Application of High-Resolution Remote Sensing Technology for the Iron Ore

2021 | 74/1 | 57–72 | 11 Figs. | 7 Tabs. | 2 Pls. | www.geologia-croatica.hr Journal of the Croatian Geological Survey and the Croatian Geological Society

Application of high-resolution remote sensing technology for the iron ore deposits of the West Kunlun Mountains in China Yuhai Fan1,2,3,*, Hui Wang1,*, Xingke Yang3, Guofeng Zhang4, Zhaoyang Li1, Furong Tan1, Shaopeng Zhang1,2 and Wenbo Wang1

1 Geological Exploration Institute of Aerial Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing Bureau, Xi’an,710199 China; (*corresponding author: [email protected] / [email protected]) 2 Yulin University, School of Management, Yulin, 719000 China 3 Chang’an University, School of Earth Science and Land and Resources, Xi’an, 710054 China 4 Inner Mongolia Mining Exploitation CO.LTD, Hohhot, 010051 China doi: 10.4154/gc.2021.03

Abstract Article history: This study focuses on the iron ore of Taxkorgan and Heiqia in the West Kunlun mountains as a Manuscript received May 09, 2019 case study, for the application of WorldView−2 and IKONOS remote sensing images as major Revised manuscript accepted February 03, 2021 data sources in the fabrication of a standard image map and in the adoption of image enhance- Available online February 28, 2021 ment methods to extract information on the ore-controlling factors and mineralization, to interpret remote sensing for the mineral resources in these areas. ASTER, WorldView−2, and IKONOS data were applied for the extraction of alteration anomaly information. With an appropriate amount of field sampling and verification tests, this was used to establish a remote sensing geology prospecting model, that would provide the basis for future remote sensing of metallogenic belts in West Kunlun in the hope of discovering similar minerals. Survey results showed four additional iron ore mineralization belts could be delineated in the Taxkorgan area. A compara-

tive analysis conducted for part of the field confirmation and the known mineral depositsindicated good reliability. In Heiqia, a siderite-haematite mineralization zone was observed with copper- lead-zinc formation, 60-km in length and 200–500 m wide, which includes several mineralized bodies. The ore bodies, appear as stratoid, lenticular, or podiform morphologies and were located in the transition site from clastic to carbonate rocks of the D segment in the Wenquangou Group. The ore bodies generally occur within 40°–50° strike and 68°–81° dip, in accordance to the strata. The length of the single body varies from several hundred metres to more than 9500 m. Its exposed thickness on the surface ranges from 2–50 m, and the general thickness was approximately 15 m. The surface ore minerals were mainly haematite and limonite, with a small amount of siderite. Therefore, high-resolution remote sensing technology is suitable for iron ore geological and mineral remote sensing surveying. It is advantageous in both high-ground resolution of optical characteristics and a certain spectral recognition capability, and is effective not Keywords: remote sensing technology, iron ore deposits, geological survey, Taxkorgan and Heiqia only for information extraction from a large area, but also for recognition of local mineralization area, West Kunlun outcrops. Therefore, high-resolution remote sensing technology is valuable for popularization.

