ISSN 2026-5611

FauneVolume 33, Issue 1 Enhancing natural resources management& for food security in Africa

Biodiversity: Its central role in the sustainable development of Africa Cover photo: Malamawa village, Zinder Region, Niger: A girl climbs a baobab tree while looking for baobab leaves to be cooked as a meal. Photo: ©FAO/Luis Tato Nature FauneVolume 33, Issue 1 Biodiversity: Its central role in the sustainable& development of Africa

Editor: Nora Berrahmouni FAO Senior Forestry Officer for Africa

FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED NATIONS Accra, 2020 Required citation:

FAO. 2020. Biodiversity: Its central role in the sustainable development of Africa, Nature & Faune, Volume 33, Issue 1. Accra.

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Mafa Chipeta Kristina Rodina Food Security Adviser Forestry Officer, FAO Limbe, Malawi Rome, Italy

Michiel Christiaan Laker Jeffrey Sayer Emeritus Professor of Soil Science Professor, Forest Landscape Conservation, Pretoria, South Africa University of British Columbia Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada Kay Muir-Leresche Policy Economist/Specialist in Agricultural Fred Kafeero and Natural Resource Economics Natural Resources Specialist Rooiels Cape, South Africa Dar es Salaam, Tanzania

August Temu El Hadji M. Sène Agroforestry and Forestry Education Expert Forest Resources Management and Arusha, Tanzania Dry Zone Forestry Specialist Dakar, Senegal Magnus Grylle Forestry Officer, FAO Rome, Italy

Advisers: Atse Yapi, Christopher Nugent, Fernando Salinas, René Czudek

Coordinators: Daisy Leoncio, Ki Min, Ada Ndeso Atanga Nature&Faune Contents Volume 33, Issue 1

4 Message to Readers 8 Editorial

14 20 28 The Sustainable Trees for Global The World Charter for Wildlife Management Benefits: eradicating Nature revisited: an Programme: conserving poverty one tonne (of African initiative wildlife and improving carbon) at a time food security

Country nature-based solutions 34 38 44 49 Benin: Botswana: Cameroon: Ethiopia: Community ecotourism, Developing a Human-gorilla Freshwater fish a means to reconnect framework for conflicts around diversity and its humans with their sustainable coexistence the Lobéké National role in improving environment: between ecotourism Park: Implications the livelihood Case of the Sitatunga and agriculture for conservation and of communities Valley Community local development Natural Park

2 NATURE & FAUNE VOLUME 33 ISSUE 1 78 86 98 Addressing Diversity of restoration Africa’s biodiversity human-wildlife conflict plants for Africa’s mainstreaming across in Africa: challenges Great Green Wall agricultural sectors and achievements implementation

Country nature-based solutions 57 64 70 Namibia and Tanzania: Senegal: Zimbabwe: Protecting Africa’s soil in Plant cover trends in a context Ecotourism and sustainable protected areas against of drought and pastoral development in rural crusting, compaction and activities’ resilience in the communities bordering erosion in the context of Matam Region: The case of the protected areas: a case Sustainable Development Ferlo Biosphere Reserve (RBF) study of opportunities and Goals (SDGs) of the challenges for Mahenye, United Nations case studies Chipinge District

NATURE & FAUNE VOLUME 33 ISSUE 1 3 MessagetoReaders Foreword

By Abebe Haile-Gabriel FAO Assistant Director-General and Regional Representative for Africa

