence measure. Reading level scores wereob- tained by the g.q.liforniaReadin Test (CRT) Advanced Form, edited by W. B. Tiegs and W.W. ClarkCalifornia Test Bur- eau, 1950). Only the comprehensionsection of the test was used inthe present study. In this section thereis an emphasis onfollowing directions, onreference skills and interpretations ofmeanings, Scores on this test, as on all Californiaachievement tests, areintended to indicate grade placement andpercentile rank of studentsin relation to a normative schoolpopulation.

**The minimum sample forwhom all major data were complete was 198 students. ***The junior high schools areW. French, C. W. Otto, Pattengill and West. ****The senior high schools areEastern, Everett and Sexton. ln2 is determined by adifferent districting policythan is true with the juniorhigh school population, andthus students found themselveswith many new classmates. Further- more, whenadvanced classes in socialstudies or in other subjects were offered in thesenior high schools nodiscrim- ination was made betweenexperimental and control students. Thus, there were manyopportunities for interchangeof ideas among thesuperior population- -among studentswho came from the different junior highschools and betweenexperimental and control groups. If, as the young peopletold us, they liked to discuss books theyread, theories they heldand ethical issues, there wasconsiderable opportunity forthem to influence one another. On March 4, 1964,experimental and control students were retested. Inasmuch as it was impossibleto;make ar- rangements to retest studentsduring the school day, w used the suggestion of thesuperintendent that we do follow- up testing on aholiday. BIE Day was the only daywhen studr,*Its were dismissed fromschool that came approximately a year after ourpost-testing sessions at the endof the experiment (the last week ofFebruary, 1963) and seemed acceptable to a majority ofstudents as a testing date. Only those young people whohad completed thepost-testing were contacted. In each of the threesenior high schools, these students were metin groups by a counselor and member of our research staffand at this meeting Phase IITest- ing was explained. Inasmuch as participatingin retesting was to be voluntary onthe part of the students, wewanted them to understand thesituation as completely aspossible. Testing took place in the UnionBallroom on the Mich- igan State University campus. The tests were administered by our research staff andby school counselors. Table 1

1111111111.11111.. AMON Oft.111.10.104MNINENOMMINIP Teachers were participating in BIB(Business, Indus- try, Education) Day. 123 reports the number whotook the Phase II testsand gives percentages based on acomparison of the numberfor whom data were complete inthe spring of 1963 andthe number who were retested. The percentages were kompredsomewhat "-, by the fact that a numberof the studefttSiii the original . testing program (both inexperimentalanedontiiii;ffliCiaps) were no longerenrolled in the LansingPublic Schools.

TABLE 1 DISTRIBUTION OF THE POPULATIONIN THE PHASE II STUDYBY BOYS, GIRLS, TOTALS IN EXPERIMENTALAND CONTROL GROUPS

Expe.zimental Control 196263 19647 Population1962-63 196 Population_. testa tes4.. " retested testa :titr't"'-re:,7ested Boys 48 35 73% 38 26 68% 57 45 79% Girls' 55 46 84% .. . Totals 103 81 79% 95 71 75% 11110011NNIM.111 aNumber completing both the pre- andpost-tests. bNumber completing the Phase II tests.

In the discussionthat follows, we shalldescribe the experimental and control groupsin terms of their reading comprehension and intelligence scores,parents' education, fathers' occupational statusand family size--whichdata were obtainedwhen they were ninthgraders.* Data pertain- ing to academic aptitude arealso given and weregathered from the DifffLnentalAptitude Test which wasadministered at the ninth gnedelevel and the NationalMerit Scholz:1E02LE Quqlifyia2.2.!st which wasgiven when the students wereelev- enth graders.

Asermorieuramormorramm..... *It wry s felt thatalthough the informationgiven is from data a year :Adwhen the students wereretested that it still is a fairlyaccurate populationdescription. 124

Reading.arameleaskaa (Table 2): The scores on the C}.M.Acb...... ncedForm, ranged from 3:1.0 to 14.7 for the experimental group, and 11.0 to 16.5 for the control group. The means were similar with thee7sperimental group averaging 12.32, while the averaga for the control group was12,27.

TABLE 2 MEANSa FOR GRADE LEVEL SCORES ON THE CALIFORNIA READING COMPREHENSION TEST BY BOYS, GIRLS, TOTALS IN EXPERIMENTAL AND CONTROL GROUPS

Exeerimental Control MMININ=1=111011111 Boys 12.25 12.39 Girls 12.38 12.20 Total 12.32 12.27 Range 11.0 - 14.7 11.0 - 16.5 15.11111111111411 aMean differences between experimental and control groups were analyzedusing a two-tailed: -test and none was significant.

Intelligence (Table 3): Verbal scores on theCali- fornia Test of Mental Maturit (CHM) were used as a measure of intelligence. Scores on the CMM for the experimental group ranged from 100 to145 with a mean of 123.3a, and for the control group ranged from97 to 159 with a mean of 122.31. Because the students in these classes were chosen on reading scores ratherthan on the basis of intelligence, some of the students' IQratings were lower than would ordinarily be expected ofindividuals in an intellectually superior population. Approximately 27 per cent of this group tested below120 IQ on the CHM.

Aptitude - -DAT (Table 4): On the affereptialhEli- lude Tests (DAT), the ranges for the experimental and control groups were identical- -from the25th to 99th percentile. The means for the groups were slightlydifferent, with the 125

experimental group averaging 83.35, and .the control group averaging 81.85. TABLE 3 MEANSa FOR VERBAL IQ'S ON THE CALIFORNIA TEST OF MENTAL MATURITY BY BOYS, GIRLS, TOTALS INEXPERIMENTAL AND CONTROL GROUPS

.42ietilpental Control Boys 122.58 122726' Girls 124.06 122.35 Total 123.38 122.31 Range of IQ's 100 - 145 97 - 159 .11.11... Imm.r....1.0 aMean dii2erences betWeen experimental and control groups were analyzed using a two-tailed t-testand none was significant.

TABLE 4 MEANSa FOR PERCENTILES ON THE D1rFERENTIAL APTITUDE TESTS BY BOYS, GIRLS, TOTALS IN EXPERIMENTAL AND CONTROL GROUPS

Ori VOISSIffr-111111pIpall01111=11:111=21:31911211=1111=e Exp4,rimental Control Boys 83.33 81.07

1,0 Girls 83.38 82.37 Total 83.35 81.85 Range 25 - 99 25 - 99 11011, WOL.1.111=111~=1MMIMLIIIMMNOMMONIN11=011017. aMean differences b tween experimental and control groups were analyzed using a two-tailed t-testand none was significant.

`AbEtitlitgp--NMSQT (Table 5): In the eleventh grade, the. 'National Mer1.1.2212alaEgliajlalLELLILast is offered ,'-'rto.a11-::tivalified students. The purpose of this test is cut& discover exceptionally talented young people, aid encourage them to o:)tain a college education." It is designed ad a test of educational development and measures the student's ability to think critically and apply the methods of problem solving. The percentile range for the experimental 126 group was 45to 99 and for thecontrol, 56 to 99. The median rank fot both groupsplaces them wellabove average ..fr,r the nation'ssixteen-year olds. The mean selection .J.ores are alsoreported and there were nosignificant differences between theexperimental and control groups.

TABLE 5 MEAN SELECTION SCORESAND MEDIAN PERCENTILERANK ON THE NATIONAL ME <.[T SCHOLARSHIPUALIFYING TEST BY BOYS GIRLS, TOTALS INEXPERIMENTAL AND CONTROLGROUPS

Experimental Control a Meana Median Mean Median SelectionPercentile SelectionPercentile Boys 119.00 89 119.00 '89 86 Girls 116.94 88 114.28 88 Total 117.86 89 115.97

aMean and median differences betweenexperimental aLd control wereanalyzed using atwo-tailed t and none was significart. ava/jmstqmml (Table 6): Additional descriptive information, includingparents' education,socio-economic status and family size, wasacquired from pupilquestion- naires, school files and,occasionally, from interviews with teachers,administrators and parents. Examination was of these data showsthat the parents'educational level not significantlydifferent for the two groups. Fathers of students inboth the experimentaland control groups generally had somecollege, business ortechnical training, while the mothers ofstudents in both groupshad, on the When the Father's average,completed the twelfthgrade. Occupation was thecriterion (using Warner'sIndex of Status Characteristics) the me,iansocio-economic status was3 for both experimentaland control groups. In other words, fathers were generallywhite collaL) but there was aconsiderable number ofblue-collar workers inthe group, When 127

socio- means werecomputed for Father'sOccupation, the group which economic status was3.17 for the experimental control was slightlyhigher than the 3.45derived for the between the groups group. However, thisslight difference size (number of was notsignificant: The median family children in thefamily) was threechildren for students in both groups. TABLE 6 MEANS AND MEDIANS FORPARENTS' EDUCATION,FATHER'S OCCUPATIONAL STATUS ANDFAMILY SIZE IN EXPEr.IMENTAL AND CONTROLGROUPS

Experimental Control Mean*Median Mean Median 5 Father's Education 4.9 5 4.8 4 Mother'sEducationa 4.59 4 4.44 b 3 Father's Occupation 3.17 3 3.45 2.9 3 FamilySizec 3.0 3 Differences betweenexperimental and control mean using the two - scores onFather's Occupationare analyzed tailed t and were notsignificant. aScale for level ofeducation 1. Less thanseventh grade 2. Through grades sevenor eight 3. Through gradesnine or ten 4. Through gradeseleven or twelve 5. Some college,business or technicaltraining 6. Finished college 7. Attended graduate orprofessional school after college 8, Received anadvanced degree - -M.A.level 9. Received anadvanced degree--Ph.D0 level (includes other doctoral degrees aswell) ,,. bWarner Scale forFather's Occupation The range of thisscale extends from1 (high-level professional or businessexecutive) to 7(unskilled laborer or domesticservant). (For full scale, see ReportII.) cFamily Size refers to the number ofchildren in the family. 128

C. Procedure for Phase II Assessment Testing for Phase II of the experimental program was done at the beginning of March, 1.641 just one year after the post-testing for the study was completed. The students in the population were then completing the tenth grade. As was indicated in the population description, attendance was voluntary and students were notified by their school counselors that testing would be done on the morning of March 4, a school holiday. The only special inducement that was used to entice students to come was the announce ment that University facilities (including the Abram's Plan- etarium, the Kresge Art Center, the Natural History Museum and the Computer Center) would be open for them, and that they were invited to hear musical and dramatic presentations by Michigan State University students and a speech by Dr. Stanley Idzerda, Director of the Honors College. The Phase II testing replicated the assessment bat- tery used for pre- or post-testing (September, 1962, and March, 1963) except for one instrument (the Rokeach 10227 matism and Riidis) which was not used in the 1964 testing session. These scales did not distinguish the experimental and control groups at either pre- or post-testing in the experiment.**

For a detailkl description of the program, see the second report of the series entitled THE CREATIVE INTELLEC- TUAL STYLE IN GIFTED ADOLESCENTS: BeilANTIlia2m44222....a Cosmic amoach to Counselinland Curriculum. **During the experimental year we made a careful examination of all of the items on the two scales, looking at them in terms of the focus the study had taken as it was revised and as our materials werebeing developed. It was our decision, as a result of this itemlinsPection, that a number of statements were antithetical to *thei:eims, of our program. This is particularlytrue :inrelatiow-to our dedication to humane principles and ourbelief that a development of a personal "sense of destiny"..(the idea that an individual can and should make a differencein..his society) is desirable. The Rokeach scales classified many 129

Information of a somewhatclinical nature wasgath- supplemented our ered. These highlyindividualized data times in group testdata. All students wereobserved ten and some ofthe students the.'experimental classroom settings, classroom observa- were interviewedas well -Data from the tions include thefrequency of eachstudent's participation quality and climate in the discussions,'evaluations of the descriptions of any unus- of each classroomdiscussion, and given ual incident orcontribution whichmight relate to a gath- individual or to anentire class. This information was and ered by two observerswho were familiarwith the content

responses of thisnature as dogmatic orrigid, inferring nullified by an equal- that an increase inopen-mindedness is designed ly strong increasein idealism. Our course was different belief--thatideals and commitments to encourage a (i.e., can existsimultaneously with opennessand flexibility "non-rigid" and"non-dogmatic" behavior)to contribute to "the good life." "Sylvia Couturier hasmade a detailedstudy of the contributions of the 45students chosen tobe interviewed. individuals This analysis wasbased on thestatements made by in which eachstudent participated. in the ten discussions extensive study ofthe In addition, CarylAnderson made an written comments studentsmade following thediscussions. In the last tenminutes of each periodstudents were asked to react to thefollowing questions: .1. Are youinterested in thesubjeCt of the discussion? (Yes, No) Explain. 2. What did youfeel were the mostimportant ideas talked about today? 3. Did you agreewith everything that wassaid? (Yes, No) If no, tell what youdidn't agree with. 4. What elseshould have been said onthe topic? 5. How would yourate your part inthe discussion? (Check one, in A and onein B) A. Better thanothers; About the same asothers; Not as good as others. B.-Better than I usuallydo; Same as Iusually do; Not as good as Iusually do. 6. Do you think youcould have madebetter comments than you did? (Yes, No) If yes, why didn'tyou? 7. What do youthink was the qualityof the oral discussion? (Outstanding, Good, Average,Fair, Poor) 130 became squally experimental courseand who objectives the through theformal the experimentalstudents familiar with with and theirinformalconversations classroomobservations the students. students wasin- A selectedgroup of45 experimental the end ofthe ninthgrade(approx- terviewedtwice--once at the terminationof theexperimental imately sixmonths after end of thetenth grade. The in- program) andagain at the information oafamily back- terviews weredesigned toprovide studentinterests,rattitudes ground andto explorein depth, selected tobe interviewedwere, and behavior. The students attitudes andobserved and primarily, thosewhose tested Since thefocus behavior weremost "trueto type."* reported style been thecreativeintellectual of thisresearch has group ofstudentsinterviewed in adoll,escence,the largest strong creativeintellectual werethose whohaddemonstrated least onestandarddeviation above inclinations byscoring at scales oftheomakkajwicutt the mean onthree or more scored atleast onestandard de- Inventary..** Several who three or moreOPI scalesand/or viation belowthe mean on patterns of astudious orsocial leader showedmotivational antitheticalemphasis. nature werestudied tosupply Michigan StateUni- The interviewswerecondUcted at psychologicaltraining and versity by youngadults whohad to establishrapport. who haddemonstratedtheir ability

pcorers onthe OP: scales *Exceptionallyhigh and low several stu- In addition, 'teinterviewed wereinterviewed, not as high,but whoidentified OPI scores were The latter dents whose StudentProfile Check. themselvesarCI, on the observed tobehaveirityl37.61=layslapproximating were fitting (on someOPI scales)the selec- but notcompletely tion criteria. validity of first reportin thisseries the *In the style as oneof threetypologies the creativeintellectual the OPI suc- It wasfound thatfive scales on wasstudied. intellectual(cg6sen discriminatedthe creative cessfully from otherstudent types. onself-description) 131

was with adolescents. The general vusrpose ofthe interview explained to the studentsandth'eii'grents-byletterletter and telephone conversation,and each4Student,i461:15-a detailed explanation at thebeginning of theinterVieiV.: -The siddents were assuredthat everythingsaidduring'tii4'intervieW would be held confidential. During theinterviewthe recorder was in fullview of the student. SincetWe'JtWO-hour interviews did not involve achange of tape, moststudents soon seemed unaware ofthe recording process.* The data from theinterviews, supplementedat times' obser- by otherinformationobtained fromself-reports and vations made in and outof school, serve asthe Pioimary source for the casehistories presentedin Chapter VI. Certain free responsematerials such as essays,answers personalized textbooks to open-endedquestionnaires, and the of many new in- have also been analyzedand are the source sights.

D. InstandHthesesfcyw2rPhaseIIAssessment thus far we haveindicated that . In our presentation whether a major concernin this research wasto determine would in- or nothaving participatedin a special program tendencies and whether crease students'self-actualizing The second changes already notedwould beself-sustaining. to get focus, as mentionedin Chapter III, wasan effort adolescent who a broaderand deeperunderstanding of the appeared, by hisself-descriptions and ourobservations, intellectual style. to most fullyexemplify the creative have tried Thus, in the twoaspects of thisthird report we (looking to achieve abalance betweeninvestigative economy larger at a limitednumber of variablesfor a relatively

*In fact, many ofthe students whentold that their that comments would berecorded seemedto,enjoy the fact their contribution wasto be preservedin this way. 132

(looking at number of.students)and clinical complexity uniqueness a smallnumber of studentsintensively so that testing could be takeninto account). We felt that our program, in commonwith most testing programs*was seg- mental and did nottake into considerationmany important dimensions of thestudents' lives,particularly their more with their fam- individual attitudeo,their relationships that the ilies and theirearly history. It was our view results of thetestiz4g (the segmentalstudy) could not be context of adequately interpretedwithout the additional case historydata. In our originaleffort to assessevolution toward the creativeintellectual sty/n wecompared post-test re- on a number sults of theexperimental and control groups of inutruments. These measures werechosen as indicative of attitudes,interests and valuesin the general areas psychological growthr of motivation forlearning, openness to The and acceptance and concernfor other humanbeings. instruments were, forthe most part, ones wehad tried out instruments were stand- in previousstudies.9 Some of the ardized and have beenused extensively onotherpopulationsl° employed in testing while others(including ones we had nature. at the end ofthe experiment) wereof an informal which we had These latter measures wereused to tap areas found important whenlooking at thedimensions of creative style andself-actualization in ourprevious research and for which we hadfound no standardizedtests available. The formal measures wereselected to giveinsights related to the cre- into personalitytraits and attitudes test of critical ative intellectualstyle. In addition, a measures thinking wasadministered. One set of informal understanding of creative was devisedto provide further intellectuality, particularly asthis quality wasexhibited in adolescents bytheir present interestsand patterns of assessments, life and their plansfor the future. All of these 133 both formal and informal, were used in the pre- and post- testing of Phase I and, with one exception, this was also true of the follow-up study' which we have designated as Phase II. The remaining informal measures (those related to what we have called the feminine dimension) were developed as the program progressed--as we reached new understandings about the interaction between our materials and the reactions of able adolescents, the latter group of instruments was used for post-testing in Phase I, and repeated a year later in the Phase II testing. Because case history data are to be an important part of this third report, we developed two interview schedules. The first schedule was adapted from one which MacKinnon used with creative adults. In both schedules our effort was to. concentrate on those aspects of the personality and life style. which seem most relevant for the understanding of self!-Actualization in superior youth.

Formal Measures The instruments we have designated as formal measures all have been used extensively with collegeand adult populations and have been found to differentiate between creative (idea-oriented and open-minded) individUals. These included the Omnibus Personality (OPI)111 the Allport-Vernon-Lindzey Study of Values, (A-V-L)12 and the American Council on Education's Critical Thinking Test, Form G.13 The Omnibus Personality Inventory (OPI) was constructed by Patil Heist and Phoebe Williams in 1957 at the Center for the Study of Higher Education in Berkeley, Cali- fornia. The purpose of thepiavaries from that of many personality tests in that it measures motivation to learn and openness to psychological growth rather than psycho- pathology. The items are clustered into a number of 134

by the Berkeley re- personality scalesthat are considered in- searchers to beparticularly pertinentto the study of students. tellectual andpsychological growthin college to be equally In our earlierresearch theinstrument appeared change) of valuable to measurethe attitudes(and attitude able high schoolstudents. We chose fiveof the OPI scales,Orifi...14.141.1.ty., Com- and Thin.l.2cin elexitv, Estheticism,Theoretical Orientation Introversion, to usein our presentstudy of thepatterns These scales of growthmotivation in ableadolescents. variables which arespecifically concernedwith personality to be char- have beenhypothesized, ontheoretical grounds, thesis which the acteristic ofself-actualizing people--a on creativecollege research findingsof Warren andHeist14 the crea- students supportand which ourearlier study on school studentsalso seems tive intellectualstyle in high to uphold.15 that thesefive Brief descriptionsof the attributes scales primarily measureare givenbelow: The 0 scale,adapted fromresearch Originality: California, Barrony nd Gough at theUniversity of tendency towardhighly organizedbut measures a Char- individual waysof reacting toenvironment. acteristics of highscorers areindependence of judgment, freedomof expression,rebelliousness, rejection ofsuppression and noveltyof insight. adapted from an earlier Com lexitz: The Co scale, by Barron,distinguishes be- nstrument developed complex as- tween peoplewho perceiveand react to environment and thosewho generally pects of their High scor- react to moresimple stimuluspatterns. independent, liberal,critical, uncon- ers are more original and ventionalp andpotentially are more they welcome the newand different in creative: tend to be compli- their experiences. Low scorers accepting ofauthority and tra- ant, conservative, organization and per- dition, andsimpler in their ceptions. find E theticism: High scorers onthis Es scale value n formand relationshipsand seek 'major 135

satisfactions in the"artistic episodesof... life" as well as as these areexpressed by literature by art and music. The TO scale measuresthe Theoretical Orientation; than tendency of peopleto look fortheory rather Scientists, especiallythe more isolated facts. oriented creative scientists,tend to be strongly on this scale usu- in this direction. A high score ally indicates adesire to dealwith the general rather than thespecific. The TX scalederives from 114.1ffinsaillEaression: and.T. R. McCon- work conducted byCatherine Evans nell, and high scoresindicate apreference for of an reflective thought,particularly thought High.scorers areinterested in abstract nature. influ- ideas and concepts,and they tendto be less enced by externalconditions andcommonly' professed ideas than are low scorers. of The secondpersonalityinventory.used; the Study This test Values (A-V-L), measures:six valueorientations.* of its authors: is a widely used onewhich; in the words the relativeprominence of aims to measure the six basic interests ormotives inpersonality: theoretical, economic,aesthetic, social,political, The classificationis based direct- andreligious. Men, a brilliant ly upon EdwardSpranger's 12Rps of the view that thepersonalities work which defends val- of men are bestknown through astudy of their ues orevaluativeattitudes.16 The test isconstructed on aforced-choice basis, low scores so thathigh scores on any onescale necessitate The six scores canthere- on someother scab orscales. other; a high fore beinterpreted only inrelation to each orientationis score on ascale indicatesonly that this orientation on which asubject more highlyvalued than the colleagues at the receives a low score. Heist and his noted a pattern Center for theStudy of HigherEducation have

wrealy~wwl .1 'This test waspublished first asthe Ailport- Vernon Allpert- Vernon- Study of Valuesin 1931 andrevised as the Lindzey Study ofValues in 1951. 136 of scoring on the A-V-L whichshoW4' that highly creative individuals who take the test have hightheoretical and aesthetic scores, low economic andpolitical scores. The six value orientations measured onthe A-V-L are: Theoretical: This .orientation characterizes a person with a dominantinterest in the discovery of truth, one who is concerned withcognitive approaches to reality, an( one who iscritical, rational, and given to intellectualizing. (Findings at both Berkeley Centers show interest inscientific fields to be a strong correlate ofthis orientation.)

Economic: The person high on this scaleis interested primarily in the utilitarianand the practical and in the accumulation ofmaterial goods and its associated activities.

Aesthetic: The aesthetic person places great value onform and harmony. His major orientation is toward a pleasing organization ofsensory experience, and toward the autistic aspectsof the environment.

Social: The high se.orer on this scale isoriented toward people as such without regardbo theoretical, aesthetic or practical attitudes, whichhe may regard as cold and inhuman.

Political: The political value does not necessarily indicate interest in thefield of politics, but chiefly an interest in power andinfluence over others. The person who scores high onthis scale likes the struggle andcompetition with which power is commonly associated.

Religious: The person scoring high on this scale is something of a mystic,seeing the highest values in a search for the meaning of lifeand in comprehension of the cosmos as a whole. The third instrument used in the presentstudy was the American Council onEducation's Critical Thinking Test, Form G. This test was constructed at MichiganState Uni- versity as a part of an inter-universityproject, entitled The Co-operative Study ofEvaluation in General Education, which was directed by Paul Dressel. The items used in the 137 test were devised and tested by projectworkers at twenty different institutions, and the test wasfinally constructed by Dr. Dressel. The instrument is a 52 -item scaleof.ob- .:L. jective questions designed measure the mainabilities thought to be involved in theproblem-solving aspect of critical thinking - -.the ability torecognize and define a problem, to select information pertinent toits solution, to recognize stated and unstatedassumptions, to formulate and evaluate hypotheses, and tojudge the validity of in- ferences from the evidencegiven.17

Informal Measures--The CreativeIntellectual Style In our earlier study with high schoolstudents, we found that although the tests whicheffectively differentiated more creative from less creativeadults seemed to contribute to our understandings of the moreand the less creative adolescents, there were some waysin which these, instruments were inadequate for a youngpopulation. The adult tests did not tell us whatthe interests of these adults had been when they werefourteen and fifteen. We did not know, for example, howthe adolescent plans for the future of the highly creativeadults had differed from those o2 the less creative adults, nordid we know the dif-

ferences in adolescentself-descriptions between the two , groups. For these reasons, we usedinstruments that we had developed in our earlierresearch with superior adolescents and that had alreadyshown promise in distinguishing the more creativ' from the lesscreative young person in all three test1c) sessions. These informal instruments arerefinements of measures developedduring a five-year period(1957-1962) of studying gif ed adolescents. They include the Student In- terestSur..,...... lE9y.lca.les (incorporatedinto the Student Interest Survey V), the Reasons for Occuational Choice and the Stu- dent Profile Check. 138

questionnaire The StudentInterest Surve (SIS) is a family background,cur- that elicitsinformation on student attitudes towardschool and rent interestsand activities, Within thisquestion- learning, and plansfor the future. the naire are threescales (referredto subsequently as significantly dif- SIS Scales)comprised of itemsthat had identified (in an ferentiated the responsesof students creative earlier study onthe StudentProfile Check) as on previoussur- intellectual, studiousand social leader veys. Occupational The secondinformal measure,Reasons for checklist of ninepossible rea- Choice (ROC),consists of a being asked sons forchoosing a career,with the students to themselves. to pick thethree reasonsmost important from a longerlist of items This instrumenthad been refined Student Interest which hadpreviously been apart of the significantly dif- Survey. Each of the ninereasons had studious, creativein- ferentiated studentsidentified as Profile Check, tellectual orsocial leader onthe Student studious reasons, with three ofthe choicesidentified as and three associal three as creativeintellectual reasons, the nine items werecom- leader reasons. For the analysis the stu- bined in these groupsof three inaccordance with dent types. Check, is a setof A third measure,Student Profile intellec- three descriptionsof student"types" (creative leader), which havebeen developed tual, stu,..,.Lcusand social beginning in 1959and and refined over aperiod of years, Students tested formallyin the school year1960-61.18 that most nearly are askedto check thetype of student describes them.

3. Informal Measures--TheFeminine Dimension and In addition tothe concernwith the education the research guidance for giftedadolescents in general, 139

girl: how has beenespecially concernedwith the gifted encourage to make her awareof hercreative4potential, to the ac- her to choose ahigh level careerand to increase who do choose ceptance (by bothboys and girls) of women their abilities. life styles that arecommensurate with the much The study hasalso been directedtoward developing beliefs (ofteniden- needed social concernand humanitarian boys and girls. tified as ftfeminine"qualities) among both the films andtext These objectivesbecame clarified as reactions. Much werecompleted and as wewatched student thinking seemed cen- of the prejudicialand stereotypical acceptance of women tered in the areathat we designated as and generalhumanitarian-altruisticattitudes.* experimental and To measuredifferences (between self-actual- control groups)in the acceptanceof both the humane ways ization of womenand In theacceptance of more These of thinkiu,informal instruments weredeveloped. include theAssaalla2tof WomenScale,Self-Actualization Scale** and were in Women andtheHumanitarian-Altruism and in administered at theend of theexperimental year, the Phase IItesting a yearlater. comprised of true- The Acceptance ofWomen Scale is acceptance or re- false itemsthat asked forthe testee's prejudice that jection of statementsof fact,opinion and self-realizing are relevantto the acceptanceof women as individuals who mustof necessity engagein diverse roles, professional endeavors. including creativeactivities and positive andnegative The scalecontains itemswhich are both

feminine and *Another dimensiongenerally considered mode. These widely rejectedby the boys wasthe aesthetic with two formalinstruments (seeaesthetic scales = were tested the AestheticWorld on OPIand A-V-L) andintroduced through in the' PourWorlds Textbook. in Phase **A revised formof thisinstrument was used 140 in relation to acceptance of women, and ahigh scorer was assumed to hold more favorable attitudestoward diversified roles and self-actualization in womenthan a low scorer. The second informal measurement9Self-Actualization in Women, is a set of three paragraphdescriptions of girls. Many of the values specified in theAcceptance of Women Scale are included in theseparagraphs. The first description (level 1) portrays a "strictlyfemale female" who does not plan to attend college or todevelop a distinct identity; the second (level2) describes a girl who plans to attend college for a year or twoand then marry- -she tends to reflect in her development theneeds and interests of her husband and children ratherthan to develop and sustain a personalstyle; and the third (level3) portrays a girl who wants to graduate from collegeand perhaps attend graduate school, to become creativeartistically and intellectually as well as biologicallyand to contribute something to the wider world. The instrument instructs girls tomake two types of checks: first, to check the paragraphwhich describes them as they think they4...sally ire; and second, to check the paragraphwhich describes them as theywould like to be ideally. The boys were asked to checkthe description most like the kind ofwife they would prefer (both really and ideally). The Humanitarian-AltruismScale is included in the Feminine Dimension becausehumanitarianism traditionally has been seen in our society as afeminine value. Women, more than men, appearto have strong feelings ofcompassion for their, fellow men. .Forexample, on the social scale. of the A-V-L the mean scoresfor college girls are much higher than the mean scores forcollege boys. However, it was a purpose of thepresent study to suggest tothe gifted boys that compassion is aquality needed by all human beings and is characteristic ofthose most advanced in an ethical and moral sense and thusshould not be considered 141

intended to support exclusively feminine. The program was boys in their both the girls andthe humanistically-inclined 'views, to help themvalue their altruisticand humanitarian tendencies. of items The Humanitarian-AltruismScale is composed disagree with state- that ask studentswhether they agree or ments presentingcharacteristicallyhumanitarian-idealist The statements, to ortechnologist-realist points ofview. the part a greatextent, involve themaking of a choice on taking of a student tocommit himself (atleast on paper) to short- part in variousforms of socialaction. The test was cannot ened for the PhaseII testing andthus these scores obtained in PhaseI. be compared withthe post-test scores developed by The original items wereanalyzed by a formula As a result Dr. Robert Ebel ofMichigan StateUniversity. items to of this analysis,the test wasshortened from 101 33 items.

4. Hypotheses The followinghypotheses are proposedfor the Phase II testing program: students 1. It is hypothesizedthat the experimental would continue tobe more accepting ofcreative values and continue to be that their attitudesand interests would closer to the"creative norm" thanthose of the control hypothesis students. Formal measures chosento test this include theOriginatelaity, Complexity,Estheticism, Theoretical Orientation and ThinkingIntroversion scales ofthe Omnibus Personal; theAesthetic and Theoreticalscales Amer- of theAllport-Vernon-LindzeyStuce...iLlff.yallaes; and the G. ican Council onEducation's CriticalThinking Test, Form The informal measureschosen include theCreative Intellec- tual Scale of theStudent Interest SurveV; and the creative intellectualStudent Profile Check. experimental 2. It is furtherhypothesized that the 142

accepting ofcreative and students willcontinue to be more (including high levelca- productive lifestyles in women to choose reers); that theexperimental girlswill continue styles; and thatthe experimental moreself-actualizing life style fortheir wives boys will choosethe self-actualizing it is hy- more oftenthan will thecontrol. In addition, continue to pothesized thatthe experimentalgroup wIll the control show a greaterdegree of socialconcern than by the acceptance group. These hypotheseswill be tested in Womeninstrument, of Women Scale,the Self-Actualization and theHumanitarian-AltruismScale.

5. Interview Schedules The first Two interviewschedules weredevised. half schedule, used inthe summer of1963, approximately a experimental program,i5 year afterthe completionof the by Gough andMacKinnon anadaptation of aschedule developed changes, both for the IPARassessment studies. We made understandings we had additions anddeletions, based on adolescents. In- gained in a decadeof researchwith able similar to thatin the asmuch as ourframe of referencewas appropriate for ourfirst IPAR study, wedecided that it was elicited interviews to followthis pattern. The schedule early childhoodand ele- information aboutthe respondent's high school andadoles- mentary schoolexperiences; junior interests, opinionsand attitudes. cent experiences;and their which The secondschedule,used for the interviews of 1964, was of asomewhat wereconducted in the summer interested different nature. At this timewe were less concerned withwhat in biographicalinformation and more and the might be calledlife style,philosophical outlook haVe characterized asself- broad groupingof tendencies we the questionsrelated less actualizing. In other words, 143

thought and behavior to past experienceand more to present the and to projectionsinto the future. The sections of and awareness interview scheduleincluded self-awareness style, of others,aesthetic and culturalinterests, thinking social concern andviews on education. Both schedules werepre-tested with ableadolescents who were not in thepopulation includedin the interview deter- study. In this preliminary useof the questions, we understood by the mined whether or notthey were easily seemed to be similar students, whetherthe interpretation rela- from student tostudent, and whetherthey were of a tively open andnon-leading nature. Whenever necessary we revisedthe wording ofquestions. Due to theidiomatic approachof the interview, our assessment willnecessarily be somewhatimpressionistic. knowledge which can In the interviews wetry to go beyond test be had with easebut is so oftentrivial--for example, scores--to more vitaland personal kindsof information. We ask: What is the student'sexpanding image ofself, his evolving self-concept? How does he seethe world? And howdoes he find his way in it? In what open,venturesome and original waysdoes he look at life? How does he demonstrate ahunger to know andto comprehend his environment? How does he respondto beauty? How does he exhibitsocial concern? .How is he showingdirection and purpose? Through these probings wetouched upon daydreams, styles of thinking,school and leisure-timeactivities, philosophies of life, pastexperiences and futureprojec- kinds tions, views oneducation and on lifein general, the of people likedand disliked, fears,moods and aspirations. Our effort is tounderstand how thepatterns of students' memories of yesterdayhelp them anticipatethe future. 144

We feel that whateach individual resolves,what he wills, and what he hopesfor will be of greatiffipottance in shaping his life. We believe that theLosmologies that these students are fashioninginside their heads will notonly shape their lives butwill also help determinethe kind of world in which theyand their fellow menwill live.

and informationabout the formal tests Informal instruments STYLE IN GIFTED can befound in ReportII, THE CREATIVE ADOLESCENTS. POPULATION IV. METHOD: SETTING AND DESIGN ANDINSTRUMENTATION Michigan StateUni- Statistics suppliedby John Thalen, 1. Sociology andDemographer in versity ProfessorEmeritus of the Institutefor CommunityDevelopment. et al"...... 1EcomakaarlapowAtiart 2. John L. O'Donnell Interindustr of the LansinTri-Count Area: An Stud Mich gan: Bureau of Bus- Relations East Lansing, Research, Collegeof Businessand Public iness and Economic of Congress Service, MichiganStateUniversity), Library 'Catalog No.60-62883. Nurture Sidney L. Pressey,"Concerning the.Nature and 3. V. 81, Sept.,1955, pp. of Genius," TheScientific. Monthly:, 123-29.