1. INTRODUCTION an effective, prospective means of acquiring the geological anomaly Remote sensing is an emerging technology discipline that began information related closely to ore-bearing strata, mineralized with the successful launch of the Multispectral Scanner (MSS) alteration zones, contact metamorphic zones, and tectonic zones on the United States’ Landsat (LANDSAT) in 1972 (WANG et (SHANG, 2009; WANG et al., 2011; CHEN et al., 2012; JIN et al., 2011; ALIJAGIĆ & ŠAJN, 2020). Since then, coupled with al., 2014; ZHANG et al., 2015; YANG & ZHAO, 2015; HOWARI the continuous development of space remote sensing and satellite et al., 2019; FAN et al., 2021). sensor technology in recent years, a variety of high-resolution Located at the junction of the Palaeo–Asian and Tethyan tec- and improved remote sensing data has emerged both locally as tonic domains, West Kunlun is an important part of the Qin–Qi– well as globally. For instance, Worldview–2 (SHANG, 2009) and Kun tectonic belt of China, and also serves as an important area Quickbird have both reached metre-level resolution, while for studying the evolution of the Tethyan Ocean (PAN,1989, 1994, Worldview–3, launched in 2014, has achieved 0.3–m resolution 1999; JIANG & ZHU, 1992; CHENG, 1994; JIANG & ZHU, and a broader spectral range. Moreover, China’s launch of high- 1992, 2002; YANG, 1994; PAN et al., 1995; PAN et al., 1996; CUI resolution remote sensing satellites, such as GF_1, GF_2, Re- et al., 2006; WU et al., 2008; WANG et al., 2013; LI et al, 2011. source 2, Resource 3, Tiantu 1, and Tiantu 2, has pushed the tech- LI, 2015; MENG et al., 2019). West Kunlun is characterized by nology and its applications to new heights, including use in the strata exposed from Palaeoproterozoic to Mesozoic age (WANG detection of mineral deposits (CHEN et al., 2012; ZHANG et al., H et al., 2016; ZHAO et al., 2010), by strong folds and faults (WU 2015; YANG & ZHAO, 2015). Geological deposits contain dif- et al., 2008), and by the experience of multistage and various ferent mineral and chemical compositions to their surrounding types of tectonic events (LU et al., 2003; YANG et al., 2004; XU rocks, and these differences are often reflected in remote sensing et al., 2004; LI et al., 2008), or geological events in different pe- images in the form of spectral anomaly information. In this re- riods that are superimposed on each other, such as multistage gard, a series of remote sensing digital image processes becomes magmatism and multistage metamorphism with complex mag- Geologia Croatica Zn−RM metallogenic belt;III−2−① Figure 1.Divisionalmapof the metallogenicbeltinstudyarea. belts:III−1− ① Metallogenic al.,et 2010).dis has of author field years present the work, After al.,2011; et (FENG QIAOal.,2015, et 2016; WANG H.,2016; LI internationally and locally both geological research have attracted that mineralization polymetallic associated and large-scale, sits, of depo of number alarge features belt ore includes polymetallic 2014;2016;2018). HRVATOVIĆ,JELENKOVIĆ,al., WANG et iron Kunlun’sWest & JURKOVIĆ 2012; JURKOVIĆ, & (GARAŠIĆ weathering and deposition, sedimentary nism, volca metasomatism-hydrothermal, contact magma, morphism, meta sedimentary including processes various through formed & ZHAO, 2015). (WANG al., et 2011; al., et 2012; al., et CHEN 2014; JIN YANG techno sensing for development remote the of high-resolution target it asuitable make bedrock exposed and vegetation sparse (YANG,network 1994; al., LI et 2011, 2015). LI, its Nonetheless, transport inconvenient and population, sparse terrain, steep tion, dissec topographic strong climate, cold anoxic its and to mainly of China’s research due belt, orogenic of mineral geological and ad such lowest the Despite degree with area an remains West 2008). Kunlun vantages, al., et HOU 2007; al., et CHEN 2006; al., WANG et 2006; RESOURCES, MINERAL AND GEOLOGY OF INSTITUTE XI’AN 2003; al., et DONG 2000; al., et WANG RESOURCES 1993;OF XINJIANG, SUN et al., 1997; 1999;JIA, (BUREAU OF prospects GEOLOGYmineral MINERAL AND good with together discovered, being of deposits types ferent dif clear, with are area the in geological conditions metallogenic other and activity, magmatic metamorphism, structure, strata, 1992;PAN, 1994; YANG, 1994;2011). al.,2008, et LI the Thus, ZONG al., et al., et 2010), (JIANG formations metamorphic and 2015; al., et et KANG YUN al., 2014; 2015), (YAO sedimentary LIU, et & al., 2006; LI ZHAO et al., 2013; 2007; al., et (GAO matic 58 An important mineral for economic development is iron ore, ore, development for iron is economic mineral important An BigHongLiutan(Terrigenous zone) active Fe−RM−Fe−Pb−Zn−Cu metallogenic belt. logy logy - - - - - - JIA, 1999; WANGJIA, al., et (Fig. 2000) 1). 2003;al., 1993; et DONG XINJIANG, OF RESOURCES RAL 2015; et SUN al., 1997; BUREAU OF GEOLOGYMINE AND (PAN,1999;LI, belt Metallogenic Fe−RM−Fe−Pb−Zn−Cu Ⅲ−2− and belt, Metallogenic Fe−Cu−Au−Pb−Zn−RM Basin) (Terrigenous 1994; PAN al., et 1996; al., et 2008). WU 2015; LIU et al., 2015; QIN et al., 2018; HOU et al., 2018; YANG, E75°15′–79°15′,2013;N35°30al., al., ‘–37°40’ WANG et et (LI coordinates geographical zone)nan–Yubei domains; suture Tethys (Kun and tectonic of Palaeo–Asian the junction the at Karakorum, and of Kunlun mountains the spans area study The 2. GEOLOGICAL FRAMEWORK field sampling and a verification test, to provide the basis for for deposits. basis mineral similar of discovering the prospect provide to test, the belt in of West metallogenic on the Kunlun, sensing remote verification a and sampling field of amount appropriate an with established model is prospecting extrac the for exploited geology sensing Aremote are information. anomaly oftion alteration IKONOS and WorldView–2, ASTER, by provided Data resources. mineral of remotely–sensed the interpretation via mineralization and factors on ore-controlling tion informa extract to as so enhancement of image oftion methods adop and map image of astandard fabrication the in images, ing sens remote IKONOS and WorldView–2 for source data major a and study acase as herein used of is West Kunlun mountains the (WANG area H., 2016). Heiqia of in and ore Taxkorgan iron The zinc, in the Wenquangou group of Lower age Silurian in the Heiqia and lead, copper, containing haematite-pinerite the along with Taxkorgan area, the in of Palaeoproterozoic the group Bulunkuole the in Zankan, and Laohe as such deposits, magnetite covered The The metallogenic belts are Ⅲ−1− Moustag−Aksai Chin(TerrigenousMoustag−Aksai Basin)Fe−Cu−Au−Pb−  Big Hong Liutan (Terrigenous active zone) active Big (Terrigenous Hong Liutan 