4 NATURE & FAUNE VOLUME 33 ISSUE 1 Readers

Photo: ©FAO/Luis Tato NATURE & FAUNE VOLUME 33 ISSUE 1 5 Message to Readers

Africa boasts of a rich diversity with its living The importance of biodiversity is not overlooked organisms comprising around a quarter of the by our strategic development partners. There global total. If this diversity is not properly are two UN Decades spearheaded by the Food conserved and sustainably used, its loss would and Agriculture Organization of the United have rippling effects on the goods and ecosystem Nations (FAO) in collaboration with other UN services on which we all depend on, severely agencies: the UN Decade for Family Farming threatening our food and health security. 2019–2028 with IFAD and the UN Decade on Ecosystem Restoration 2021–2030 with UNEP. Human activities exert pressure on biodiversity. These two decades are interlocked in many Due to the global food production system, and aspects in terms of timeline and collaboration. its reliance on intensification, 75 percent of the food produced globally is generated from only By putting family farming and all family-based 12 plants and 5 animal species, and in the last production models at the focus of interventions, century, more than 90 percent of crop varieties the UN Decade for Family Farming will contribute disappeared from farmers’ fields. Habitat to a world free of hunger and poverty, where conversion due to agricultural activity is also natural resources are managed sustainably, leading to loss of forests, wetlands, grasslands, and where each and every single individual and ecosystem services. It is a future challenge in the world has access to safe and nutritious for the region to provide sufficient nutritious food. We believe this model has the potential and healthy food to a fast-growing population to make a big impact, as family farms occupy while protecting and restoring biodiversity. around 70 to 80 percent of farmland worldwide and indigenous people and local communities As we enter 2020 and the last decade of the manage 33 percent of forests globally. Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), we are bringing biodiversity as one of the According to FAO Africa’s recent publication cogs in the wheel towards the achievement Regional Synthesis for the State of the World’s of these ambitious, collective goals. Biodiversity for Food and Agriculture, in African smallholder agricultural landscapes, home

6 NATURE & FAUNE VOLUME 33 ISSUE 1 From the cover, Photo: ©FAO/Luis Tato

gardens constitute a particularly important As we welcome the two timely UN Decades, the source of biodiversity for food and agriculture. FAO Regional Office for Africa is glad to present the Additionally, their contribution to the richness and newly-revamped version of Nature and Faune, kick- diversity of plant species is increasingly gaining starting with the theme on biodiversity. Through interest among researchers and practitioners. inspirational stories on biodiversity conservation and sustainable use in different African countries, The UN Decade on Ecosystem Restoration we hope to mainstream biodiversity into also positions the restoration of ecosystems agricultural policies and practices, address as a major nature-based solution towards biodiversity-related issues with multidisciplinary meeting a wide range of global sustainable approach, protect nature capital with all its development goals and national priorities. We diversity, forests, grasslands and agroforestry, all depend on biodiversity, which is the key and agroecosystems. All of these to achieve for resilient and healthy ecosystems for food transformative change in food production without and energy, water, climate change adaptation hampering our ecosystem and future generations. and mitigation and human survival. We hope that the stories in this edition of Nature We cannot highlight enough that the loss of and Faune will showcase Africa’s biodiversity biodiversity can have critical implications, from conservation efforts to national, regional, and the collapse of food and health systems to the global audiences and contribute to Africa’s disruption of entire supply chains. The current diversity for shared security and prosperity. rate of extinction is tens to hundreds of times higher than the average over the past 10 million It is my pleasure to coincide the launch of this years – and it is accelerating. The continued edition with the Twenty-Second Session of degradation contributes to climate change the African Forestry and Wildlife Commission and enhances the risk of severe ecological and the Sixth African Forestry and Wildlife disasters. Widespread loss of function in both week to be hosted in Skukuza, Mpumalanga, in terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems will be the heart of South Africa’s iconic biodiversity catastrophic for our planet and a huge setback jewels: the Kruger National Park. on progress made towards achieving the SDGs.