4. O'Donnell et al., op.cit. Elizabeth MonroeDrews, StudentAbillititsLArvalaa 5. Interaction; FinalReport of the Patterns and Classroom Education, Program, , U.S.. Office of Cooperative Research Ability Group- "The'Effect ofHomogeneous andHeterogeneous, English Classeswith Slow, Averageand ing in Ninth Grade College ofEducation, Superior Students"(East Lansing: Michigan StateUniversity, 1963). cit. 6. Statistics suppliedby John Thalen, op.

7. Drews, 22. cit. has approximately200 8. The Lansing -East Lansing area active and thrivinglittle theater groups churches, several classical drama, which presentboth contemporaryplays and civic cen'ter inthe city ofLansing which not and a large but also attracts only has a widevariety of ongoing programs conventions to thecity. The Lansingpark system numerous There be among thefinest in thecountry. is reputed to including 63 parks inthe GreaterLansing area, are some gardens, and 46scheduled a zoo, anarboretum, specimen There are also74 baseballdiamonds, summerplaygrounds. pub- swimming pools, tenindoor pools and seven two outdoor and the Y.W.C,A,offer a lic golf courses. The Y.M.C.A. The number of programsfor both adultsand young persons. Lansing provides awide variety ofevening school system in (except teenagers) which allow anyinterested citizen courses pottery making to"great books" to take subjectsranging from At the heartof the city is afine new for a minimalfee. and nearby public libraryoperated by thepublic schools, State UniversityLibrary and theMichigan is the Michigan itself and otherpublic Historical Museum. The State Capitol

145 146

the MichiganState buildings are nearthe city center. On five miles awaythereareextensive his- University campus attractive museums. torical awl.natural sciencedisplays in new Art-exh5bits are alwaysavailable andthere is a Univer- in the KresgeArt Centerlocated on the art museum motion picture sity campus. In the areathere are nine several thatexhibit foreignfilms..., theaters, including (includ- There are fiveradio and threetelevision stations the area, andthe city ing an educationalTV station) in symphony orchestra. In addition,the of Lansingsupports a and University offers alarge number oftheater, lecture and during the yearsome ofthe most out- concert events; in the world standing ballet, opera,and theater groups opportunities arenot limitedto the appear. Educational and a University; there isalso a largecommunity college business university. Creative Power: The Educationof Youth 9. Hughes Mearns, Publications, Inc., in the CreativeArts (New York: Dover 1958 .

10. Drews,

11. Ibid. The Open and_ 12. Milton Rokeach, Personalit into the Natureof Belief Sstems and items New York: Basic Books, Inc.,1960 ,p. 183. Philip E. Vernon,and GardnerLind- 13. Gordon W. Aliport, A Scalefor*Measurin the 'Dominant zey,Studof Values: Houghton-Mi f inco., Interests laPersonality oston: BTU, p. 3. Class in America(Chicago: 14. W. L. Warneret al., Social Science ResearchAn3aation, 1949). V. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION: PHASE II TESTING

The findings of the experimental programreported in the study titled, Being andBecominsiAgosmicApsroachto unselne indicated that attitudes ofthd; experimental group were significantlydifferent at post- testing from those of thecontrol group on a number ofthe instruments that were used to measurethe creativeintel-" lectual style and the femininedimension. These differences were uniformlyin the direction hypothesizedand thus could be taken to indicate greatervaluation of learning, open - ne ss to psychologicalgrowth and acceptance and concernfor other human beings on the partof the experimentalstudents. The two groups were randomlyselected from a parentpopula- tion and there were significantdifferences at pre-testing on only two of thetwenty-one scales of instrumentsused: A number of the formal testshad several scales. The tests and/or the scales were chosenbecause in previous research** they effectivelyJifferentiated creative from studious and social leader adolescents.Our incormel instruments were designed to probe forcreative-intellectual qualities and, in certain cases, todistinguish the types. At post-testing, the total experimental groupscored significantly higher than the controls on sevenscales and/or instruments. The direction of change, ineach case, was

This "acceptance and concern forother human beings" is designated as the femininedimension and includes two scales on the acceptance ofself-actualization in girls as well as the Humanitarian-AltruismScale. THE CREATIVE INTELLECTUAL STYLE' INGIFTED ADOLES- CENTS: Motivation to Learn: Attitudes _interests and Values, Report I in a series ofthree: , Final-Report of the Cooperative ResearchProgram, E-2, U.S. Office. of Edu- cation, "A Study of Non-IntellectualFactori in 'Superior, (Average, and Slow) High SchoolStudents" (East Lansing: College of Education, MichiganState University, 1964).

147 148

'or toward greatervaluation ofcreative and intellectual qual- experiment- ities, On the OmnibusPersonality Inventory the Thinking Intro- als were significantlyhigher on Originality, version (philosophicalorientation) and TheoreticalOrienta- tion, and on theAllport-Vernbn-Lindzey Study ofValues, they were higher onthe ACE CriticalThielisiea2taILIAELA, Interest Survey V, the CreativeIntellectual scale of Student and checked morecreative intellectual reasonsfor choice. Choice of a future occupation onthe Reasonsfor2Esaational similar scale. The experimental girlsfollowed a pattern to that establishedby the total group,but the change which was noted onCle feminine dimensionfor the total group was even morepronounced for thesegirls. On the OPI the experimental girls weresignigicantly higher thancontrol girls on ThinkingIntrovn.rsioD;, TheoreticalOrientation and Estheticism; onthe A-V-L they werehigher on the Aes- thetic scale; theyshowed more criticalthinking aptitude, scored higher on theCreative IntellectualScale, Student Interest Survey V andchecked more creativeintellectual reasons on theReasons for OccupationalChoice scale. The experimental girlsscored significantlyhigher on the Ac- sestasse.21.1.....lomenScale and onboth the "Ideal" and"Real" choices of theSelf-Actualization in Womeninstrument than did the controlgirls. They were also higher onthe Humani- tarian-Altruism scale. The experimental boystested significantlyhigher than controls onpost-test results onthe ACE Critical Think- ing Test, Form G, theTheoretical Scale of theA-V-L; the Creative Intellectualscale of StudentInterest Survey V, Check and the the* CreativeIntellectual Student Profile "Real" choice on theSelf- Actualization in Womeninstrument. All instruments usedin the original study(Phase I) except for the Rokeach-Dogmatism Scale and RigidityScale were repeatedin the Phase II testingthe year following the end of theexperiment. 149

A. Creative IntellectualValues 1. Formal Measures (Table 1): On the - ...... AOlanibE2tERZROALLIEW11151. Phase II testing, there were nostatistically significant differences between the experimentaland control groupsfor boys, girls or totals on thisinstrument. Experimentals were slightlyhigher on most scales, than they had been atpost-testing and weregenerally higher than controls (this was trueof the girls on allscales). Although this is an instrument onwhich students aresupposed to test progressivelyhigher as they proceedin school, both experimental and control groupstested near the collegemean* on all scalesand both were considerablyhigher than the college mean on complexity. In comparison to atenth grade group of comparableability in thG 1960-61school year, this group (tested inthe 196-64 schoolyear) was much higher on gprallexitz, Estheticism andThintingIntro- version--the four scales which wereused in both studies (scales that could becompared).** It is apparent from examination of Phase II resultsthat the experimentaland control groups have become asomewhat distinctiveadolescent population inasmuch as both groups scoreone standarddeviation above the college mean onComplexity and at the college mean on the fourother scales (considerablyhigher than might be expected of high schoolsophomores). Allport-Vernon-Lindley Study of (Table 2): On Phase II testing the totalexperimental group scoredsignificantly higher than the control groupon the Theoretical scale. This difference was at ahigher level of confidence (.01) than was true of the difference(.05) found at post- testing. While the students' scores werenot significantly

*The standard score for tfracollege population is5G.

**See appendix for Table Afollowed by a discussion in which a comparison ofthese two groups is made. 150

TABLE 1 FOR BOYS, MEAN SCORESON THE OMNIBUSPERSONALITY INVENTORY GIRLS AND TOTALSIN THEExTEMEETALrMEZMINtt CLASSES xammaimmimmimw 4111111.111IMINIMAIMW:110111:11121=1= IIa Pre-Testa Post-Testa Phase Cont. Exp. Cont.

BOYS 47.60 45.87 49.5749.18 Originality 45.9344.06 58.00 52:251.79 55.05 54.43 56.51 Complexity 40.63 45.08 47.14 Esthrticism 41.41 41.34 40.02 Theoretical 48.59 53.54 52.00 Orientation 50.1648.36 50.78 Thinking 44.33 48.7848.43 Introversion 45.59.43.79 46.62 GIRLS 47.53 45.21 49.2547.03 45.59 Originality 46.49 56.0755.33 52.62 52.32 54.5652.29 Complexity 47.33 54.66 53.42 Estheticism 47.2846.21 50.63* Theoretical 42.98 46.9544.60 orientation 45.7043.14 46.97* Thinking 45.86 51.1849.36 Introversion46.95 45.08 49.98* TOTALS 48.16 44.73 48.47*46.55 49.58 Originality 46.22 56.27 56.36 54.57 52.10 54.8053.17 Complexity 44.58 50.28 51.01 Estheticism 44.4244.19 45.58 Thaoretical 45.29 49.9647.44 Orientation 47.87*45.31 48.78* Thinkirg 50.0949.00 46.29 44.54 48.39*45.23 Intrersion fir. 0111111111011111 I NI IN MU 1111111101 IN Nom II et 1111.1..11111 is MU 1111111111ft m r.a..111=11ft WilIMIIMMI with a two-tailedt. aPre-test 'differenceswere tested post-test differencesand A one-tailedt was used tomeasure Phase II differences. confi- Indicatessignificances at leastat the .05 dence levelbetween adjacent means. 151

TABLE 2 STUDY OF VALUES MEAN SCORES ONTHE ALLPORT-VERNON-LINDZEY AND TOTALS INEXPERIMENTACZOMMUT4ASSES FOR BOYS, GIRL. ,. Pre-Testa Post-Testa PhaseIia Ex Cont Ex Cont. Ex Cont.

BOYS 45.8645.38 48.38*45.21 48.03 45.40 Theoretical 43434 43.73 43.15 44.0743.15 42.94 Economic 34.4034.78 Aesthetic 32.02 33.43 33.25 34.40 33.79* 37.64 32.25*36.00 32.62* 35.54 Social 44.54 43.7042.49 44.4844.04 43.34 Political 37.57, 36.40 Religious 39.77 38.04r 37.77 37.21 'so GIRLS 38.60*36,64' Theoretical 39.15 38.08 38.33 36.46 38.07 38.61 35.72 37.65 35.74 "3.7i6,4, Economic 40.13 :40.53 Aesthetic 37.48 36,89 40.85037.53 42.36 42.8643.51 41.30 42.10 Social 42.30 40.94 39.6440.50 39.98 41.26 38.91 Political 43.0742.19 Religious 42.95 43.00 42.83 43.59 TO 42.97**39.86 Theoretical 42.3641.12 42.97*40.03 40.78 40.50 39.59 39.90 38.92 39.74 Economic 38.42 34.3635.45 37.3336.25 37.66 Aesthetic 37.47 39.69 Social 38.22*40.40 37.95*40.44 41.58 41.50 42.1242.42 40.86 42.26 Political 40.64 40.06 Religious 41.43 40.94 40.49 46.98

aPre-test differences weretested with atwo-tailed t. and A one-tailed t wasused to measurepost-test differences Phase II differences. *Indicates significancesat least at the.05 confidence level betweenadjacent means. differences at the.01 confi- **Indicates significant . dence level. 152 V. 4. :

influenced on the Aesthetic scale, they did continue to rise somewhat. Controls also increased on the Aesthetic scale, and even more so than had the experimental group. Certain trends are noteworthy from pre-testing to Phase II testing. With each successive test administration, scores for both the total experimental andcontrol groups declined on the Economic and Social scales, the drop being more marked for the experimental thanfor the control population. Both groups went up on the Aesthetic scale. But while the experimentals increased on the Theoretical scale from pre-test to post-test, the scores'Of the controls declined each time the test was given. American Council on Education Critical Thinkin Test, For rm G (Table 3): There were no statistically significant differences on Phase II test results between experimental and control groups for boys, girls or totals. All groups- - boys and girls, experimentals and controls--were higher than they had been at pre-testing. From post-test to Phase II testing, however, there was a drop in scores among the experimental boys.

TABLE 3

MEAN SCORES ON THE TEST FOR CRITICAL THINKING FOR BOYS,GIRLS AND TOTALS IN EXPERIMENTAL AND CONTROL CLASSES

Pre-Test Post-Test Phase II

Exp. Cont. Ex . Cont. Exp. Cont.

BOYS 27.48 26.14 32.00* 29.42 29.57 30.57

GIRLS 28.03 27.73 32.97* 31.05 32.61 31.86

TOTALS 27.78 27.07 32.51 30.48 31.25 31.36

aPre-test differences were tested with a two-tailed t. A one-tailed t was used to measure post-test differences and Phase II differences. Indicates significances at least at the .05 confidence level.

0 153

2. Informal Measures Girls fromthe Student InterestSurvey V(Table 4): testing scoredsignificantly experimental groupat Phase II of the,,,SISthan did higher on theCreativeIntellectual scale girls andtotals- - The experimentalpopulation--boys, controls. than the the SocialLeader scale weresignificantly lower on group onthe control group. The gains ofthe experimental continued toincrease and were CreativeIntellectual scale oriented toward higher than thecontrols, andfewer were Controls alsoshifted the SocialLeader andStudious scales. Intellectual scaleand de- in the directionof theCreative the scoresof the creased on theStudious scale,but while the SocialLeader scale, experimental grouphad declined on girls, bothexperimentals the controlsincreased. Among the slightly on theStudious scalefrom and controlswent up their scoresat post-testing. (Table 5): On Phase Reasons forOccupa differencesbetween the II testingthere were nosignificant students inthe experimental andcontrol groups,although girls takenseparately, experimental program(both boys and creativeintellectual reasons as well astotals) did choose ROC more ofyen thandid con- for occupationalchoice on the students chosesocial leader trol students. More control reasonsthan didexperimentals. On thePhase II Student ProfileCheck (Table6): girls in theexperimental group testssignificantly more profile on theStudent Pro- chose thecreativeintellectual the post-test,this changebeing file Checkthan they had on in the numberof ex- accompanied by asignificant decrease who classifiedthemselves perimental andcontrol students almosttwo-thirds of as socialleaders. At pre-testing checked studious,about theexperimentalpopulation had intellectual, andthe rest chose one-fourth pickedcreative in Phase IIonly abouthalf social leader. In contrast, chose thestudious category, of theexperimental sample 154

TABLE 4 MEAN SCORES ON THE STUDENT INTEREST SURVEY V SCALES FOR BOYS, GIRLS AND TOTALS IN EXPERIMENTAL AND CONTROL CLASSES

Pre-Test Post -Test' Phase II Exp. Cont. Exp. Cont. Exp. Cont.

BOYS

Creative Intellectual Scale 49.48 48.32 54.41*49.40 55.41 54.26 Studious Scale 50.39 50.23 47.70 48.38 46.47 44,70 Social Leader Scale 49.82 52.00 50.66 52.00 50.38* 54.33 GIRLS

Creative Intellectual Scale 52.74 50.44 58.56*54.56 59.81* 55.21 Studious Scale 53.08 52.05 46,8447.58 47.53 48.3t Social Lsader Scale 47.75*5'1,05 47.84*51.70 46.04* 50.98 TOTALS

Creative Intellectual Scale 51.18 49.56 56.33*52.42 57.87 54.84 Studious Scale 51.79 51.29 47.24 47.91 47.0746.91 Social Leader Scale 48.74*51.44 49.16*51.82 47.95* 52.27

aPre- and post-test differences between experimental and control groups were tested by the Mann-Whitney U Test (sometimes known as Wilcoxin).

*Indicates significant differences at least at the .05 confidence level. 155

TABLE 5

DISTRIBUTION OF THE THREE MOSTIMWORTANT CHOICES FOR EXPERI- MENTAL AND CONTROL CLASSES QNREASONS'FOR.00CUPATIONAL CHOICE ACCORDING TO CREATIVE INTELLECTUALI.SOCIALLEADER, AND STUDI- OUS REASONS

Pre-Test Post-Test Phase II Ex Cont. Ex Cont. Ex Cont

BOYS

Creative Intellectual Reasons 59 62 77 56 53 31 Social Leader Reasons 52 30 37 36 15 22 Studious Reasons 57 52 54 52 34 27 GIRLS

Creative Intellectual Reasons 82 78 107* 89 69 63 Social Leader Reasons 36 46 22 43 19 22 Studious Reasons 80 74 69 66 55 56 TOTALS

Creative Intellectual Reasons 141 140 184* 145 122 94 Social Leader Reasons 88 76 59 79 34 44 Studious Reasons 137 126 123 118 89 83

*Indicates a significant difference(p...05 tested by chi square) between experimentaland control classes on the creative intellectual reasonschosen and social leader reasons chosen. 156

TABLE 6 PERCENTAGES FOR STUDENT PROFILE CHECK ACCORDING TO STUDIOUS, CREATIVE INTELLECTUAL, AND SOCIAL LEADER CATEGORIES

Pre-Test Post-Test Phase II Sa CIa SLa S CI SL S CI SL BOYS b b b b b b Experimental 69b 19b 121, .551, 341, 111, 55 33 12 Control 60 32 8' 55' 23 22 52 32 16 GIRLS

Experimental 62 29 9 54 28 18 52 38 10 Control 67 18 15 50 42 18 52 36 12

TOTALS

Experimental 65 26 10 55 30 15 53 36 11 Control 64 22 12 52 28 20 52 35 13

a"S" = studious, "CI" = creative intellectual, "SL" = social leader. bResults of chi square and exact probability analysis of profile shifts from pre to post:

1. Experimental boys shifted to creative intellectual significantly more often than to studious or social leader (grouped together) as compared with control boys (p.05). 2. Experimental boys shifted to creative intellectual significantly more often than to social leader as compared with control boys (p4(.005). 3. Experimental boys shifted from studious to creative intellectual significantly more often than from studious to social leader as compared with control boys (p <.009). 157

and only nearly forty percent chosecreative intellectual, Despite thismarked ten per centselected socialleaders. differences betweenexperi- change, there werenosignificant mental andcontrol groups. boys had From pre-testto post-testthe experimental significantly shifted to thecreativeintellectual profile social leaderprofiles more oftenthan to thestudious or boys. This (grouped together) ascompared withthe control in contrastingthe changes shift wasespecially significant the changesto socialleader to creativeintellectual with testing, however,enough (pc.005). By the timeof Phase II creativeintellectual control boyshad also shiftedto the experimental andcon- profile thatthis differencebetween Similarly, nosignif- trolboys-waisno longersignificant. experimental and con- icantdifferences.existedbetween the as awhole. trol girls orbetween the twogroups taken

B. The FeminineDimension Acceptance 4of'Women Scale(Table 7): The girls ::;from higher than con- the experimentalgtoup scoredsignificantly The girls' scores trols on theA...s...eztarLcec....2ftk?m2Li,Scal.e. time and whentested had continuedto increasebetween that differences betweenexperimentals again durit.gPhase II; the (p.01). However, and controlsstill remainedsignificant betweenexperimental there was never asignificant difference in fact, whenthe Phase II and controlboys on this measure; increased enoughso tests weregiven, the controlboys had were nearlyequivalent that the scoresof the two groups Since thedistribution on thehcs2klanceofyarep_Scale. different (thetest seemed of boys' andgirls' scores was so groups) it wasnot to have adifferent meaningfor the two Thus no totalsare felt desirableto combinethese scores. given. 158

TABLE 7

MEANS FOR THE ACCEPTANCEOF WOMEN SCALE

Post-Test Phase II

AIMMIMAIIP Ameimas

Boys 21.66 20.74 21.30 21.68 Girls 26.90* 24.28 27.51 25.29

*p.41.01 as determinedby the Mann-Whitney UTest (sometimes known asWilcoxin).

Self-Actualization in Women(Table 8): When the girls were asked topick a description mostlike themselves on the post-test, significantly morein the experimentalthan in the control grouppreferred Level 3 toeither Level 1 or 2 for both "Real" and"Ideal" choices. By Phase II testing, however, this difference wasonly signii.i.cant for"Ideal" the girls choices. In both experimentaland control groups chose Level 3 far moreoften than did the boys(both "Real" and "Ideal"choices). Among the boys,there were no significant differences betweenexperimentals and controls onthe Phase II test, although onthe post-test experimentalschose Level 3 for their "Real"choices significantly moreoften than the control boys. Humanitarian-Altruism Scale (Table9): There were no significantdifferences between theexperimental and control groups for boys,girls or totals. However, as was apparent at the time ofpost-testing, the girlsscored markedly higher than the boysin both experimental andcontrol groups. DISTRIBUTION OF CHOICES ON THE TABLE 8 SELF-ACTUALIZATION IN WOMEN:- : Real 2 Post-Test3 1 Ideal 2 Real 2 Phase II 3 1 Idea 2 ControlExperimental BOYS 16 7 (p< 3425 .02)* 12 4 15 7 3423 12 8 13 8 1416 46 1510 1412 ControlExperimental GIRLS 72 (p< 3328 .05) * 3221 13 2 (p< .0005)* 3121 1839 1827 1322 66 (p< .05 1020 1729 by chi square . aLevel:Indicates significance 1) No college; 2)at Some least college; at the .05 3) College or confidence levee]. as 'beyond. determined 160

TABLE 9

MEAN SCORES ONHUMANITARIAN-ALTRUISM SCALE FORSTUDENTS IN EXPERIMENTAL ANDcoNfOrra7330711Erie II Testing)

Ex erimental Control

Boys 18.43 18.36

Girls 24.04 23.89 Totals 21.77 21.58

aDifferenceswere determinedby the Mann-Whitney U Test (sometimes known asWilcoxin),

C. pallsationa2f.:022Results on Formal Measures--TheCrea- tive Intellectual Style Despite a clearly discernible trendfor the experimental group to become morecreative and intellectual in their attitudes, interests andvalues, the results of the moniklEE2ER2a0utla (OPI) andthe Allport-Vernon- Lindzey Study of Values(A-V-L) indicate that they were no longer testing significantlyhigher than control students, as had beenhypothesized, on most scales a yearafter the experiment was completed. The OPI and A-V-L scores ofthe control students, whoseattitudes and interests hadpreviously been further fromthe "creative norm," hadrisen so pronouncedly that at the timeof Phase II testing they were only slightly different fromthe experimeritals. While the experimental group remainedsignificantly higher than the controls on the TheoreticalOrientation scale of the A-V-L and tested slightlyhigher than the control group oncertain OPI scales, generallyspeaking, the differences wereminimal. In the examination of theresults on these two formalinstruments we begin to see a patternthat is reflected throughout. The superior populationinvolved in the study had become markedly different than othertenth grade groups in creative and intellectual characteristics--themotivation to learn 161

An 'expansionof con- and opennessto psychologicalgrowth. short sciousness" apparentlyhad occurredin a relatively of growththat time that wasof the proportionsof a module . In )_usually does not occurin less thanfive or six years.

. (age 14-16) hadreached levels other words, young adolescents the average;before of psychologicalmaturity not found on occurred.in the college (age18-20). This growth mainly in experimental group inthe ninth grade(age 14-15) and 15-16) the ex- the control groupin the yearfollowing (age periment. Although apredisposition to thecreative intellectual instrument--the OPI, style, as measured ononestandardized experiment increased markedlyfor experimentalsduring the controls in the year and showed largeincreases for the not true with after the study wascompleted, the same was the ACE Critical.Think- critical, thinkingskills (measured on ing.'1,G). Scores onthis problemsolving test were had been approximately the sameat Phase IItesting as they there seemed tobe a def- at post-testing. In other words, inite and continuingchange in attitudesfor all groups-- apparent boys and girls,experimentals andcontrols--but no increase in problemsolving skills afterthe experiment was supports neither over. It is our feelingthat the school does it supply these attitudes,interests and values, nor would training in logicand seminar-typediscussions that must explore enhance criticalthinking. The question we by is why the valuingof the creativeintellectual style the students notonly continuedbut increased. Measures--The D. Implications of theResults on Informal Sa7,1WWILIataltEtalatat creative intel- %s was noted above,the increase in instrumentsd. At- lectuality was alsoreflected on informal titude"change wasapparent on twoinformal instruments, the Student Pro- Reasons-for OccupationalChoice (ROC), and behaviors file Check (SPC);and changesin interests and 162 were apparent onthe atualualmasarma(SIS V) scales. Creative intellectual growth forexperimental boys was reflected bythe fact that at Phase IItesting (tenth grade), they gave throe and a halftimes as many creative intellectual (CI) as social leader(SL) reasons for occupational choice.* This was in contrast totheir post-testing (ninth grade) choices at whichtime they chose twice as many CI as SL reasons. The ratio of CI to SL reasonsfor occupational choice for the controlboys remained about the same at Phase II testing as ithad been at post-testing. Although at Phase II experimentalboys chose 53 and controlschose 31 CI reasons, these differences werenot significant. Through- out, it can be seen thatthe experimentals increasedrather than lessened theirpredisposition toward creativeintellectuality In the year thatelapsed after the experiment. Creative intellectual trends forthe total population from post-testing to Phase IItesting also were reflected by large increases in thepercentage of CI checks on the part of control boys andexperimental girls on the Student Profile Check. At post-testing 23 per centof the control boys described themselves ascreative intellectuals while 32 per cent made this choicein Phase II testing. Similarly, the experimental girls movedfrom 28 per cent of post-testing to 38 per cent at PhaseII testing choosing the CItype. Experimental boys remained essentially asthey had been- - with 34 per cent describingthemselves as CI at post-testing and 33 per cent making thischoice in Phase II. Control girls chose the CI self-descriptionslightly more often at

*They chose as CI reasons foroccupational choice the following: 1) Work a..lows new discoveries, iscreative; 2) Would put me in the frontlines intellectually--handling new ideas or artforms, tackling crucialissues; 3) Presents a challenge--eventhough there may never be any answerto the final problem; rather thanSL reasons for occupational choice: 1) Work offers high pay,2) It carries a high social prestige, 3) It offers an acceptableposition in our society. 163

In nearly all Phase II (36%)than atpost-testing (32%). reflected by ade- instances theincrease in CIchoices was Approximately as manystudents saw crease inSL choices. post-testing. In themselves asstudious in PhaseII as in one-third of eachgroup inthe total the tenthgrade about but there wereonly population chosethe CIself-description and controls. The slight differencesbetween experimentals often thandid the boys. girls made thischoice somewhat more motivation towardlearn- If we canjudge fromself-images, the growth was far ing and the opennesstoward psychological able tenthgraders thrn morepronounced in thisgroup of Among anequivalent group* we had anyreason toexpect. one-fifth hadde- in the sameschools in 1961approximately scribed themselves ascreativeintellectuals. learning, self-images As we have seen,attitudes toward remarkably similar and evencritical thinkingskills were at the timeof the tenthgrade for experimentalsand controls weredistinguished in one testing. However, the two groups change is a stepto- way--by actualbehavior. If attitude moving but the ward behaviorchange, thenthe controls were group, the experimentals were astep ahead. For the total CI and fewer trend was forthe experimentalsto report more the SIS V thandid thecontrols. SL interestsand behaviors on arswomammallMalliMr. not significantlyhigher However, theexperimental boys were scale at PhaseII. The control than controlboys on the CI of the SISV between boys showedlarge gains onthe CI scale enough, exhibited the ninth andtenth gradesand, strangely boys remainedsig- some gain onthe SL scale. The control experimental boys onthe SL scale nificantly higherthan the Reasons for Occupational Choice in Phate- II. As with the SL reasons instrument on whichcontrol boyschose far more

MONIMIIMMANIMIMMINMOIMIIMEO (average IQ) thanthe *The 1961 group wasmore r)le (average IQ), afact thatshould haveprecipi- 1964 students See Report choices amongthe studentsin 1961. tated more CI showing percentageof I, "Motivationto Learn,"for tables choice. 164 than did the experimentals we seethe controls takingwhat they may consider a morepractical stand in ananti-intellectual society. The experimental girls showedgreater CI and lessSL interests and behaviors than anyother group. This same trend was apparent forthese girls on ROC and SPC. They remained significantly higher than controlgirls on the CI scale. However, the change on the CIscale for both experimental and control girls was small,but the direction of change was toward creativeintellectuality. The control girls' mean score on theSL scale dropped slightlyfrom the ninth to the tenth grade asdid the mean SL score forthe experimental girls; however, thecontrol girls remainedsignificantly higher than theirexperimental counterparts. All groups, judging fromthe SIS V resultsbecame more creative intellectual in their interestsand behaviors but thetotal group ofexperimentals who had devotedtheir experimental class time to wide readingand various aestheticexperiences in the ninth grade* remainedhigher than the controls onthe CI scale and weresignificantly lower on the SL scale. These results would suggestthat not only did school interests continue to changein creative intellectualdirec- tions for the experimentalstudents, but in addition,the out-of-school and leisure timeinterests and activities of this group continued to movetoward this orientation. As we have seen, thecontrol group showed asimilar pattern of growth--perhaps moremarked in attitude than in actual behavior change. Thus it seems that while thecontrols have been indirectly influenced(as indicated by the fact that there was only one formalscale, A-V-L TheoreticalOrientation,

*The control class studied careerpamphlets, commer- cially prepared career filmsand textbooks. Each student prepared a paper giving theadvantages and disadvantages of a singleoccupation that he was consideringfor a possible future vocation. 165 in which experimentals weresignificantly higher than controls), the experimentals were stillapparently differentiated from controls by their interestsand behavior, at least as indicated by the Student Interest SurveyV. There were also strong trends to show that theexperimental boys would take opportunities for creative intellectualexpression into account far more often than wouldcontrol boys when askedto choose an occupation. However, both experimentalsand con-. trols described themselves asCI about equally often. Perhaps indirect exposure issufficient to change attitudes and beliefs, but moredirect means (for example, a specialprogram) help students to changetheir behavior. It may be that behaviors such asreading habits are not as easily developed as the willingnessto think about newideas. If one is to make reading,listening to music, visiting muse - ums and participatingin intellectual discussions afocus of one's life it will meansacrificing other activities. In other words, we mightspeculate that quite often new modes of action. can or willbe undertaken only aftersuch involvement has been explicitlyallowed or encouraged and only after the student hasworked out a life stylewhich gives time for and permits suchexpressions. As we have seen, on all measuresutilized in our study the creative intellectualstyle remained thepredominant direction of change forexperimentals and became that for controls. However, the growth rate of theexperimental group during the year following the course wasless than it had been during the experiment. Perhaps this modest increase might be expected to follow agrowth spurt, or it mayreflect the lack of support given toCI values in typical highschools. In all probability, a programof a more intensive and comprehensive nature extended over alonger period of time would help to maintain a moreaccelerated growth pattern. Our previous findings(post-test results) have demonstrated that an experimentaltreatment apparently caninfluence 166 student motivation to learn and openness to psychological growth--especially in the areas of theoretical orientation, aestheticism, originality and thinking introversion (philosophical introspection). Thus we concluded that attitudes toward learning can change and that there are probably a variety of ways to encourage the development of an affinity fororiginal thought, theoretical conceptualization, contemplative and philosophical inclination and aesthetic awareness.We also found that aspiration (as reflected by reasons for occupational choice), self-images and interests and behaviors can change. However, students must encounter and be excited by ideas, attitudes and behaviors of a self-actualizing nature before they can make them their own.* This contact probably can be made by meeting--in books, films or in person--attractive men and women who have thought long and seriously about important problems and who remain zestful, optimistic, idealistic and buoytnt, who are deeply moved by beauty and can communicate their feelings. Students too rarely come into direct contact with vividness, greatness or commitment. How- ever, it would appear that such opportunities, particularly if they are frequent and continue over a period of time, will change motivational patterns and will foster the creative intellectual style in able adolescents. Such changes in the school environment will perhaps encourage the unsure, give support to the neo-creatives and supply a haven and nourishment for those in whom the CI style already flourishes. In an anti-intellectual, profit-oriented, tough-minded society, tenderness and the higher level intellectual talents will not develop without special nurture. The need is for an evocative atmosphere, esteem and companionship. With those students in whom the creative intellectual

*Unfortunately students are far more apt to meet and be influenced by exciting ideas and attitudes reflecting our society's taste for cruelty, dishonesty and immorality, so commonly purveyed via the media. noted in ourprevious style is betterestablished, we have desire forspecial studies (seeReports I andII) that the strong and iscoupled educational provisionsis particularly school programs. by a markedresistance torun-of-the-mill force such It may well bethat the usualschool may almost withdrawal or students into patternsof lowachievement, contribute to rebellion--in a veryreal senseschool can limited populationof their alienation. At least in our intellectually honest students who werestrongly autonomous, interests andaesthetically and forthrightdiverse in their sensitive, we foundthis to be true. produced While it couldbe argued thatthe changes experimental students by a course likethe °Le givento our unless thepredominant themes will necessarilybe short-lived coursework, the scores arecontinuallyemphasized in further at the end ofthe of theexperimental groupdid not regress true. Instead, program, aswould have occurredif this were toexhibit more char- as wehave seen, thestudents continued It may well acteristics of thecreative intellectualstyle. (one that iscertainly be that the CIadolescent sub-culture force and ifgrowth is once littleunderstood) is a potent itself maintain triggered in thatdirection, theculture can DT to considerable butprobably highlyselective momentum. the total the experimentalprogram, orfor other reasons, unusual group ofhigh population seemedto have become an and controls weremore school sophomores;both experimentals values than istypical oriented towardcreative intellectual the OPI andA-V-L for their age. In fact, theirscores on college studentsat the fresh- more closelyresembled those of other able tenthgraders. man orsophomore levelthan scores of important to As these resultsarereviewed it seems ask thefollowing questions: in creative 1. Was this trendtoward an increase intellectual values(now apparent in ourentire to be note- population) ofsufficient proportions worthy? 168

2. Could these results be explained onthe basis of national or regional trends of asimilar nature? Was there--in addition to agrowing concern among youth for getting good gradesand getting into college--a marked increase inmotivation to learn independently and a greater opennessto psychological growth? 3. What other explanationsmight be offered for the changes? To answer tha first question acomparison was made between OPI scores of able tenthgraders in this 1964 study and those of an equally able grouptested in 1961.* This 1961 group had no exposure,either direct or indirect, to our experimentalcurriculum. The results from thisstatis- tical comparison of OPI scores areshown and discussed in the Appendix. It is clear from thiscomparison that the 1964 group was significantly moreinclined toward creativeintellectualism than was the 1961population. In other words, the change was of noteworthyproportions--our population which had been exposed bothdirectly and indirectly to creative intellectual values wasunlike other sophomores of the same ability who hadattended the same high schoolsbut studied the usual curriculum. Could it be that the early 1960's were a time of suchintellectual ferment (either na- tionally or locally) that highschool students were affected? Was the well-documented trendtoward competition for grades and college admissionaccompanied by a new penchant forin- tellectual autonomy and creativeexpression? In trying to explain whythese results may have occurred, the principal investigatorcontacted Dr. Paul Heist from the research staff ofthe Center for the Study of Higher

*In both 1961and 1964 able tenth gradestudents were studied. Both yearsthe population was chosen fromall three Lansing high schoolsand every student who could bediscovered with an IQ above 120was used in thecomparison. '169

Education at Berkeley, to find out whether he would attribute these higher scores to any nationwide trends within thepast three years which would have caused young people toadopt more willingly the creative intellectualstyle. Dr. Heist replied that in none of the studies conducted by theCenter .had..,the-O.bserved such changes during the same period (1961- 1964) and that he could think of no events which. should have caused such changes in the Lansing locale, either. Our search for explanations took another direction at this point. It might be that the continued creative intellectual growth as well as the lack of differences between experimental and control groups in the Phase II testing was at least partially due to interaction among theentire superior population (i.e., that. some of the effects of the experimental curriculum spread from the experimental: students to the controls), as well as the general readiness OT" and eagerness of able adolescents for such ideas. Perhaps, as Emerson con- tended, "the spirit of poetry lives in every human heart" and it is particularly ner,- the surface and ready to be called forth in the adolescent. It seems likely that the ideas which had been the focus of the experimental course later became topics of discussion among many of the experimental students and their friends, and thus contributed to an expansion of the creative intellectual adolescent sub-culture. Because the themes from the course could have been very much in the air throughout the school, they could have influenced those who had had only indirect exposure to the course.