Moustag−Aksai Chin Chin Moustag−Aksai Geologia Croatica 74/1 future future - - - - - Geologia Croatica - - - - 59 ). Faults and folds were). well and Faults folds ). The). main lithology was B B 1 1 stained) biotite quartz schist, followed by (including mag (including by followed schist, quartz biotite stained) - Metallogenic background: geological The study area was lo Miningstratum: Magnetite was localized in the iron-bearing netite?) netite?) gneiss with hornblende and biotite, magnetite quartz quartzmica schist,two schist,sericitequartz magnewithschist (iron developed indeveloped the area. The dominant structural orientation was consistent withNW, the strike the north-southof boundary faults. Magmaticactivity existed from the Proterozoic–to–Himalayan tectonic Ultrabasic movement. to acidic magmatic rocks were exposed, which intermediate-acidic of granite and granodiorite were dominant during the Yanshanian tectonic (YAN movements et al., WANG 2013; et al., WANG ,2013; J.F. WAND, 2012; et al., 2017). section Group the Brongol of (Pt cated in the landmass, Taxkorgan with the junction Ta zones of asi–Sekblak and Kangxiwa–Wacha as north and south bounda The outcropping strata to the belong Brungula respectively. ries, Group of Palaeoproterozoic (Ptage - - - - The distribution of typical ore deposits and ore (chemical) locations of the Heiqia polymetallic mineralization zone. of the Heiqia polymetallic mineralization (chemical) locations distribution deposits and ore of typicalThe ore Figure 2. Figure 2.1. Geological characteristics of iron deposits of the area Taxkorgan The areaTaxkorgan isbounded the by Kangxiwa–Muzitage– Animaqing Late Palaeozoic junction belt, with the Upper Car boniferous (undivided) in the north, with a sporadic distribution of Ordovician–Silurian, and the widely exposed Palaeoprotero Brungulazoic Group in the south. The contact relationships be tween different strata are tectonic. Magmatic activity isvery strong and an intermediate-acid rock mass distributed is widely north the junction of the south zone. Similarly, junction of distribution zone, less is there although frequent is activity magmatic the intermediate-acidof there are rock mass. strong Relatively, and faultsfolds in the area, accompanied an by overall structural orientation The strata to the NW. exposed in this area mainly be tolong a ferrosilicon formation high of green schist the facies of GroupBlenkole in the Palaeoproterozoic, distributed mainly in the in NW and directions, SEE and mostly in fault contact with the surrounding strata. Fan et al.: Application of high-resolution remote sensing technology for the iron ore deposits of the West Kunlun Mountains in China Geologia Croatica 2013). The WorldView–2 remote sensing image data used in this May 2010. from was this paper in used data image sensing remote WorldView–2 2013). The 2003; (ZHU, for sensing geological remote source data of objects; characteristics thus, the WorldView–2 satellite is a fine and shape, tion texture, other can reflecttheaccurately structure, SiO (WANGnite al., et 2017). limo and pyrite, haematite, magnetite, include mainly area the in minerals massive,Ore and banded. disseminated, was mainly structure its whereas cataclastic, and lepidoblastic, granular, pean cyclo hipidiomorphic, to idiomorphic hipidiomorphic, to phic yanling Group from the Early Middle Permian (P Permian Middle Early the from Group yanling Karatag fault boundary. The lithology of lithology S The boundary. fault Karatag In contrast, the lithology of lithology P the contrast, In siderite. with marbled) (locally of limestone amount asmall and bonate rocks, such as dolomite, iron dolomite, silicified dolomite, of layers car several contains top the sandstone; metamorphic and slate argillaceous with slate sandy of cinerous-gray mainly mation (0.400–1.040 um (0.400–1.040 mation infor spectral abundant contains 2). spectrum diverse Its frared yellow, indigo, (blue bands near-in edge, red 4additional and blue, near-infrared) (red, green, bands standard 4industry with image, panchromatic 0.46–m and image multispectral lution, The WorldView–2 satellite could provide an 8 band, 1.84–m reso METHODS AND TECHNOLOGIES KEY 3. (WANG on so al., et 2013; WANG al., et 2017). and / magnetitization, limonitization sericitization, chloritization, actinolitization, of carbonates, recrystallization mainly were 2017). 2013;al., al.,WANG et et (WANG schist quartz cloud black (iron-stained) of mostly roof was lithology the The distributed. irregularly and banded, layered, was surface The NE. dipping NW striking rocks, wall floor and roof the of those to similar was bodies of ore the occurrence The bodies. lenticular) (thick, and massive, layered irregular gray-black, black and 2017). c long oblique of number small a tite, 60 ing project (Fig. project ing 2). trench-reveal exploration an with together tracing, surface tailed de and verification, anomaly sensing remote sediments, stream of surveying geochemical belt through the in discovered been section) have southeast the in points 3mineralization and tion sec northwest the in points clues (7 mineralization metallogenic new Many 60-km. for zone approximately beyond the eastward south extended and fault Kangxiwa by the northward truncated slate. It was (pyrite-phenocryst) spotted or slate carbonaceous (S the D Formation of the Wenquangou Group of age Early Silurian iron The mineralization beltofHeiqia 2.2. Geologicalcharacteristicsofiron-polymetallic (WANG al., et 2017).titanium by rar accompanied often was hlorite schist, and marble (WANG, marble and al., et schist, 2013;hlorite WANG al., et 1 W 2 Ore grade: The average ore grade was TFe 37.3%–58.69%,TFe was grade ore average The grade: Ore Ore characteristics: The ore was Ore allotriomor characteristics: mainly texture rocks of wall the minerals altered The Wall alteration: rock Most ores were magnetite Ore body ferrous characteristics: d 10.33%–30.27%, S < 0.08%, P 0.08%, < S 10.33%–30.27%, ), whereas its northeast side is a Formation of Huang side the aFormation is northeast its ), whereas - polymetallic mineralization belt of Heiqia in located is mineralization polymetallic ), while its extremely high spatial resolu spatial high extremely its ), while H e elements, such as vanadium and and vanadium as such e elements, a is characterized by gray-black by gray-black characterized is 2 O - angle flash schist (gneiss), schist flash angle 5 < 0.21%. Black magnetite magnetite Black 0.21%. < 1 W d is composed H a ) along the ) along the JIN et al., et JIN - SE and and SE ------ - - - - 3.2. Key methods of image enhancement processing 3.2. Keymethodsofimageenhancementprocessing produced. was interpretation sensing for remote image base the and mosaic, image an create to used was method mosaic Finally,convolution inlay the resampling. cubic and orthorectification out carry to model correction ter were used for selecting the rational polynomial coefficientparame data elevation model (DEM) digital and map 1:50000 topographic a PANSHARP. and Afterwards, transform, component principal transform, (IHS) intensity-hue-saturation using performed was fusion (R)B2(G) B1 IKONOS,image B4 (G)of(B) B1 and (B) B2 (R) B3 and (G) WorldView–2, of (B) B3 B4 (R) B8 for factor index oroptimum index, of best the calculation Through better. the is, correlation band the smaller the and of radiation nce band varia bigger the the selection, of band principle the to According 3.1. Productionofstandardremotesensingimages stretching. sis (PCA), differential and analy component multiple principal decomposition, information transform component principal transform, combination by band was processed enhancement image basis, mosaic. image On this and enhancement, image fusion, image correction, geometric ing, preprocess image through maps image sensing remote standard establish to sources information main the as taken were NOS (ZHANG et al., et 2006). (ZHANG information anomaly alteration (mineralization) sensing remote extracting in widely is used ASTER data, for the mance perfor cost reasonable and bands, several range, wavelength wide the to Due infrared). (thermal range TIR the in ground of the radiation thermal and bands, infrared) (thermal SWIR and near and (visible VNIR the in ground the of flectance re spectral the of includes which information received the lite, from June 2010. June from paper, this In the IKONOS was used remote sensingimage data images. colour 1–m resolution the into blended be could images multispectral and colour full the images; multispectral lution reso 4–m and colour full 1–m resolution collect could MARTIN, magnetite a either was content iron high with tone orange-red the which strip yielded schist in quartz feldspar, and oxide, muscovite, biotite, of iron contents mineral lithologies. different the Fordifferent thebetween example, trast con the enhancing thus, smaller, bands different of correlation the makes and of information multiple bands It contains image. anew obtain and results two the fuse to decomposed was tion ofThe information 532 and 681 component principal transforma technology of transform component principal decomposition Recognition of lithological information by 3.2.2. information of accuracy the improve and (Fig. 3a). interpretations lithological differences lithological different the highlight or andschist, marble, diorite, of identification cilitated fa WorldView–2 the data from band5/band3 and band4/band1, band8, of combination a example, For information. lithological the enhance to operations of algebra band aseries into applied IKONOS were and of WorldView–2 bands the to absorption/reflection correspond that lithologies different of characteristics The transformation 3.2.1. Recognition of lithologic information by band combination The high spatial resolution data of WorldView–2of IKO and data resolution spatial high The ASTER is a multispectral imager mounted on the Terra satel the on mounted imager amultispectral is ASTER LOCKHEED by manufactured satellite, IKONOS The - bearing quartz schist or a magnetite belt (Fig. 3b). or amagnetite schist quartz bearing - like patterns of different tones, of tones, different of patterns like Geologia Croatica 74/1 - infrared) infrared) - - - - - - - - Geologia Croatica - - - 61 0.26 0.59 –0.02 –0.77 Band 4 limonite, hematite, hematite, limonite, and jarosite goethite, magnetite typical minerals 0.50 0.16 0.53 –0.67 Band 3 Band1, Band3 ASTER band 0.34 0.48 –0.80 –0.14 2 data. Accordingly, the reflective Band 2 –