NATURE & FAUNE VOLUME 33 ISSUE 1 7 Editorial Rebuilding our biodiversity and humanity hand-in-hand, across generations

By Nora Berrahmouni FAO Senior Forestry Officer for Africa

8 NATURE & FAUNE VOLUME 33 ISSUE 1 Photo: ©FAO/Luis Tato NATURE & FAUNE VOLUME 33 ISSUE 1 9 Editorial

Rebuilding our biodiversity and humanity hand-in-hand, across generations By Nora Berrahmouni

Africa’s response to the Sustainable Development leading to land degradation and desertification Goals cannot be effective without the conservation and further vulnerabilities and disparities. and the sustainable use of its biodiversity. Cities were built, precious wood and materials This response should come not only from the and mineral resources were extracted, lands ministries and institutions in charge of the were deforested and cleared for agriculture environment, but from everyone in society, and for development, all at the expense of and more importantly those sectors benefiting Africa's invaluable wealth: its biodiversity. from natural resources while exercising The Food and Agriculture Organization of pressure to meet our development demands. the United Nations' (FAO) State of the World’s African women and men have been using Biodiversity for Food and Agriculture and the and managing plants and animals and other Global Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental natural resources for millennia with care, Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and accumulating knowledge and experience, Ecosystem Services (IPBES), have called for and giving the necessary time and space urgent action to stop degradation trends and to biodiversity to regenerate and flourish. restore our relationship with nature, conserving Africa has been an inspiring source of nature- and sustainably using and restoring our based solutions. For millennia, nature was biodiversity, if not for anything, for our own everywhere, the core of humankind’s existence. food security. The post-2020 Global Biodiversity Framework of the Convention on Biological Africa’s current population of 1.25 billion is Diversity (CBD), which is under development, likely to double by 2050 and will put accrued creates the opportunity for the world and pressure on the continent’s biodiversity. Multiple especially for Africa to come together, to review investors attracted by the region’s resources are its Aichi targets, revamp its ambition for the encroaching on its biodiversity in a rate that had new decade and sharpen its focus and action never been seen before, destroying its forests, in addressing drivers of biodiversity loss. grasslands and wetland habitats and species,

10 NATURE & FAUNE VOLUME 33 ISSUE 1 Photo: ©FAO/Luis Tato

In this edition, Nature and Faune gives the voice The article by Kalunda et al. illustrates how by for Africa’s stories to be heard and shared, conserving and sustainably using native plants, saying loud and clear that reversing the trend of such as the ones in Uganda, we can address local biodiversity degradation and loss is still possible and global challenges targeting poverty and but we need to act now. Successful conservation climate change. Communities winning the right to and sustainable practices exist but we need to land and carbon credits can contribute to their own learn from them, and scale them up and address development, and benefit the world environment. the challenges still laying ahead of us. To do A selection of articles from Benin, Botswana, so, partnerships are needed among sectors, Senegal and Zimbabwe show successes, challenges communities, organizations and countries. and lessons learnt from the implementation Promising nature-based solutions need to be of another nature-based solution, ecotourism. mainstreamed in every policy, every practice, every Ecotourism supported communities to conserve sector, at local, national, regional and global levels. biodiversity, increase their livelihoods and food Indeed, the article by Mansell-Moulin et al. security. Communities become custodians of showcases an ongoing ambitious partnership biodiversity, taking advantage of biodiversity programme on sustainable wildlife management management approaches such as protected to address the unsustainable hunting for wild areas. Related to the same subject, the case meat, operational in ten countries in Africa. This study from Namibia and Tanzania, in particular, partnership explores a combination of context- draws our attention to the negative impacts that specific solutions such as hunting management, ecotourism has in protected areas, on soil, habitats which will reduce the demand for wild meat while and wildlife through game drive. The narrative promoting alternative sources of food and income, discusses the challenges and recommends improving hunting laws and land tenure systems, management options to mitigate such impacts and and protecting the rights of communities. prevent land degradation and biodiversity loss.