E. The Aesthetic and Social Dimensions: Sex Stereotypes and Social Sanctions In the preceding discussion of the creative intellectual style the major emphasis was placed on attitudes, interests, values and behaviors which can broadly be described as related to motivation to learn and openness to psychological growth. Although the assumption of intellectualism and creativity, learner autonomy and originality, complexity of 170 approach and rangeof pursuits makes suchcharacteristics somewhat unacceptablein the typical Americanhigh school milieu, they havebeen characteristicallyvalued by outstand- general ing American scholarsand scientists and--in a very way--accepted by thepublic at large* asapproved routes to dimensions achievement. It is our conclusionthat two other aesthetic and the of the creativeintellectual style--the social--are much lessvalued by Americans. The aesthetic will be consideredfirsts and later, thesocial. The artists, would-beartists, and theirfollowers generally feel morealienated from societythan do scientists. Henry Murray speaks of"a paralysis of thecreative imagination" that comes from alack of "a kindlingand heartening mythology to feel, think,live and writeby."1Not only do artists feel an animustoward their societybut the social is apt order returns theirresentment. The general public to consider artists as"un-American" due totheir trenchant criticisms of technologicaladvances and theirpenchant for inwardness and romanticism. The six case studiesin the next chapter,Chapter VI, illustrate the problemsencountered by the youngwho are developing as creativeintellectuals, artists andhumanitarians. At the outset, contrasts aredrawn between twostudents (one a sociallead :r and ore astudious type) who demonstrate generally acceptablepatterns of growth asfar as the school and society areconcerned and two others(one a scientist- scholar and one aromantic rebel) who findlittle to encourage or fostertheir character development orintellectual growth in the high schools. Science and scholarshipwith their

MINI111 .1...timsommuftwireimm *There is always anacknowledgment of the valueof the accomplishmmtsof Nobel prize winnersdespite the fact that in any individual casescientists and scholars mayfeel misunderstood. As has been pointedout before(particularly in Chapter III), the youngscholar or scientist mayfind a lack of responsivenessand challenge in thepublic school. 171

typically emphasis ontheoretical andcritical thought are scientist-scholar roleis taken male emphasesand when the shy may by-.a girl, asin the case study wewill present, Similarly, the boy :- eventually. sufferfrom manyconflicts. the generalculture; who is .:aromantic rebel isat odds with and yet He is regarded astoo involved andtoo threatening society. too unmasculineby an aggressive,success-oriented attitudes So we see thatnot only do theanti-intellectual and growth oftalent in our societywork againstthe emergence addition, anotiler in such outsidersbut also thatthere is, in boy and thegirl burden placed ontheaesthetically-oriented mind, who floutsociety's with a scientificand theoretical male, she isnot prop- sex rolemandates. He is not propetly erly female.* when We see thatthe creativeintellectual style, dimension either the cognitive ortheaffective-aesthetic when sex roles is emphasized,finds scantacceptance and Counter pressureagainst are reversedit becomesanathema. social self-actualization ofthe individualis an endemic the healthy disease--in eternalconflict withthe urge that Thus it comes as no organism has tobecome fully human. to be an even more surprise that socialcreativity is held forms. To dangerous mode ofexpression thanthe two other thinking in new anddi- be creative isoften interpreted as Newness isextolled, vergent ways andbeing productive. the social orderis rarely but the impactof new products on their children's examined. Parents buymachine guns for the toy Christmas--if machine gunsare offeredfor sale on not all changeis welcomed. counter. Yet, as we have seen, "the ideal Few seem to agreewith Gardner whenhe holds that of moral purpose ofindividual fulfillmentwithin a framework

well account forthe fact that *Such pressures may the girls the boys in ourstudy scoredsomewhat lower than introversion and muchlower on aestheticismwhile on thinking orienta- the girls scoredlower than theboys on theoretical tion, 172 must become our deepest concern, our national preoccupation,

. our passion, our obsession."2 It is'all too apparent that social change and its would-be perpetrators do notreceive the all-American welcome that technological advances do. The life histories of Margaret Sanger and Bertrand Russell--complete with jail sentences--document this. And the students who carry signs with the exhortation "make love, not war" and who urge that a loving universe replace a brutal and bureaucratic one meet with strong resistance. It is not action alone that can provoke criticism. Even social concern must go hand in hand with socialsanction. The fear seems to be that such concern may give wayto the individual impulse that is apt to father a creative,altruistic act. Thus the humanitarian-at-heart encounters dis- regard and disdain. In the hard-headed and hard-hitting world of business and technology, uaregimentedexpressions of altruism and compassion are consideredsuperfluous, un- realistic and--what is worse--childish and feminine. Tender- ness is relegated to the nurseryand the ladies auxiliary.

F. Imlications of the Results on- Informal Measures: The Feminine Dimension. Throughout the study, both on post-testing and on Phase II, girls have shown a greater inclination tochange than boys. Perhaps this speaks to the malleability of girls or it may reflect a greaterreadiness on their part to accept the creative intellectual style. Certain aspects of the style undoubtedly have strong appeal for girls.Girls tend to value aesthetic experience and expressionand thus may readily show growth of thisnature if given encouragement. Similarly, girls are apparently somewhat more inclined toward thinking introversion (philosophicalthought) than are boys. Marked changes in the experimental girls were apparentin these two areas. At post-testing they were significantly higher than control gixls on both the Esthetic and 11121.aki. Introversion scales of the OPI and on the Aesthetic scale 173 of the A-V-L when Phase II tests wereadministered; the experimental girls remained higher than thecontrols on the two OPI scales but not significantly so. The control girls showed remarkable growth spurts onthese two scales (.6 growth between 1963 and 1964 on the Estheticscale and .4 on the Thinking Introversion scale and alsothey increased .3 on the Aesthetic scale of the A-V-L in the yearfollowing the experiment). The girls in this tenth grade population seem to have become more sensitive tobeauty, intuitive in thought patterns, and discriminatingly eager toparticipate in the aesthetic culture. Not only did we see changes inaesthetic_ receptivity and responsjveness but also acontinuation of strong humanitarian-altruistic concerns among thegirls.. (Changes between post- and Phase II testing could notbe documented on the Humanitarian-Altruism Scale since a revised formof the instrument was used in Phase II.) In post-testing the experimental girls scored significantlyhigher (239.4 vs. 232.3) than the controls--but both groups ofgirls tested far higher than the boys whose total scores were204 and 205 on the post-test H-A Scale. On Phase II testing, using therevised H-A Scale, the two groups of girlstested about the same but received scores approximately one-thirdhigher than those received by the boys. The girls seem to agree with manyof our most respectedand wisest philosophers andscientists that sympathy, tenderness and generosity areinfinitely more practical than greed and cruelty. They want to relate themselves wholeheartedly to others. Perhaps the most marked difference betweenexperimental and control girls--and a mostdramatic difference between boys and girls--is the valuing ofself-actualization An women. Experimental girls continued to showsignificantly greeter valuation of women than did controls on the,.6.tat24191 Worden Scale* and both experimentals and controls showed

*The Acceptance of Women Scale,Self-Actualization in Women arid the Humanitarian-Altruism Scale wereinstruments we developed for Report II. 174

In the moderate increasesin Phase II overpost-testing. much higher tenth grade(Phase II) both groupsof girls tested tested almost30 than the boysv e.g.,the-experimental girls the Acceptance per centhigher than theexperimental boys on of Women Scale. These same trends were moredramatically apparent on On this instru- the Self-Actualizationin Women instrument. general ac- ment the questionposed was notsimply one of a ceptance of women career rolesand otherself-actualizing asked activities but was,instead, a verypersonal question three alternatives or of each individual: Which, among the self-description, first on a levels offered, wasthe best control Real, then on anIdeal basis? Moreexperimental than self-actualization level, girls chose Level3, the highest or At as boththe preferred Realand Idealself-description. chose Level Phase II almosttwice as manyexperimental girls self-image. 3 as chose Levels1 and 2 combined asan Ideal Ideal) This was a greaterproportion of Level3 choices (as at post-testing. than had beenthe case forexperimental girls planning It began to look asif this group ofgirls was not that they to retreat intothe femininemystique but rather world. hoped to live fulland excitinglives in the larger in per- The control girls werecertainly interested somewhat less sothan their sonalself-actualization but girls made fifty experimental counterparts. The control self-image at Le_J1 1 per cent morechoices of their Ideal "female (the anti-intellectual,non-achievement oriented female") and at Level2 (the conformingcollege girl with to develop no great urgeto achieve, todo graduate work, or and sustain apersonal style). Both experimentaland control boysseemed generally for women at large or negative toself-actualizing growth 3 as either for their wivesin particular. Few chose Level times Real or Ideal for afuture wife. For example, four indicated as manyexperimental girls asexperimental boys 175

speaking forthemselves, that Level3 wasIdeal--the girls The trendin thecontrol group the boysfor a futurewife. control girlswantingself-actualiza- wassimilar with many and only a fewcontrol boyswho seemed tion forthemselves desirable in afuture wife. to findthese qualities girls are eagerto become more Our studyshows that Abraham Maslowcalls particularly inthe ways that creative, with Maslow's The girls seemto agree femininecreativeness. creativity "isim- this femininepattern of statement that in- involved inproducts, less portant becauseit gets less involved inthe processitself." volved inachievement, more of twogirls, studies inChapter VIinclude those The case human- the other a morefullydeveloped one aneo-creative and the emergence --during the itarian-altruist,who demonstrate pattern ofcreativity. adolescentyears--of this that girls arewill tf_ It seemsquite apparent and also areeager torealize take socialresponsibility Thus, althoughMay3 (p. 56, Ex- their ownbest potential. when he saysthat modernhuman istence) isprobably right of community,the girlswould beings havelost their sense in our tenthgrade popu- like it tobe otherwise. The girls and alsostrunginterests lation withhigh H-A Scalescores fit a statement self-actualization maysome day in personal people as made indescribingself-actualizing that Maslow human beings." social andloving of all "the mostaltruistic and particularly It has beennoted thatthe young are of thebreadth anddi- sensitive toand have astrong sense those who areopen toit. versity thatthe futureoffers to power andsensitivity, seemto Girls, withtheir intuitive They respondwell to a be drawntoward thesefar horizons. pattern whichis not onlyappro- humanizededucation--a new fits theirattitudes,inter- priate forthe futurebut which This mayexplain thefact that ests andvalues aswell. particular stresson thenatural, our program(which plazed to havegreat appealfor aesthetic andhumanworlds) seemed 176 the girls. The films portrayed sociallyconcerned, feminine women (allwith strong aestheticinterests) who had trans- gressed into the male-dominatedpursuits of law, research, radiology and politics(the latter via song). In response, the experimental girlsbecame significantlyhigher than the controls in theoreticalorientation and in criticalthinking as well as inthe more aesthetic andintuitive attitudes, interests and values. Beyond this growth inintellectual and aesthetic creativity,there were two otherkinds of growth apparent--one a valuing ofhumanitarian-altruistic concerns and activities and theother an acceptance ofand valuing of self-actualizationin other women andin themselves. This growth motivation in thegirls proved to be themost lasting effect of our program. They want a personal andconcrete involvement in the world aswell as a vital senseof self.

G. Summary As social needs forleadership and creative talent expand beyond local andnational limits to the worldat large, all able individuals,girls included, mustcontribute. They must recognize as WilliamLloyd Garrison did: "My country is the world. My countrymen are allmankind."And, fully as important asthe needs of society,is the need of each individual to become a matureand zestful adult. From our study we have concludedthat ably youth sh w an eagerness and talent forself-actualization, They are responsive to heroic models, to movingideas and to opportunitiesfor philosophical discussion. Beyond this they seem tohave great talent for thinking creativelyabout their lives. The need is for an accepting andevocative environment. Unfortunately, we must facethe fact that schoolsrarely offer guidance which concerns itselfwith self-actualizationand the needs for intellectual, aesthetic andsocial expression of talented youth. The society at large issimilarly negligent in this raspect. As Margaret Mead hasobserved, "We have not created, basis, the typeof social or- even on apilot experimental educating and ganization capableof finding,recruiting, intelligence weneed."4Our providing forthe innovative take its man- society and theeducationalestablishment must personbecoMe the best date seriouslyand help each young find 4 unifying possible versionof himself,help each to participate philosophy of life,and, finally, helpeach to rationally andhumanely incivilization. 1; RESULTS AND DISCUSSION: PHASE II TESTING

Grownups," Saturday 1. Henry A. Murray,"A Mythology for Review; January 23,1960, p. 10.

2. John W. Gardner,ExceasIce:Canuie...... andExcel- lent Too? (New York: Harper and Brothers,1961 . Ellenberger (eds.), 3. Rollo May, ErnestAngel, and Henri F. Existence A New Dimensionin Ps chiatr and Ps cholo (New York: Basic Books PublishingCo., 1nc.,, 1958 Evolution (New 4. Margaret Mead,Continuities in Cultural Haven: Yale University Press,1964), p.24/.

fed VI. CASE HISTORIES: A STUDY OF LIFESTYLES

In this report we haveselected a particularloca- tion on the promontoryfrom which to viewand try to understand the intellectual,creative and ethicaldimensions of college-boundyouth. Our selection ofthese dimensions has been directly affectedby our view of thenature of man and also ofthe characteris'-ics ofyouth. We take the stand that the maximumpossible development ofintellectual and creative talentsis more desirable thanthe squandering of ability. Further, we hold that inthe development of excellence some directionsof growth are moredesirable than others. Thus we wholeheartedlyendorse Gardner's statement: Learning for learning's sakeisn't enough. Thieves learn cunning, and slaveslearn submissiveness. We may learn thingsthat constrict ourvision and warp our judgment. We wish to fosterfulfillment within the framework of rationaland moral strivingswhich have characterized manat hisbest.' The propositions whichfollow constitute ourtheoret- ical frame of referenceand are assumptionsabout able adolescents which we holdto be both validand relevant: A. Each individual isdifferent from every other; since these differences aredesirable, theshould be understood and fostered. As growth continues, this differentiationincreases to such anextent that the most highlydevelopQd individuals are characterized by a highdegree; of inner unity as well asgreat complexity. In other words, individuals become both moremultifaceted and more integratedwithin themselves asthey grow older and become moreintelligent and better educated.2 B. Each individualhas central traits and a ersonal IV2.....ewhinbecnownservinandrt-1 studying his total life attern. We assume, agreeing with Aliport,that the study ofhuman development--finding out whatstudents are really be most valid andcomplete if it is done "individually,in terms of personal

179 3 dispositions." Despite the complexity of each individual and the inadequacy ofpresent approaches to the problem, we assumethat individuals studied as whole humanbeings are at least"partly or approximately knowable" beyond thelevel of common sense.4 C. The mind andpersonality...contain unfathomed pos.- sibilities the limits of which are stillunknown. Maslow notes that self -- actualizationis a "wide- spread kind of creativenesswhich is the univer-c sal heritage of every humanbeing that is born."'

D. Each individual uses only amalLjustjaullE potential. Maslow, in definingself-actualization, states that "any personin any of the peak experiences takes on temporarily manyof the characteristics . . found in 'self-actualizing individuals, that is, for thetime they become self-actual izing."6 E. To the extent that theindividual uses his potential, he becomesself-actuaiizing, We are using the term to refer to apattern of growth described by many "third force"psychologists, particularly Maslow. Lindner speaks of this as the freedevelopment af individuals "according to their own potential ordesign."7

F. As an individualbecomes self- actualized, his mental health increases. In 'other words, his particular abilities must berecognized, developedand used if he is to bepsychologically healthy. The healthy individual willchoose to do the new and thedifficult (growth choices). As Maslow says, "Onlyhe can afford to bebold."8

G.2M21422Ilanataeartiajattellea...... ktiaasalaim is toward self-actualization. As Maslow has said, "People withintelligence must use their intelligence, people with eyesmust use their eyes. . . ." "Capacities clamor to be used capacities are alsoneedson10 Such healthy growth progresses--fromdependency in childhood to a growing independencein adolescence, and finally to dependability inadulthood.

H. Intellectual growthis blended ine,(xic,4,121421ith IEETR77.Nof tne total.s alit resulting in an irAel:F urAty.. Allport writes, "for effi- cient intellectual functioning(whatever the IQ), qualities of personality are needed . . a person's pattern of intelligenceis idiographic, basically unique.n11 181

; 11 . (that I. 172YA119221242110:22222f±h21agiAllalment of characterarecentral isthe develo 4kili7Liiediduntil toself-;fulfillment. own it becomesIntegrated withthe individual's lifecommitments.12, Growth there aresysesgle01012n- J. In health socie 211221ttetaataaglyuapjanhi dispositions andab lit esdevelop, As personal between the there will alwaysbe interaction organism and theenvironment. Gradually the selfhood, andis more able, individual transcends the world to fuse withand respondsensitively to Simpson notes,"Individualintegra- around him. achieved tion and welfare . 0 . maybe . highest degree,by interaction and reach their self."13 which promotesothers alongwith is all of a , K. The evolvedand maturehuman bein as aunit. Intellect, per- ieceancp.._Lt2E:..tions be separated sonality, feelingsand action can conceptually, yet no oneof thesefunctions in- the exis- dependently of theothers. We accept tential view that wemust takethe individual "whole as a uniquebeing-in-his-world.014

L. Ifself-ac*isacc22.teirabletualizatior direction of rowthere arew#0....that this canbefosteradbedt...... ____Iforself-awareness. that"SeLf-kholaiiiidms Maslow points out though to be themajor path toself-improvement, not the onlyone."15 human being Although theultimate realityof what a hidden fromboth thinks ofhimself and hisworld is always Maslow and othershave the individualand the observer, creative and presented us withqualities whichthe more held to havein common.* self-actualizingindividuals are and acomprehension of It is ourview that an awareness help us tounderstand as these qualitiesin the adult may potentially creative well asidentify suchpatterns in the qualities arereported as rep- adolescent. The following in the adult: the resentative ofcreative development

G. All- 'Among the"third force"psychologists are Goldstein, A.Maslow, R. May, port, C.&Uhler, E. F::omm, K. G. Murphy andC. Rogers. 182

the open mind- - Contemplative mind- -theoretical orientation; abil- democratic characterstructure; theingulanajmingan and an eagernessto ity to formulatemultiple hypotheses sentiments--including an understand theworld; the humane acceptance of self,others and nature;the 1dtpm...... ident conformity pres- stance--resistance toacculturation and both appreci- sures; theaestheticorientation--comprising and a sense of ative andexpressive patternsof response; destiny--goal-orientationand purpose. have Our own effortsto understandhealthy growth pattern which wecall the been concernedwith a particular investigation of creative intellectualstyle. Our first interests and this orientation wasa studyof attitudes, dealt with values in 400able adolescents. This research intellectual, the three abstractedtypes--the creative .. . studious and thesocial leader,each oneapproximating orientations is valuedby certain an ideal. Each of these large and segments of thelarger society. The public at adjustment (meas- school people,in particular,value social academic ured bypopularity andleadership) and studious grades). In contrast, effort (thekind whichresults in good artists tend tovalue other philosophers,scientists and ethical and creative. But as commitments--intellectual, have virtually notradition Gardner says,"Unfortunately we achieve such [in theschools] of helpingthe individual "16 understand littleabout commitment[s] " Furthermore, we of directionand purpose how growthmotivation and a sense psychologists haverarely can bestbe fosteredinasmuch as Thus it is ourview studied suchpatterns ofdevelopment. this problemin that we mustmake everyeffort to explore and Havighurstthat depth. We are inagreement with Peck deserves and re- this higherlevel of development" . . . definition and morede- quires a greatdeal more precise 17 tailed, systematicstudy." 183

Although we do not propose a rigidly defined construct, we dosuggest that a hierarchical model is appropriate to show the relationship among the three types,* In terms of levels on an ascending scale of personal matur. ity we see the social leader as least developed, the studious as being on middle ground, and the creative intellectual as most mature.** The social leaders represent the kind of immaturity endemic among American adolescents; they are perhaps most typical of the "adolescent society" which Cole- 19 mal. has studied. In other words, they are pleasure-seeking as well as power-oriented. They approximate aspects of the character typologies which Peck and Havighurst have termed Amoral, Expedient and Conforming.20 We have found the studious to be more mature than social leaders in their interpersonal relations--they do not exploit others knowingly and they are helpful without

.4. expecting immediate personal reward.However, they hava a.: not as yet gone beyond expressions of conscience and idealism to independence of thought and action, and many are still at the conforming lcvel. They rarely make decisions based upon personally derived values. Instead, they bend to parent and teacher demand, are eager to please and feel pangs of guilt when they do not. Underdtandably, the adults in their life sphere generally approve of the stv:dious and

emrslosiPorron=ftre.=4.somers...m..44. *An excellent description of hierarchical models can be found in Jane Loevinger, "The Meaning and Measurement of Ego Development," March, 1966. **Obviously there are many ways of living, some tending toward self-actualization but most not, and the effects of psychological orientation are not known to the extent that we can say that one is absolutely more desirable than another, but we are inclined to think there are orientations toward life that are decidedly superior--both for the indi-

I vidual and for his society. As Ailport has written, "For- tunately in Western Culture there is considerable agreement on the norms for soundness, health or maturity.1118 (He uses these terms interchangeably and adds that,, of course, we are talking about the ideal.) 184

but simple dependence their typicalattitudes and behaviors, cnd inte- upon suchapproval may preventfurther autonomous the Irrational- grative growth. In many waysthis group fits Havighurst. Conscientious typologydescribed by Peck and adopted the atti- The creativeintellectuals, having mature tudes of theself-actualizing adult, areat the most attitudes, they rep- levels If we judgethem by expressed Loevinger's resent theautonomous andintegrated stages in "Milestones in EgoDevelopment"21 and are similar to the Rational-Altruist type,the highest levelof moral maturity types, in the Peck andHavighurst hierarchy. Of the three these young people arethe least acceptedby the general similar to public and by theschools. In a predicament identify, the creative that of the adultswith whom they society intellectual adolescentsoften find thatthe larger commitment to in- does not understandthem. Their honest necessarily tellectual excellenceand socialjustice must Hoffer makes involve humanbetterment andchange which, as clear in TheOrdeal of may sometimesbe painful feel for the common manto accept. In addition, people patterns of excellence. threatened by--evenjealous of--such article, "The Gifted Friedenberg makesthis clear in his 23 find a gen- Student c-id HisEnemies." Thus we are apt to stands eral rejectionof what thecreative intellectual who for and ofthe individualhimself--the young person and dis- reads booksbeyond his yearsand whose penetrating concerting questionsdeny easy answers. Since we haveaccepted the creativeintellectual and style as thehighest stage ofadolescent development,* personality have felt thatit would bedesirable to encourage

*Maslow points outthat self-actualizationbrings built-in problems. A discussionof some with it certain cholo of of these canbe found inMaslow's Toward a Ps Being, Chapter 8,"Some Dangers ofBeing-Cognition." 185 growth and attitudechange in this direction, wedeveloped, in our second study, aspecial program to fosterself-ac- students tualization. Our researchindicates that many will change ratherreadily in their attitudesand-apparently move to higherlevels of developmentwhen the conditions are appropriate. For this change to occur:itis4andatory'.i that these specialpatterns of growth bemade'cleartand then be encouraged. We found that during c'arexper4ent similar growth was notapparent among controlstuden0 received no special,treatment, whereas thestudentS:141 our experimental program, becaoesignificantly moremotiytted-* to learn, more opento growth, and morededic,ted to pro- gressivechange:*basedon a social'ethic. AdPittedly this did not was a pilotefi2oct to prOduceattitude change; we expect these effects .tobe great or enduring. We were gratified, however, thatchanges did occur andthat they were of a self-actualizingnature. An equally rewardingaspect of the program wasthat it gave us theopportunity to see thestudents in a new situation and adifferent light. Ps a result, wediscov- ered depths ofseriousness and opennessto growth of which we had notbeen aware before. It is theseinsights, and the knowledge that ourprior studies wererelatively superficial, that have prompted usto search for new waysto study the gifted youngperson. We were determinedto probe.. life in- more deeplyand to look morecarefully at complex fluences and evolvingneeds: interests andvalue orienta- who express tions. We wanted to seehow able young people creative and intellectvalattitudes lire andthink and plan studies, for the future. To do this wedecided to make case concentrating on thoseaspects of thepersonality and life style which seem mostrelevant to theunderstanding of self- actualization in superioryouth. Many personalitytheorists hold that themost valid .. 186 way to studythe individual is to lookat his life style.* The focus in our presentstudy of able adolescentsresembles the pioneer work on characterdevelopment reported by Peck Development. and Havighurst il the Laslekosxof Character As the authors note,"In order to study andunderstand human beings, it is necessary tounderstand what is going on'inside' the person."25 We have come to agreewith Aliport that these kinds of insights can only bereached by studying theindividual and asking that he reflect uponhis life pattern. Thus we decided to use depth interviews as ourmain assessment procedure. Allport holds that looking atpersonality as "a process of stylizationhas the merit of allowingfor limit- less individuality," and hecontends that study of theindividual supp2 ies the only truestatements about human be- 26 ings. Each life history, likeMay's definition of "be- ingp" represents theindividual's uniguepatternapstor tialities. These "potentialities willbe partly shared with other individuals butwill in every case form aunique 27 pattern for this particularperson." The style-of-life study which we have chosen as amodusamtrandi is also in the tradition of the work thatMaslow did in his research on theself-actualizing adult; that whichMurray and White had in mind in their workwnich was termed "a study of lives";28and that which MacKinnon'scurrent assessment; 29 studies represent.

vmrrmmLmmmllmmmmmmwwMftmmdlmftmmp As we mentioned earlier, wehad come, in the course of working out our twopreceding studies, to certain kinds of insights aboutpersonality development--particularly as it relatesto the creativeintellectual style. However, we did notbelieve that we could communicateadequately the many ways that students expressthis style through tables and statistical averages. Grouped data always partially conceal the personaldistinctiveness of an individual whereas the case historyis by definition idiomatic. 187

Case Histories: focus.in Report I, pro- The three"ideal" types, our studies Which areto vide the frameworkfor the six case approach be presented inthe present report.-However, the earlier re- taken in thisstudy is verydifferent from our based .on statis- search, where thecomparison of types was which we will nowdeal are tical averages. The data with add descriptive in nature, astudy of livesin order to of each type. nuances anddepth, to thedistinctive features It must be keptin mind thatthese types are gener- the "ideal alized and idealizedcategories. The concept of Platonic ideal-- type" is a convenientfiction--a sort of represents yet it is a usefulconceptual tool. Each type like the a group; noindividual case is,in all respects, to repre- ideal. Fortunately, in oursearch for students from sent the types, webegan with 127able young people of sufficientsize ourexperimentalpopulation--a group Initial screening gave to allow latitudein selection. three repre- us 39creative intellectuals. We also chose cate- sentatives each fromthe social leaderand studious interviewed and gories. It was this groupof 45 which we typescripts from which, bycareful study ofthe interview documents, of records madeby observers,and of personal selection to sixtypical repre- we wereable to narrow our made our finalchoices sentatives.* In other words, we types by the of the sixstudents who wereto represent the refinement ofsuccessive approximations. illustrated by The studious andsocial leaders are creative intel- one caseeach while fourvariations of the by le thus lectual style arepresented. The case histories

VeINNIMOIRMIO students to classifythemselves, By allowing self-descriptions, we choose the mostappropriate of the to validate thehypothesis that thesethree had been able another categories of youngpeople weredifferent from one (Report I.) in their attitudes,interests and values. 188

the minimum offic- become representativetypes, with only the-individuals' identity. tionalization requiredto disguise the students' The thoughtpatterns and thelanguage used are these young people wewere own. As we soughtto understand struck by therelationship of each ofthese types within types withi the North the adolescentsubculture to adult in the introduction American culture. For clarification, generalizations as tothe im- of each casehistory we make portance of thetype as illustrativeof a motivational em- social phasis in the largersociety. In other words, a adoles- context is providedand the adultprototype of the dent is described. Although this studyfavors thedemocratic-humanistic to make value system ofthe creativeintellectuals, we try kind of it clear thateach of the threetypes represents a sector in American so- excellence valuedby its prototypal distinguishable in spe- ciety. In addition,each type is leader cific adult patternsof achievement. For the social highly visiblethrough and the studious,these guidelines are patterns ofbehaving adult role modelswho embody the same intellectuals are lessapt and believing. The creative such as matureartists, to meet"significant others"--models The scientists, philosophers,humanitarians orscholars.* his society molds thestudent, and thestudent, through with the shaping predispositions, respondsto and interacts to forces of culture. Members of thethree groups come One focus on differentends as well asdifferent means. individual chooses onepattern of valuesand a particular even histwin achievement drivewhile another--perhaps

wrmosweiwwul=11M11lMilMIIbridIWIIMUIIIftIfMM...O.M., *Although the youngcreative intellectualshave gen- thought is erally not metadults whose styleof life and similar to their own,most are aware ofsuch ratterns of life through theirreading. 189

live his life. Each de- brother*--choosesanother way to begins to develop fines situationsdifferently and each ref1ecting personalneeds and val- adistinctive identity, know*themselves bytheir ues. Students becomeknown and Adolescents beginto de- dreams and bytheir aspirations. and to velop a style--a wayof workingand of thinking, and mostprobably set theirdirections forthe school years in academicterms; for life: the studiousstrives to achieve influential in the socialleader workstoward becoming an bids,for adolescent society; andthe creativeintellectual and/or the excellence in theworld ofideas--in the arts is a well-knownre- Sciences. As Presthusasserts, "There kinds of work weunder- lationship between ourvalues and the 1130 these shape both ourimmediate take. We can add that and futureroles in society.

know why asimilar environmentmight af- *We do not but it people inradically different ways fect two young melts the butter canharden is clear thatthe "fire which the egg." ...1.1.1/1Mr.,

190

producing a new The England oftoday . . . was mankind, over-consciousin the money race of the spon- and social andpolitical side, on taneous, intuitionside dead. D. H. Lawrence Lady Chatterley'sLover .

The Social LeaderPrototype: as- As an adolescentthe socialle4der has already the entre- sumed many of thevalues of hisadult exemplar, type and a frequently preneur. The latter is awell-marked admired man in modernAmerican society.* He symbolizes Kardiner has success interms of money andpower, and, as individual compe- said, today's worldlauds this pattern: to man titive success isto modern manwhat salvation was 31 all, practical- - during the MiddleAges. He is, above oriented to peopleand things ratherthan ideas. This image of thepragmatist, moreRoman than Greek, social leader. undoubtedly provides amodel fcr the young There are clear It is a modelthat has highvisibility. seeming guidelines writtenat the "how tosucceed without style desirable to try" level. The attitudesand behavior described longbefore AdamSmith com- for this stance were 32 1776) mented oa theeconomic motive(Wealth of Nations, ear1;1;;;7733.7o7staated that or Sp:: angercaats21Ets, things and to wantinter- the drives toacquire material The Ro- personal power weretwo universallyheld values. Caesar, and his mans extolledthe virtues ofthe activist influenced accounts of hisexploits haveunquestionably throughout the ages. countless generalsand administrators Machiavelli34 stated the social In the early1500's

*America, as GeorgeSantayana oncewrote, is the of modern society. It is, as we are "unalloyed essence" society at or nearthe zenith told daily, arich, hedonistic of its politicalimportance in theworld. 191 leader value system in phrases that haveremained etched in men's minds for centuries. In Machiavellian terms, the entrepreneurial pattern of achievement ismulti-faceted and includes: reaching for understandings about thefoibles of men and playing upon these ratherthanchangiiirg them; gaining insights into the society for thepurpoSe of con- trolling it rathe: Ulan improving it;actinginhypoco.t7 is al ways, e.g., apparently acceptingvirtue while avoiding !.,s practice. The individual who hopes to wield suchpower..knows full well that the route to the topis through organizational channels. He must accept the value systemuncritically. In Americz this includes adoptingsuch preoccupations as speed, the exploitation of land,technological mastery -- all to the extent of beingwilling to transform nature into a totalartifact. He .does not stop to ask why hewants this. He simply stands for progresswhich for him is in terms of the triumphs of themachine and an ever-acceler- ating national income. As Paul Goodman has said,,"Americans no longer live in thiscountry. They occupy it..like a con- quering army." Those who accept such values and whoadopt obedience, manipulative personal relations andopportunistic behavior as their norm andwho can become committed, as well,to ouch organizational goals asunlimited growth and power, are apt,tosucdeedif they have moderate ability andbound- less energy. Th0 energy must, of course, be focused on 41.Mediate, not-Ultimate, ends: the future will take care Of 'itself. Ainericans, in general, tend toward these values

(TheeAclaiggikftiltE,35 21.204211411401.429.121X,36 glcsuatagjeiher,3 The Achievin Societx,i8The Affluent SOcietyTh;, :and' are often,as well,non-reflective and anti-

. intellectual (Anti`- Intellectualism inAmerican52s.iety40). Their tendency to value power andaction has been noted by the most perceptive of socialhistorians,A.ncluding the 192

41 French scholar, deTocquevillei in 1834 * and the American 42 historian, Parrington, inthe early 20th century. The special talent is to leadthe unexamined life as ifit were the good life, Such values and theaccompanying behaviors have generally been held in lowesteem, across culturesand throughout the ages, by socialphilosophers.These individuals who study and speculate orthe good life and thehigher orders of human developmentrarely have found suchquali- ties in those who focus on powerand money. Plato held that the philosopher-king wasthe ideal; the Jewishand Chinese people described abeautiful person as one who em- bodied intellectual andethical virtues; andpresent-day "third force" psychologiststypidally place contemplation and self-realizationhighest on a scale ofpersonality development. We have accepted thisposition and thus hold that the creativeintellectual is most matureand that the social leader is the leastdeveloped of the three types of able adolescents. As a relativelyimmature person, the social leader typicallydoes not concern himselfwith such higher values as responsibilityand the meaning of life. He does not attempt to growtoward integrity or todevelop what Aldous Huxley heldto be a civilizedmind: "compre- 43 hension without loss ofcomprehensiveness." By accepting expediencyand compromise, thesocial leader hopes to make his wayto the top and to berewarded with power, prestige and money. He is dedicated to the proposition that the quest forpcxsonal wealth, personal power and personalpleasure is the ultimateexplanation of human behavior. Thus he expects others tobe cynical, grasping and unprincipled for, asSullivan has pointed out,

HI know of no country inwhich there is so little independence of mind and realfreedom of discussion as in America." 193 an individual's perception of others,i.e., his evaluation of their motives, is largely a function of his own person- 44 ality. The achievement of success has thus become associated with aggressive striving, tough- mindedness,, -,extra- ...;:... version and practicality. The complex state of mind which demands the weighing of alternatives and the examination of conscience is dismissed as something_ soft andfuziy;, .. .. and contemplation is held to be unrealisticanda waste of time. Lip service is given t. individualism, but the route ahead is clearly marked as one that demandsacquies- cence to authority and obeisance toconvention. Individ- ualism can only be interpreted as looking out for oneself. Accepting things as he thinks they are, the social leader works out a scheme of action within this framework. Since he typically delegates work, talent can be minimal- - "It' s not what you know but who you know." On a superficial level he is sociable and convivial, but this tendency is held to be dangerous if it moves to such lengths as"brotherly love."Optimism is voiced in "all is well with the world" terms and hearty "chin up" manner, but there is beneath all this a basic cynicism about men asindividuals and a, deep pessimism about the improvability of man. People are to be used, not trusted; they are things, not freeand sensitive individuals. Rosenberg reports that adult males of this persua' sion often fall within such classifications as the"aggressive personality type" who "respects only thepowerful and 45 the successful." They are often seen as authoritarians-- conservative, hostile to labor, endorsing war as apolicy, intolerant of minority groups. They tend to go into business, finance and public relations, and to rank at the bottom of all occupational groups in "faith in people.74`7 Holding such views, the social leader can become a salesman-executive or aMadison Avenue molder-of-opinion, willing or even eager to manipulate by any means.Mass

I: 194 r media reach the crowds and'crass*and materialistic motives will be best acceptedif they are imbedded in themost sacred of sacraments. Thus wedding bells arejuxtaposed with detergents in radioand tel@vision ads,while at the time of death sophisticatedattempts are made toconvince the grieving that their"Loved Ones" must ofnecessity rest in luxury. The end, usually pecuniaryrewards for the individual or the company,justifies any means. Free speech can becomethe license for invadingthe privacy of others. Certain personal "rights"must be fiercely preserved,but obligations are to be takenlightly. Friendships and even church memberships canbe used for economicends. The social leader is the masterof the "constructive"friendship. In an unselectedteenage population wehave foundthat almost two-thirdschoose the social leaderdescription he one (of the threetypes) that they feel best approx- t4;....ces an accurateself-description. In the school years, there is less aggressivenessand competitivehostility shown--school is not where therewards are and thustime spent there can bewell used to learn to"get along with" and "to influence"clessmates and teachers.Although adolescents are sometimesgiven a poor press and areheld to be irresponsible,money-oriented, status-seekingand hedonistic, and not properlyresponsive to adult-maderules and regulations, there is every reasonto believe that when such attitudes andbehaviors are witnessedthey exemplify the emulation of massculture rather than somespecial de- pravity of youth. If anything, the young personis more honest, more intellectuallysearching, and moresocially concerned than is trueof those who aremiddle-aged.