0.33 0.52 0.68 0.39 2.40 Band 1 :1.10~ :0.45, 0.55, 0.85, 2+ 3+ Fe 0.90, 0.94 absorption spectrum/µm Fe

3+ Iron alteration information extraction:(FCA) Principal com opposite sign of the contribution coefficients of bands 1and , Fe 2+ PC4 PC3 PC2 Feature vector Feature Ion, perssad Fe PC1 3.3.2. alteration mineralization and Extraction of information of WorldView–2 on based The centres the unusual of absorption spectra iron of staining were 0.85, and 0.55, 0.45, 0.90 μm, corresponding B2, to B3, B1, andB7, B8 of the WorldView characteristicspectra were within 0.60–0.80 toμm, B4,corresponding B5, and B6 of the WorldView–2 data,showed strong of which, absorption B1 and B8 while B4 showed stronga method reflection. of orthogonally transforming As several specific bands, the to could remove correlation be employed PCA between bands Abnormal absorption band of iron, hydroxyl and carbonates. and carbonates. hydroxyl 1. Abnormal absorption band of iron, Table Feature matrix of principle component transform (B1, B2, B3, B4). transform matrix of principle component 2. Feature Table

TER data band (Table 1), the ironmainly to B4 bands, in B1 with strong stain absorption and B3, in B1 information wasand strong reflected reflection B2 in and B4. ponent transformation and B4 B3, B2, was performed B1, for bands the ASTER of data, with the mean + 4 s (standard devia as thetion) dynamic range the principal of component output. The iron information dye was absorbed in ASTER data bands 1 and 3 and reflected in bands 2 and 4, thereby, the eigenvectorsthe anomalous principal components were characterized of by the 3 and bands 2 andAfter 4. the principal 2, 3, components 1, of and 4 were transformed to obtain the feature the matrix 2), (Table fourth principal component band 2 was opposite the band 1 and band 3 symbols, was but the same as the band 4 symbol, and therefore, could be used as the main component the iron-stain of ing anomaly. ------te

exhibited strong absorption at 0.45, 3+ generated a strong and broad band at approximately 2+ Fe Several methods can be used to perform extraction anomaly of information in remote sensing (mineralization) alteration, includ 3.3.1. Extraction of information of mineralization and alteration mineralization and Extraction of information of 3.3.1. ASTER on based 3.3. Remote sensing mineralization anomaly3.3. Remote sensing mineralization tion of weak informationtion geological of in the image, and further, extraction the most of abundant combination information, of sec ondaryprocessing, result the on selection mostor favorable of the thematic information. Specifically,last two objectives and the information geological was enhanced PCA was repeated for the twice. View–2 did not show considerable distinction between the different lithologies, such as whether phyllite and metasandstone were differential stretch of applicationappearance. Upon blue light of ing, the distinction became such as the clear, phyllite being light andblue the sandstone being white. information extraction ing ratio PCA, analysis, and spectral angle analysis. If the prin considersciple large-scale containing ore (often high-value as a mainanomaly) is the primary PCA objective, Thus, choice. iron staining, and hydroxyl, carbonate anomalies were extracted principalby component transformation, considering the relation ship between the absorption spectra various of anomalies and the ASTER band. The main minerals in the area were sedimentary metamorphic magnetite,and the iron stain abnormalitywas the most direct remote sensing anomaly information with the iron ore. Nonetheless, the relationship between and carbona hydroxyl anomalies was less related to the iron ore, providing the basis for a focused discussion on iron-stained remote sensing anomaly extraction herein. 3.2.4. Differential stretching Initially, the high-resolution remote sensing image World of 3.2.3. analysis component principal Multiplex PCA, band difference, ratio, and the like were used for the extrac image enhancement: (a) ratio method to enhance lithology information; (b) principal component transform to enhance lithology lithology enhance to transform (b) principal component lithology information; enhance method to (a) ratio 3. Effects of image enhancement: Figure information. Fan et al.: Application of high-resolution remote sensing technology for the iron ore deposits of the West Kunlun Mountains in China 0.55, 0.85, 0.90, and 0.94 μm, specifically indicating a strong ab sorption band between and a strong0.9–1.0μm relatively reflec tion between 0.6–0.8 μm. According to the relationshipthe abnormal absorption spectrum iron of staining between and the AS 1.0–1.1 μm, 1.0–1.1 whereas Fe Geologia Croatica Table 4.The matrix offerric contamination anomaly. Table 3.The matrix offerric contamination anomaly. Figure 4.WorldView–2 ofiron ore ofthe anomalyextraction Taxkorgan area (b)iron((a) high–resolution alteration imageoftheore body; anomaly). Figure 5.Ferric contamination anomalyofIKONOS remote sensingdata inHeiqia(photos oftheiron fieldintheupper–right corner). tain unique geological significance. unique tain acer represents often component principal PCA, each In ages. of im band number asmall possible, into as information useful of much as for concentration of data, dimension the reduce and 62 PC 4 PC 4 PC 3 PC 2 PC 1 Feature vector PC4 PC4 PC3 PC3 PC2 PC2 PC1 PC1 feature vector –0.571 –0.571 –0.704 –0.704 Band 1 Band 1 0.076 0.076 0.508 0.813 0.276 0.178 0.178 0.383 0.383 B1 B1 –0.545 –0.545 –0.590 Band 4 Band 4 0.234 0.234 0.548 0.744 0.744 0.268 0.268 0.270 0.270 0.549 0.549 B3 B3 –0.306 –0.306 –0.520 –0.403 –0.403 –0.499 –0.499 Band 8 Band 8 0.545 0.545 0.582 0.582 0.578 0.578 0.505 0.505 B4 B4 –0.120 –0.120 –0.234 –0.234 –0.503 –0.503 Band 6 Band 6 –0.313 –0.313 0.572 0.572 0.777 0.777 0.594 0.594 0.544 0.544 B2 B2 - - 0.85 and 0.90 μm, corresponding to B1 of the IKONOS data. data. IKONOS the ofB1 to corresponding μm, 0.90 and 0.85 0.45, were 0.55, staining of iron spectra of absorption centres The IKONOS on based of information of3.3.3. Extraction and mineralization alteration dence with the known iron ore body (Fig. body ore 4). iron known the with dence of coinci degree higher and anomaly staining iron extracted ent appar the deviation),with +3δ (standard mean the to according determined was of of anomaly. lower the abnormality The limit area high-value the low-valueanomaly, the which became in area of an such component principal characteristic the PC3 was tion. informa anomaly sensing remote staining) (iron mineralization anomaly. staining of iron- the component a principal as used be could therefore, and coefficient, B6 the as same the was but B8, B1 ofand cient coeffi the to opposite (Table was found B4 3),coefficient of the matrix feature the obtain to Worldview–2 transformed were data In this study, PCA was applied for extraction of the iron ore ore of iron the study, for PCA applied extraction was this In the of B8 and B1,B6, B4, components principal the After Geologia Croatica 74/1 - - - - Geologia Croatica ------ry 63 like patternslike and - white tones with a - green to dark gray in tone, with fine stripfine with tone, ingraydark greento - the magnetite space,often located in the magnetite mineraliza graydark to graybrightdimicaquartz The was schistzone. tion or variegated tones with a banded pattern and medium weather ing resistance, and mostly formed microtopogra slope a gentle Sericitephy. quartz schist was bright gray 4.1.2. Structure 4.1.2. The study area was located in the landmass, Taxkorgan with the Taasi–Sekblak and Kangxiwa–Wacha junction zones as the northern and southern boundaries, and folds Faults respectively. indeveloped thewere well area, NW a at dominant structural orientation, consistent with the strike the north-south of bounda tures,manifestedas situations.twoin First,underinfluence the of hydrothermal fluid(>300 ℃), the thicknessof the ore body increasedand its grade became rich. Second, under hydro no thermal coordination or low hydrothermal temperature 300(< fragmentation of formthe in changed,fabricmostly ore the ℃), and breccia, and the ore body continuity was destroyed to vary ing degrees. structure The fold the same showed banded set of image bodies on the image map, or an image marker with layer mirror symmetry and repeated distribution in space, continuous the along upwardly-inclined orback–tilted end. distinct Such features were easily identifiable (Fig. As 7b). an integral partof the stratum, the iron ore body was deformed synchronously with faults. the faults of structures. Most were compressive (torsional) The image apparent showed linear structuralfeatures, which couldform linear toneshadow abnormal zones and linear a hues and textures Moreover, topography. negative on both sides of the fracture were significantly different, often forming dif ferent Some magnetite image boundaries volume 7a). (Fig. bodies in the area were reformed secondary by fracture struc fine striped pattern and mediumweathering resistance, and mostly formed a similar microtopography. slope Plagio gentle clase amphibolite schist was dark (gneiss) gray-dark gray-green- gray-blacktones with darka tone, banded schistoso ormassive miasis, weak or non-schistosomiasis. Chlorite schist was dark gray weak weathering resistance, and mostly formed slopes or gentle topographicnegative micro-landforms. Marble was bright gray- to gray-white with inyellow colour, banded and irregularblock- like patterns and strong weathering resistance, and was gener ally dominated a normal by topography 6b). (Fig. ------gray in tone with a graytonein