NATURE & FAUNE VOLUME 33 ISSUE 1 11 Editorial

While Africa’s wildlife is at the centre of the state of affairs on HWC and showcases FAO’s world’s conservation efforts and tourists’ safari efforts in supporting its member countries dreams, communities on the ground are facing in effective management of this conflict. challenging and conflicting situations, including Africa, in particular its drylands, is extremely competing land uses leading to damaged crops, vulnerable to the impacts of climate change, poaching and settlements, putting at risk the with biodiversity as a salvation. If well managed, life, food security and livelihoods of people while conserved and restored, biodiversity can fully play hampering wildlife conservation efforts. An its role of building resilience of landscapes and article from Tsakem et al. discusses the Human– communities’ livelihoods. The article by Getahun A. Wildlife conflict (HWC) in the "Case of Cameroon", and Dejen E. highlights the rich diversity of showcasing how the gorillas in Cameroon, because fish in the freshwater of Ethiopia’s drylands, of the reduction of their habitats, are posing a big but its potential for fish production for food challenge to communities and damaging their security and livelihoods is being compromised crops. Recommendations to address the conflict by overfishing, catchment degradation, include review of the protected management introduction of exotic fish species and invasion and zoning, education and awareness-raising by aquatic weeds and pollution. The authors programmes, and compensation schemes. highlight that these issues can be addressed Going further in-depth and broadening the only if coordination of stakeholders is improved scale, the article by Rodina et al. provides for the management of freshwater biodiversity us with a regional overview of the current

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fisheries and the watershed management, Unless appropriate policies, investments capacities of communities are developed and and strategies are adopted and effectively legal regulations are improved and enforced. implemented and mainstreamed in all sectors, the ability of nature to satisfactorily contribute The article of Sacande et al. gives us hope. to people’s survival will greatly diminish. Using the rich plant diversity, adapted to the To make it happen, we need to address two extreme conditions and communities’ needs, elements. The first is to recognize the role of provides multiple benefits including food multistakeholder dialogues to gear collaborative security, biodiversity conservation, combating action across sectors, bringing about a holistic and desertification and erosion, and building integrated approach to address environmental resilient landscapes and production systems. and development challenges. The second is to An approach that is being replicated elsewhere embrace and revive the diversity of our cultures and has great potential to be upscaled massively and heritage and continue to support youth- across Africa’s drylands, growing Africa’s green driven initiatives in conserving Mother Nature. wall for the present and the future generations. Africa’s Regional Multistakeholder Dialogue on The World Charter of Nature as showcased in mainstreaming biodiversity in agriculture sectors, the article by Westing A. emphasizes the need the first of its kind in the region, organized to use education for younger generations, the in Rwanda at the end of 2019, prepared a decision-makers of tomorrow, to create positive fertile ground to facilitate a multigenerational change, disseminate ecological behaviour and movement and renewed collective actions. mainstreaming nature conservation in Africa’s development path and people’s day-to-day life.

NATURE & FAUNE VOLUME 33 ISSUE 1 13 The Sustainable Wildlife Management Programme: conserving wildlife and improving food security

David Mansell-Moullin,1 Michela Baratelli,1 Caroline Abid,2 Anne Hebert3 and Jeremy van Loon4

Photo: Public Stock 1 Forestry Department, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) 2 Wildlife Conservation Society 3 French Agricultural Research Centre for International Development (CIRAD) 4 Centre for International Forestry Research (CIFOR)

14 NATURE & FAUNE VOLUME 33 ISSUE 1 ©FAO/David Mansell-Moullin NATURE & FAUNE VOLUME 33 ISSUE 1 15 Plate 1. Wild meat on sale at the Moutuka Nunene market Plate 2. SWM Programme team members from the four partner in Lukolela, Democratic Republic of the Congo. organizations (FAO, CIRAD, CIFOR, WCS) and the donor (EU DEVCO) Photo: ©CIFOR/Ollivier Girard together with local community representatives at the KaZa Zambia project site. Photo: ©FAO/David Mansell-Moullin

The European Union-funded Sustainable Wildlife Management (SWM) Programme is one of the most comprehensive global initiatives to tackle unsustainable levels of hunting for wild meat. Since August 2018, the SWM Programme has been implementing innovative projects in 12 African, Caribbean and Pacific (ACP) countries.