James Symington,"Youth, Crime, and theGreat So- ciety," Reporter,February 24, 1966, pp.41-43, recently said, "We talk aboutexcellence and the pursuitof excellence. But how many adultAmericans are growingbreathless in the pursuit ofexcellence?" He continues, "Wepermit 195

We have noted thatthe social leaderoften tries How- to. influence theteachers as well as hisclassmates. ever? for mostof this group, adolescenceis the time for the teenage in-group. Parents and teachers areonly toler- ated for what they haveto offer or becausethey are authority figuresu Not more than afifth of theintellectually superior students(who generally read andoften like to learn) feel this type is avalid self-description. Most bright young peopleidentify with adultsand enjoy talking to them.

our children to7)e spectators of viceand hate every day. To forbid it wouldbe attacked asdeprivation of some con- stitutional right on the partof the purveyors ofvice and hate. Worse than that, it wouldrequire self-discipline on ourpart."48 196

Mark Steel--SocialLeader

Descriztionadamjacharvind: Mark Steel is a of student.* Jerty typicalexample of thesocial leader typa handepma boy with He is a popular,extroverted and rather His build is reddish-brown hair,freckles and brown eyes. build, and his move- rather slight, butit is an athletic complexion ments are well-coordinated. He has a healthy well-groomed; for, as and he takes greatpains to appear who is everybody knows, itis only thewell-groomed man times but, accepted socially. Mark also playsthe guitar at He again, only as a meansfor popularityand acceptance. and, does not value theartistic effectsof music or song important only to"long- in fact, regardsthese effects as kind for hairs" and "squares."Artistic creation of any itself is a waste oftime. least Mark is anintelligent boy,but is not in the He does, of impressed with hisintellectual capacities. to make course, employthem in hisschoolwork, but only the burden. the "drag" ofschool easier: that is, lighten "I want to He wants verymuch to live asuccessful life: I be some kind ofexecutive, a big manin business where leisure time." can make alot of money andhave plenty of some He dreams ofmotorboats and wouldlike to own a yacht times impish and day. During the interviewMark was at the interview at other timesimpertinent. He did not take largely super- questions seriously,and his answers were himself to be a poorlistener. He -iicial. He .also proved which was concernedrather with leadingthe conversation, charge) on sports or spe- usually focussed(when he was in strictly cific people orthe "in" thingsto do. Mark adheres

Mark and histwin brother,John, were bothinter- study. John qualified as acreative intel- viewed in this parents come from lectual. Some of theinsights about the John's remarks. 197

his to adolescent norms,and admires thetypical values of will be the crowd, He feels that thiskind of conformity most direct route tothe top, and thatcomplex and independent thought takes you on unnecessarydetours. Therefore, he wants everything tohave a pattern orsymmetry. He admires movie stars for theirwealth and socialposition, and se- cretly creams ofhimself in the midst ofthem. In the everyday world, Mark feelsthat he ispopular and that he has many friends: "I've got la lot offriends Why shouldn't We do every- I? I worked for themand they!,re good.friends. thing together." Mark's father is aquiet but good-natured(and rather two sensitive) mane He attended aprofessional school for years, and is now aconservation officer inMiChigan. Per- -. haps because he is areserved man he mayeasily be tholvht of as remote andunfriendly, but Markdescribeshim as a likable person. He is highly regardedwithin his own circle hu- of fciends for hisneat, unassumingdemeanor, and even ozone of the mility. In regard to hisfamily, he handles disciplinary measures, buthe ften takes Markhunting. Because of this, thereis a certain affinitybetween Mark and his father. Mrs. Steel is seen byher sons as ratherthe opposite of her husband. She is outgoing andfriendly, having a definite and genuinefondness for others. She laughs easily guests and heartily, andhas the singulartalent for making feel at home. Robukt and pleasant,she is the acknowledged leader of her circleof friends for herability to keep the conversation flowing andher love forentertaining_, Mark reported that she is anexcellent cook and takesdeep pleas- He ure in seeingher familywell-nourished and contented. admires these qualitiesin her and does not seemto mind that she is also thedisciplinarian of thehousehold. De- spite this role as theprimary authority figurein the family, the boys bothfeel closer to herthan to their father.

1 198

John describes herwell when he says thatshe is the "stal- the disci- wart" of the family. Though Mark often resents family:. pline, he doesrealize and understandher role in the Mark and Join havetwo older sisters. The sisters, twenty-nine and twenty-sixyears of age, areboth college graduates with teachingcertificates. They taught school . devoted mothers for a few years,then married; and are now Mark's twin, John, and wives -- havinggiven up teaching. stands out in vividcontrasto the restof the family. quiet and intro- He is an extremelygood-looking boy, very Mark, he shares verted. Not popular withthe crowd like interested in learning, his friendshipwith those who are His reading, aesthetics,and otherintellectual pursuits. poetry and essayshave already wonfor him recognition as but he a young manof considerabletalent and maturity, John is often receives such praisewith unassumingmodesty. nothing the recipient ofmuch scorn fromMark* who finds worthwhile in his"impracticality." "My brother, John, He'll never is a phony," he says,"who is wastinghis time. He hardly has any get anywhere ifhe keeps this up. . Sometimes friends, and everybodyat school mockshim to me. little in it's kind ofembarrassing."Because they have other. common, Markand John seldomassociate with each Each goes his own wayand finds lifefruitful according to his specificval e system. Despite the personalitydifferences in thefamily, lived in the it remains close as aunit. They have always to leave.. same house,and all wouldbe rather reluctant mountains and bigcities They have travelledtogether to the northern of the East andhave often goneto the woods of retains his own Michigan and Canada,although each member interests during thetrips. For instance,Mark loves to walks hunt and fish withhis father, whileJohn takes lonely little through the woods,meditating. Still, there is very Steel strife, as if by anunspoken truce. Mr. and Mrs. 199

Mark and John, are 1)thchurch-going Catholicsand so are thought- although Mark hasbecome ratherindifferent and -John don't'think church fully liberal. Mark says that,"Really, I to sit around IS. all that important. It's stupid, though, be im- like my brotherdoes,and trptodiecuss how it might Church is still proved when all youdo.ls;get people mad. part of life--whyshould you ask so manyquestions?" Mark is a young manwith a purpose,and in order to expediency or reach his positionhe is willing to useany how I compromise: "It really doesn'tmake any difference nip end jus- get there, aslong as I do."He believesthat and influ- tifies the means,and indicates thatmost wealthy employing ential men got that wayby having a goaland then said, "it's all means availableto reach it. "Remember," he this the really bigmen--I mean thewealthy ones--who run thinks all the time nation. The guy who justsits back and don't count. is just one ofthe masses. They are lost and He spares no John won't believe me,but it's true----." such as time for thephilosophical problemsof our time, "Life is meaningful values, humanexistence or ethics. doing it," he only if youlive it right, .andI think I'm said. the time when Mark is especiallyfond of recalling take him his sisters--thenhigh schoolcheerleaders--would "the time to ball games asteam mascot andhe would have the ex- of my life."The older girlsdefinitelYrprererred often on troverted Mark tothe quiet John. Mark `reflects h4es that life will the fun he hashad in the past,and continue to be goodto him as long ashe isdeserving.

13:61..onent: By hisschool performance, would be considered aslightlyabove.:4Verage'sindent aerage. Accord- Who usuallymaintains a "B-"grade point Interest Survey V,he ing to his reports onthe Student studies very little. He checksthat he is,above. average 200 in intelligence, but healso indicates that he doesnot really care to use thisability academically--exceptwhen it "helps him get prettygood grades without muchwork." The several aptitude andability tests which he hasbeen given seem to indicate thathis capabilities aresomewhat greater than his pastschool achievements show. On the galjAorrjLaFteiComz-)rehension Test*given in the ninth grade, for example, Mark'svocabulary score was equalto that of college freshmen andhis comprehension score was equivalent to that of highschool seniors. An IQ of 123 on the verbalscale of the CaliforniaTest of Meltallnaturitz. place's him at the mean of our superiorexperimental population. However, on two other measures,the Differential A.atLtus122'est given in the ninthand the National Merit Scholarship Qualifying from the eleventh grade,his scores wererelatively lower. On both tests he scoredat about the 70th percentilebased on an unselectedpopulation for his age group. His ability (or perhaps hiswillingness) to think logically asmeasured by the AmericanCouncil of Education, glIA02.31unislag.DstForm G, was no better than that of average students. His three scores on this test were at or near 20, atleast 10 points below the group mean of the experimenta/population. Mark's choice of self-description onthe Student Profile Check for each of thethree testing periods (1962 - 1964) indicated that heconsidered himself a socialleader. None of the evidence which wecJtained contradicted this self-evaluation. However, his scores on thethree instruments, the Omnibusperamality.jamataa (on), theAllport- Vernon-LindzeystusyLotigues(A-V-L) and the Student In- (SIS), which assessed creativeattitudes and inclinations, werevariable. At the outset Mark was

1111=1111 *See Chapter IV for a moredetailed description of the instruments. 201

but only. slightly below averagein these characteristics, while the experimental groupincreased from pre-to post- testing on all OPI scales,Mark's scores declinedsignif- devia- icantly. He was more than oneand a half standard tions below the total group onthe aesthetic scalesof the OPI and the A-V-L,and approximately astandard deviation below on four other OPIscales (theoreticalorientation, thinking introversion,originality andcomplexity) which to psy- are said to measureinter'..st in ideas and openness higher on the chological growth. His scores were somewhat Phase .11 testing butstill showed a stronginclination toward anti-intellectualism andremained lower thanthey.hadbeen quEmey. at pre-testing. The results on theStudent Interst V (sIS) were similar. At the beginning ofthe program his score on theSocial Leader Scale washighek than that which he received on theCreative IntellectualScale or Studious Scale. During the experimental courseMark's score or th't. Social Leader Scale rosesharply while his scores onthe afative IntellectualScale and the StudiousScale dropped. A year later his scoreon theStudious Scale wasstill lower to and the score onthe Social LeaderScale had continued Scale remained rise. His score on theCreative Intellectual the same on Phase IItesting as it had been onthe post- test SIS. Mark was nearly onestandard deviationbelow the mean for ourexperimental population onthe Humanitarian- Altruism Scale bothtimes the test wasgiven. In other words, he reportedhimself as liking to goalong with the little crowd (in socialleader terms) but healso indicated tolerance for ordesire to work on humanproblems. However, at pre-testing Markalso showed some"openness" of mind. At this time, he wasslightly less dogmatic andrigid than other members of theexperimental group. This situation changed dramaticallyduring the experiment,however, so that at. post7testingMark tested high onboth the Rokeach 20 2

Dogmatism Scale* andhiaLcuLtyAstaotwhile scores for the group as a wholehad become lower. -. On both post-testing andPhase II testing Markshowed little acceptance ofindependent and career-minded women. In fact, his scores onthe Accen±ance of WomenScale** were among the lowestreceived by the experimentalboys. On the Self-Actualization in Womeninventory he chose, without exception (as his conceptionof both real and idealwife, and in 1963 as well asin 1964), the Level Igirl--a "strictly female female" who does notplan to go to college ordevelop a distinctidentity.

pszcholoaLcal Dimensioas--Thetoo p1ative Nl,mod: Mark answered quevtionsdesigned to evoke thoughtful commentary with a politeglibness. Nothing seemed worthy of detailed discussion exceptsports and social life. When asked about the importanceof religion in hislife, he replied, for example,"We're Catholic and we goto church every Sunday and weworship, and both my sisterswitnt to a Catholicgrade school. But anyway, religionisn't too important like it is in somefamilies." Mark likes to talk andenjoys it when discussions arevindictively personal andbecome charged withemotions. However, he finds it hardto sit through a closelyreasoned statement on a theoreticaldispute; at such times heusually talks to his nearestneighbor. Once he was heard tomutter, "Those guys just thinkthey know it all."Mark was always suggesting that the classshould get down to "coldfacts"

11111101111011111111 *On these scales lower scoresindicate more open- mindedness and less dogmatic orrigid thinking when confronted by new beliefs. **Scale items attempt to measurethe degree to which an individualis accepting of womenwho develop intellectual and creative potentialand enter high-level careers. 203 about a subject, althoughunfortunately he couldsupply few of these himselfsince he generally hadnot read either the assignment or theprevious night's newspaper. He avoided editorials like the plaguebut felt that allnormal people "should read the funniesand the sports pagereligiously." Mark prefers problemsthat are manageable andthat ."can be easily solved."Working for long periodsof time on a theory seemspointless, especially ifthere is no ready application for the results."Thus he finds it hardto understand anyone who likesto sit and think. In fact, he thinks such behavior isprobably a little stupid. When the film of the famousnaturalist-philosopher,Loren Eiseley, was shown in his experimentalclass, he respondednegatively: "How could a grown man wantto spend his timejust walking on the beach,talking to himself?He-wasn't carrying a gun -or doinganything!" Another time Mark commented,"If a person is usedto having other pedplearound, he won't enjoy being alone and justthinking. If I have to spend an evening alone, I either goto bed or listen torecords."

Mark has definiteideas about how the world is lined up. For example, he feelsthat "a man should know about scienceand politics,and a woman should know about art andmusic."He went on to say,"I really don't like arty people--like Some of my brother'sfriends, for instance."Previously he had rejectedmuch of the aesthetic world when it waspresented as a part of the Four Worlds Textbook in theexperimentalprogr'am. Beside a poem about a magnolia treewhich was included inthe text, for example, he scribbledthe word, "Slush!" inorder to express his contempt. "Isn't it kind ofstupid," he asked, "to put poetry and allsorts of art in a socialstudies textbook, anyway?" Again and again Mark'sspeech was at the clichelevel which he used as "filler"inClass dis6assions. When the .1,-yr,,- et' 204

race issue wasbeing discussed heatedly, it took no preparation or even thought forhim to remark, "It will all come out inthe end." Certainly Mark consideredhimself well on the way towardbeing a well-rounded,all-American v red-blooded boy, "with a sloganmentality.," his interviewer added, and conexued to describeMark's speech as, "Easy, idiomatic, vigorous, and in theAmerican free-style syntax- - but to no particular purpose."

inenaaj....rinranct: Mark defines a good student as one who "is activesocially and well-rounded ratherthan one who keeps tohimself all the time and keepshis nose in a book. wouldn't want to be likethat."Education, to him,,is "getting theunderstanding of hoW to dothings. The most valuable part ofschool is being arounddifferent kinds of kids.Most classes are a waste oftime." ci Learning for its own sake hadlittle appeal for Mark, although he thinks he will studyhard enough to get the kind of job where he can make agood living.. -one that wouldbe both economically andsocially rewarding. His scholastic goal, as he stated it on aquestionnaire, is to "get good enough grades to land an alritejob "; the knowledge gained is not the main factor inhis mind. When asked if he liked to think,Mark replied, "Yes, if it's something I canfigure out or know about. Nothing deep. I don't like to think ofanything that frustrates me or where I-lan't find an answer. I'm just not a long hair." Mark does not consider himselfto be a reader. He says: "I don know why. I can read quite well--thatis, better than most of the otherkids. I like' to read if I can find somethinginteresting 'and can't take my eyes off it. But I don't like to readdull things. I just don't do much reading." 205

The Humane Sentiments: Mark is outgoing--in fact, very gregarious--and he valuesfriendship, particularly on the level of acquaintance. As he once said, "I'm glad I'm not like my brother because I have aboutfive times as many friends. And he gets along with his friends differ-; ently than I get along with mine. His are more intellectual and stuffy and mine are just friendly." This brotherly love is not extended to those he does not know personally,however. In fact, he finds little to hold his interestin .contemplating the fates of the people of the Emergent Na- tions or the problems of slum dwellers in Americancities. Almost every student identified as a creative intellectual was concerned with major humanproblems, particularly over-population. Mark's only comment on this issue was made during a classdiscussion when he said, "I think having children comes under Private Enterprise. It just isn't anybody else's business." He is a happy-go-lucky boy who likes to dispose of serious problems with off-hand yet sometimes quite clever remarks. A major complaint is that his brother is far too serious. You might say that Mark is optimistic but this seems to be primarilybecause he looks at situations superficially and generallyignores the fate of mankind.. When discussing the problems of seg regation in class, for examplel.he stereotyped thedilemma and commented, I think things are much, much better because,just look at it--slaves a. hundred years ago weretreated like dirt. We just kicked them around, but look at how far they've come in just a few years. They've got their own stores. They've got their freedoMf: education and everything else. You've g0t)t6.0x4J. pect a little of this prejudice down South4FX mean. After all, the Negroes were slaves for albhg time. !.-; Mark says he does not concern himself with"sOcial issues because "things will take care ofthemselVeeil" and the "good guys will win out."Since he is sure . . will have no problems becoming a success, heis If things donot pleased withthe situation as:it exists the way the ballbounces." go wellhe simplyshrugs, "That's little un-Amer- Planning is notnecessary;besides, "it's a possible in ourtime, ican."And peace isprobably not "After all, menlike war,"and either, accordingto Mark. myself."Mark feels as he says,"I enjoycarrying a gun though you mayhave you can'tcompletely trustanyone 'even schoOl will cheat if hehas a manyfriends' "Esnryone in ..they'll getcaught." chance andthose who don't arejust afraid not what But friends arestill valuable: "After you knowbut who youknow."

IturtameakILmast:'Mark approvesof 'the close members of hisfamily and appar- relationshipsbetween the particularly of ently is notsearching forindependence, Thus he seesnothing to rebelagainst anintellectual nature. He valueswhat the in theteenage social moreseither. group) is wherehis friends groupvalues, andthis (the he did showsigns of are. In bothinterviews, however, thii; Mark hasdone little religiousrebellion. But despite religion moreclearly. He says, to formulatehis beliefs on Church everySunday withmy parents because I go-t6 expect me to. I can it makes themhappy and they of my sistersand my fatherabout how talk to one either. I feel, butthey don'thave any answers all the time..aboutyour.beliefs':then If you think He'thinks tpo serious--likemybrother. you get Besides, I'd:rather too muchabout everything. have fun thanget depressed.... pattern ineverything Mark seeks aclearly prescribed asserts, "shouldgive usthe'sub- he does. "Teachers," he The facts arewhat we need, ject matterstraightforward, so weknow exactlywhat along withspecific assignments don't have towaste_our tin&try- we'resupposed to do and our own. Teachers usuallyjust ing tofigure it all out on understand athing they say. babble on and on,and you can't they want andthen who I like theones who cantell us what -In=wwt;...r74=1111111n

207

schools used will take time outfor fun."He thinks maybe decide to be better"because kids get allmixed up trying to what courses to takeand when they werethrough they knew at." what to do becausethey did ftc,he jobsthey were good

Aesthetic Orientation: In the discussionsin the experimental classes Markshowed a definiteantagonism toward philosophical and hu- the whole creativedimension and the manistic ideals itrepresents. "I don't see whyanybody for would spend theirtime writing a poem or anessay just themselves," he explained,"especially when theycould be having a greattime with the other guys orsomething. music, Mark Brother!"When asked whetherhe liked art or replied, l'Oh, I mightcrack a note--ifit's popular music. If someone tells meto play somethingI'm lost though, un- seemed to less they hand rite somemusic." Further comments reveal that the purposeof his playing wasnot communication, but rather a way togain popularity andacceptance. Poetry, Mark feels,"makes no sense" and evenwhen As it was assigned inschool he oftenwould not read it. he puts it, "I usually canget by justreading the titles." something He reads verylittle--"only when itis assigned or really near when I canput my hand or itand there's nothing else to do."If he were to choose abook he would want "Why do one that was"exciting, you know,sensational." people sit aroundtrying to figure outif a certain book is written well orin a good style?"he questioned, and added, "I just 1-lowwhat I like and whatI don't like. What difference losesit make anyway howit was done or how good it is?"However, when Markstarts a book (a very rare occurrence), he feels hehas to finish it"because I just can't stand looseends."

A. Sense of Destka: A .sefise' Ofdestiny is felt by those who canconceive the largeness of thestage upon ,1 208

there mightbe heroes-- which life isenacted. On this stage life--and a socialorder that isof larger andbetter than of this.appeals to the new utopiangenre.' However, none unresponsive tothe idea ofm6d- Mark. He wasparticularly which hdfolihd most els, and theideal image. The heroes U.N.C.L.E., the credible wereJames Bondand the Man from clever gimmicksand fastgirls anti-heroesinvolved with Intimations of rather thanthoughtfulness andsincerity. disturbing andunnecessary. greatness werediscarded as personally make Mark does notbelieve that he can society. "Some people can. aworthwhilecontribution to Things arebetter usu- I'm not even surethey shouldtry. Perhaps thisnonchalance ally as they are. Why meddle?" around him toward his owninvolvement withthe problems dedicate himselfto any occursbecause he doesnot want to dOing somethinr sig- issue and isnot reallyinterested in 'People should stop nificant oroutstanding.'He feels that "They' generally expecting so muchfrom him. He comments, and somekind of ded- want thingsI don't want --like grades ication to amovement." growth arealien Sinceself-fulfillmentand personal instead for whathe knows concernsto Mark, hewill work "having a goodlife- - will bringhim status. Success is neighbors andfriends. a goodhouse to livein and good girls and twoboys, and having Having fourchildren, two Also a jobthat a closefamily andintelligent children. His obviousemphasis on I enjoy e-d aminterested in." again whenMk was asked the socialaspects of life appear "Just having agood what heconsidered theideal person: all-around man." personality andgood friendsand being an . '

P 209

"Stick close to yout desks and never go to sea, And you all may berulers of the Queen's Naveel" William4$. Gilbert "When.I. Was A Lad" H. M.S;Iiiinafore

TheStudiousPrototype:

As an "ideal" type,the studious adolescenthas moved and has beyond an egocentricfocus on pleasure and success acquired a sense ofsocial responsibility. As an adult, he may become theresponsiblecitizenconventionally re- He ligious and concernedabout his neighbor'swelfare. particularly in' is still thebedrock of American society, the Middle West. In him, the ProtestantEthic continues to flourish, andduty and obligationornament his life. Material ''.1ccess isimportant, but it shouldbe won honest- ly--by hard work andwithout undue deviousness.Unlike the young social leaderwho becomes adaptive,opportunis- tic and often amoral,the studious young personemerges and quite moral. as responsible,conventionally idealistic teachers. He incorporatesthe voiced standardsof parents and He is not apt tohave "idlehands," to "kill time," or to his "lie around." Instead, he tries to"make the most of time" and not "let the grassgrow underhis feet."In Freudian terms, fromhis "superego" comestheinsistent voice of conscience andassorted gui7,t feelings. It may well be thatthe restrictedbehavior patterns (derived from parental andsocial standards andinjunctions) wall off the adultresponsibles and their youngstudious counterparts from freechoice and free thought. Theare loathe to challengetraditional conceptions ofthe world and the status quoof behavior. Thus they do not ",%learn to exercise continuousself-examination, tocontemplate alternative actions, orto question eternalverities. And, 7.. *, 210 :, , ao due to thesecircumscriptions, they are notfree to shape their own livesmeaningfully and they contributeonly mod- estly to furtheringthe human cause. Within limits, usually of the home andcommunity, they work to advancethe human condition but they dolittle to safeguard thehuman estate. The good citizen acceptsthehigher Virtues of kindness and freedom,and to an extent can act onthese, but Guided as he is by conventionalwisdox is also heconfined. as used byGalbraith) and the collectiveconscience (as used by Riesman), heis not free to break newpathways to self-realization and socialbetterment, His is more the "proverb" than the "sloganmentality.ftFor him, tradition may not beirresistable but it is strongand may blot out depth and complexity. However, acquiescence tocustom does not mean he cannot anddoes riot usually behaverationally and charitably. The able adolescents inthis group see their route to success through academicexcellence. Here is a realm respected by parents andteachers and an acceptableladder to success" High grade point averagesget the studious youth into the best collegesand it is bruited aboutthat a good recordin a good college opens manydoors in the business world and inacademia. The studious want to be visible in the "Great Huntfor Academic Talent" anddoing what they are told to dopractically insures that theywill be seen. However, as adults they are moreap.A. to be the backbone of the bureaucracythan in the seat of power,and will probably be thecompetent scientists ratherthan the innovators. And they rarely becomeartists or mystics, They are, instead, teachersand engineers, modelcitizens and pillars of thechurch. They often wish there was more sense ofintellectual and spiritualtriumph, more, outright joy in their lives thanthey find, but they persevereand maintain a hope that the future willbring them nearer to greatness. 211

Stan HoughStudious

Stan Hough is a Rearipttionaad..MmikyBackground: phy- pleasant-looking Joung manof medium heightand sturdy and his faceis sique. His hair is closelycropped and red flushed--half way betweenruddy health Indembarrassment- - which he and deepenedin tone by amultitude of freckles of strength andhealth dislikes intensely. There is evidence well as in hisreports in his movementsand appearance as his most obviousassets of activities. These become two of membership as herelates his variousactivities, including Though he is aregular on on theschool's footballteam. himself as the sortof player the team, hemodestly describes dependable: whom nobodynotices, but who isnevertheless All I do is try "I don't careabout being flashytoo much. of many to do my jobwell." He lacks thehealthy narcissism likedut not youngathletes. Because of this,he is well an extremelypopular ceammember. Stan's modesty, asreflected duringthe interview, achievements andhis seemed genuine. Though proud of his unobtrusive. intelligence, heremains generallyimpassive and his re- He had a true concernto please; infact, most of presenting sponses seemedtobppanned,:for Stan dislikes of misin- anything thatappears_tto beambl.guous or capable terpretation. ille,was veryaccommodating,usually hesitating However, first and. thenanswering eachques4on. . nrPcisely. free to imposehis own structureof the he did, not feel , . make use of world. into thedialogue nor didhe,. feel free to Stan, tended to the many. tangentswhich were available. precision is whathe interpret questionsliterally, for communication, and it maybe this deems mostimportant in all semblancesof approach :Oat. has.robbed him of nearly nh, sometimes Ijoke around a he said humor. ta..2 . "But, really,thare are otherthings more important." contempt for most A highly moralboy, Stan has only .14; 4 212

, . of the teenagenorms of behavior. He does not.tsmoke, drink, orrely:s6-ntirofanity. "I swear once in a while under my breathom he said, "especiallywhen I do something-wrong-- like-math prOblems--after a lot ofwork. Boy, that makes me mad!" He scoffs at those who spendtheir evenings at drive-ins and parties. Nor does he date or attend.social functions. He prefers to remain athome where he can do his homework and benear his family, whose influence he has deeply appreciated. He accepts his domestic rolegraciously, and looks at it with theview that it will help himulti- mately to bea'moreresponsible citizen. He reasons that, "My relationShip to my family nowis just like it will be to society, as a whole, soif I do what I am supposed to now--and even a little more--thenI will be able to fit securely into society lateron."Stan is conventionally idealistic, believing strongly insocial reciprocity and the fact that all men arebasically selfless, and.that they go against theirnatures when otherwise. In general, Stan is a "no- nonsense" typeof lad who is scrupulouslypolite and eager to please, yetpossessing an almost hyperdeveloped superego and an over-concernwith parental teachings. Stan's father,Mi. Hough, is a' truck driver who makes short runs in the lowerpart of Michigan. Although he had only a tenth gradeeducation, he does reveal acertain latent intelligence; especially inpractical matters. He is a conventional man, somewhatauthoritarian, quiet and strict- - very much thehead of the family. Stan's voice reflects the respect he feels forhis father when.he says,"You know freedoll but you'd better hop to it whenhe there's some '..1gt says something."Mr. Hough's leisure timeis"made'enjoy- able by hisham radio. He'taught himself hoW.to build, operate and repair theequipment and enjoys the sense of achievement it gives him. Because of his irregular working hours, Mr. Hough cannot oftenspend a great deal of time with his children, but heshares with Stan an interestin 213,

watch sports on sports that enablesthem to play catch or television together. Mrs. Hough, ahigh school graduate,worked as a sec- the retary until hersecond child was bornwhen Stan was in second grade. Like her husband, sheis a quiet person, es- well. pecially in thecontact of people shedoes not know he She is also a strictparent from whomStan feels that to know acquired his strongmoral sense: "She always seems Stan, the what's right andwhat's wrong."In addition to Houghs have two youngdaughters who areeight and ten years younger thanhe for whom Stanfeels muchresponsibility--a feeling which hisparents have fosteredand encouraged. Stan's family is a closeone and thechildren are excursions and in- expected to partakein all activities, interests terests. HoweVer, theintellectual and cultural There are few are bestdescribed as lowermiddle class. little magazines and booksin the home andStan had received encouragement to cultivate aninterest in readinganything enrolled in the outside of his ownschoolwork until he was As far ninth gradeexperimental socialstudies program. Lawrence Welk as musicis concerned,the.preference is for large role and country andwestern. The television assumes a children watch programs in their eveningtogetherness as the The chosen by their parents(mostly comedies andwesterns). outdoors, so their ex- entire fainily enjoyssports' and the football cursions usuallyinvolve attendanceat baseball and , to state games, alongwithr occasionaltrips to the lake or attended he saw parks. The only artexhibit Stan has ever connection with on a trip'to the DetroitInstitute of Art in it the ninth gradeexperimental program. He rather enjoyed however, he and indicatedthat he would liketo go again; and considered it a thingof relativelylittle importance said, would not go out ofhis way to seeit. His father, he considers such things"foolishness." Mr. and Mrs.Hough place a greatdeal of emphasis on 214 the importance of schooland good grades and Stanreflects this attitude. When asked wroat he thoughtwas his greatest strength, he-answered, "I do asgood.as I can--get good marks."- Neither he nor his parentsconsider learningas good in itself, but ratherthat it should be directedtoward a concrete goalsuch as "a better job" or"making more money." The dominant motive formuch'of his day-to-day work is a sense ofresponsibility to his parents. At an age when most young people beginto rebel against theirparents, Stan still unequivocally follows their direction.He thinks that adults know best and that rebellionagainst them is "silly."In religion, too, he acceptsthe Sunday School messagein its most literal sense and,while he it not regular inchurch attendance, he uses its dogmaand tradition as his guide, much as his parents do. His father is a union memberand a party-lineDemocrat: "In 1964 it was LBJ--allthe way:" Despite this party affiliation,however, domestic, religious and political issues arerarely discussed in thehome; the parents seldom read editorials,and the values underlying such issues apparently are neverexamined. However, some activist movements--especiallystudent protest movements -r- are stronglydenounced and such activitiesand their pro- ponents are considered"egghead," "impractical" andperhaps slightly treasonous.

pischolo: During hisschool career Stan has always maintained' verygood grades, usually earn- ing a "B+" or "Am" average.His reading achievement scores are excellent andhis ability tests wellabove average, as indicated on the standardizedmeasures given to him during the testing program in theninth,tenth and eleventhgrades. The California AdvancedReading Test, used forselection of our sample,showed that both hisvocabulary and comprehension were equal'to that ofcollege sophomores. However, Stan does not do this well onmental ability tests. Although 215 theCaafamiaMerrta_....1MaturiTestand the Differential Aptitude from the ninth and theNational Merit Scholar- 0429taligylasipzt given inthe eleventh gradeplace him within the range ofwhat is usually termed"academically talented," his scores fallsomewhat below themean:for4this compared to group. He scores at the90th percentile when Council an unselectedpopulation. Moreover, the American (given three on Education'sCritical ThinkinTest FormG times during thestudy), consistentlyindicated that his ability was below averagein logical thinkingand problem solving in comparisonwith the rest of oursuperior: experimental population. In the three testingsessions (1962-1964),Stan chose studious as the mostappropriate self-description onthe Student Profile Check.* Stan saw himself as "awell-organized, hard working" studentto whom grades wereimportant. More specific attitudeschanged, however, andthe new patterns tended to conformwith normative attitudesheld by the majority of theexperimental group (orperhaps when the experiment was over, todominant attitudes withinthe school). On the three instruments(OPI, A-V-L and SIS) whichassessed creative attitudes andinclinations, Stan was muchlike the total experimental groupbefore the program,i.e., quite strongly studious. Immediately after the programhe showed A a markedchange toward the creativeintellectual style. year later, outof the program now and amember of the high school football team,Stan was showing (as do manyhigh school sophomores) a shifttoward social leaderattitudes, More specifically, atpre-testing his SIS showed ahigh

We have generallyfound that althoughstudents may vary inspecific attitudes, theystill tend to be quite uniform in theirself-descriptions. In other words, Stan continues to think ofhimself as essentiallystudious even as his attitudesand behavior seem toreflect the varying school climates. 216 studious indication andrelatively low valuing ofcreative and social orientations Similarly, at the beginning of the ninth gradeStan's OPI and A-V-L scores wereat the mean of theexperimental population. At post-testinghis scores on thesethree instruments againfell at the mean and thus showed thepositive change towardthe creative intellectual style that wascharacteristic of theexperimental group as a whole. For example, theCreative Intel- lectual Scale on theSIS was highest at thistime. In Phase II testing, the socialLeader Scale had becomehighest on the SIS and thePolitical and Economic scales onthe A-V-L were higherthan theAesthetic,and Theoretical. Stan is an unusualcombination of tolerance--orat least social concern--andclosed-mindedness. His score on the Hmanitarian-Altruism Scale showedhim to be somewhat more concernedabout human problemsthan most other boys his age who werein our experimentalpopulation, yet at both pre- andpost-testing he testedabove the class average on thePokeach Ragmumsjaktand RiSitSsaje, i.e., he appeared less openand free-thinking thanother young people in of rsuperior population. His scores would indicate that he wasextremely dogmatic andrigid at pre- testing, but theseattitudes had modifiedslightly by the end of the experimental program. On the Acceptanceof Women Scale he appeared tobe slightly moreaccepting of women than were other boysin the group. He specified thatLevel II development onthe Self-Actualizationin Women inventory was both his realand ideal choice for awife. Inter- preted, this means hechose at both pre-testingand a year later to marry a girlwho was only moderatelyinterested

'This descriptionportrays a girl who plans to attend college for a year or twoand then marry--shetends to re- f7,ect in her dLvelopmentthe .needs and interestsof her husband and children ratherthan the desire to develop and sustain a personal styleand to engage inself-directed learning. 217

This in school andquite conforming ingeneral attitudes. in our superior was the samechoice that themajority of boys group made.

lative Mind: Ps cholo icalDimensions--The Contem Although Stan is not anintellectual, he iscertainly not think about newinformation, anti-intellectual. He likes to known.before, and to useit to fit it intothings he has to a finally iii someproductive way. Difficult work--up "really feel heis point--is appealingbecause he wants to Even learning" and besides,"hard worknever hurt anyone." , deter him as long as he relatively complexproblems do not them to hisprevious can organizethei or manage to add willingness to expend a store of knowledge. Despite his by great deal of effort onschool work,he is frustrated his intellectuallimitations: get mad at myself'cause I can't Lots of times I and do any better. I know it'snot up to an "A" doesn't like that verywell so thatgets my mother but some- me mad. I spend a lotof time studying, times I just can'tfigure out the answers. critical think- As we have seen,Stan's coreon the interviewed ing test wererelatively low. Those who have that he canmanipulate and observedhim report,however,, structures much moreeasily abstract symbolswithin logical that involve than he canevaluate lesswell-defined problems flatly, "People are complex judgments. Thus he may say qualifying explana- basically unselfish,"without adding any well of humanbeings, tion. Because he onlywants to think pondering themultiple Stan does notspend timeexploring or behavior that face'him daily. CoAtVadictionsin human

knew Stan, as abegin- The °yen Mind: When we first exceptionally high ondogmatism ningnintki:grader, he tested "I just can'tunderstand teen- andrigidity. As he said, He knew thatthere agers who don't knowright from wrong." 218

botiii:student conduct werestandardi'and rules that applyto which he` tried to follow and schoollearning. These rules,' flexibility in histhink- sojudiciously, allowedfor little discuss the issuesof ing as he wasbeginning to read and told by the teacher the experimental program..Bu ,..:when he was alternative answers and the filmmodels that there were many the judgment of com- to some questions,he accepted this as almost petent authorities. As a result,he developed an studied attitude offairness and, as a goodstudent, he His sought to read as manydiverse opinions aspossible. frequently scores ondogmatism and rigiditydropped and he was heard to say, "Thisis the way it seemsto me but I haven't I can't be sure." looked up any otherpoints of view, yet, so (Our interpretationis that this changein dogmatism and by rigidity reflectsStan's adaptabilityto expectations authority figures.)