- ). The). main lithology in B 1 stained) biotite quartz schist, followed by gneiss - After B4, and were the B2 principal B3, components B1, limitThe lower abnormality of was determined according to with hornblende and biotite, magnetite quartz schist, two mica numquartzsmallquartz magnetite,sericiteschist,a with schist cluded cluded (iron gneissber of with plagioclase and hornblende, chlorite schist, and marble. On the combined image of B8 (R) B4 B3 (G) (B) darkquartzdata,was biotite schist WorldView–2 thefrom band gray-black with a striped pattern and medium weathering resis tance, andmostly formed microtopography slope a gentle that related to wasthe most closely magnetite space, as the wall rock plagioclase Biotite gneiss the (including 6a). oreof body (Fig. magnetites?) was dark gray to dark gray in tone with a striped pattern and strong weathering resistance, and mostly formed a striped steep ridge microtopography that related to was closely the magnetite space as the important ore hosting wall rock. magnetite quartzMoreover, grayschistwas narrow strip-like pattern and strong weathering resistance, and mostly formed a normal topography that related to was closely ing section Group the Brongol of (Pt Within the study area, magnetite was localized in the iron-bear 4.1.1. Stratigraphic lithology Stratigraphic 4.1.1. 4.1. Remote sensing geological characteristics of iron4.1. Remote sensing area ore in the Taxkorgan Thedata WorldView–2 were combined with the B8 (R) B4 (G) band, (B) whereasB3 the data orthorec DEM for were employed 4. REMOTE SENSING GEOLOGICAL GEOLOGICAL SENSING REMOTE 4. CHARACTERISTICS transformed to obtain the feature matrix (Table 4), the coefficient the 4), featurematrixtransformedtheobtain (Table to and was B4, was but found the opposite B3 same thoseof B1 of as the coefficient, B2 and, therefore, could be used as the princi pal component the iron-staining of anomaly. extractedbandediron the with deviation), (standard +3δ mean the staininganomaly 5). (Fig. tification. A full colour band fusion process was used to achieve 0.46–m a fusion image resolution,later enhanced and trans formed to highlight structure,the lithology, and iron ore (body) information. Accordingly, Accordingly, the reflectivecharacteristic spectrawere within 0.60–0.80μm, corresponding data. the IKONOS of to B3 Fan et al.: Application of high-resolution remote sensing technology for the iron ore deposits of the West Kunlun Mountains in China Image features of (a) quartz schist and (b) marble in Taxkorgan. of (a) quartz 6. Image schist and (b) marble features in Figure Geologia Croatica that of the turning end body was increased. was body end of turning the that while reduced was body ore of wing the thickness the tening, flat of action the under Additionally, folding. and bending nal of longitudi action the under rock, surrounding ore-bearing the iron mine). Figure 8.Remote sensing image features of iron ore bodies in Taxkorgan(b) Quickbird; ((a) Laobingiron mine; (c) WorldView–2(d) and; Zoukebengou Figure 7.Remote sensingimagefeatures beltin ofthetectonic Taxkorgan ((a) belt tectonic of Taaxi–Sekebulake and (b) complex of Jiertieke). structure 64 - - sive, layered, and lenticular) bodies. Specifically, the occurrence sive, Specifically,and lenticular) layered, thebodies. occurrence (thick, mas have irregular and gray-black black and ferrous are ores magnetite most that indicated results field observation The 4.1.3 Ore body, mineralized zone Geologia Croatica 74/1 - Geologia Croatica - - - 65 the iron was ore belt preliminarily obtained through a comprehen remote sensingsive interpretation structure, their of lithology, in trusiverocks, ore bodies, and mineralization zones in the area of (mineralization) zones ore iron the concentration.Specifically, ore The in thestudy area (1) were distributed 9): (Fig. as follows Zankan iron ore (mineralization) extends belt 5 km NW to SE, from the The Mokart Laohe–Yelite– Mountain Snow b). 1a, (Pl. iron and ore (mineralization)Taasi extends belt a 21-km-long over 1–2-km–wide NW–SE distribution. There were 2 to 4 mineral veins in this belt, occurring(minedepositironZoukeben–Taaxiore the Similarly, Fig.8b). d; as stratified or stratoidralization) in form belt(Pl.1c, lies along a NW–SEkm and that distribution occurs as discontinuous stratified, that stratoid,KukatYukulioreironthe extends Moreover, or8d). lentic (Fig. ularmorphologies to 18 (mineralization) belt in the northern Maryang Ocean extended a 2kmapproximately over distance. East–West, - hue hue on the band, B8(R)B4(G)B3(B) combined with a - 8d). 8d). Due to differences in surface scale, occurrence, and score image of Quickbird (Fig. 8a). The Kebengou iron - Fig. Sketch map of the iron ore, or mineralized zone in the concentration area. in the concentration zone or mineralized ore, map of the iron 9. Sketch Figure Based on the extracted remote sensing (mineralization) alteration information and remote sensinginterpretation the main of ore controlling elements, the distribution mineralization of zones in belt withorebelt good continuity was distributed in regular strips ( outcropping degree the iron of ore bodies, their shape and shadow structures were also different. concentration ore of area the belt distribution along ore Iron 4.1.4. high yellow of of the ore bodies was similar to those of the roof and floorwall rocks. The ore hosting rocks were mainly biotite quartz schist, by followed biotite plagioclase gneiss, magnetite quartz schist, and quartz schist. In the Laobing area, the iron ore bodies were beaded,patchy(dotted), anddistributed intermittently the along orangebright a magnetitewas Here, 8b). direction (Fig. foliation Fan et al.: Application of high-resolution remote sensing technology for the iron ore deposits of the West Kunlun Mountains in China Geologia Croatica analysis and(b)PCA). Figure 11.Interpretation keyofHeiqia iron polymetallic mineralization zone enhancement after processing ofIKONOS remote sensingdata ((a)decorrelation reddish-brown dark with zone, of mineralization the lower part and middle the in mostly located were bodies ore Iron fiable. identi easily and clear was boundary the belt. Nonetheless, the outside strata lateral of two the characteristics image the from different apparently was which image, enhanced the in pattern strip regular and depths varying in brown was Heiqia of belt mineralization the IKONOS polymetallic iron The images. B3(R) the B2 (G)by decorrelating B1 of (B) combination band dis easily and apparent was (Fig. 10b). discernible barely rocks was boundary the tinguished, these between difference lour co the although apparent; was pattern ablue stripe strata, rock yellow B7(R)bination (G) B4 showed zone a B3 (B)), mineralized the com band (ETM; mapper thematic of enhanced the image thetic layer of sides (Fig. rock two syn the 10a).the false-colour the In of characteristics image the from different slightly was which B3tion (R) B2 (G) B1 (B)) pattern, banded showed brown alight combina IKONOS(band of images sensing remote resolution zone of The iron mineralization polymetallic Heiqia in the high 4.2.1. Remote markers sensing image interpretation polymetallic mineralizationzone 4.2. Remotesensingcharacteristicsoftheheiqiairon Figure 10.Interpretation keyoftheHeiqiairon polymetallicmineralization zone in(a)IKONOS remote and(b)ETM sensingdata. 66 The effect of remote sensing interpretation was enhanced enhanced was interpretation sensing remote of effect The - green tone and regular strip pattern. On tone green both and pattern. sides strip regular of the - like like ------appearance, with a few veins having bedding or through the the through or bedding having afew veins with appearance, podiform or lenticular, stratoid, of irregular are bodies ore The in thestudyarea 1. Geologicalcharacteristicsoftheore (mineralization)body zone mineralization of the Geological characteristics Heiqia iron polymetallic 4.2.2. stics of the surrounding rock (Fig. rock 11b). of surrounding stics the banded shadow, obviouslyfromimagethe different characteri and tone pink a Heiqiaofwas belt mineralization polymetallic iron The image. anew obtain 3to 1and bands original the with B1, combined 4was PCA, for B3, band the B2 bands and B4, in data IKONOS the Usinglithology. geological of formation in weak the of enhancing method common PCA the the on was (Fig. extension 11a).banded based decomposition Information with yellowish-brown gray-white-light light were rocks wall of roof tones the whereas shape, banded with brown-black dark erage. The tones of floor wallrocks weregray darkmainly cov surface serious orthe bodies mineralized single small-scale the to due interpret to difficult were areas other although zone, of mineralized the part northwest the in mainly distributed were bodies mineralized the interpretation, detailed clear. Through was zone mineralization the with boundary the sion, whereas exten intermittent and beaded, lenticular, strip, narrow tone, Geologia Croatica 74/1 - blue - - - - Geologia Croatica ------67 hematite, limonite hematite, malachite, hematite, hematite, malachite, pyrite, limonite, galena chalcopyrite, malachite hematite, limonite, limonite, hematite, galena, sphalerite hematite, limonite, limonite, hematite, galena, sphalerite hematite, limonite, limonite, hematite, galena hematite, limonite, limonite, hematite, galena hematite, limonite hematite, hematite, limonite, limonite, hematite, galena and pyrite Main ore mineral hematite, limonite, limonite, hematite, galena and pyrite limonite hematite, limonite, hematite, galena limonite, hematite, galena limonite, hematite, galena, sphalerite limonite, hematite, galena, sphalerite malachite hematite, malachite, pyrite, limonite, galena chalcopyrite, limonite hematite, Main ore mineral grainedstructureMoreo (Pl.2c). - Fe (29.90) Fe Cu (0.27–0.49), Pb (0.69) (0.27–0.49), Pb Cu Fe (37.46), Pb (0.24–1.13) (37.46), Pb Fe Cu (0.86) Cu Fe (31.10), Pb+Zn (2.35) (31.10), Pb+Zn Fe Pb+Zn (2.37) Pb+Zn Fe (32.65), Fe (Zn) Pb Fe (33.10) Fe Fe (43.35) Fe Fe (51.03), Fe (Zn) Pb Metallogenic element /% grade Fe (51.03), Fe (Zn) Pb (43.35) Fe (33.10) Fe (32.65), Fe (Zn) Pb (2.37) Pb+Zn (2.35) (31.10), Pb+Zn Fe (0.86) Cu (0.24–1.13) (37.46), Pb Fe (0.27–0.49), Cu (0.69) Pb (29.90) Fe Metallogenic element /% grade ebony and fineand ebony - ×(2.0–20) 175×(4–8) 170×(2–3) 40×(0.5–8) 30×(0.1–0.3) 30×0. 4 150×0.74 1700×(0.5–0.7) ?×(2.0–20) 200×(1–5)–900×(1–5) 300×6 Surface scale long × width/m 300×6 200×(1–5)–900×(1–5) ? 1700×(0.5–0.7) 150×0.74 30×0. 4 30×(0.1–0.3) 40×(0.5–8) 170×(2–3) 175×(4–8) Surface scale long × width/m