Wild Meat Challenge Expanding human populations, levels. The situation is becoming habitat loss, improved hunting more critical as the demand for Millions of people depend on wild practices and commercial trade wild meat grows, particularly in meat for food and income. Wild in wild meat (see Plate 1) are all urban areas where it is consumed meat is an essential source of significant threats to wildlife as a luxury or tradition (Wilkie protein, fat and micronutrients, (Benítez-López et al., 2017). Wildlife et al., 2016). Consequently, recent particularly for indigenous peoples populations will decline and rural studies estimate that 285 mammal and rural communities in tropical communities may suffer rising levels species are already threatened and subtropical regions. It has of food insecurity if hunting for wild with extinction due to hunting for been estimated for example that, meat is not kept at sustainable wild meat (Ripple et al., 2016). in the Congo Basin some 4.9 million tonnes of wild meat are hunted and consumed annually (Fa et al., 2002).

The Sustainable Wildlife Management Programme: Facts and Figures

SEVEN-YEAR African, Caribbean and Pacific countries initiative implemented in 12 PILOT COUNTRIES

Implementation of activities began in AUGUST 2018, after a one-year inception phase

ONE of the largest European Union-funded biodiversity programmes

EIGHT sustainable approaches being developed

SIX common results are guiding activities in each country

16 NATURE & FAUNE VOLUME 33 ISSUE 1 The Sustainable Wildlife Management Programme: conserving wildlife and improving food security

“THERE IS AN URGENT NEED TO IMPLEMENT SOLUTIONS THAT ACHIEVE BOTH HUMAN DEVELOPMENT GOALS AND WILDLIFE CONSERVATION”

Partnership Approach There is an urgent need to implement solutions that achieve both human development goals and wildlife conservation. Depending on the local circumstances, these may include managing hunting of more resilient species at sustainable levels, reducing demand for wild meat and developing alternative sources of food and income for rural communities. In many countries, there is also a need to revise and improve hunting laws and land tenure systems.

The Sustainable Wildlife Management (SWM) Programme is developing sustainable solutions to tackle these challenges. The SWM Programme is an initiative of Photo: ©WCS by Mark Gately the Africa, Caribbean and Pacific (ACP) Group of States funded by the European Union through the 11th European Development Research (CIFOR), the Wildlife Innovative models Conservation Society (WCS) and the Fund. The SWM Programme The SWM Programme is French Agricultural Research Centre mobilises an international group developing innovative and for International Development of partner organisations with scalable new models that tackle (CIRAD), is implementing the experience and expertise in wildlife wildlife conservation and food programme. In each pilot ACP conservation, food security and security issues hand-in-hand. policy development. A consortium country, these partners are working of partners, which includes FAO, the closely with national authorities, The rights of communities are at Centre for International Forestry local communities and technical the centre of each approach. All institutions (see Plate 2). the projects are guided by the

NATURE & FAUNE VOLUME 33 ISSUE 1 17 The Sustainable Wildlife Management Programme: conserving wildlife and improving food security

SWM Community Rights-Based • Guyana (Rupununi Savannahs): concessions and reduction of Approach, which requires the Developing new models for wild meat consumption in logging Free, Prior and Informed Consent sustainable wildlife and fisheries towns and secondary cities; (FPIC) of indigenous and rural management in savannah and forest landscapes; • Sahelian Wetlands Site communities. Pilot projects are (RESSOURCE Project): Working currently being implemented • Madagascar (Makira Landscape): on the sustainable management in the following countries: Promoting consumption and of migratory waterbirds improving access to more resilient in wetlands in Chad, Mali, • Democratic Republic of or domestic species through Senegal and Sudan; and the Congo (Ituri Landscape): the development of backyard Supporting two approaches to poultry and fish farming; • Zambia and Zimbabwe (KaZa natural resources management, Transfrontier Conservation Area): one within a national protected • Papua New Guinea (Bismarck Promoting local development area (Okapi Faunal Reserve) Forest Corridor): Working on through the sustainable use of and the other a community- sustainable wildlife consumption, natural resources, including based approach in local for both cultural materials and wildlife and fisheries, in community forest concessions; food, at the village level; the Simalaha Conservancy (Zambia) and Mucheni • Gabon (Mulundu Department): • Congo (Ouesso Basin): Focusing Conservancy (Zimbabwe). Focusing on the sustainable on community management of management of village hunting hunting and fishing within logging and the local wild meat trade;