Ittjavirinamill: Stan has not learnedto value learning for learning'ssake; he insteadfeels that the pur- , suit of knowledgeshould move himnearer to a practical goal rather than reflectthe merry chase of amind at play or Doing what one the intensivesearch for an elusivetruth. wants to doandenjoys immensely seems alittle disgraceful- - to define cre- sheer self-indulgence. When Stan was asked ativity, he said: I seem to rememberthat it is thinking upby your- thing or object andthen making it . self a certain or writingit out on your own...It seems a person's creative' if his workis well-known. If other people think what he doesis greatl4thenit is. what the public likes is whatreally,counts... Stan is very interestedin science andscientific achievements, but hedoes not feel thathe will ever achieve renown orthat he is reallycapable of outstanding accom- with a con- .ct,t plishment. His lack ofconfidence, combined of the intellec- stricted curiosity,extends to all aspects Only rarely tual realm. Reading interests arelimited. 219

and he is more does he readsomething that isnot assigned, with the openstacks of confused thandelighted when faced teacher or areading the library. He would preferto have a it. list tell himwhat to read andwhen to read contemplative acid Only occasionallydoes Stan appear But, as he says, to thinkvoluntarily aboutthe unknown. There is another methat I hardlyknow. Generally is ,a waste oftime but sometimes I think reading book I find myselfcaught by an ideain a history or the suspenseof sciencefiction. Island Stan did manageto read RobinsonCrusoe and Treasure novels unappealing when he wasyounger, butgenerally finds "Reading should saysome- and poetrydownright distasteful: thing and get yousomewhere." I.,

Sentiments: Stan's idealismand desire OIMuThe MI0.INN/INa~.11111.MMOHumane strongly in thetests, to do the rightthing come through and ourobservation of the questionnaires,the interviews School training him in class. He has appliedhis Sunday morality to the areaof and his mother'sstrong sense of of an emphasis social concern,which he seesmainly in terms As he putsit, "Make every- on homeand communityproblems. and not have one friends;that way we'll alllive together optimistic, and to worry abouteach other."He is quite solutions to complexand his desire forsimple and direct judgments seemnaive: difficult problemsoften makes his States and Russiahave signed "I think, nowthat the United closer together." the test bantreaty, we aregetting a little democracy comethrough His essentiallyJacksonian views of basically as clearly in hisstatement that,"Every man is if you try." good as everyoneelse and you canlike everyone in science. He liked Stan isparticularly interested Worlds Textbookmuch the TechnologicalWorld in the Four does worry about more thanthe other threeworlds, but he with the problemsit is the inabilityof science to cope he can do helping to create. However, he isnot sure that ,sre

220

"The individual can much about theseproblems himself. is not at and should makethis a betterworld," but Stan contribution; all sure hewill make anoteworthy personal problems "Maybe I don'thave the ability. After all, the are prettybig ones."

is 212221AtemlmiUtagat: Stan, as we have seen, truly dutiful sonand an extremelyconscientious boy, a little need to as- obedient student, Apparently he feels As he remarked sert hisindependence as anindividual. toward the endof ninth after lookingat the situation usually a wasteof time grade, "Rebellionis silly and know whether Adults have moreexperience andthey generally has matured something is good orbad." However, as Stan opinion" he has come torespond to "thebest of student In other words, as well asto the viewsof his teachers. and at the same he wants tobe well likedby his friends Ume be considered agood studentby his teachers. the Stan enjoysdoing things withother students, virtues ofcooperation: fellows particularly,and extols the together on a team. "There's nothinglike doing things together most of ourprob- think if everyonewould just work to problems, un- lems would besolved." Stan's solutions He is unfortunately, rarelyrise above groupconsensus. mode comfortable whenasked to thinkin the hypothetical extremely com- and rlainlymiserable whenproblems become decisions to be made. plex and there arenosolutions--o aly students are muchtoo young to As Stan says,"High school impoLtant issue. We make a decision ortake a stand on an just don't knowenough about therules yet."

interest Aesthetic Orientation: Stan has little or theproduct of cre- at the momentin either the process indicated, his parentsdo not read.. ativity. As we have Like most Lansing and are littleinclined towardthe arts. adolescents, and theboys in particular,Stan believes "culture" is for someoneelse--probably girls. To be fair, stance does not re- though, it a7pearsthat his philistine rather lack of a flect outrightdistaste of the artsbut knowledge of thepossibilities in thepansing-East Lansing exhibit in Detroit area. When commenting onthe Van Gogh said, that he visitedwhile in theexperimental program,:/he "I really enjoyedit, but I don'thave anything to compare about beauty it to."He has neverdiscussed his feelings finds and has not triedto write themdown. In fact, he to expresshimself and revealhis inner- it almost impossible ; it he liked to self on paper. One'interviewer asked him write and he replied, I don't know. I wz40t9 some forthe social studies (experimental) class aidI found it sortof fun- - thinking of what I'dwrite and tryingto put down , what I wanted to say. It was awfullydifficult, though. When he was askedwhat he consideredbeautiful Stan In various mentioned only natureand things foundin nature. and classroom exerciseshe tended tochoose the balanced As the inter- the simple overthe complex andsymmetrical. viewer who saw Stanbefore he enteredthe eleventh grade commented, 1. The boy's culturalinterests are really meager. He hasn't hadmuch stimulationalong this line at home. But I think he wouldlike these things if he had a chance. He is responsiveto almost everything,, you know,especially whenadults give him guidance or he seesthat his friendsenjoy such expresiions.

Sense of Destin : Although Stanremains modest and on the conservative in hisview of the impacthe will have As he:. sees future, he doesexpect to befairly successful. effOt and it,* "Everyone cando well enough. It just takes . tionesty.." He continues: sine I don't expectto change theworld. I'm not I'd want to takethat kind ofresponsibility..., But I do think mostpeople could standto be improVed. However, people meanwell. As for me,I..would like to be an engineer ormaybe a computerprogrdMmer. 222

to be nobody-but-yourself-- in a world which is doingits best, night and day, to make you everybodyelse-- means to fightthe hardest battle which any human being canfight;

and-never stop fighting. . e.e cummings letter 1955

The Creative IntellectualProtote

The creative intellectual as anadolescent "ideal" type is most nearlyself-actualizing in attitudeand behavior of the three types.* He is similar to thestudious in that he is idealistic andresponsible, but unlikethe studious, he breaks with traditionand precedent. He wants to think for himself andin terms of the future,and he is concerned about both the humancondition and the humanestate. The social leader and thestudious tend to live in thepast and in the present andthus do not see a needfor planning a future. Management will suffice. In contrast, the creative intellectual sees plannedand intelligent change asthe only alternative. If we can agree withthe philosophers andscientists who observe that tobe human is to be acreature of thought and to have a senseof the future, thenthe young creative intellectual is more "fullyhuman."His viewpoint coincides with those socialphilosophers who claim theworld is too dirigerous for anything less than utopia. He does not believe that the status quo orcustom have approachedsuch an ideal. He tends to be criticalof majority values and conventional wisdom. To him, existing systemsdo not 1111111111=1111.....16111 " *The adult prototypesand historical antecedents (including case histories)for the creativeintellectual style are discussed atlength in Chapter II, 223

Seeing the guarantee rationality,justice or legitimacy. past and present asdeeply flawed, thecreative intellectual "what is." focuses on "whatought to be7" not"what was" or toward He hopes toimprove the presentsociety by working humanistic goals such asliberty, equalityand fraternity. has, that he And a few ofthem recognize, asCrane Brinton intellectuals will haveto have faith,hope and and other 49 charity if thesegoals are to berealized. Despite the deeplyoptimistic view heldby the cre- of man ative intellectualwith respect tothe improvability the public seesis often and social progress,the face which The creativein- skeptical, pessimisticand iconoclastic. tellectual finds manyof common man'ssocial habits and For the suc- ethical positionsunattractive anduntenable. doubts do cessful artist orscientist, thesegeneral human Those who become not extend to anenervating self-doubt. and truly productivetend to believefirmly in themselves valu- their ability tocreate or discoverthe new and the hubriS. The socially able. There is at. times aquality og they can creative and theutopians do notdoubt but that the process -- plan a betterkind of world.And for them, product. the doing and theplanning--is asimportant. as the merge insuch As we haveobserved before,duty and pleasure is often con- a wayfor:the creativeintellectual that he joyously engagedin learn- spicuously,self-consciously and and learning canbe ing. At such timeswork can be play; leaders who manage for learning'ssake. Unlike the social and sci- people and runbusinesses, theartists, scholars it. In- entists prefer todo their ownwork, not delegate individual deed, thecreative act is andmust remain an that this ex- and not acorporate process. To the extent takes pression is effective,the self is foundand identity on substance. Learning becomes acentral endeavor. They understand is my Yale Ishmael in MobyDick who held"a whale ship .1. richness of College and myHarvard."By such openness, a experience andinformation is acquiredand it is retained writing. through mentalrehearsal or byconversation or by of Colette consideredher life to be "aseries of moments awareness"--these includedher love affairswith men and her rapport withnature--and all wererecorded candidly 50 individuals is not and subjectively. Learning for such confined to thetime-frame of school oroffice hours or but the space-frame ofthe classroom andthe institute, Non-verbal learn- pervades thebreadth and lengthof life. generalist ing takes on greatimportance and forthose of a True persuasion, nothingis irrelevant toanything else. of learning touches man'sdeepest nature,his inner core meaning, his realBeing. It is personaland collective, individual anduniversal. Men are guidedby the questionsthey ask and the intellectual does notplan aims tLay hold. The creative by eco- to succeedthrough academicthrust and sortie nor instead to leavehis nomic pillage andplunder, but hopes be an indi- mark by whatTillich has called"the courage to thought of vidual."This is reflectedin the systematic the scientist, orin the "directionalfree association" of the of the artist. The plan is tobecome a resident Some expect to creative and/orintellectualcommunity. present them- embrace socialreform, otherswant to find, and the dis- selves throughthe arts, andstill others prefer flexibility and cipline of thesciences. Almost all value intellectual and moralforthrightness. Many areintroverts and who focusintently oncreative/intellectual interests do not developinterpersonal facility. Unfortunately, theorganizational societyand the institutionalized schoolsdo not encouragesuch activities. assignment The school cantolerate those whowork on the (the (the studious) orthose who disregardthe assignment who social leaders),but not thecreative intellectuals, 225 1: challenge the validity of the assignment. As Presthus remarked, being against self-realization wouldbe like being against an early Spring, but such is ourJanus-like character in the schools that we have no problemgiving lip- service to these values and at the same timedemanding con- 51 formity. The bureaucracies within the larger society also view the questioning mind as anathema. Many of ,the attitudes and values of American society aredirectly and specifically opposed to the most fundamental aspectsof. the creative intellectual style. This opposition comes in the form not only of apathy toward autonomousefforts, but in voiced disapproval from family, friends andteachers. As can be seen in the cases which willbe presented, the students who are committed to this stir,ta and variations on the theme, continue tosearch for & vi:lieu in which the questing mind can feel at ease..

, - 226

"It sometimes happens that the very center of organization of a personality shifts suddenly and apparently without warning. Some impetus, coming perhaps from a bereavement, an illness, or a.religious conversion even from a teacher or book, may lead-to a reorientation." . ' Gordon Allport, Becouliea (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1955, O. 57)

Carol Richards--Neo-Creative

Theke is, in all men, a creative vision and a hidden kernel of hope. For the social leaders, this birthright has been sold for pottage, but for the studious it remains- - the dormant desire that may be brought to life by happy circumstance or by tragic disruption.Change from conventional academic achievement to the creative intellectual style can occur if the conditions are special or the individual is ready. New directions, new goals and new ways of working can be assumed at any point in life. A revela- tion can occur, metamorphosis can take place, and the individual can move into a higher order of evolvement. At least half of the able students we have studied, particularly those who call themselves studious, choose the creative intellectual style as ideal. It is this group that has a readiness for positive personality change and a propensity to move toward more self-actualizing ways of behaving. Meeting someone who provides an acceptable model or offers needed encouragement may make a difference. The knowledge that creative styles and fulfilling patterns of life are possible may provide impetus; or recognition from a "significant other" may turn the tide.As Emerson once said, "Everyone needs a promoter."Experiences which result in intensive self-search and reconsideration may open the door to a new way of living. These can include the ideas and people met in books or in discussions as well as in the conditions of unusual perceptiveness which come 52 These can include from reverie orfrom peak exporiences. reborn as the times ofpersonal vision inwhich things are if being seen forthe first time. There are adultswho turn theirbacks on routine deadlines- - patterns ofwork--following ordersand meeting Earlier we have re- to live livesof creativeexpansion. 53and ferred to Bucke'sreports of cosmicconsciousness 54 Both in- Maslow's studies ofself-actualizing persons. significant gain in vestigators reportthat there was a the self-awareness in themiddle years butboth also noted ti adoles- uncommonness ofsuch oc:urrences. Our studies of understand- cents have led usto ask whetherthese kinds of ing cannot come sooner. Certainly there is aplasticity not in youth thatpermits and evenwelcomes change.vCould growth proceed moredirectly towardself-actualization rather models and than be distortedand delayed dueto inadequate The sears# for a lack ofencouragement andexpectancy? identity does not haveto end in simplyconfirmation as in the one is. It can--if thesetting is right--result growth. opening of channelsto new and morerewarding kinds of

DeslEiatkInjaadjamilyjactsgEounD Carol Richards girl, feminine, yet a is a small, neat,precise looking interview, done little on thetailOred side. In the first her in the summerbefore she enteredsenior high school, awareness of most outstandingpersonality traits were an emerging belief inher a new-foundself-confidence and an intellectual ability. She attributedthese discoveries ninth grade, and toher to the experiencesshe had in the her-: teacher's influencein particUlar. She characterized student pre- self as havingbeen a good, butshy and quiet than viously, who had notdared to think ofherself as more average. During the experiment somelatent forceseemed to active emerge inCarol, and she foundherself taking an , 228 part in the intellectuallife of the experimentalclass: outspoken in. ,discussions,ambitious in preparation forclass herself" work. Her pArlier.f-,ars ofmaking "a spectacle of seemed to havesubsided. She even went to theextreme of arguing with theprofessionals whom she wasinterviewing for class material. The interviewer foundCarol to be very openand eager to speak of this newpersonal growth, willingto elaborate upon insights onher inner life and topresent her views on peopleand the world in general. She was frank and even a littleabrupt in manner, butall in all, verypleasant, very earnest,and very eager tovoice her opinions. In the secondinterview a year later Carol'senthusi- asm for thecreative intellectualstyle was so marked that one of theresearch assistants wholistened to the tape recording several timescommented that she seemedto be going through the collegesophomore metamorphosis. She spoke of writing andwriters, symbols and style. She had begun to breakaway fromher mother and becameinvolved with girl friendswho seemed equallyinterested in world problems, independentbehavior and aestheticexpression. She had developed aparticularly strongfriendship with Katja, whom she met inthe experimental course. Perhaps the reason forCarol's contemplativemind is that life withinher family has beengreatly disrupted. She very seldom;peaks of her father,but her mother has had some influence onher. Mrs. Richards is arather pleasant, conventional womanwhose life is basedlargely on religious faith. She is orderly andlives a patterned life, and is also fairly nervous,the kind in which dailydevia- tions must and do resultin ,"nervous" tension. She has been rigid in bringing upCarol, placing particularempha- sis on obedience,which Carol has grown toresent as a limiting factor inintellectual growth. Carol concedes that obedience is a virtue incertain matters such aspublic 229 1:11 ordinances and divine law,but obedience to traditionand; to cultural norms andsubmission to certain "acceptabie" patterns of behaviorrestricts man's freedom toexplore new directionsof thought: "People stagnate," shesaid, "and when this happensculture stagnates, too." Sometimes Carol is sent to livewith relatives and sheoften feels peculiar and shunted around: "But then I think ofthe millions of homeless peoplein the world--all those poorpeople who just wander aroundwith nothing to look forwardto and nothing to reflect on and--MyGod! I actually live inlux- ury compared tothem!" However, she dislikes manyof the chaotic tendencies and habitsof her relatives, soshe con- fines herself much of thetime to her room with l'%er own; books and ideas. When she is alone, "Ilove--love deeply and hate deeply. I love people and whatthey are anmhat they can hate misery and the poorconditions.viiiich the people I love findthemselves in." As a young girl, Caroldid not have many opportunities to read. There were few magazines orbooks in the house, but she read the newspaperoften and anything else that she could confiscate--eventemporarily. She didn't know what she was looking forbut she always seemedto be engaged in a search. Nothing was quite clearenoual'i or made really good sensebut no. ome would listen toher questions. The manyincongruitieS of life made a deep impression on her sensitive youngmind, and she feels thatthis helped her to develop herhumanitarian attitudes. Now she reads all that she can, andhas developed three modelswhom she admires greatly--Gandhi,Schweitzer and Kennedy, She studies the social sciences onher own, and believesthat she is beginning tofind her place in life as aresult. Carol's attitudinaltransformations are reflected 230 in the changingdescriptions of her Alter-Ego,*in which she describes thegirl she admires most. In the summer of 1964 she tells ofher ideal self-image: She is the mostnon-conforming person Iknow. She has really broken awayfrom our little society. I admire that. And the way she dresses,acts, talks. She's extremely open-minded. She will stand up and say "no" in a crowd. It's fun to be with her because you never know what toexpect. She seems to think all of thetime and comes out withthe most unusual things. This was quite a differentview than she held inSeptember, 1962, before the experimental programhad begun. At that time she wrote of herAlter-Ego as follows: "" The person I write aboutis my ideal person. She is Christine Smedly, agirl 19, and a brilliant student who works hard, andyet she manages to keep her popularity. She has all sorts ofbeautiful clothes and plenty of money. At the moment she is studying very hard tobe an astronomer. She loves sports and participatesin as many as she possibly can. Although outwardly it hadbeen known she was to become a nurse,her secret ambition was always to become anastronomer. The one good thing about her is that no matterwhat, she always puts her studies above everythingelse. It is quite apparent that she has had a verygood upbringing, both religious and vocational. By the end of theexperimental program in February, 1963, Carol's ideal hadchanged. Instead of studying hard and focusing on clothes, moneyand popularity (whiledream- ing of being anastronomer), she has decided itis best to become aware of the worldin all its variety. Her Alter- Ego story at thistime is of anotherChristine. Christine Harold, a 21- year-old woman had just set out from collegeinto a vast world. She had studied many things incollege- --art, world problems, world,situations, economics,everything that is really. basic. She is now setting, outto travel all over the world. She was undecided in her

41111.11011111110411111111111.1111111111111111111.11.141 *This refers to the AEtest, an instrument thatasks each student towrite what sort of personhe would like to be in his future life. 231

occupation, so shedecided to travel andfind her- reading self. All the whileshe was constantly and becoming awareof our world andall its aspects. She was living agull and wonderfullife. She wrote she a book onall of heir travelsand the situations came uponand what shethought of them. She didn't need to settle down,for she was doingwhat she loved and since we havebut one life why notlive it to its fullest extent. However, by the summerof 1963 Carol hisdecided that she should dosomething about thisgreat and wonderful world and theproblems that too manyuncaring people have social service. produced. Thus she has adoptedthe ethic of do In her interviewat that time shesaid that she must somethLaz to help theworld. She considers thePeace Corps and as a wayto help people--mankindin general, America herself. She continues, interested inthe problems ofthe I'm terribly of . We should tryto work out ways world. . them. solving these. Each of usshould think about her In the spring of1964 this social concernwas still demonstrates primary focus. Her Alter-Ego storyat this time accomplishment of goals. a finalityof choice and an Sue Diane Noble was ashining example ofthe ideal Peace Corps only a American. She had been in the few months andalready much hadbeen done. This small village inSouth America hadbeen cleaned, scrubbed and pestseliminated. Sue had physically participated in the clean upand rebuilding of a fewhuts. A small school,hospital and other essential establishmentswere erected.

"s has' always done very Psychological.st: Carol during the ninth well inschool--maintaining an "A" average grade--although her gradeshave droppedslightly since the and.apti- end of theexperimental program. On achievement (the Cali- tude tests, given asshe entered theninth grade fornia Advanced the CaliforniaMental Maturity Tests), she scored near Test, and theDifferential Aptitude Her the mean for oursuperior experimentalpopulation. 232 performance on the in the eleventh grade was somewhatbetter in relation tothe total experimental population than onprevious tests, and placed her approximately one-halfstandard deviation abovethe mean for the group. The ACE also showed an upward trend from1962-64 that cannot be entirely explained by Carol's increasingmaturity. At the beginning of the ninth grade hercritical thinking score was comparable to that of college freshman(a raw score of 31). During the experimental year it rose sevenpoints and in the following year a gain of five points wasnoted. On the ninth gradepre-testing Carol indicated on the Student Profile Checkthat she felt herself to bethe studiout. type. This holistic self-assessment wasconfirmed by other measures. Her scores on the testsassessing creative interests and values--theOPI, A-V-L and SIS--all placed her near the mean forthe experimental group at the beginning of the ninth grade. However, both her self image and her test scores wereradically different by the end of the experimental program. She now saw herself as a creative intellectual and test data(high scores on the Aesthetic, and Thinking. Introversionscales of the OPI and the CreativeIntellectual Scale of the SIS) confirmed that her attitudes weresimilar to adults whose interests were in creativeintellectual realms. A year later--on chase II testing --Carol's scores on all these instruments were among thehighest received by students in the program. These changes were confirmedby her accounts of reading interestsand other spare-time activities as these were reported on tAlwSIS. Carol was approximately onestandard deviation above the mean for our experimental group onthe Humanitarian- Altruism Scale in both 1963 and1964. This is to say that she is tremendously cccerned about human problems andwould very much like totake pro-social action. At pre- and 233 post-testing Carol also showed marked"openness" of mind in the fall of 1962 and in the spring of1963 she was almost a standard deviation below theexperimental group mean on both the Rokeachpocoatism Scale and Rigidity Scale. Perhaps one of the most distinctive andstrongest characteristics that Carol revealed in ourtesting program was her interestin independent behavior and careerorienta- tion in women. In the post-testing and a year laterin Phase II testing her scores on theAsgeetanceor22nScaje were among thehighest received by any of the experimental girls. And on the Self-Actualization in Womeninventoy in 1963 and again in 1964 she chose theLevel 3 girl to describe both her actual and ideal self. In other words, from the results on these two measures we caninfer that Carol wants to be independent andself-actualizing in behavior, and that she hopes other womenwill have opportunities to develop in this manner as well.

pasholosical Dimensions--The Contem lativeMind: Carol likes to think about a great rangeof problems and has shown this inclination towardcontemplation since she was a very smallchild. Her solitary, thoughtful behavior has always been accompanied, however,by an active interest in people and a strong desire to beobedient: As far.back.as I can rememberI.liked to go in a corner and just think. Maybe you'd say I wasn't really thinking then, but I just likedto be alone with my ideas and dreams. No one could understand that. I always liked to be by myself. Oh, I liked to be with kids. But I'd stop playing and go off by myself. They didn't understand. I still like to be quiet and just think. These quiet, reflective times can give one an opportunity to work out better ways ofliving, Carol thinks. She feels people should plan aheadand organize their lives, and is appalled by what sheinterprets as the needlessly desperate tone and haphazard characterof the lives of her immediate family (except for hermother) and of her relatives: 234

My relatives areall aboutthe same except for She is the only onein the familywith mother. she wants. a senseof direction,who knows what of,--ugh!--well, youknow. They The rest are sort be just don't thinkand don't plan. They seem to wound up by somemysterious force andthen they scoot off in alldirections--usually lateand I read somewhereabout "motionmania"; frantic. sister are I think theyhave it. My brother and always on the go,but they never seemto ask why. And my aunt anduncle--I'm stayingwith them right think or plan ororganize their now--don't ever It lives. They are alwayslate to everything. seems to me youshould sit downwith your thoughts and try tofind a pattern andget a sense of pro- That's what Iliked about ourFour Worlds portion. and somehow Textbook. We looked atthe whole world Zie could manage it. I found that Icould separate things and putthem back together. read), Carol admiresher mother (whoalso likes to in the family and reportsthat the motheris the only one happen, she can talkto. She likes todiscuss why things she expose her- what is behindit all. Only rarely would had oc- self to rawexperience withoutreflecting on what sister like horror curred. As she says,"My brother and get so emotional movies but I don'tunderstand how they can what he wasthink- about them. I think aboutthe writer and ing about whenhe was writing." interview, she discussed A year later,in her second again: critical thinkingand her desireto find patterns idea of making senseout of the world, I like the these but all of ushave to be careful we apply Classification createsprecedent and patterns. Gen- we cancreate straightjackets for ourselves. erally I movetoward the looserand more complex kinds oforganization. They rllow morefreedom. Sometimes I thinkit's only theteachers who need learn to work the textbooks. The students should in freedom. Carol felt thatdespite her interestin "thinking" until she was aninth as achild, she didnot really think socialized, obedient' grader. Mainly she sawherself as a child: 235

Before, I had old-fashionedteachers who taught 1.3 two and two, you know,right out of the books. .4 Now the last yearin junior high they let mehave ideas of my own; I don't haveto think something just because the book says so. I've even had the courage to arguewith adults! I really tried.ito I was arguing aboutcapital punishment withthis local lawyer; he believedin it and I didn't. I went to the encyclopedia andmagazines and books and everything I could get myhands on, and-Iwrote this up. It was a kind of editorial. I was trying to give him all of these facts. Finally he said, "You've got a lot of good pointsthere - -you did a good job,but you still haven't changed mymindl" I couldn't understandthat. He didn't have any facts but he wouldn't agreewith me 'cause he already had an opinion. All he would say was,"You are too emotionalabout it because that'sthe way people are about capitalpunishment."Adults are always telling me I don'tknow what I'm talking about. I get so mad!" Carol's concern with world affairsand the future of man was revealed in adiscussion which followedthe showing of the Loren Eiseley film(from the g...... n.....3ecoIBeinanc-ning. Film Series) in the experimentalsocial studies classes during the 1962-1963 school year. A sectionof the discussion transcript follows: Carol; I agree with Dr. Eiseleythat we must plan for the future; we must respectit and we should care about it,because if we don't we allknow where it is going to end. If people were moreconcerned with philosophy we might have abetter chance to survive. People must think and talkand care about things. You have to bring forth anidea and then cultivate it. A classmate challengedher with: "If you want your philosophy to grow and spreadthroughout the world, you have to preparefor a fight and there isgoing to be a fight." Carol: But if you use force, you arelowering your ideals and putting yourself on alevel with someone else's philosophy. We have to do it bysetting an example, not by forcing ourphilosophy on them. We have to educate ourselvesabout our enemies and then we will understandthem. And then in a later dialoguewith another student on the common man: 236

Student: The intellectuals run the world. Carol: The common man is the one who should do something about it. Teacher: Well, what are you doing, Carol? Carol: If we learn about our problems and discuss them openly as we do in this social studies class; then I think we can help in world government. It's our responsibility to learn asmuch as we can.