cluded cluded quartz, muscovite, iron dolomite, and barite, and occa sionallygraphite, tourmaline, apatite, among others. The iron ore structure was composed mainly of two types: fine grainmedium grain coarse-grainedand the crystal). (variable Furthermore, the main iron ore structure a compact four wasblock types: of (a) and (hidden) lamellar(Pl.2a) structure formedduring the syn depositional period; banded (b) and wrinkled structures formed during the veins, post-metamorphic cavities, clusters, stage;(c) and breccia structures formed during hydrothermal superimpo earth insition honeycomb, the lateand tectonic(d) stage (Pl.2b); like, colloidal, and tuberculous structures formed after weather ing and leaching surface. the earth’s of Galena, which forms in the cracked carbonate an rocks the was iron of roof of ore body, semi mainlyof (copper, zinc) associated zinc) with(copper, the iron Gangue ore. minerals in ver, it was filledwas it with irregularver, structural fracturesLike (Pl.2e). wise, fractured carbonate was filled with structural fractures(Pl.2f), showing disseminated and membranous structures. The related ore to was the closely iron (Zn) Pb (iron–bearing) dolo mite, whereas Cu mineralization to was dolomitic related closely marble. - - stratiform stratiform lentoid stringer of penetrating layer stringer of bedding rock stringer of bedding rock stringer of bedding rock stringer of bedding rock stringer of bedding rock stringer of bedding rock Ore body shape Ore stringer of bedding rock stringer of bedding rock stringer of bedding rock stringer of bedding rock stringer of bedding rock stringer of bedding rock stringer of penetrating layer layer lentoid stratiform stratiform Ore body shape Ore 3 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 5 1 Number of bodies ore 1 5 3 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 Number of bodies ore

No. 8 iron lead mineralization 8 iron No. point No. 2 iron ore point ore 2 iron No. lead–zinc iron 3 containing No. point ore ore iron 4 lead (zinc) No. ore 5 lead–zinc No. lead–zinc iron 6 containing No. point ore ore 7 copper No. lead and copper 9 iron, No. point mineralization point ore 10 iron No. No. 1 lead (zinc) iron ore point ore iron 1 lead (zinc) No. Newly discovered mineralized Newly discovered point No. 10 iron ore point ore 10 iron No. No. 9 iron, copper and lead and copper 9 iron, No. point mineralization point No. 8 iron lead mineralization 8 iron No. No. 7 copper ore 7 copper No. No. 6 containing lead–zinc iron 6 containing No. point ore No. 5 lead–zinc ore No. No. 4 lead (zinc) iron ore 4 lead (zinc) iron No. No. 3 containing lead–zinc iron 3 containing No. point ore No. 2 iron ore point ore 2 iron No. No. 1 lead (zinc) iron ore point ore 1 lead (zinc) iron No. Newly discovered mineralized Newly discovered point Southeast paragraph Northwest paragraph Position Southeast paragraph Northwest paragraph Position Remote sensing model of sedimentary metamorphic type magnetite deposits in the Taxkorgan study area. Taxkorgan sensing model of sedimentary 6. Remote metamorphic deposits in the type magnetite Table Basic characteristics of main ore (chemical) points of the Heiqia polymetallic mineralization zone. of the Heiqia polymetallic mineralization (chemical) points 5. Basic characteristics of main ore Table The surface iron ore minerals were mainly limonite, by followed haematiteand small a amount siderite. Galena, of copper blue ore, malachite and (Pl.2d), occasional? sphalerite, antimony lead ore, white lead ore, and lead black ore, were found in the lead 2. Ore characteristics 2. Ore tres, and its surface outcropping thickness was within tens of centimetres The to several 5). boundary metres (Table between the ore body and the upper footwall and lower was distinctive. Thesurrounding rock was mainly iron (iron-containing) dolo marble dolomite limestone,silicified dolomitic by followed mite, located in and(mostly the a small ore body), amount other of metamorphic clastic rocks(metamorphic sandstone and sandy The wall rocks the ore of slate). body were dolomite, iron roof and marble, (strip) dolomite, marble dolomite, silicified dolomite, floor body ore the of rocks wall limestone.The of amountsmall a were sandstone, metasandstone, sandy slate, and carbonate rock. strata, had a sudden relationship change of with the surrounding rocks. It has an inclination of 40°–50°and an angle of 68°–81°, consistent with the occurrence the surrounding of rocks. The length single a ore body of was typically tens to hundreds me of Fan et al.: Application of high-resolution remote sensing technology for the iron ore deposits of the West Kunlun Mountains in China Geologia Croatica Table modeloftheHeiqiairon 7.Remote sensinggeologyprospecting polymetallicmineralization zone in West Kunlun region. elements. of Pb-Zn-Cu rule showed zoning the generally NW–SE elements metallogenic zone, of mineralization the strike the Along rocks. of carbonate the thickness the with negative correlation or insignificant had often thickness its although body, ore iron of the occurrences all developedwere in rocks body. Carbonate roof of ore the on the rocks carbonate closely the was to related zone mineralization polymetallic Spatially, iron the bodies. ore of single the length extension strike the with together gradually, decreased bodies of mineralized the thickness ally, surface the and gradu deteriorated bodies development ore NW–SE of iron the the that showed investigation field systematic the of results The of themetallogenicelements 4. Metallogenicregularity andzoningcharacteristics 0.27% 0.86%. to within was body ore copper ore the in Cu of lead–zinc that and the 2.37%, to 0.24% in within grade Pb+Zn a had body whereas 36.94%, of and 51.03% grade to 29.90% of average an range the within grade (TFe) iron? total showed a test laboratory and sampling of surface the results The 3. Ore grade 68 Geophysical andgeochemicalanomalyinformation characteristics Remote sensing conditions Geological characteristics Remote sensing conditions Geological Ore controlling factors High–score imagefeatures environmentMetallogenic information Remote sensinganomaly prospecting offieldgeological Criteria Wall rocks neartheore Ore controlling structure body Surrounding rocks ofmineralized Geotectonic location Geotectonic High–score imagefeatures location Geotectonic Ore hostingstrata information Remote sensinganomaly prospecting offieldgeological Criteria Wall rocks neartheore Ore controlling structure body Surrounding rocks ofmineralized environmentMetallogenic Ore hostingstrata anomalies ofelements, such asPb, Zn,Cu andAu Geophysical information showing magnetic anomaliesandgeochemicalinformation showing comprehensive Iron alteration anomaly patterns with themineralization carbonate zone rocks isclear; oflight gray–white–yellowish–brown tones withstriped reddishbodies ofdark brown tone, narrow strip, lenticular, beaded, andintermittent andwhoseboundary extension, enhancement iron oftheB3(R)B2(G)B1(B) ore bandcombination ofIKONOS; clearand easily identifiable boundary; Mineralized zones brown turning indifferent pattern, decorrelation after depthsand analysisregular strip–like and “iron cap,” siderite guidethesearch whichcandirectly for theprimary followedsurface, by itstransformation into iron oxides, suchashematite andlimonite underoxidation to form an siderite onthe andiseasilyidentifiable, indicator; exposure whichisagoodprospecting oftheprimary the surface An ore bodyclosely related to theiron dolomite inspace; iron dolomite that isdark–yellow brown oxidation after on blue copper mineralization, orlead–zincmineralization inthemineralization zone common only inthesurrounding rocks withstrong reformation tectonic inthelatter stage;apparent malachitization, Surrounding rock alteration that isgenerally weak; sericitization,chloritization,carbonation, andsilicification that are faults, fissures, structural andinterlayerSecondary fracture zones ofcarbonate Karatagrocks associated fault withthe carbonate rock and asmallamount oflimestone; wall rocks oftheore bodyfloorsuchassandstone, metasandstone, sandyslate and Wall rocks oftheore bodyroof suchasdolomite, iron dolomite, silicifieddolomite, dolomite, marble marble, (strip) Wenquangou Group withstablehorizons and obvious Silurian inEarly stratabound characteristics Located infineclasolite andcarbonate formations oflittoral–shallow–shelf facies at the top ofD Formation ofthe Prospecting model D formation ofthe Wenquangou group (S Silurian inEarly belt margin oftheQiangtang–TanggulaNorthern Late Paleozoic southofKangxiwa–Muzitage–Animaqing Block, junction Iron alteration anomaly and beads Ore bodiesinthe WorldView–2 imagehave tones, beige–yellowish–green stretching intermittently instrips, pods, easily weathered to form jarosite andlimonite body that isblackandgray from adistance andbrown pyrite sauce components from intheores anearview; that are Magnetite bodyofastrong weathering resistance andwhoseoutcrop indicator; ore prospecting isthemostdirect among others Altered minerals ofwall rocks that are chloritization, sericitization,ferritization, mainlymarbleization,actinolitization, faults boundary the north–south Well developed faultsandfolds inthearea; orientation, NWdominantwhichisconsistent structural of withthestrike flash schist(gneiss), chlorite schist,andmarble schistwithmagnetite, schist,sericite quartz asmallnumberofobliquelong–angle schist,two micaquartz quartz schist,followed lithologyof(iron–dyed) biotiteMain quartz by (includingmagnet) blackcloudslant gneiss, magnetite tion volcanic ofsubmarine period activity, mineralization after by regional anddeformation metamorphism transforma- shallow,Early environment, metallogenicintheintermittent seasedimentary exhalative semi–deep sedimentary Formation ofBlunguleGroup inPaleoproterozoic (ferriferous section) environment tectonic Rift ofthe Taxkorgan block