The Open Mind: Carol reads widely and reflects upon and is influenced by what she reads: I change my mind often. What I read influences me. For instance, I'm interested in Vietnam, but I know there are no pat answers. Sometimes trying to.really understand and sort things out isfright- ening and confusing. Whellyou study you get more opinions--a range of opinions- -and I would saythis really helps. I admire the non-conformist with the open mind who is outspokenly honest. Later in the same interview she relatedthis interest in diverse and challenging educationalpatterns which ap- pealed to her: Discussions help, me to understand things, especially if the people in the group are open andintelligent and well-read. Classes are too large in school, and we shouldn't just readtextbooks. I like to hear all sides of anissue--it's hard to be heard in a big class--and readfrom many sources. It was this way in our ninth gradesocial studies class, but the course was so new. Maybe I wasn't ready. Before I had mainly thought about.. getting good grades and boys; I didn'treally think about world problems. I think I would get more out of it now. This year I've had to keep my interests up on my own. I'd like to read and discuss... and I'd like to go on fieldtrips again. .n

TheIaguLarallkad: Carol's memories of school show fondness as well as disappointment: I was real excited about school, evenwhen I was little, but then Ididn't know what to expect. I just went along with it.They taught us right from the books; I didn't know anybetter. They made you do something because thebook told you to do it. That was the kind of teacher I had all through school up to the ninth grade. 237

CarJ1 took theexperimental socialstudies class in As she ninth grade and saysthat she "reallychanged.." phrased it, "I don'tthink I was really awareof anything creative refore that."This change from thestudiouso the intellectual style wasnoteworthy) as wehave ,'seen, in her scores on ourattitudes, interestsand valuesassessment in the fall of 1962(pre-testing) and againin the early spring of 1963. Carol commented inher firstinterview, the summer followingthe course, Here was a coursewhere I was allowed -evenencour- aged--to think. Someone seemed tobelieve teenagers wasting importantideas on, andthey put were worth at, was a the responsibility forlearning on us. funny feeling, you know,all of asudden-Ito just walk into the world. You take alook-around and it makes you sick. It really makes you,want to do something. a-year in senior In her secondinterview--and after high school--shereflected, After taking theexperimental course,it's bard for me to study theconventional courses. A bad effect of the courseis that my gradeshave gone down this year. My interests havechanged so that I can't keep mymind on studyinghumdrum courses. I've become soinvolved in my owneducation, I feel like I'm wastingtime in school. Before I took the course, I wantedto be a nurse orteacher, but now myhorizons have expanded--Iwant to go into something like humIpmrelations. I think In geometry, Iread all the timein class. I could have learnedgeometry long ago. In grades 1 through 8, it wasthe same oldthing over and over again. Most intelligentkids are bored to death in gradeschoolo If kids could beseparated according to ability more,we wouldbe better off. In grade schools,teachers don't realizethat you're capable of so muchmore--just because you're alittle kid. I don't think I everhad a teacher inthe grades who encouragedoutside reading. The books in the grade schoollibrary--my God, I could gothrough them in a half anhour or so, and no oneever encouraged me to readfurther. School had mebrain-washed. I studied as anauto- matic reaction. I always wasobedient, I guess. 238

I didn't I did whatI was told. And I wasshy. myself--at homeor at want to make aspectacle of Those early yearswhen I Wasbeginning school. I wasn'told enough. I to think,people told me had to keep mythoughts tomyself. reading addictalthough, as Carol hasalways been a desired her readingleft muchto be we haveseen,she felt At the endof theexperimental pro- until theninth grade. she commented, gram I was the time inelementaryschool. I read all reading everybook I could always inthe library really read on. But I didn'tever get my hands read a bookfor what until this year. I didn't just whatit appearedto be. it really was;; read writers, it' ix now andI fightwith the I'm soaking and Postbut I want some- My folksreadjAfe, Look writers I findin I 1 ike thekind of thing more. I already ownabook- ....2es/AHar andSaturdayReview. I likepaperbacksbecause I case fullof books. points, write in themargins andmake my want to I readSteinbeck, especially whenI read essays. My parentsobject tothings Dostoevsky andTolstoy. Wrath. They with theWind andGrapes of like Gone that I canreadcritically just don'tunderstand and thatI ammaturing. She reminisces: couldn't read abook, because Mother told meonce I And little, so Idecided toread it. I was too reading moredifficult books. that got mestarted on We could major turningpoint in mylife. That was a things when wewere younger, have learnedso many been ourtime, when wecould have but we wasted learning more. I hate to working on ourown and when I don't to a subjectfull time, apply myself different whenI was little.. like it. But it was I school usedto have mebrain washed. I think something andI learnedit with- was toldto learn automatic reac- I wasstudying as an out question. think that I wasenjoying something tion* I used to when I reallywasn't. work becauseit's so conven- I don'tlike school and you do: You studyright fromthe books, tional. don't everget to gooutside' this andthat and you other stuff. got so muchhomework and because you've library and better if youcan goto the like it subject andread it and pick out abook on each That way,instead ofgetting get tounderstandit. having a test fact out of atextbook and it fact .for I think youget a lot over it, youlearnsomething. read books onyour own. more outof it if you 239

great deal The HumaneSentiments: Carol says with a something to helpthe world; of feeling,"I've got to do She takes I'm glad I'm likeI am instead oflike my sister. She doesn'tcare." the world forgranted. Devil may caret how best to However, Carolpersonally is not sure youth organizationsdo help. For example,she feels most problems andcomments: not offer a way tocontribute to world Things like "I belonged tothe Girl Scouts for awhile. in Civil Rights; this are just tooorganized. I'd rather work I would like todo somethingin humanrelations." in a con- Carol reportsthat her familyis religious but ventional sense andwants to helpthe underprivileged, in her familyand she, finds that shediffers from others ,;neighborhood in the wayshe woulddo.,things. Of course all myfamily is forthe underdog. know, if oneof us girls But Mom would die, you and married a Negro. But we're afamily family American Americans. The typicalAmerican doesn't problems we have;not really. He think about the He thinks about gettingahead and hisfamily. about juveniledelinquency. Once doesn't think contribute in a while you'llfind someone who'll but think more abouttheir to this or that write everyday problems.You can tellby what they to Ann Landersallthat troublewith all those People are caught upin the day-to- relatives! about all day7-they justlive and theydon't think who are starving andtry to planwhat those people their forties to do. There are plentyof people in who could stilldo somethingsabout the problems TirTErZEITTait they thinkabout themselves,their families and theirneighbors next door! Carol When -asked abouther own plansfor the future, replied, of being a-teacherand then I First I thought I thought of thePeace Corpsbecause I thought done there. I'd be helping would get a lot more I've America, and peoplein general, andmyself. ideas in myhead I don'tknow which . got so many interested in the to turn to first. I'm terribly world; the coursehelped me to see problems of the of solving them. We should tryto work out ways Each of us shouldthink about them. I had these. individual never beforethought I coulddo much as an 240

but then I read a coupleof books on howthe individual can have impact. I wrote aneditorial for our paper. They didn't print itbut I did make this point. But now I really thinkI've gotto do something about worldproblems. And ,I feel I can dosomethingeven by myself. I just can't explain it, but I feelit. It is apparent thatCarol thinks all peoplehave responsibilities to theirsocieties and to thepeoples of the world at large. She feels adults coulddo far more than they do, but sheis not sure the adultsof the sixties will--thus she puts mostof her faith in youngpeople. Among adolescents she notesthat girls seem to be moreadvanced in the development of asocial conscience. As she says, "Boys are less thoughtful. Afraid they'll lose thatprecious image of toughness." In Carol's statementsthere is a common thread which weinterpreted as a world view. When asked to igive one wish, shereplied, "If I had onewish I'd wish for world peace. I've thought aboutthat before and that'sthe one thing I'dreally like."

The.Ingekodent Stance: Again and again Carolshows a very strongdesire to speak out andmake her own decisions. She wants time to bealone, time to thinkthings elrough, but she recognizesthere must always becompromises with the family and thecommunity. Thus she seems to combine her independencewith a sense ofresponsibility. I've always liked to gooff by myself.Mother didn't really understand. I even used to think I'd like to live on anisland all by myself, dothe things I wanted todo, read books...butobedience was what myparents stressed most. It helps. You can't be independentin everything, totallyinde- pendent all of thetime. There are some limits that you have tostay within. But I always come back to thinking aboutdoing the things I'd like to do. I get that feeling Iwant to be all alone but I would probablywant to talk to someone or share things. I think differentlythan my family in so many ways. My mother's forintegration in schools and 241

restaurants but she wouldn'twant a Negro family to live in theneighborhood. As I said, she'ddie if I married a Negro orsomething like that,which is very possible. I don't know, Ibelieve in it because of these people Iknow. SIIB's a woman of English descent andhe's Chinese, andboth of their families have cast themout. But they love each other very much and Idon't see anything wrongwith it. They didn't marry tospite someone. They were in love. They believed in it. Carol's independence ofmind is apparent inher at- ,titude on religion: I'll question myreligion and then inthe next minute I'll think it'sreally great. At an earlier time there was a securityin religion, Ithink. Without religion I wouldn'tbe so humane. In our religion we are supposedto love others asourselves, the Golden Rule. Somehow this seems tobe easier for me than for somepeople. I like to look at people open-minded andyet I find I'mverb critical. IL-never say anything,but I feel this way,and that bothers me. I just think aboutthings--the way people act, the way theytalk to other people,the things they say. I try to be nice to everyoneeven though I do think thesethings. Carol has a strongdrive toward mastery,also: I guess I try to dodifficult things by myselfquite often. Even when I was inthe first grade I can remember trying again and again toread Swiss Robinson. I finally had togive it up, but Itried very hard andwould struggle through a pageagain and again. Carol's efforts to shapeher environment andinfluence the the world are notconfined to books, tothe home or even community: r I'm rebellious about manythings, mainly the boundaries of our society--what happens about races and all that stuff. I just want to tellthe whole world off about it. And yet how can youwhen you're just fifteen?But I do think youngpeople have things to say worthsaying. I'm always arguing with Mother. She'll tell me I don'tknow what I'm talking about and I'll goto the library andlook everything up on it. But she won't listento me. Even so I get thesatisfaction that I havethought things through andhave checked the facts. Not only does Carolnot accept the status quoherself but she also enjoysthe companionship ofother dissenters: In school Idon't like people to agree. A discussion should bringout good points onboth sides and that's whatI like. But you should beinvolved. You have to carewhat you're talkingabout. If you don't feel stronglyabout what you'redoing, there's no sensein doingsit.,. Ifeel strongly aboutthe things I do, you knew. I like to think up newways of tackling aproblem. And I like toapproach things on my ownrather than have someonetell me how to do something.

The AestheticOrientation: Carol has had little opportunity to discoverthe aesthetic worldthat man has cre- Lansing area, she has ated. Like most ablechildren in the what few opportunitiesto explore thearts and to discover taken her to would appeal toher. Her parents have never concerts or artexhibits, and shefeels that herinterests in this area aredirectly the result ofthe encouragement from the school. In the experimentalsocial studies class preparation she read herteacher's copy ofLust for Life in Detroit. for a class visitto a special VanGogh exhibit in I don't think Iwould have likedit (the exhibit) because as muchif I had not readhis life story, you have tounderstand the artistbefore you truly understand his work. In reflecting onthe aestheticdimension a year later she said: I think whatreally impresses meis that someone can put downhis feelings on paper. I like to see something that theartist really feels,something that he really putsall his feelinginto the color and shape. Carol has come toenjoy poetry andwrites it when melancholy she is meditative orsad. She thinks of poetry as for a group. and something veryprivate. "Poets don't write poetry over and They write forindividuals. I love to read and varied over."She loves words,especially "the roots meanings and metaphors. When they are usedthey create:a feeling, special beauty. They are often thebest way to show 243

Books would be drabwithout these figures ofspeech." In speaking of beauty shemade clear her preferencefor natural formations overthe buildings manerects--"except for Gothic cathedrals." She particularly enjoysthe natural beauty of Petoskey innorthern Michigan. And she revels in beauty for its own sake: "Beauty erases everythingelse there from your mind. It absorbs your wholesoul and you're inside you." in it. You Can actually feelthe beauty there

ansec)fI...... 2)estin: Carol has great hopefor herself, It is her view _. for the young and formankind in general. that recognizingabilities will be a steptoward their-realization, and that a humanbeing must use theabilities the he has. She speaks of the influenceof her teacher in ninth grade experimental program: Mrs. Howell has reallyencouraged me a lot. She told me what my abilities were.Knowing that I could do almost anythinghelps to bring them out, you know. I began thinking aboutwhat I could do and I couldn't do. I was almost shockedwhen I first thought about it. I had thought I was average and thenI had that course and itbrought more out of me than Ithought was there. I've sorta been shown that I havethe ability to doalmost anything I want (that is,if I study or if Ihave the money). And I feel I must use myabilities. I have a conscience;I just feel compelledto do what I have theability to do. Carol feels she wouldlike to attend a smallcollege. Here it would bepossible to engage indiscussions and to meet professors whowould be "knowledgeablehuman beings, possible models."She would probablylike to live in .a college town. Carol has a greatbelief in the potentialof the youth and theirability to handle the'-worldproblems in If the future: "Children could become moreintelligent. we taughtthem to read when they werethree and encouraged them to think, I'm surethings would change inthe world. School should not wastechildren's time." 244

But Carol thinksadults, too, are beingcaught up in this increasingability to use the mind: People are becoming moreintellectual. People are thinking more these daysand they are accepting non-conformity. We're goinci to haveGreenwich Villages all over theUnited States. Society binds too much, but people arebreaking away. It is her view thatif we changededucational methods our young peoplewould become not only moreintelligent but would also develop moreof a social conscience. Such changes should be made for everyone: Kids in ordinary classesjust don't read books likl% we have read. There's really adifference. It seems like I'mtwenty and they'rethirteen. They don't realize whatis going on in theworld. I can see how this canhappen because no onehas everintroduced them to ideas orto problems or to the world. Even average studentswc-ild gain a lot from aspecial course. Oh, some would take it at their own speed,but I think they wouldbe inspired. And if only a coupleof them were, it would be worth it anyway. These educational changesmight result in modifications of attitudeswhich would affect allof society. Carol feels that adolescents maybring about some neededchanges in society whichadults, due to theirprejudices, cannot accomplish. My mother isprejudiced--I know she is. She can't think of thingsobjectively and many adults are this same way. Adolescents aren't soprejudiced. Adults develop thismental block, andthey have a harder time looking atthings. Teenagers still haven't settled in theiropinions, and they are more open to newideas as a result. 245

Gandhi once said thatwhat worried him most was "thehaFOnesp of heart of theeducatew

Kat a Totr t- Scho 1 ar

For many young peoplethe distance betweenpast and present has expandedto the point wherethey cannot find dis- relevant models. This problem, which maybe called a affiliation with thepast and may expressitself in what among Riesman has calledprivatism, is particularlyapparent However, the the most able andthoughtful of ouryouth. gifted young scholar-scientist modelremains viable for some people and particularlyfor those whodisaffiliate themselves cul- from the youthculture and identifyinstead with the scholar- tural continuitythat might be termedthe realm of the scholwr ship and creativeendeavor. The tradition of pursuit of truth who is engaged in adisciplined and intense is an old.one. Bacon is the eat:emplarand the Enlightenment estab- set the style. Models are abundantin the scholarly lishment amongscientists particularly,who are strong be- lievers in a universeof truth and whofeel that man has by and can continueto bring us closerto these ultimates faith in his discoveries andcreations. There remains a the achievements ofrational knowledgeby objective methods. find- The passion fordiscovery not onlyembraces the joy of ing out but alsoincludes the excitementof the pursuit. Their dogmatism andideology is thescientific method and the search fortruth. For many, knowledgeand creativeachievement loom ade- as moreimportant goals thanthe development of more the. quate patterns ofhuman interaction. For this group, quality of immediatesocial:life is not as important as the formulationof new theories toexplain the universe or newdesigns for man'shabitations. Such respect for by the mind andcreative imagination,if not accompanied 246 an eye casttoward society and a generousheart, can lead 5 to scientificdeterminism. MacKinnon'found much dedication to their work amonghis architects but littlepro-social 56 57 activity, and Roe and Eiduson report a lack of strong altruistic inclinations amongthe scientists theystudied. With the scientist-scholarthere is a willingnessto work hard and topostpone satisfactions anddefer rewards. They have a sense ofcontinuity, of being part of apast. This offers a security notavailable to youth lesscommitted to learning or at leastto learning within theconfines of scientific or scholarlyparadigms. However, such emphasis on the intellectand esoteric scholasticism canbecome a retreat from humanness, even arejection of life. AsMaslow 58 says, it canbe "A sort of high IQ returnto the womb."

...... p...ndFilyBa.claDescritioramround: A Hungarian-Amer- ican girl named KatjaToth has been chosen toexemplify the scientist-scholar. While we concentrate on Katjaherself in this description, wewill at times refer toher twin brother, Jon, since the twohave many of the sameactivi- ties and interests. Their relationshipsymbolizes the strong support and encouragementthat the scientist-scholaroften receives from his familywhich enables him to preservehis unique identity in an oftenhostile environment. Katja comments on this: At first we livedright by the park and wespent all our days at thepark. And I remember that Jon and I were alwayshappy. We never had any bigfights or anythinglike that, but we were neverreally close until we movedto Lansing. Because we had moved and it was new, wedidn't have too many other friends. Jon has only had one ortwo real friends and it is the samewith me. I think we are rather close. Katja is a small, attractive,vibrant girl who could xob.ably be the "most populargirl in the school" ifshe desired. She values getting thebest grades and would go 247

probably alienating to any competitiveextreme to get them, Being a veryintelligent many otherstudents while doing so. is girl who might even appearmore ablethan she actually skills, Katja is eager due to her highlydeveloped verbal opinions--most of which arestrong, to converse andshare her criticiz- almost to the pointof bias--andespecially enjoys Yet ing others in areaswhere she herselffeels superior. wit than such criticisms moreoften take theform of sharp delightful 1.1- of complaining,and one wouldfind the remarks the attack. as long ashp was not personallythe object of to Katja's desire to getthe best gradesin school seemed spirit be more themanifestation of ahighly competitive regard for ,, (reinforced by aHungarian home whichhad a high that she is intellectual achievement)than an indication anxious to pleaseher teachers inthe studious sense. On the surfaceKatja reactedsomewhat negatively to have beenob- to the experimentalclass, but she seems emphasis, par- jecting more to itshumanitarian-idealistic ticularly as expressedby the teacher--anattractive young structure woman--than to eitherthe amount ofwork or the individualism, it seems, of the classitself. Hardheaded humanitarian had led her toreject thepossibility that the goals and sentimentscould do anythingbut sacrifice for the sake creative, anomalous,aggressive individual think she of a slothfuland ignorant mass. She does not simply should have tospend too much ofher own time working to help others. Katja was, in fact, oneof the mostinteresting girls personality encom,-. in our experimentalprogrambecause her ability men- passed not onlythe competition,dogmatism and surprising degree of emo- tioned above, butalso included a of the tional openness aswell as aremarkably good memor: These thoughts andemotions of herearly childhood.years. wistful side ofher 'nature-- reflections revealed a more ". introspection, etc.-- romantic philosophizingabout the stars, .. reported so vividly thatthey appeared almost tobe verbal is paintings. Because Katja is such acomplex person she hard to define easily,except perhaps to saythat her ambition and ability make oneexpect something outof the ordinary from her. Katja and Jon came tothe United States whenthey were three. Their parents settled inFlint where the father worked in a factory fornine years. Because of difficulty with the new language,he was unable to teachin a college preparatory school, as hehad done in Hungary,although his education in science wasroughly comparable tothat received by many Ph.D.'s inAmerican universities. When the family moved to Lansing three yearsago, he took alaboratory position with the government, morecommensurate with hiseduca- tion, but he chafesunder the routinerequirements and longs for the intellectualcomrades he had in Europe. The mother had been a nursein Hungary; and whenthe twins were five shebegan to work in ahospital on the night shift, so that thefather could care forthe children while the twins she was away fromhome. The parents never wanted to have ababysitter, and the fathergladly fed them and put them to bedand, even moreimportant, talked to them about ideas, booksand their Europeanheritage. Katja was very unhappywith this new arrangementat first because she missed hermother, but since thenshe has grown to be very close toher father. "My father became asort of mother, too," shereminisces. As Jon says of Katja, She can arguewith father on an issuefor days at a time andhe'll tolerate it. They battle continu- ously and I had betterkeep my mouth shut. It's true - '-she argueseverything from racialdiscrimina- tion to literature, evento religion. I think she has my views. But I really agreewith my Dad, too. Katja says I worshiphim and I don't. I wouldn't do the things I dosometimes if I worshippedhim. Their childhood seemedto be a very happy one. Katja reports that she was neverpunished physically, andhas 249

has always felt herparents loved her, nomatter what she done. She notes, We take vacationstogether and we do mostthings together. Our parents have alwayskept close track of us and what we weredoing. I think it is agood idea. At least they careabout me. They want to know what I am doing. Of course, I don'talways tell them everything,but I tell themenough so we cancommunicate and they knowwhat is going on. Still I feel that I cando what I want andremain a very necessarypart of the family. The twins enjoy eachother, also. Both are highly intelligent, testing...amongthe upper two percentof American youth. %However, themost striking thingabout them is their identificatiOn with the intellectualworld at large--and their feeling ofindependence. Katja says, Frankly, I think Jon andI have been leftalone to a certain extentto mature in our own way. Like Father hac always stresseddoing well at schooland that sort of thing,getting a higherdegree,..ipLco2-4 lege and all thatsort of stuff. But, as far as conforming, I don't recall myparents ever-making me dosomething that I didn'twant to do, really, unless I realizedthat I should do it. But otherwise, I've been left on myown and havebeen really independent. Katja's parents havefondmemories of her as a child. The mother father recallsparticularly herindependence, and her remembers her as adiplomat evenat an early age. Apparently As a child of she waz careful, notto offend unnecessarily. three, when offeredfood she did want to eat, shewould say, "I'm sureit's very good, but. don't want it now, thank you." Both Jon and Katja werereading before theyattended school and there is everyindication that theirparents, particularly thefather, approved of andfostered this early intellectual development.The two children havecontinued to be avid readers,part.!.cularly Katj a. When she was nine she began to checkbooks out of the adultsection of the library and remembersconflicts with the Mintlibrarian However, she -"' since the rulesdiscouraged such precocity. 250 already was a girlwith formidable charm--tobe used as needed--and soon had thelibrarian not only on herside but also searching forbooks that Katja wanted.

Psychological nent: Katja has consistently ranked at the top of herclass academically, andher marks rewulted in a nearly straight"A" average during her school career. But despite this high gradepoint average, Katja's citizenship marks are variable. Her scores on the standardized measures of achievementand ability given duringthe testing program wouldindicate, as do her grades, thatshe is one of the most able youngpeople in our superior population. Reading scores on the naliforniaAdvanced Reading Test were consistently at"the top" of the test. For example, in both vocabulary andcomprehension she could easily work, as an entering highschool freshman, at the college sophomore level. Other measures to assessintellectual development--the California Men'1,Maturity Test and the Differential Aptitude Tests g 4,a, in theninth, as well as the National MeritScholarshIn Qualifylna.ast from the eleventh grade--all placeher within the top one or two percent of her age group. Only on the Critical Thinking Test, Form G, did her scoresfall to the mean of our superior population (perhaps because duringearly childhood she spoke another language). But whatever the reason for the one lowered score, she still does verywell in mathematics and science, subjects that areoften quite difficult for those who do not score quitehigh on this test. Katja's motivation to learn and her opennessto psychological growth are unusuallyhigh if we judge by self- description and test scores. At the outset she classified herself as a creative intellectual onthe Student Profile

*As might be expected, with manystudents we find that their scores on one or twostandardized measures do not seem to "fit" the rest oftheir test pattern. 251

administrations of this Check, as she did ontwo successive and SIS she same measure. On pre-tests forthe OPI, A-V-L above the mean tested approximately onestandard deviation post-testing she hadrisen for the experimentalgroup; at to almost twostandard deviationsabove the experimental (indicating cre- group mean. Her scores onthese measures and values) were ative intellectualattitudes, interests even higher a yearlater and she wasproportionally further above the mean thanbefore, Katja tested quitelow on theHumanitarian-Altruism group. Scale, somewhatbelow the mean ofthe experimental other In other words,she indicates lackof concern for aimed people and anunwillingness to joinin social action interests, notwith- at rectifyinghuman ills. Her creative the pre- standing, Katja tested atapproximately the mean on tests of the RokeachDogmatism Scale andRigidity Scale.* Nevertheless, by thetime the post-testsfor these measures and she was were given,her scores haddropped markedly and well below the mew,for our groupin both dogmatism rigidity. On two other measures,theAcceptance of scored veryhigh. and Self-Actualizationin Women, Katja consistently described As was mentionedpreviously, she had herself as creativeintellectual on theStudent Profile indicate that Check. All these measurestaken together intellectual style as she definitelyaccepted the creative herself included. a desirableattribute for women,

*Students who testhigh on theseother measures(OPI, A-V-L, FS) usually arealso less dogmaticand rigid in developed their thinkingthan others, butKatja's highly destiny"--the idea that anindividual can and "sense of society--as well asher should make adifference in his commitment (theseitems are scored as idealism and strong open-minded- signs of rigidityand dogmatism)nullified any ness that mayotherwise have shown. I1 tr.

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Ps cholo Dimensions--The Contemlative Mind: From the time she was veryyoung Katja wasoften lost in first deep thought about verylarge questions. One of her memories is ofcontemplating theuniverse. She remembers before she sitting at the windowin the family apartment entered kindergartenand thinking-- about the universeand what is lifeand what I was about really. I used to havehorrible nightmares what was I--really. It's vague. People just don't understand the idea ofBeing. But then I would think- -well, this isthe universe. I had ideas-- - not a theoryand I knew it wasn'tright. When I was aboutfour years old Ithought all the stars were holespunched by giants orsomething so that the rays of lightwould come in andthey could look down on us and seewhat we were doing. This was the idea of God, youknow. He was watchingdown It was complex and vagueAnd fascinating. on us. I Then I would thinkabout myself. I felt that could vanish thenext day and Iwouldn't ever know who I am-- aterrible sense ofinsecurity. But parents help. You need yourparents. Often you realize that you'reactually nothing,but to them Some- you're something. It gives you anidentity. times when I'm in acrowd or a big cityI don't like it because Ifeel I am lostthere. I can't I want be me. I always want tobe recognized and to recognizeother people, andreally feel I am part of something. Books undoubtedlyhelped Katja enlargeher universe. As she remarked, I've always read alot. I learned to readby read- And I kept onreading them.. Iwould ing comics. novel and be reading advancedmaterial or an adult then put it asideand turn to acomic book. This went on till I wasabout ten. Comic books somehow make you want to'read somethingbetter. They give that you thestimulus to read andhelp to make for connection that thiswhole world ofreading brings to you. Lately I've beenreading Hemingway,Steinbeck and Faulkner; I likeFaulkner a lot. And Ay Rand--I enjoy her, theextreme individualism! I've been reading books onarchitecture by architects. I've been readinganthropology and oncein a while I'll pick up a noveland skip throughthat. 253

of studying anarea Katja feelsshe gets agreat deal out in depth,remarking, much I'll have toadmit that Iresent spending so work since Ilike to read,and I time on school However, I doit learn so muchthrough reading. started I'llget involvedin and oftenwhen I get When I it, so I do amuch more completeproject. to do my verybest. I get involvedI always want I am aperfectionist whenit comes to always do. but in my room ordo- serious thingslike reports; just don't care. I really never ing housework,I think you learn want to doanything simple. I don't project; you tendto do itmechanically. on a simple paper any- If you're goingto spend sometime on a way, youshould make itworthwhile..,: ..; Katja replied, When asked howshe felt abouthigh school, broad background. But I "I feel itis necessaryto have a So I takesci- also knoW Iwon't doeverything on my own. I just wouldn'tstudy ence inhigh school;that's something majoring in scienceand mathemat- by myself. In fact, I am has obtainedher worldposi- ics." She thinksthat America that we areentering into an tion throughtechnology and may be evenmoreimportant. era wheresuch developments have a background Thus she feelsit is necessaryfor her to vital preparationfor in science andmathematics--this is larger wor1C. Katja anyone whois planningto live in the herself adequatelyin these confesses shewould not prepare "I'm not thatinterested."But areas onher own,however: different matters; art, literature,architecture--"these are read and as Idream. These I lose myselfover and overas I Reflecting onreality, shesighs, are thestuff for dreams." physics to become anarchi- "But you dohave to knowmath and courses andthen, too, my tect. I feel Imust take these parents told meto."

she The Incu. LrinctMind: Katja stronglyfeels that True excellenceand a is responsiblefor hereducation. only come afterthe require- kind of polishedperfection can , this endeavor as ments of theschool are metand she sees 254 her own personalresponsibility. This may be partly due to her, feelings thatteachers cannot quite betrusted. As she sees the relationshipwith a teacher: You can't be too close ortoo open with eachother because that person isstill the teacher and still a person--still ahuman being that hasauthority over you. Sometimes they forget whatthey stand for and will use itagainst you. You can't seriously argue with a teacher orthey will take it out on you. I usually think about mygrade first. Per- haps I shouldn't. Katja is critical of theschool as well: School is mainly to teach youwhat society wants you to know. You aren't (except in somecreative subjects) necessarily to evolve as anindividual. They don't give you a chance,often, to do anything original. They know what they want toteach you, period. Personally, I don't like a lotof rules or justmemorization. My solution is to make my projects satisfactory in thebare essentials, no more, but thenI'll get to wantingsomething more for myself. And I'll do it my ownway--the hard way. This part gets complex andinvolved but it's for my own personalsatisfaction and not for the teacher or for the grade. But life extends farbeyond the teacher and theschool--her intellectual interests arewide-ranging: I like to discussanything. I like to discuss books we have read orideas. Something that we can really comrunicate and I can feel theidea that we are communicating. You don't really getthis sense by talking about clothes orwhat you have.

The Humane Sentiments: Katja combines toughnessand tenderness in an unusual way,and as a result issomething less than a "creatureof social concern."Quite different from most adolescentgirls, she says, for example,that she usually does not "thinktoo much about people. I know that during the eighth gradeI had friends but Ididn't go to their house and theydidn't come to mine and I washappy." Perhaps this habit ofstanding apart from othersis self protection, but Katja saysshe prefers it that way. Her 255 distrust of teachersextends to peoplegenerally. She feels another, that most youngpeople are not quitehonest with one Large and "friendship seemsto be a matter ofconvenience." able to groups botherher particularly: "I've never been get along withthat many people." Some of Katja'sstrongest feelings arereserved for animals, although shedoes have a warm and securerelation- ship with both herbrother and her parents. As she describes I love the situation, "Ithink I am still alittle girl. little kittens andthat is certainlyemotional." Neither Katja nor herfamily go out oftheir way to help others2 althoughthey all would offeraid if an obvious lift her- need arises. She feels that shehas been able to Her self and that othersshould be able to dothe same. preference is to spendher energy on herself,not on the aphorism, underdog. In words and beingshe stresses the "Live and let live." Katja describes thetypical person as a"conformist who has been forcedinto a position ofdisinterest by the pressures of atoo-populoussociety--disillusioned by the people." loss of hisindividuality in the midstof too many This situation causesthe individual tobe afraid of new experiences, "unwilling.and helpless torelease himself She believes from the treadmillof his boringexistence." the intellectuals aregenerally more disillusioned than typical person since,with their higherideals, they are Her even less aptto be satisfiedwith the status quo. will own personalfear :Is that thepopulation explosion magnify problems inother difficult areas, e.g.,racial discrimination and education,and she hopes thatbirth. con- , trol pills will supplythe needed curb. . Independent Stance: Katja has alwaysbeen at the top of her class. She likes it that wayand works to keep her position intact,for she feels thatthis puts her in 256 a particularlyadvantageous spot and gives her freedom to exert her independence from time totime. Katja likes to work by herself. As she says, I haven't wanted .ho become incorporatedinto a larger group not to be n11 part of something else. Iwant to be, and am--just me. Being at the top of the class, I have been left alone; this always happens.And you know, I haven't pelt alot of resentment. Of course, I don't say to thekids, "I know this and you don't"; I just don't dothat. And I don't tell them my grades. My brother does, though. Later she reflected, "Maybe the otherkids don't think too well of me but I don't really care. Personally, I like being a little different, and beingHungarian helps a little." Katja claims, however, that all thisdiscussion was a little besidethe point: I don't usually think too much aboutpeople. My brother is a great expert on how I shouldchange to get along with other people. But whether I do or not depends on theother person, in the first place. If they can take me as I am, fine,but I'm not going to change for them. You see, I can different in that I amby myself and I am content and satisfiedto be by myself. I prefer being by myself. The average person doesn't like this. He has to have people around him: a false sense ofsecurity! I think being alone helps establish yourindividuality. But if you can find someone you can reallytalk to or communicatewith, it is completely different from the social relationships youhave with so many people. These are superficial and they don't really mean anything. It was noted earlier that Katjabelieves she has had more freedom in herchildhood than many children. In her view, this has been good. As she recalls thesituation: "Y. don't remember that my parents evermade me do something that I didn't want to do, really.Mainly, I've been left on any own and havebeen really independent." Katja describes her room at home as"definitely mine." She continues,

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if it's messy - -... will comein there and My parents I wantit that wayway; and it1.22/eszirpsajimessy and it--they willtalk abailtcleaning I feel athome in know, 9f.,a,nice it up andmaking ittheir image, you don't bother methat muchand -I just room. But they room they want meto do, It is ~hid don't do what because mine. and there's nodisputing that, thatsolitudemust: Katja hasreflected manytimes She does notclaim suchstatus'L be the refugeof genius. to discussthose who are for herselfbut shestill likes persistence andin- recognized asgreat, andadmires their dependence. She comments, great ideashave always As far asI know,those with And yet resistance totheir theories. found great without flaw;there is al- these theoriesare not with them. But thepoint was wayssomething wrong such a waythat for thesetheories in they stood up little faultsand see people came tooverlook the at the heartof thetheory, the reallycrucial point

said thatif modern Sense ofDestinz: It has been effort re- to put forththe intense man isto be persuaded he must feelthat he has change chaosinto order: quired to for least thepotentialities the necessarystature or at expenditure ofself isdifficult the assignment. But such exuberance, even anover-abundance of unless thereis an of unreleasedenergy. Katja spirit and alimitless pile drives toachieve but not only seemsto haveindomitable joy, aself-replenishingand a kindof innerfountain of is, "I usuallyfeellikelaugh- eternalspring. Her comment crying." In addition,she ing orjumping inthe air, not prepared herwell forthe demands feels herbackground has of a lifeof noteworthyachievement: advantage that ourparentv,are I thinkit is an on the This gives us abroader outlook Hungarian. American; webelong to' an- world--we arenot just Hungarian of theworld, too. We speak other part languages are easyfor us. and Germanand that way well inFrench andLatin. Also; : J-I I've done very aredifferent in anotherlanguage, there find that come to yourmind, and I words andpictures that 258

the world broaderand you communi- think this makes helps me in cate better. Knowing languages even my math; I seemto be able to movefrom one symbolic organization toanother. Both parents havecontributed to Katja'shigh aspira- she can tion, but she seemsto have littledoubt but that Katja reportshe fol- surpass themin actualachievement. is a nurse: lowing conversationwith her mother who "What would you sayif I became a doc- I asked her, will tor or a nurse?"and she said,"Well, a doctor be all right, butdon't be a nurse." She doesn't recommend it. But my motherdidn't have enough brains to go tocollege. college The father wentto a Hungarianuniversity and taught preparatory students. Katja calls him asemi-intellectual who likes to thinkabout things--officially. He has ideas on justabout everything, yluknow, but he doesn't go all the wayand give hislife to the pursuit of an idea orideas. children, He has communicated asense ofsuperiority to his however, the ideathat their Europeanbackground offers industrial something Americansdo not have,. He respects the America but he does supremacy--the powerand the money--in He says, "It isdoubt- not respect theintellectual culture. the way ful if Americanshave this kindof culture, really, Europe and Asiahave and SouthAmerica." from the time she Katja describesherself as having, do things--totake was very young,acompelling desire to told her that on theworld, if necessary. Her family had example, she oftencould when she firsttried to walk, for did not stand up andwould fall over,but that even this stand there not deter her. As she recalls,"I would just She soon began and bawl andkeep on tryinguntil I did it." also the to try to banot only differentfrom others, but her artistic efforts best. She remembersthat even though they received in the firstgrade were probablyat a low level attitude commendation fromthe teacher. The effort and seemed to be theimportant variables: 259

original. I enjoyedart. I wanted todo something else's, or I tried tomake it betterthan anyone original or morestartling. I've always more conscious, wanted peopleto takenotice--this was, I mustadmit. school her needto achievehas con- In juniorhigh and high tinued: And I wantthat I always wantto do my verybest. good. I'm afraidI'm aperfection- to be very, very like to do andthings ist. I will dothings I don't if I see thatthey are necessary that are boring Usually thisis for for some goalI have inmind. my ownpersonalsatisfaction. confidence in Katja has had analmost unfaltering and developed anearly herself sinceshe was very young, awarenessof this selfesteem: grade I had a verynice teacher--I In the fifth -and -I wouldtake was sortof theteacher's pet - class when shetook coffeebreaks; this over the I took overthe went on in thesixth grade,too. She encouraged my class and sheencouraged me. teachers havedone this. I became art; all the think it was so moreconfident of myself;I don't Ever sincethen, friendshave noticeable before. yourself." I told me,"You're tooconfident of they areright or wrong,but I imag- don't know if Once I cuuldn't ine there is sometruth in it. teacher saidI shouldhurrl make up mymind, and my to because I knewwhat I wanted. That helped me Even if I dothe wrongthing, I a greatextent. time the thought it wasthe rightthing at the think, not whatanyone important thingis what I else thinks.