- 6. CONCLUSIONS 6. (Ta correction and ble Table 6, 7). validation field by supported and established was images sensing remote high-resolution on model based ing prospect sensing remote a comprehensive alteration, and lization minera sensing of remote information of anomalous extraction and elements, of controlling ore sensing remote high-resolution of interpretation deposits, Heiqiairon and Taxkorgan ofthe tics geological characteris of metallogenic the analysis the on Based MODEL PROSPECTING INTEGRATED SENSING REMOTE 5. the element’s independent ore bodies appeared. bodies element’s ore the independent bodies, ore of iron the area pinch-out the in increased content Cu Moreover, the as increased. of gradually Zn that while gradually, decreased Pb content the reduced, body’s ore iron the As thickness map and for the adoption of image enhancement methods to ex to methods enhancement of image adoption for the and map image of a standard creation for the sources major data as used (1) WorldView−2 and IKONOS remote sensing images were were images sensing remote IKONOS and WorldView−2 (1) 1 W d )

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b c d Field photography of the iron ore belt in Taxkorgan. belt in ore of the iron photography 1. Field Plate a Fan et al.: Application of high-resolution remote sensing technology for the iron ore deposits of the West Kunlun Mountains in China Geologia Croatica f e d c b a oftheore inHeiqia. photography Plate 2.Field 72 azurite in marbleization dolomite ofiron ore. vein lead–zinc ore inroof ofiron ore and lead mineralization andmalachite mineralization ofore; concretion forms limonite; breccia limonite; massive andhoneycombed limonite; Geologia Croatica 74/1