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"It is in the sphere ofmoral courage that the arts arecalled upon to exert theirmost vital function--that of askingquestions eloquently." Peter Ustinov

Don Saxon--Romantic Rebel

The young creativeintellectual who has chosen(or had thrust upon himby his inner nature) theaesthetic patterns of search formeaning is often the mostalienated among ableyouth. This sense of despairwith the human condition and with the lackof dependable order inhuman affairs has been apparent amongcertain of the intelligentsia for a long time. Brinton observes that eversince the French Revolution writers, artists andmusicians have despaired and many have lost faithin their fellow men. He continues, saying that they weredistressed not with materialismbut with the quality oflife led. In addition, theyobjected to the "self esteem"of nationalism, thevulgarity of "con- spicuous consumption," the"sound, fury, and intellectual 59 dishonesty of politics,[and] the great lies ofadvertising." Yet as Brinton asserts,society needs the supportof this group. The c:Lt literary andartistic forms which exaggerated the human condition upwardhave been rejected bythe young aesthetics. More violent, detachedand profoundly despair- ing than the romanticrebels (Wordsworth, Keats,Hugo, Whit- mans etal.) of the late 18th and early19th centuries, they, remain in thistradition. They are fascinated with the remote in space andtime, with the dramaticand violent, and with the melancholyand terrible. They reject the world as it is and asit has been and theyrebel actainst the social, intellectual andaesthetic standards oftheir time Above all, they are repelledby scientific mechanismand 261

the superiorityof intuition determinism andseek to affirm For them, reason immediateperceptiveexperience. and the hold this as atragedy butthey also is dead. They may see drawn toWhitehead's"proc- it,to be atruth. Thus they feel "moment ofdecisivechoice," ess" philosophy,existentialism's method ofnovelists, andthe the "streamof consciousness" expressionist art. At timesthey aesthetic ofabstract and Rhetoric ofthe Absurd." subscribe to whathas beencalled 'The the broaddefini- Of all youngpeople whofall within this groupis most uncom- tion of creativeintellectualism, truly disen- adultaccommodation. They are fortable with They their parentsand teachers gaged fromthe values of and irrelevantly feel adultshave handledlife inadequately responsible. As Goodman and have notbeen sufficiently adult societyis of "an appar- describes it,their view of 60 going on inthe middle." ently closed roomwith a rat race this group But despiteexpressions ofdisinvolvement, intensely andthey seekthrough of gifted youngpeople care authenticity andconcern. their readingto findexamples of which offers noadult Thus theyfindCatcheriathejlizt, emulation, abook whichrespects the modelssuitable for Here is aneffort to mind and thecreativeimagination. object or athing but asflesh and show youthnot as an what at leastone young blood and7.eelings andto reveal inwardly feelshimself tobe. man,Holden Caulfield,

Don is anattrac- Descriptiona and LLE well-developed,athletic body. tive, tall,blond boywith a his grooming,but a very He tendsto benegligent about character--offsetsthis fact. maturedemanor--as well as anxious to talkabout any- Charming andloquacious, Don was personal tothe universal. the mostintimate and thing from tremen- his thinkingahe exhibits a Thoughundisciplined in concerning life. He isgenuinely dous maturityand insight life and has agreat affected byalmost allaspects of 262

empathy--though hedenies being capacity foxfeeling--for His discussion wasflowing in any respect ahumanitarian. original--he neverrelied on and spontaneous,and always of slang. Don is cliches; however, hemade refreshing use constantly the type of personwho is constantlysearching, feels that hestill is lost.* yearning andlearning, but he chaotic, father- Don is theyoungest childof a large, He was bornin Arkansas,but less, RomanCatholic family. when he wastwo. At this moved to Lansingwith his famf.ly leaving the time his parents werepermanently separated, boys. Don's excep- mother alonewith four girlsand three his days inArkansas when tional memoryreaches back to and collect "we used to go upand down therailroad tracks for two cents apound. iron for a penny apound and bones day--but I guessthat's You made maybetwenty-five cents a family hasremained in all we hadto do." Since then his not say thatthey Lansing, Michigan,although one could grader, Doncasually re- have becomesettled. As a ninth different houses marked, "Ithink I've livedin about twelve in Lans4'1g,Michigan." bizarre When Dondescribes hisfamily they emerge as His brothers axedsisters as therenowned Glassfamily. in my familyis mar- range fromages 17 to30, but "Nobody married so Icould go over ried. I wish theywould get led him to re- to theirhouses and eat."His observations superior but mysisters are, as port, "mybrothers aren't He goes on todescribe these a rule,pretty intelligent." (27 years old) sisters asfollows: "Recently my sister breakdown andspent had what ispopularly known as anervous hospital. The others?One sometime in aCalifornia state the other onelikes is a nun,another isconsidered insane,

111111111111111011..MIIIIIIIINNINIONIMI know him predict - -adangerous activ- *Those of us who be a great man ity; weacknowledge--that hewill someday impact on theworld ofthought, or he who has tremendous existential vacuum. will be a manperpetually lostin the 263

oriented she can'tthink. to think butis so politically off--we'rezealots." That's the troublewith our family; we go and "nurturant." Don describeshis mother as"a character" whimsical womanwho Apparently sheis anintelligent and arts, is alwaysreading and has fleetinginterests in the relationship withDon. has a supportivebut non-restrictive mother had encour- When asked whatvalues oraspirations his replied, "Grow up,learn aged, Donsomewhat sardonically something, getrich, and supportme." of Don has alwaysenjoyed anextx.iordinary amount to "run out personal freedom. As a youngchild he "used The only object and play inthe traffic;that was my game. times asyoi.icould was to runacross thestreet as many it really wasn't before the next car. I was hit by a car; regrets his lackof pa- too intelligent."He occasionally "had a father to.-restrain ternal guidanceand says, "I never grader heflirted me, so Iwould just runamuck." As a ninth shoplifting, moving with the dangerousand illegalminor However, during automobiles, andother delinquentoffenses. himself to theGuidance Clinic --- the tenth gradehe referred He recently and seemed tofind some supportand guidance.. conscience." reported that he wasdeveloping a"practical the city, Because Don'sfamily moved sooften within During his elementaryyears he changedschools frequently. private and some he attendedfive differentschools - -some didn't seem toimpair hisintellec- parochial. Such shifts of hissuperiority frOmthe tual development;he was aware beginning. Oh, I was The first grade, wehad aspelling bee. Oh, I mean I wasastounding! I was taking great! whomping4hem intothe'ground. on fourthgraders and "70end" in Only finally Igot stuck on"friOndt" the first grade. What theheck1I-6oUid spell, hippopotamus when I wasfourbut,,,novracan't. school: "l wasn't Don wasreading, in fact,before he began prayer reading Plato and anyof that stuff,but I was reading 264 books and stuff. And I was reading 'General Electric' on the refrigerator."Although he remembers himself as "basically uncooperative," he did excel in school. "All the time I got A's. Nothing happened until fifth grade, then. Istarted thinking, 'What good is it doing me- =working sohard to get good grades when they don't even count?' soI stopped. Laid off until the ninth grade."Although he now intends to raise his grade point in order to gain admittanceto college, Don's not enthusiastic about joining the ranksof honor students. "What really gets me is those honor assemblies,"he exclaims. "All these stupid people. That, that really fractures me. There are people I know who can't evenspell or read or write, and they have something like a3.917."

psych21.91asalAsseunent: Although Don was one of the intellectually aware, well read and fluently con- boys in the study, his school performancehas seldom given evidence of this. At the end of the ninth grade he had a "B-" average, but his scores fromstandardized tests would indicate that he actually hasmuch greater ability. On the California Advanced ReadinTest, for example, he scored near the test's upper limits. In addition, he was one standard deviationabove the mean for the total ninth grade superior population on both theCalifornia Mental Maturity and the Differential Aptitude Test,i.e., well within the top five percent ofthe general population in intelligence. Unlike the majority of our experimental students, Don did not take theNationa..tuai...... 312Q.fin Test--offered to all qualified students"to discover exceptionally talented young people, andencouraging them to obtain a college education." He was considerably above the mean for our superior population onanother measure, the ACE Criticalitigiallestl.21012, onboth occasions that he took this test. On each test administration Donclassified himself ...... 11111011.111%/1111.111111--

265

Profile Check. as acreative intellectual onthe Student His performance onthe various testsassessing attitude testing period correlates tocreativity shifted from me consistent than onthose to the next,however, and was less At pre- standardized testswhich have justbeen discussed. above the testing on the OPIhe was onestandard devia47.ion extremely high onthe meal, onfive scales, andalso tested On the Cre- Aesthetic andTheoretical scales ofthe A-V-L. he was at least15 points ative IntellectualScale of the SIS higher than oneither the StudiousScale or Social Leader Scale of this test. decline However, atpost-testing Donshowed a marked the three instruments in creativeintellec_ual values on (OPI, A-V-L andSIS). His OPI scoresfell to the group beg#me the So- mean andhis highest scale scoreon the SIS values and behavioranti- cial LeaderScale--reflective of and to thetical to thoseintrinsic to thespacial program -those he haddemonstrated atpre-tesUng.* Don's tests showlittle concern formankind taken Scale as awhole: in fact, on thehumanitarian-Altruism the entire study. he received oneof the ten lowestscores in and RiatditySsaje. His scores onthe Rokeach222Eatwp Scale On the were atthe mean for oureliperimental population. below the Acceptance of WomenScale he wasseveral points although he ranked group meanat both pre-and post- testing, the somewhat higher onthe second testadministration than indicate little first. His low score onthis scale would yet on acceptance ofindependent andcareer-minded women, he saw his ownfuture the Self-Actualizationin Women Scale

to the valuesexpressed in the *These resistances A to have mainlybeen short-lived,however. course seem indicated high few months laterwhen he wasinterviewed he and aesthetic concerns. Perhaps it is interest in ideas they become only when theschool supportsthese values that :.unpalatable tostudents like Don, ,26&

well as the wife (both realand ideal, duringthe pre- as thy; Level 3 post-testing) asfitting thedescription of and perhaps girl a girl whowants to graduatefrom college and who hopes tocontribute some- attc graduate school, is skeptical thing to thewider world. Thus although Don and pro- about thepotentialities forcreative activities determined fessional endeavorsin most women(at least as does expect ahigh by the A2EapttAllsa..2fWomen Scale) , he from his ownwife and degree ofintellectual development close friends. probably also fromother femaleswho are his test- Although Don didn'treport for PhaseII of the contact with theindi- ing program, hestill maintained some and indicated viduals who hadset up theez-?erimental course which it hadtaken. aninterest in theeducational directions to discuss He called theproject directorseveral times based his test scores,asking that shesend recommendations, counselor and tothe on herknowledge of him,to his school to be conductedat director of a summersession which was an Easternpreparatory school.

Mind: pasholoalcalampsions--TheContem lative about the ideas Don reads andthinks seriouslyand at length with qualitiesof mind he encounters--andhis concern is By the and characterrather thanspecific information. would have done end of theninth grade hisreading ventures credit to thebest of collegestudents: Aristophanes, andAristotle. I read Plato,Sophocles, Right read about aseries of fourthings. I usually the Communist now I amreading thealgiaslApecies, Utilitarianism andsometWalg else. . . Manifesto, I read a We have alot of booksin the house. book--as I readhis things Ibegan Bertrand Russell truth above every- to see that youshould respect knocked outwhen someonestole thing else--I was mind. the book. That man reallyspeaks his contempla- Don's adventuresof the mindextend beyond issues but alsospends tion; he not onlyexamines various 267

arguments, either a greatdeal of timedeveloping logical "I've taken on anew for or against aparticular idea. remarked. This interest incritical analysis,"he once observes thesocial orderand critical eyerelentlessly 'I it has been finds little topraise. "Through the years, are notrational at all." myexperience that: most people

of, and re- The Orsn Mind: Don issensitively aware sponsive to ideasof many kinds: to the CatholicChurch. I went I once belonged of family for reasonsunknown, butmostly because read things, see,and I commitments. I began to pictuze a littlebetter, I read began to see the that's as something by ThomasAquinas--something be--on thebelief in God,and I biased as it can by B. read a lot ofother things. I read things began to seethat you shouldrespect Russell, and I unitarian than truth. I'm not anatheist; I'm more I believe thatI'm right andthat anything else. want to be- they are probablywrong. But if they right with me. I don't goalong lieve, that's all believe with these guyswho shoutthat they don't People believein God becauseit answers in God. them. a lot ofunanswerablequestions for that God wassomG..hing thatpeople I believe confused made up whenthey were tootired or too what reallyhappened, Darwin was a to find out trace, and work worker. He would goback, find, if he could get alogical basisfor to find out believe. belief. But these peoplejust, well, altruism Although hedisavows allinclinations toward be valued in manykinds of people, he feelsthere is much to classified asinsane for example: "A lot ofpeople who are feeling." He con- and retardedhave a greatcapacity for tinues: minority There areobvious wrongsbeing done to People don't have aright to killother groups. I don't people or makejokes out ofother people. to talk aboutit. It's not aquestion even want of wrongsbeing of minority groups. It is a matter d:ne to people. 268

gifted adoles- TheInaLa.rinlItiO:-Don, like most In all of cents, has aconsuming interestinedUca.iion. about thecontent our contactswith him hetalked fluently the teaching processand the of education,the teacLars, observations heconcludes that grading system. From his "The most schools may be apoor wayto get aneducation. may occur meaningful thingI've heard isthat education the leastvaluable thing least oftenin the classroom thought aboutteaching is formaleducation." He has ever that he "wouldhave liked tohave childrenhimself--in ways been taught."On books: complement each All parts ofeducation should Textbooks shouldbe writtenwell: litera- other. science ture should goalong withhistory; social should be concernedwith chemistry. Everything Most texts arestupidly writ- should gotogether. of the con- ten. History booksshould include more Science booksshould be revised temporary world. changing everyyear--science isthe most greatly field there is. On teachers: We need a new crop. What we needis people who philosophers. People vibrateknowledge...teacher capital T -- who createthings! Capital E--Empathy; L--Love. The teachersshould believe Truth; capital They should be so in somethingand vibratethis. in what they areteaching that damned interested phony about it. it catches on. You can't be they People aren'tgood educatorsjust because Columbia--the oneswho think arepostgraduates f om I don't digthem. There's a quality they're god. and in man, and I guessthat qualityis humility, not enoughteachers haveit. kids in such a Teachers shouldtry to talk to the kid'll feelfree tocommunicate. manner that teachers say, "If The most stupidthing is when understand something,come upand ask you don't feel free. They me."You don'ttell someone to either are or theyaren't. On grades: A lotof things arewrong witheducation--I'm blast you educationpeople. You don't going to system. learn asmuch as you couldby the present 269

anti-grading systemthat I can hardlytalk I'm st., students--it doesn'tmake about it. It classifies feel them feel asequal learners. It makes them achievers to thestupid standardswhich as equal teacher don't indicatehigh levels oflearning, only satisfaction. believe requires a moreintense The solution I grading study than isgoing on now--if wechange the shouldn't be gradualbecause a lotof system it people don'tde- people arebeing hurt. A lot of sire to pleasethe teacher. In education youshould competewith yourself. You should say,"I'm going toknow 18,000 more subject at the endof the course things about this stand- than I do now."What aboutcasting away all ,*. ards andsaying, "Here's a groupof people--teach them."

despair of human The HumaneSentiments: Don tends to Fis pathology beings and their powersto help themselves. too clearly. seems tobe that he seestoo much and sees is generallyreserved Even thoughhis compassionis great it At the end ofthe ninth for individualshe knows andlikes. glaaahl I..,I...Ican't grade he commented,"People are so Not to thefullest extent. even express myopinion of them. This extreme I just have noaffection forthem at all." during the two yearswe have position hasmodified somewhat idealist who hassearched the known him,but he remains an "What philosophers for answersto universalquestions: Both could beim- is the goodlife?What isfriendship?" Euripides said, proved by"Empathy. It's verycomplex. enjoyment of one'sself and 'True happinesslies in the friends!' John Donne the companionshipof a few select reciprocal, or elsebad imbal- said, 'Friendshipsshould be ancesoccur.'"

"The great 22.12.sbendetStance: Don feels that to do what they tragedy of ourtime is thatpeople don't get you're young want to do."Earlier he hadobserved, "When 270 you:can't do anythingbecause you have to lead ascheduled life. Only during July-and August canyou lead your own life." He sees at least oneversion of his idealexistence as being aThoreau-like withdrawal fromthe demoralization of social institutions: "If there was anywhere Iwould like to go, I'd like to go upinto Canada and live.Get myself a cabin back in thenowheres, way out in theempties." Forced, as he is, to stayhere and face it all, he tends to be the silentantagonist and to resistrules and "teachers' directions. He has mastered thefine art of passive resistance, and har abeautiful rationale to support it: I think you can learn more(consume more) getting worse grades,because when you get bettergrades you just takein a little bit of everythingrather than delve into the mostpertinent points. In his early interviewsthere were times whenthis sense ofindependence reached heightsof defiance that literally screamed hostilityand destruction. He would reflect, It has been my experiencethat people weren'tworth the time of day. They're greedy. You give them somthing good and they turnit into something evil. There's just one person you canrely on in this world and that is number one. In later contacts wefound him somewhat morehopeful about the society thathe still termed "decaden"z." He felt, at least, that youthmight find a way. But the young must remain independent and apartfrom the adults who arealready lost souls: "When I get to be President,I'm going down to the high schools. That's where I'm going toget ideas. Young people axe a lot morecreative, and they think alot more than these old factory workers. That's what I'll do." And yet he will notprobably turn to the teen cultfor the direction of man's evolvement:

I don't have the gangspirit . . . [it's] so nause- ating. There's nothing complex aboutit. It's all the same--no differencebetween any of them. I can't see it. The larger society remains anegative force, protecting 271 itself and neverfreeing theindividual: Ever It's not outto do any good,if you ask me. beginning of earthsocieties have come since the they ended up and gone. They startedout bad and have taken overand contin- worse. Other societies That's the way ithappens. A so- ued oppression. always ciety has neverreally helpedanything; it's been an individual.

almost all re- The AestheticOrientation: Don is, in aware and per- spects, theintuitiveartist--endlessly self direction, yetwith petually flounderingas hetries to find of phrasry or accuracyof the observer's eyeout for beauty with HoldenCaulfield in characterization. He identifies book as CatchmIllgItIlyel andat the sametime sees the a work ofart: that's He reminds me alot of me. The last page, That's all I'mgoing to tell you what does it. supposed about it. He tells mewhat street I'm he says, "I'llshow you afterI get to go to and That's out of here," The lastpage--that's cool. really a greatending -teatreally smashed me. beauty: Don has alsocarefully consideredand defined Anything that isnatural isbeautiful andanything is ugly. This doesn'texclude that is unnatural kind man-made things;if things aremade with some mind, then theybecome natural. The of idea in things that thing that reallyknocks me out are have stayed the samefor years--likerock forma- The Grand Canyonwould knock meout if it tions. Just one beer weren't clutteredwith beer cans. can canspoil it all! be caught He tends tofollow hisintuitions and to written some poetryhe was not by passions.Although he had before he really won overto the art formuntil the summer read Keats and entered seniorhigh school: "I started to summer. I was I have beenreading that guylike crazy this learn telling myself I wasgoing to learnto type and to German, but allI've been doingis reading." often Don seems tofeel that beautyis a great and unmet need inthe life ofmodern man: 272

to beautynowadays a lot morebecause People respond ugly thingslike they have tocontend with so many riots, like that. They freshen war,politics, strikes, something thatisn't ugly,but then when they see all about they go backto the it homesand forget That's the waypeople are. the beautythey've seen.

refers, with Sense ofDesk: Againand again Don will do "whenI am President." all seriousness,to what he to rememberthe per- But almost inthe nextbreath he seems worth the effort: fidy of humanbeings and thatthey are not I'm contentto be a "I wouldn'twant to dothis to myself. thing to say. People I decadentAmerican--it's a crummy that I justdon't try to helpresent me tosuch an extent thoughts bringhim to visions try anyore."At times such by suicide: "It would be a of massdestruction followed interview he spokeof a daydream- - spectacular." In his first he stood on a waiting for acrowd of peopleto appear as that he hadstolen from an ledge, armedwith six grunades the pile, youknow." armory. "Then would just dive on frequent in ourearly encoun- Such comments weremuch more to the guidance ters withhim, beforehis self-referral trying to gethimself in hand. clinic and thearduous task of apparent in allof Although despair wasintense and often short-lived. His capac- our contactswith him, it was omnipotence, andhis need to use ity for joy,his desire for would returnhim to visionsof his superabundantresources think self-fulfillment and asense ofdestiny: "I like to to the world,to the that everythingI do...contributes to do what youwant . It's important cultural scene. . . accepts limits: "One to do." But Don stillrealizes and and no one groupof people personcan't changethe world, do is tochange your can changethe world. The thing to ownenvironment to your ownspecifications." In the firstinter- His modesty isnot pronounced. young ladI had this view he proclaimed,"Ever since I was a 273

to talk complex." A yearlater hecontinued superiority different. He admires fact thathe likesto be about the convictions." and who"stand bytheir people whohave purpose he know nobounds. Asked what His interestsseem to do withhis life,he replied: wanted to I wouldlike mixture ofumpteendesires. It's a folk singer;I would I wouldlike to be a psy- to write; I wouldlike to be a like to be alit teacher; I would liketo be apsychoanalyst; chologist; I coach; Iwould liketo would liketo be awrestling No, I I wouldlike to be apostman. be a farmer; I don'twant towork don't wantto doeverything. in afacthry. 274

Indian Proverb: "It isn't how much one can do,but how much he cares!"

JaneAddams--Humanitarian-Altruist

The creativeintellectual is bydefinition concerned this with ideas andwith creative changeand those among i.e., group thatapproach the higherlevels of development, must be in direc- self-actualization, feelthat this change the question: tions thatbenefit all mankind. In answering the most of "Why are we onthis earth andhow can we make feel the ourselves and thelife we are givento live ?" they well as personalneeds. responsemust be in termsof social as they idealizethe More than mostcreative intellectuals, They have a individual and extolhis "natural"talerts. applying strong sense ofsocial ethics whichthey insist on of individual in direct waysto bring aboutthe fulfillment stated clearlyby or socialprogress. This is a view sentient being,capable of Condorcet: " . . man is a 61 For these 18th reasoning andacquiring moral ideas." perfectability of man was and 19th centuryvisionaries the dispel inequal- indefinite and could comeabout if we could ities in education,religion andinherited wealth. apt to show a The reformersin the human realm are although burning zeal and todetest hypocrisy. Jane Addams, willing to livein the well born andwell educated, was battle slums of Chicago antito ride thegarbage trucks to extent--Eleanor the WardBoss2 Similarly, Gandhi and--to an and work- Roosevelt were ableto reach thepeople by living sacrifice, if necessary. ing with them--atgreat personal realized that humanrelation- Such greathumanitarians have problems andinequi- ships are highlycomplex and that many indi- ties have not beenresolved, but theyfeel that each his fellow man. vidual should assumeresponsibilities for 275

religion, buthave dis- This grouphave notrejected stand in the way,of genuine regarded thedogma that may and saintlyways experience a:truly religious spiritual of readily acceptthe definition of living. (They do not to inquiredeeply religion as abinding to vows,but prefer For them,it nature ofman's needfor religion..) into the the "set" that are falsebut rather is not thelarger ideals versions of thetruth.

Jane is aslender, Descraftion andFamily Background: interviewer as"a girl who wasdescribed by one dark-haired [who] sparklingpersonality, girl withtwinkling eyesand a of beauty, not conformto theteenage ideal probably would class- rather prettygirl."In the but is,nevertheless, a apparentsince sheusually roomthis animationwas not so chain readerwith duringdiscussions(she is a read books anything to in hand) andrarely had a bookalmost always felt apartfrom theteenage say. Her commentsthat she children seemedto preferred eitheradults or society and first in the out by thebehavior wewitnessed, be borne the one-toin theclassroom andlater in adolescent group exclu- situation where ayoungadult devoted oneinterview is In thislattersituation she sive attentionto her. rambunctious, amerry reported as"uninhibited,somewhat in adolescence,who tomboy whohad justrecently arrived event bytaking on the had notbothered tocelebrate the affectations of acool, detached early teenage customary boredom with eyemakeup, andair of manner,poorly applied adult societyand affairs." described aschaotic; her Jane's familyhas been time andthere aretwo mother is nowmarried forthe third discusses herfather andfamily, youngsisters. When Jane stepfather andher little referring toher newest she is and has been anextended family stepsisters. Always there are ofher pre-teenyears many ofJane's mostvivid memories 276

' .5ka when she and her mother lived with the mother's parents. The grandfather was then and has remained the Atrongest influence in her life. He is a man with many enthusiasms, a strong appetite for living and indomitable good humor. Jane has adopted many of his values and his intellectual interests, and tries to emulate him ina variety of ways. He likes to read, to contemplate the world, to talk with all kinds of people and enjoys having his granddaughter with him. Jane, in turn, enjoys reading, philosophy, people and being with her grandfather. As a result, she often spends long afternoons in bars and other public places with her grandfather and his friends and b s thoroughly enjoyed the experience. The grandmother, a proofreader for the city's one newspaper (and precise in other ways), hasnever quite approved of her gregarious and loquacious husband nor of his desire to share his world with their eldest granddaughter. The grandmother has also been a little appalled by the mother's marital shifts. Jane describes the grandfather as on the move, impractical and "very, very tenderhearted," in contrast to the grandmother whom shesees as sensible, practical and sedentary. The impractical grandfather is the one who is concerned not only about the state of the world but about people as well. Jane reports that he sold real estate until he just couldn't stand selling people what they couldn't afford any more. The granddaughter reflects this tenderhearted attitude in her own statement: I want to help the world all I can (the people in ity, I mean). Most people are too involved in their own lives. They should talk to each other and they should listen. Sometimes you have to compromise before you can really accomplish anything. Jane has few friends her own age and does not particularly enjoy teen-talk, but she is more philosophical than critical when she contemplates the adolescent culture. She reports: "I get along fine when I'm with a group of teenagers. I don't feel that they are lower than me; you just 277

different kindof talk. It's .have to rememberto adjust to a to adjust." just like whenyou're withchildren--you have in the opposite She has noboyfriends but isnot uninterested kind ofrelationship sex. What she wantsis a diffEnnt is either notalk than the usualdating paradigmwhere there cars orsports. As Jane or whereconversation focusses on to go out andtalk says,"There's nothing Ihate more than This is a problemat school." about hot-rodsall evening. demand that a She hascapitulated to thegeneral cultural girl h-sidates even boyfriend be as smart orsmarter than the though srl hadagreed, on the...... a...;.nce.L..)fals.:aSsAccetaenate, of:the men. that half of the womenarebrighter than half dreams: "I But Jane, as allother able girlsin the study, intelligent or moreintelligent want a boyfriendto be as little bit andwho than I. I like someonewho has read a him to beconcerned can talkabout things." She also wants to work forsocial reform- - with socialproblems and willing as sheis. her time withchild- Jane would oftenprefer to spend One of the reasonsthat ren insteadof with adolescents. out with some of children appealto her isthat "they come and questions. Sometimes the mostfascinating statements even, andthe questions they almost seemwiser than adults to answer they ask arealumys challenging. I have tried to go to thelibrary everyquestion, butsometimes I have to find outmyself." She Another of Jane'schief interestsis folk music, sometimes she composes taught herselfto Way theguitar, and optimism her own songs. He: songs tendto reflect matlre herself concerning humandestiny, and shehas patterned is so beautifulthe after WoodieGuthrie: "You knows it he was ia theservice way that mantlinks. Why, once when called Born toLose, so he a song cameon theloud speaker Win. I immediately sat downant wrote onecalled Born to the solitude feel so verymuch like him."Jane also enjoys

Vaill111111111111.00miummemmimmisimminimumi 278 of the night, when shelies in her yard and stares upat the stars: Grandfather told me once aboutthis bird that always flies--he livesalmost his entire lifein the air and just keeps flying. I try to see him at night but I never have. You know, I alwaysthink that there are many peoplelike him who have escaped into their own little worlds andknow nothing about the real one. Thinking of the bird, it seems aw- fully hard; but for peopleit is just too easy.

Ps nnasis.ELAsAtEaliat: Jane has always been agood student, achieving a 3.5 gradepoint on a 4-point scaleduring her freshman year in highschool. The results on the Cali- fornrancedReadnTest, theCalifornia Mental Maturity Test and the Differential_Aptitude Test from the ninthgrade all indicated that she wasof superior mentalability, somewhat above the mean of oursuperior experimental population. During her junior year sheagain tested at approximatelythe same levelwhen given the NationalMerit Scholarsh12gualify- ing.Test: at.the 95th percentile whencompared to an un- selected population. On the ACEglitiolmagliaaAvt, Form G, she was approximately onestandard deviation above the mean for her age group. Jane described herself as acreative intellectual on the Student Profile Checkeach time the test wasgiven, and scores on the OPI,A-V-L and SIS wouldindicate that her values and interests areoriented in this direction,also. She tested above the group meanon all scaleswhich measured creative inclinations(OPI and A-V-L). She scored highest (approximately one standarddeviation above the mean) on those measures reflecting opennessand non-prejudicial attitudes; for example, thescales of Originality andComplexity from the OPI. She also scored at the verytop of the group on theThiaglalatmatuLla scale onthe OPI. While all scales were above the mean,shoe was somewhat lessinterested in aesthetic expressionand a theoretic orderingof knowledge 279

have beenmentionedpreviously: than in thedimensions which assessingtheoretical her lowest scoreswere onthe scales the OPI andthe Theoretical orientation andaestheticism on she scored veryhigh on the scale of theA-V-L. On the SIS being much moreoriented in this CreativeIntellectual Scale, the StudiousScale or theSocial direction thantoward either Leader Scale experimental group Jane ranked nearthe top of our Scale, thusreflecting adeep on theHumanitarian-Altruism be willingto translate concernfor peoplethat she would low scores onthe Rokeach into socialaction. Her extremely Scale would seemto indicate Dogmatism Scaleand Rigidity close-minded inher beliefs. that she wasalso not set or on theSelf-Actualizationin She receivedquite high scores standarddeviation abovethe Womeninstrument--about one theAscletanoc...)flornen, mean--and herself-description on her withinthat group Scale, bothaLcual andideal, placed creative potentialto the of womenwho want todevelop their fullest.

confident andself-sufficient Jane hasbeen anamazingly abilities fromearlychildhood. girl, quite awareof her started gettinggood "It was inthe secondgrade that I decided thatI was goingto be one grades inschool. I just if you make kids in theclass. That's very easy of the best about She has alwaysliked to think up yourmind to it." down in alittle note- ideas "and Iwrite theimportant ones in contemplationextended to book I keep." This interest and a desireto "questionalmost the examinationof issues behind it."She accepts anything andtry to findthe logic Catholic Churchin which she was the basictenets of the raised butquestionscertain mandates. In her firstinterview shereflected: liked me very think mycatechism teacher I don't to us thatthe Catholic well. She wasgoing to prove 280

Church was the only church, you know. And I was speaking for all the different religions because I felt that I didn't care what religion youbelieve in, just so you believe it. I don't really think it matters. Even the Indians, whom we call heathens: it's amazing that their religion is so much like ours. They used to have a sacred lady which is the Christian's Mary and all these different things that were so very much like ours. Her memories a year later were similar: My poor catechism teacher. I had her so confused she couldn't even remember if there was a God or not. She tried to make us believe that the Catholic Church is the one true church. I think it's strange how so many people try to make religions different when they are really basically the same. But people who think and study do not seem to have to believe in any one particular religion. Even Lincoln said he believed in God, but not in an orthodox religion. I go to church every Sunday because it helps me not to forget. You need someone to look up to. People need a God; I feel that people have always needed a God. They're animals and even animals look up to something. But before people can really believe in something, I think they have to see why it is necessary. I have trouble accepting all the dogma of the Catholic Church. They feel that when women get married it iWto raise a family. I don't agree with our Church on a lot of things and thisidea is ridiculous. I'm in favor of birth control which the Church is against. I'd like to talk to people about this, but it is a taboo subject; mostpeople just will not discuss it. I feel that planned par- enthood is good. There are a lot of things against theCatho'ic Church with all its money and power. Religion is more or less a business,and like all businesses, you have to have the people paythe way. Jane is similarly concerned about therelationship of man and machines. "There is a cartooi that I thought was very cute," sherecalls. "It shows all these machines and there is this little glass enclosureand the sign says, 'Break in case of emergency.' Inside there is a man. The machines are completely dominant. Only in case of emergency do you release a man!"As Jane continued to reflect upon 281.

"1 don't the dilemmas .;ofcontemporary society,she said:

. . The think people careenough about what'sgoing on. laws are soridiculous. They'reoutdated and they should be brought up todate; maybe it's goodthat we move slow but in some casesI think it hindersus,"

,Open Mind:As was notedearlier, Jane has grown up under thewing of a liberal,gregarious and outspoken grandfather who talksto anyone andlistens to everyone. than She feels the wholeworld has touchedher life rather just particular people or aparticular locality. She reflects on this patternof learning: You have to look atwhat the other personis thinking, and put yourselfin their positionto really realize thethings that arehappening. The more youtalk with peoplethe more you seetheir point of view. I like to gattheir-points of view, especially if they arebroadminded. lack She found that youngpeople of her age.often seem to view. such openness andthat many don't evenhave a point of One of her morevivid memories is of agirl she met while in the hospital for atonsillectomy, a girlwho could not discuss nor evenenvision World War II. "I couldn't see be that enclosedin her ownworld--that ' how anybody could narrowminded." Jane reads omnivorouslyand franklyadmits that her As ahe outlook isfreqUently revised bywhat she reads. change says, "The moreI read, the moreI understand. and opinions also broaden myopinions."She finds that her ideas. and are revisedbecaUse she listens toother people's influencing her views on All of these sourcesshe sees as education, and her life today--thepopulation explosion, own existence. There are areas, such aspolitics, where shehas thought much moreseriously than the averageadolescent. elected to "I'want to go intopolitics. I want to become favorite daughter."As a an office . . I want to be a 282 ninth grader, she wasnot yet sure::ofpartyaffiliation, whether she would beliberal or conservative.."There are things that I'mliberal on and things I'mconservative on," she commented. After completing the tenthgrade, however, she declared herself aDemocrat: "I don't have enough money to be a conservativeRepublican!"This new stance has en- livened her dialogueswith her grandfatherconsiderably since he is a confirmedRepublican. Jane, as we have noted,has a wide range ofinterests. Many things lay claimto her time, includingbooks and ideas, people and theirproblems. As a result, shehas to plan her days carefully. "However," she says, "I don'tplan them so carefully thatI exclude the unexpected. I want to enjoy the unexpectedand the unplanned, too."

21.Inagaag Mind: In her childhood Janespent most Saturdays with hergrandfather, often taking longwalks with him. As we have noted,he was interested in awide range of things--politics,religion and human beings. "We used to talk about thingswhich were happening,"she reminisces. the "I don't mean littlethings . . but big things like U-2 spy and events that werebig news."Her grandfather seems to havehelped her to look beyondthe obvious to ack penetrating questions, totouch the limits ofthe universe and, as Jane sawit, "this way the wholeworld touched my life." Jane particularlyenjoyed the interviewswhich we conducted and assuredthe first interviewerthat this approach was superior totests as a way offinding out what a personis really like. On education shetakes the view of the phenomenologist: Education means just aboutelerything in life. You learn always;today you're smarterthan yes- terday. You walk down thestreet and see a bird fly, and you'redifferent; you see somepicture that strikes you: this is education. You learn to appreciate. Education is not justschool. 283

fruits of hereducation Jane's eagernessto share the in such a floodof comments and wide-ranginginquiry result interview theschedule was, on herpart that inher first She broughtDreiser's for all intentsand purposes,abandoned. As she said, The Tycoonwith her to thesecond interview. and 1 justhappened tonotice "I was walkingpast 1129....aom Hawaii;.1 believe it, so I pulledit out._ Ijust finished Alljaen,are createdequal "zo in thephilosophy,of:tthatbook. else." The inter-7_ and what allmendoreflectson,everyone summer.after she viewer who workedwith her thistime (the reported with a senseof ac- had completedthe:tenth grade) they had almostcompleted complishmentthatafter.two hours of.bookW henoted, half theinterview. "First she talked in the taperecorder, and "and then shebecame interested recorders. with equal zestand enthusiasm,she discussed, about manythings, reads This was typicalof her. She knows loves to talkabout them. manymagazines andbooks, and she characteristics -- These are,perhaps, her twooutstanding of knowledge. She talks her livelinessand her breadth politics, Lincoln intelligently aboutworld peace,drop-outs, Catholic Church,birth compared toKennedy as apresident, the all), and welfare control,. herfamily (shedescribed them and editorialcomment programs.-She is filledwith opinions with verve,wit, and good on allof these;and she speaks indeed, aboutthe eventsof_ humor. Jane iswell-informed, one--it is a very. her world; andher world isnot a,sntall wide andexciting, one."

all else, a The HumaneSentiments: Jane is, above not go intopolitics shehopes humanitarian. If she does

to join :thePeace Corps: . I have think that7WOuld.beinteresting because touches muchof the lives the feeling.that:.the Corps PeOgei.:andy4t theother peopletouch of other the more they them. The more youare:mith people change you and youchange them. t :Z1

; 284

She believes that what everyonedoes affects everyone else: "It makes me feel funny justthinking about it and just realizing how much power the average pecsonhas which he is not aware of." Jane is convinced that you canfind something good in everybody, and that cooperationand interaction will make the world a better place inwhich to live. These endeavors must be the responsibiLity of everyone: "Everybody must try to make the world a betterplace to live. We should try to make other peonlethink." She is also greatly concerned aboutman's relationships to man. "Responsibility is one of the bigthings to build up in a child," L4:cording toJane. In her opinion, this can lead one to a better way ofliving a life, "Having done one thing for one person, nomatter how small and having cared for someone and having someone carefor you--that alone makes life worthliving." But Jane does more than talk about caring. As a tenth grader she tutoredunskilled workers every week in a trainingcenter set up to meettheir educational needs. Her comment was, "These people arcreally quite intelligent and only need achance."From such experiences she concludes that everyoneshould do as much as possible to help others. Despite her soft heart and tender mind,Jane has toughness and resiliency. As she says, "I am theadult in my family. As a child--I was the onlychild then--all the adults would come to me todiscuss their problems." Primarily she looked at these episodeswith an amused de- tachment, and even tries to see theimpending world holo7 caust in perspective: "After all, there has always been an ultimate weapon: The bow and arrow. Gun powder. Dyna- mite." Polar personality traits are alsoexhibited when Jane contemplates human progress. She is elated by man's discoveries and yet despairs of his lackof progress in 285

human realms. She comments: Sometimes I don't like man as awhole because people are not,.doingenisgh abaut.thestateof;the world. Othektimes I ttlink we'r:erqallymaking advances, iiridin4404ward so I can't say "' andw4,Ire I dislike it or Idon'i,4plike-it. It just depends on the moodI'm in or what I'mthinking about,at the time. I think emotionshave a lot to d45with what a lot of peoplethink and feel, andI'm over- emotional. I'm highly sensitive,which isn't easy 'sometimes and whichis hetter,:sometimes.*It depends. . .

herself to be The IndeperiaentStance: Jane considers quali- forthright andindependent andevidentlylikes these ties--in herself andothers. "I admlre honestyin people. Right, I like people whostand upfor what theybelieve. wrong, or'indifferent, youshould stand upfor'what you believe." My folks used tothink that I had toomuch independence because, youknow, I didn't wantto be separated so I was around them. And my mother was alone all day, and Idid whatever Iwanted to and they felt that Ihad too muchindependence. I al- remember that mygrandfather told meif I wanted ways he to do somethingterribly . . . even something thought was wrong. orfoolish and thathe had told . . I should go me to beginwith I "couldn't do . ahead and do it,because I wouldnever be satisfied unless I did. Ac lie said,"I can tell youwhat's going to happen,but if you don!t 4o it youwill never besatisfied:" Jane stands apartfrom the teenageculture and rarely comments on it. Most of her contacts seemto be with younger and children or, adults. She is concernedabout conformity to hopes she will notbe like many womenshe knows who get According to her an- be "all the same asthey get older." are." alysis, "They forceeach other to belike the ethers in Although she hasnoted a certainlack of openness prejudice among the young, shefeels there isactually more older people: I can't get overhow narrow-minded somepeople are, and how smalltheir world is andhow small they 286

think.- What the nextdoor neighbor is doing--that's their world. I can ! -tsee that. As long as there are prejudices, :hereare going to be men like Hitler to make use of them. She later continued: I think the next generation, possibly, is the generation that's going to iron out some of the racial problems in the U.S. 'cause I think kids that are coming to school now are much more liberal than their parents. I know I am. Once we were sitting at a drive-in, eating, and the people next to us happenedwell, she happened to be white and he was colored. And they had this child, and my parents made a comment like, "What do you think of something like that?"You know, I said, "I don't see how it makes any difference. It's really none of your business. It's their business. If they're happy, that's all that matters."My grandfather_ feels the same way about it.

The Aesthetic Orientation: Jane has always spent a great deal of time alone and although she sees herself as practical and down to earth, she also is given to flights of fancy. While discussing one of her favorite reading areas, science fiction, she remarked that it often deals with more interesting topics than other types of fiction: No matter how good a mind you have as far as imagination is concerned, unless you write about something people care to read about, it's all wasted. People are at their best when they write science fiction. Another reason that I like to read these books is that here is something you can get involved in, yet it doesn't tell you what to think. You can picture it in your own way. I don't like a' book with a lot of pictures because I'd rather picture it in my own mind the way I want it. Jane sees a relationship between man and nature: "As we go along, I see trees go by and I notice how much a tree is like a person -- straight and tall and each an individual." Just being alone outdoors is a delight to her: "I'll go into the backyard and read and daydream. It gives me.a magical feeling." She particularly likes animals and sees each one as 287 beautiful--just as trees areand people are. "There's something beautifulabout every person. If you look, you can Looking at beauty see somethingbeautiful in each person. but it is also is an open feeling;it fills you with awe, comforting."

RamaullEtiat: Jane, despite herintroversion with her and occasionalmoodiness, seems tobe able to live "She can,') inner conflict3. As oneinterviewer commented, health, turn her with a remarkablyclean bill of mental dwell considerable energiesto the worldwithout rather than should take on the worldwithin."She feels that people they live and she responsibility towardthe world in which plans to make acontribution; if possible. Her emphaSisr, As we have as she seesthis developing,will be on people. noted, she hasconsidered politicsand the Peace Corps as her two ways of makingthe necessary impactand fulfilling responsibilities as a humanbeing. This desire to make a "My difference in the worldhas been hers for along time: When philosophy does notchange so much--itjust expands. kind I look back overthe years I seepretty much the same of person." Jane also feelsthat there is a changetaking place that may change in human beings, anevolutionary groundswell people don't their destinies. As she says,"I think that into doing know what they canreally do untilthey're pushed actually have whenthey it. Think how muchgenius people need it." 288

Walt Whitman, "The Open Road," Leavesof Grass

"From this hour I ordain myself loos'dof limits and imaginary lines, Going where I list, my own master totaland absolute, Listening to others, considering well whatthey say, Pausing, searching, receiving, contemplating, Gently, but with undeniablewill, divesting myself of the holds that would hold me.

I inhale great draughts of space, The east and the west are mine, andthe north and the south are mine. I am larger, better than I thought, I did not know I held so much goodness. . VI. CASE HISTORIES: A STUDY OF LIFE STYLES

1. John W. Gardner, Excellence: Can We Be Eal and Ex- cellent Too? (New York: Harper and Row, 1 1 1 p. 15 .

2. N. J. Berrill, "Human Potential," A papergiven at the annual meeting of the American Personnel andGuidance Asso- ciation Annual Meeting (San Francisco, April,1964), p. 23.

3. Gordon Allport, Pattern and Growth inPersonalit (New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, 19 1 p. 4.

4. Gordon Allport, "Traits Revisited,"American Psycholo- sAt, January, 1966, Vol. 21, No. 7, p. 2.

5. Abraham H. Maslow, Toward a Psychology ofBeing. (Prince- ton: An Insight Book, D. Van Nostrand Co., Inc.,1962); p. 145.

6. Ibid., p. 91.

7. Robert Lindner, Must You Conform?(New York: Grove Press, Inc., 1959),p. 195.

8. Maslow, p. 127.

9. Ibid.,p..144.

: . 10, Ibid.,p. 187.

11. Gordon Allport, Patterns and Growthin Personality (New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, 1961), p.65.

12. Robert F. Peck and Robert J. Havighurst,nipsyskalst of CqaracterDevekzentom(New York: John Wiley and Sons, 17077;077-

13. G. G. Simpson, The Meaninof Evolution (New York: Yale University Press, 1 49 ,p. 15

14. Allport, p. 271.

15. Maslow, 924.sil p. 156.

16. John W. Gardner, Self-RenewalThe Individual and the Innovative Society (New Yor Harper and Row,. Inc., 6 p. 102.

17, Peck and Havighurst, op. cit., p. 174.

18. Allport, op. cit., p. 276. 290

Society, (New York: 19, James S. Coleman,The Adolescent Free Press of Glencoe,lner=

20. Peck and Havighurst, op.cit. Measurement of Ego 21. Jane Loevinger,"The Meaning and: Development," American Pschologist, 'Vol. 21, No.3, March, 1966, pp. 195-20 York: Harper and 22. Erich Hoffer, Ordealof Ch4a91 (New Row, Inc., 1963). and His 'enemies," 23. Edga: Friedenberg,"The Gifted Student Commentary, May, 1962,Vol. 33, No. 1, pp.410-19.

24. Maslow, 9.21c11., pp.109-19.

25. Peck and Havighurst, op.cit., p. 13.

26. Allport, op. cit., p.561. Psychology," 27. Rollo May, "The Emergenceof Existential Rollo May (ed.),Existential aystalaa(New York: Random House, Inc.,196177771M Lives (New York: 28. Robett W. White(ed.), The Study of Atherton Press, 1963). at a 29. The Creative Person(variety of papers presented conference....x..rrsNar....a.wa.ms.wsrawsaramt at the TahoeAlumni Center), TheInstitute of Personality Assessmentand Research, DirectorDonald MacKinnon (Berkeley: University of California,1961). Rebert Vance Presthus,The OrganizationalSociety (New 30. House, York: A Caravelle Edition,Vintage Books, Random 1962), p. 247. of Societ 31. Abram Kardiner,212.11t5121221.04 Frontiers , p. 445. (New York: Columbia nivUersity Press,194 The Modern 32. Adam Smith, Wealthof Nations (New York: Library, 1937). Edition 33. Eduard Spranger, Typesof Men, Fifth German (New York: Hafner Publishing Co.,Inc., 1928), -F. S. Crofts 34. Niccolo Machiavelli,The Prince (New York: & Co., 1947). (New York: 35. Richard Henry Tawney,The Acquisitive Societ A Harvest Book,Harcourt, Brace, & World,Inc., 1948). 291 . e.

36. Presthus, op. cit. (New York: D. McKay 37. Vance Packard,The Status Seekers Co., 1959). Achieving Society(Prince- 38. David ClarenceMcClelland, The ton, N,J.: Van Nostrand,1961). Society, (Boston: 39. John KennethGalbraith, The Affluent Houghton Mifflin,1958). in Ameridan 40. Richard Hofstadter,Anti-Intellectualism Life (New York: AlfredA=130, Inc.,19077---.-- Democracy in America,2 vols., 41. Alexis de Tocqueville, Translated by Henry Reeve(London: The World'sClassics, Oxford University,1946). Currents in AmericanThou ht, 42. Vernon L.Parrington, Main 2 vols. (NewYork: Harcourt9 Grace,1954 Morris Philipson(ed.) 43. Aldous Huxley, OnArt and Artists, (New York: Harper, Interpersonal Theoryof Psy- 44. Harry StackSullivan, The chiatry (New York: Norton, 1953). and Values(Glencoe, 45. Morris Rosenberg etal., Occu pations Illinois: The Free Press,1957), p. 4 . Authoritarian klumaktE 46. Theodore W. Adornoat al., The (New York: Harper,195077-

47. Rosenberg, p. 27. Senator JamesSymington, "Youth,Crime, and the Great 48. 34, No. 4, pp.41-43. Society," Reporter,Feb. 24, 1966, Vol. Democracy," Daedalus,Vol. 94, 49. Crane Brinton,"Utopia and No. 2, Spring,1965, pp. 348-66.

50. Colette,EAFILI1X.EAE2A1A21611AutoblitaEaRia2ELSatttt Robert PhelpsOid.TINewYoikiriekar,Stedileafidair6Ux,- 1966).

51. Presthus, 22: cit.

52. Maslow, 2E...cit.,Chaps. VI & VII. (Innes and 53. Richard Maurice Bucks,Cosmic Consciousness Sons, 1901) (New York: E. P. Dutton andCo., 1959).

54. Maslow, 221.1.2011... 292

55. MacKinnon, 221.21.1;

56. Anne Roe, IttlpialltcalLiqiitast (New York:Apollo Editions, Dodd, Meaand Co., 1

57. Bernice Eiduson, OILIELEatiataIttiEEasholagical World (New York: BasicBoolaWalish---0Co.;1962)in.

58. Abraham Maslow, quoted in Manas, July 28, 1965.

59. Brinton, 224.2.11., p. 357.

60. Paul Goodman, Growin U Absurd. Problems of Youth in the Organized System New York: Random Hous4771n057--`

61. Condorcet, The Progress of the Human Mind, 1793.

62. Anne Firor Scott, "Saint Jane and the Ward Boss," Amer- isanaesi December, 1960, pp. 12-17, ff. VII. EPILOGUE responsive to Able youngpeople areparticularly noble, andeffective styles images thatpresent'themore mankind. They are of life andthe greatblazing hopes "environment ofchange" and many aware ofthe circumambient the "courageto be anin- seem tohave whatTillich called Above all dividual" and thedesire to definethemselves. But they arenot sure they want lifeto be worthliving. how best tolive theirlives. of values ordirections or realize thatat its center Some, however,axebeginning to individual mustconsciously life must havemeaning and each distinctive way. The most ma- search forthis in his own responsibility for ture have cometo recognize apersonal know thattheirideas their livesand the wisestof these emerging selfzitsform. of a futureselfwill:give this be fashionedout of They realizethat thisimage can only Thus some self-awareness andknOwledge ofpossibilities. philosophers, havechosen students, in commonwith the great route. whichhelps them as theidealdireCtion of growth the they Are, to graspmorecompletely to find outwho and what clearly thenature the meaningof others,and to sense more It is thisstraining toward and purposeof lifeitself. commitment whichI have called maturity ofcapacity and and which Ihave described the creativeintellectual style level of thethree types ofmotivational as themost advanced I havestudied ingifted adolescents. ri emphases which

iimEmmilmwolgymmillinglaftwaylorebosasoraleralmoimallirrit chapter for this is not tobe taken as asummary rather as astatement which goesbe- this .thirdreport but to recommenddramatic andwide- yond thepresent study expressed are my change. The views reachingeducational felt needsand you will see,also reflect the own but, as have workedwith and the recommendations ofthe students .I psycholo- and theoriesof thehumanistic. attitudes, beliefs have influencedme so gists and socialphilosophers who views arereflected in myreviews strongly. These latter entitlad literature ineach of thethree reports of the IN GIFTEDADOLESCENTS. THE CREATIVEINTELLECTUAL STYLE

293 In its mature form the creativeintellectual style is purposeful, individualistic,altruistic and intensive. Although there is no definition of"full humanity," there ea are manydescription's of the per -sonal qualitiesthat can be calledself-actualizing--the 'capacity for commitment, zest, exuberance andpassion. The life pattern becomes one of creativeexpansion with the intellectreflecting upon itself andcontinually evolving through a processof growth which Aliport has called"propriate striving." In I.. such self-actualizing growththere is investment in self- improvement and self-direction and, asmaturity increases, there is an awareness of thesocial context. This is not only an awareness of how otherhuman beings compose their worlds, but also a wholeheartedinterest in helping others.- Thus this search for deep andaccurate self-knowledge is seen as essentialfor ethical behaviors and boththe search for self and an ethical stance areheld to be requirements for successful living in ademocracy. The promise that each sees for himself and othersbecomes his preamble of freedom. As William James said, freedomlies in keeping the "image of what one waitsuppermost." Our educational patterns have muchto do with whether or not theseself-actualizing tendencies and"propriate strivings" will flourish. The very qualities that make each of us distinctly human--reasonand imagination--make self-actualization possible; but notinevitable. Each young person by his veryhumanness is being impelled in these directions and those whose reasonand imagination are most highly developed, the creativeintellectuals, respond most strongly to these inner. forces. They have the rational powers necessary forcontinuing growth and the talent for using this in original ways. They have more than a little genius for thinking creatively andprophetically about theiri., lives and for taking charge oftheir destinies. And increas;;- ingly these more committed young people areshowing a 295

fulfillmelt. willingness to workfor the greatestpossible of all humanbeings. provision in ourschools. But as yet thereis little and intellectualqual- for the developmentof these creative few s' .istainthe moti- ities in youngAmericans. As a result, lives over any ex- vation forcreative thinkingabout their destinies to tended period oftime; mostrelinquish their haphazard andaccidental fate. Some live outtheir lives in do not planand create. ways whileothers manage andcope but responsibility Too many forgetthat they havethe power and possible when they to choose andthat the goodlife is more They seem to make theirdecisions wiselyand consciously. olr notthe future be unawarethat the questionis not whether it. They have is ours toshape but ratherhow we will psychicaliy--1,e, mindand not learnedthat as theyevolve often spirit become moreimportant--they willsufi!..1:7 less "the dark futureof from what LorenEiseley has called, someill-consideredthought." and other pro- In recent years asthe Peace Corps increasingly visible,it be- social activitieshave become of our youngpeople have comesapparent that alarge number However, theopportunities immense giftsin the humanrealm. talents flourishonly fitfully arelimited and manyof these time our schoolsand our or notat all. At the present the full- society do notprovide a settingappropriate for spiritual terms. est humanevolution inintellectual and given student--even If we are tohave anyconfidence that a his potential, we one withgreat ability--isto actualize Certainly Nietzche must transform oureducational patterns. stop letting our"ex- was rightwhen he saidthat we should We must discardthe istence" be a"thoughtless accident." to educate forfulfill- old, ineffectualroutines and begin ment andself-actualization. such as the schools Dramatic changein institutions turning point, can only occurwhen societyis reaching a

"1110010Walliallsollaterativ 296

order is highand when dissatisfactionwith the existing youth arequestion- becomes vocal. At present many of our welter ofpossessions ing accepted values. Affluence and a emotionally immature orthe appeal indefinitelyto only the There is a grow- economicallyimpoverished among ouryouth. people that ing consensus amongthe most thoughtful young war-machine but thathe man is notjust an appetite or a MacLeish noted, is a being with amission. As Archibald the best of our young "We may be drowningin things--but Similarly there is people like it evenless than we do." particularly as youth sees a loss offaith in technology, between the machineregimenting humanbeings and standing inter- them and meaningfulsocial, emotionaland intellectual prosperity becomes action. At the very timethat universal of possible and themachine promises tolift the burden thought- physical toil fromman's shoulders someof the more times shrillycrit- ful adolescents arediscontented and at alienated.* ical of society. Others have grownapathetic and those that The search is for morehumanizing values than Technology must be come simplyfrom economicabundance. bolster the used for trulyhuman purposesand not merely to power. GNP and maintain an evermoreprecarious balance of

INIM.MINMIIIIMNINIMMINION1110011...11.MWP *There are a fewwho have resortedto violence as suicidal in intent and well--at timesself-directed and aimed at destroyingothers. Don Saxon's more uncommonly These recurrent daydreamrepresents the latterimpulse. intelligent young people areearly aware of sensitive and As adoles- the tragediesinherent in the humansituation. and BertrandRussell despairedand de- cents, Pablo Casals have found cided suicide wasthe onlyalternative; yet both happiness throughgreat creativeintellectual achievements through working forthe human causeand and, even more, pattern for peace at aworld level. Buckminster Fuller's drive toward suicideand now wassimilar--first the strong world peace anddisarmament. They could the crusader for mysteriously this did have been permanentlydefeated but The successfulcreative intellectuals,those not happen. inward who most nearlyapproachself-actualization, turn resources--fall back uponthemselves. They to personal experi- learn the art ofadequateexperiencing--to use all opportunities to grow;the ences, eventhe deviations as hardships as well asthe triumphs canbe beneficent. 297

present-- We must invent afuture infinttelybetter than our will oralienation, self-destructiOn and social nihilism continue at an ever moreaccelerated The crises of for anunderstanding contemporary societyand modern m,.;an 'call . ; beings by each person ofnot only himselfbut of his fellow What prevents our and at a muchhigher level thanbefore. w4th imaginations fromproducing a bettersociety peopled happier, more rationaland altruistichuman beings? philos- It may well bethat imbedded inthe practical hostil- ophy out of whichtechnology springsthere is a deep concept of "inventing ity to utopianthought and to the very human ways a future."Visions of a morehuman world, more of living and morehuman ways ofteaching our youth seem mechanize to contradictthe very trend thatthreatens to and in front our lives --the trend that hasput us on wheels the of the TV set. Technology concernsitself with only does instrumental questionof how to getthings done but to whether what we not give longand careful thought as advertisers are aboutto do should bedone. Is it wise for mini-bras to sponsor pre-teensex ritesin order to sell for the manufac- to pre-pubescentgirls? Is it desirable expansive mood, turers of baby load,in their perennially think - to show no concernfor birth control?Is it still nuclear weapons able - -a viablealternative - -to stockpile to for a war ofmega-kill proportionsand simultaneously scuttle the UnitedNations? The most able anddedicated youth reactto these social order andthe cynical, opportunisticaspects of our mindlessness of masssociety with distasteand even revul- belief in ac- sion. Where can they turnto see principled life rarely tion? Inspiration and directionfor a better particulArly come fromthe mass media. National leaders, those in themilitary-industrial complex,offerlit1tleLthat by .a is morallyexalting. It is difficultto be uplifted, corporation vicepresident's convictionfor price fixing 298 and the typicalbusiressman's response thatthy: only thing wrong with suchconnivance was being "stupidenough to be caught."It is short ofinspirational to contemplate an automotive firm's disregardfor public safety andits self- protective response ofinvestigating the personallife of the investigator. The schools, althoughcertainly less corrupt, are similarly negligent insupplying a climate andpatterns for growth motivation--inintellectual, affective andsocial realms. Tremendous sums of money are nowbeing spent on "deficiency" education butrarely are energies orfunds turned toward educationfor "being andbecoming."The new ethic, concern for thedeprived, is a version ofthe peren- nial American interestin the underdog, and--assuch--is right laudatory. We undoubtedly need agreat task force to the wronged, straightenthe warped and rectifyinjustice generally, but the essentialflaw is that we tellourselves there is neither time nor moneyfor anythi : "i else. We con- gratulate ourselves the+. we arerealistic and that we know our limitatior,s. We cannot raise theceilings until the floor has been repaired. And thus we excuseourselves from working toward fulfillmenteducation for those who,because they have outgrown the"need level," are ready forsomething diet," more. For most able youth, wecontinue a "deficiency adopting the easiest andcheapest strategies ofteaching and guidance. Classes are too large. Teachers' days are aesigned too long. We present the gradelevel text which was for the "average"child and teach fragmentaryunits in routine and repetitive ways. There are only enoughhours in the day for a desperaterunning "in place."However, this does not prevent theschool's encroachment onevening hours and, by the edict ofassignment, filling thistime with

-}1011111M *In this chapter I amparticularly concerned with able adolescents. However, all young people canprofit from education that does morethan make up losses. 299

the classroota. homework' that is asroutine and repetitive as learned to take ourverbal, activities. Obviously we have not people to formulations of educationalaims--teaching young think and care atappropriate levels andin appropriate' ways--seriously, or wewould provide bothdeficiency and fulfillment education. Fortunately, thereis another voicethat participates.. the eaJ:ly in this dialogue. It articulatesthe views of Found- Greeks, the greatRenaissance thinkersand America's ing Fathers andnineteenth centurytranscendentalists.* and car-: This is the voicethat appeals tohopes and dreams the humanistic ries a vision ofthe future. It speaks for teachers of thepast,-,i philosophers, educatorsand all great choose to listen,is and present. The message, when we forcefully that wehave the, strong andclear--telling us ideal, of self values uponwhiCh to build. If we take the rational realization seriouslythen we can devise amore and humane future, wecanimplement our aimsin education, .v: to grow toward"full and we can encourageand allow children man--alienated and humanity."We can replaceimages of mechanized--by newimages, goals andvisions of self-per- commit itself fection. Our society atlarge can and must for!.; to the attainmentof the greatestpossible fulfillment could' its members. Such a revision ofeducational patterns in many young well produce thekind of buoyancyand vitality could people that is nowthe privilege ofthe few and it facelessness andvalue- forestall thefeelings of alienation, lessness thatoverwhelm so many of ourable youth. this point how I The skepticalreader will ask at

..1111011111MINIMMSnMSIOWINIIP the highest humanvalue is the . *Fromm believes that capacity man hasfor transcendence,for a sense of oneness too different,he says, fromthe belief with the worldnot Jewish and Moslem in God expressedby certain Christian, humanistic themes in manytradi-I' mystics. He sees common teachings of Christ,the . tions ofthought--Buddhism, the Renaissance and theEnlighten- great ideasespoused in the .Li ment. can have the temerity to suggest that education for self- actualization will work, if by some miracle we put it into effect. I can only respond that such education is not only possible hut practical. My research has convinced me that in healthy youth the urge to grow is more basic than the desire to be acted upon and, to give in to surrounding pressure. Maslow is not only right when he says that the major problem of our time is valuelessness but also when he adds that we can do something to change the state of affairs. There is an openness in youth and a readiness for growth that suggests that appropriate changes will be successful. The very failure of the mass culture, the .old patterns of education and the outdated images leaves a great and unfilled need, a vacuum which is impatient for a philosophy of af- firmation. Youth senses the deep ambivalence and the tacit hypocrisies which stain the present moral fiber, but many continue to seek a more positive identity.Our experiment* has shown how quickly and willingly students respond to more creative and expansive ways of thinking about themselves and the world. We found that their attitudes and values readily can change toward greater self-actualization, quite probably because this direction of growth is compatible with the students' inclinations and with their capacities for self - transcendence.. That this new education which we seek must stress and foster self-actualization seems incontestable. Through- out the ages, the great philosophical and religious leaders have been agreed on the human need for, personal integration and attainment of selfhood. The aims of education to which

*I refer here to changes in attitudes, interests and values noted after an hour-a-day, five-month exposure to reading, films and discussions which stressed "being and becoming." (For a detailed discussion, read Report II, THE CREATIVE INTELLECTUAL STYLE IN GIFTED'ADOLESCENTS.) I want to make it clear that I feel this program was neither intensive nor extended enough.. Developing a sense of identity and a private cosmology is a crucial task for young adolescents. They need time allowances in the curriculum for these philosophy seminars that will exterid:over several .-lears, not a few months. 301

1:referred earlier--teaching the youngto think and care-- are generally acceptedthroughout the educationalestablish- ment. And, as.the case studies and ourprior reports make dramatically clear, able students concurthat these are desirable goals for instruction,but they would add ruefully that seldom do the schools doanything. Students are rarely encouraged to think critically ororiginally nor are they helped to develop the skills theyneed for this. The neglect of human relations is even moreapparent--and compassion is an afterthought inmost school programs. It has seemed easier to listobstacles to such transcendent growth than to proposeconditions for. its emergence. However, we can and must take theaims that urge education for self-actualizationseriously. Youth.hasvast potential for higher order functioning. In the very.4xistence of these talents lies the promisethat appropriate education will call them forth. This new education will not succeedunless each child is given and is willing to assumeresponsibility for his own education. For it to be effective ,theremust be freedom as well as challenge,and an improved content andmethodology. Values can no longer be disregarded. Important issues must be discussed and better waysto solve problems and to learn must be taught. Fortunately, there is a precedent for such self-actualizingeducation. The trare teacher who Is both inspired and inspiring hasalways been able to release or evoke capacities for personalgrowth in his or her students. And, as I have pointed out(Chapter II), t almost all effectively creative andhumanely concerned people have, had certain componentsin their education and their early rAlvironment which aredifferent from what we offer in our present educationalsystem. Each has grown up in.a situation thatextended freedom and acceptance and was responsive aswell. In addition, each hac had an environment that has been challenging andevocative. Admit- tedly, the paths to fulfillment weredifferent. Considering 302 the unique potentials ofthese outstanding men and women, this is an obvious andessential condition. Just as there can be no finaldefinition for self-actualization,there can be no singleroute that leads to suchmaximum growth. Our schools, as we have seen,do not schedule philosophy seminars nor do theyprovide these multiple and alternative routes from whichthe young can makeselections appropriate to their own styleand interests. Instead of offering such a responsive andevocative environment tailored to each individual's needs,the schools provide a"deficiency" education which tendsto constrict and socialize. The rules are simple andwell known. Too often they are the blueprints for afragile house of cards ratherthan for the marl:Le halls oflearning or the open forum ofSocratic dialogue. The travesty is that schoollearning which forces acquiesence is not valued evenby those who apparently accept it in its presentform. The hypocrisy of thesituation has made cheating endemic,the more opportunisticsocial leaders play the game andoften "beat the system." The. conforming and conscientious studious represstheir independent thoughts, master thetexts, avoid wide reading,and come out on topby following the rulesq Although there is a place in ourhigh schools for the socially oriented andthe studious, the rational and altruistic creative intellectualsrarely flourish in such settings. By heir very difference fromthe mass, they invite censure and by theirdesires to learn at advanced levels, at accelerated speedsand in.their own style they find the typical curriculum andclassroom offer little. Choices are too limited, theindependence they want is not available, and their honest questfor knowledge is an irri- tant to the over-workedstaff:Yet we cannot expect these most promising young peopleto educate themselves. They do not yet have the cultural resourcesand the rich variety of internal choices that thetruly mature adult can turn 303 to at will. They literally do not know thepossibilities. They need to have their repertoires enlargedand their values clarified before they can take responsibilityfor their education. Guidance of an intellectual and philosophical nature is needed. It is vital that these young peoplebe brought into significant discussions anddialogues. There must be opportunities for them to discusscrucial problems with not only their peers but also to engagein dialogue-- or to meet more formallythrough lectures, tape recordings, films and books--the greatmen and womenof the age. An out-of-school learning' center, open topeople of all ages, but with special services for the adolescent,could supply such a flexible and challenging environmentand make education more truly relatedto life and the growth forces. Who wwld provideleadership for such a center? A certain number of individuals havealways withstood the blandish- ments and pressures of society. These individuals--often 1)- artists, philosophers and scientists--donot succumb to the mass culture or the,socialization of the schools, but they also have not been content withwithdrawal into privatism, i.e., to be outsiders. They have, perhaps because ofinner resources or because ofthe special environment in which they have lived, triumphed over the odds. They have not defected from their work nor withdrawnfrom society. It is from this group.- -those who have sufferedthe least warp- ing and stunting and thus are most nearly matureand self- )1" activating--that we should choose leadersfor this movement to constructively change educationalpatterns and to work in the learning centers. Among these potential models, leaders andguides at least three different kinds ofindividuals will be required to supply the needs of the young peoplewho will come to the learningcenters: (1) Social philosophers--and especially theirtheories and ideas--must be made available. ,t. 304

(2) Students must have contact with a variety of scholars, artists and scientists so that they can be abreast of the intellectual and aesthetic life of our era and also in order that they can learn directly about the process of scholarship, scientific research and aesthetic expression. Exposure can also come through all forms of media.--the products_ of the creative endeavors (plays, art, music, scil- entific displays, libraries, etc.) (3) Counselor-consultants will be needed to help students find appropriate methods of search, ideas to pursue, materials to work with and adults who can serve as models. They will also serve as discussion leaders for seminars. Such changes will necessitate an appraisal of ways to foster individual growth in its full range of diversity and at the same time require a study of the present and the future--the dimensions of the modern world. Subject matter in the public schools and the disciplines in the colleges--their supporting theories and facts--will have to be replaced by important problems and issues, particularly those that deal with the human condition, and drew their solutions from all areas of knowledge. Beyond this, I have already expressed my view that the individual who has achieved a unifying philosophy of life--an integrating theme to live by--leads a better life than the individual who cannot find meaning. It is our task to change education in such ways that each student can become creatively purposive and constructively hopeful. The integrating theme chosen may be an aesthetic ordering of experience, scientific discovery or altruistic endeavors. Of these inte- grations it is the latter--what could well be called social creativity--that is of supreme importance. The truly significant core of human nature is the capacity for self- extension and self-transcendence. Only as this is developed 305

learn to live can loveand reasonflourish and individuals together morecooperatively andgracefully. But this kind ofutopian vision callsfor the utmost or courage in an agewhen it is easierto register despair resignation than totake action. Yet, it is onlyby taking to a stand forcreative change anddeveloping a commitment helped to movetoward a betterworld that ourchildren can be self-actualization. APPENDIX TABLE A MEAN SCORES ON THE OMNIBUS PERSONALITYINVENTORY`' FOR THE 1961 GROUPb COMPARE TD IN PHASE II (1964)

1961 19.64 GROUP PHASE II Exp, Exp. Exp. Cont. Total Girls Boys

Originality 46.15 49.69* 47.82* 48.85 51.00 48.00

Complexity 50.32 55.94* 55.44* 55.71* 56.74* 54.90* Estheticism 49.0849.98 49.64 49.83 54.19* 44.57*

Thinking Introversion48.19 50.40 :7.62 49.15 52.67* 47.48

almempsomml is..41.

aComparison has not been made on the Theoretical Orientation scale because no data are available forthe 1961 group. bIncludes all 10th, 11th, and 12th grade students in the Lansing public schools with IQ's above 120during the 1960-61 school year. Thus the Phase II group (1963-64 testing), restricted to 10th grade students, is contrasted with a somewhat older population which would tendto score higher than the ghase II group if age were the onlydiffer- entiating variable.. *Indicates significance at the .05 confidence level when the desigrated 1964 scores are compared with1961 group data. Differences were measured with a one-tailed t. 310

RESULTS

Table A compares Phase II testing data (1964) with data (1961) on a group of superior students who had no exposure, either direct or indirect, to the experimental curriculum. Only students froth" the two groups with IQ's above

120 were compared. Means for the experimental (direct exposure) group were significantly higher than means for the unexposed group on the Originality and Complexity scales and approached the significance level (p = .07) on the Think- in.alluEamulaa scale. The control (indirect exposure) group scored significantly higher than the unexposed group on the Complexity scale. Total Phase II results (combined experimental and control groups) were significantly higher on the Originality and Cortrcit scales. Of special interest were the experimental girls who were significantly higher 4n alinality, Complexity, Think - inn Introversion, Estheticism. In contrast, experimental boys were significantly higher than the unexposed group only on Complexity; experimental boys scored significantly lower on Estheticism. In considering the significance of the Estheticism results, it should be noted that the differences are probably due to comparing boys and girls separately with a group undifferentiated for sex; when the experimental group as a whole is compared to the unexposed group, no significant difference occurs.