Photo: ©FAO/Luis Tato

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Each pilot project is working towards the following desired and interconnected outcomes:

1: the sustainable utilisation, as well the nutritional dependence The institutional and legal as the protection of protected on these food sources and the framework for the sustainable and endangered species, will be drivers for their consumption. use of meat from wild species developed and implemented, This will help determine ways resilient to hunting or fishing primarily at the village level in close in which wild meat and fish has been improved. collaboration with communities. consumption can be reduced, The aim is to improve, strengthen particularly in towns and cities. 3: and further enable the In addition, the SWM Programme implementation of policy and Supply of alternative protein is improved emphasises the importance legal frameworks to support the of monitoring, evaluation and production and consumption The aim is to generate a sustainable learning, and the sharing of of meat (including fishes) at supply of domestic animal-source knowledge to scale up and increase sustainable levels. In addition, meat and eggs, which are culturally the impact of the initiative. it will seek the protection of acceptable, affordable, and protected and/or endangered regularly available to consumers species in order to reconcile food to create alternatives to the security and wildlife conservation. meat of wild caught species. Further information Additional information on the 2: 4: SWM Programme is available in Management of fish and Consumption of wild meat the first issue of the quarterly terrestrial wildlife resilient to becomes sustainable SWM newsletter (http://www.fao. hunting or fishing is improved The aim is to understand the org/3/ca3952en/ca3952en.pdf) The aim is to ensure that volume of wild meat and fish or on request by contacting the wildlife and fish populations consumed within rural and SWM Programme Management are managed in a sustainable indigenous communities and urban Unit: [email protected] manner. Innovative models for centres in each site, and determine

References

Benítez-López, A., Alkemade, J.R.M., Schipper, Ripple, W.J., Abernethy, K., Betts, M.G., Chapron, A.M., Ingram, D.J., Verweij, P.A., Eikelboom, J. & G., Dirzo, R., Galetti, M., Levi, T., Lindsey, P.A., Huijbregts, M. 2017. The impact of hunting on tropical Macdonald, D.W., Machovina, B., Newsome, T.M., mammal and bird populations. Science. pp. 180, 183. Peres, C.A., Wallach, A.D., Wolf, C. & Young, H. 2016. Fa, J. E., Peres, C. A., & Meeuwig, J. 2002. Bushmeat Bushmeat hunting and extinction risk to the world’s exploitation in tropical forests: An intercontinental mammals. R. Soc. Open Sci. DOI: 10.1098/rsos.160498 comparison. Conservation Biolog. pp. 16, 232. Wilkie, D.S., Wieland, M., Boulet, H., Le Bel, S., van Vliet, N., Cornelis, D., BriacWarnon, V., Nasi, R. & Fa, J.E. 2016. Eating and conserving bushmeat in Africa. Afr. J. Ecol. Pp. 54, 402.

NATURE & FAUNE VOLUME 33 ISSUE 1 19 Trees for Global Benefits: eradicating poverty one tonne (of carbon) at a time

Pauline Nantongo Kalunda,1 Jonah Butsatsa,1 Lilian Kiguli1 and Adrine Kirabo1

Photo: Public Stock 1 Environmental Conservation Trust of Uganda

20 NATURE & FAUNE VOLUME 33 ISSUE 1 Photo: ©FAO/Luis Tato NATURE & FAUNE VOLUME 33 ISSUE 1 21 Trees for Global Benefits: eradicating poverty one tonne (of carbon) at a time

SUMMARY The nexus between poverty and environment has been a preoccupation of many conservationists for decades. Reducing poverty among rural households and protecting ecosystems on which these households depend for their basic needs of subsistence agriculture, safe drinking water and forest products is one of the challenges faced by most countries in sub-Saharan Africa.

There have been numerous efforts In this article, we share lessons alleviate poverty, while enhancing to address this by introducing from Trees for Global Benefit, a the flow of environmental integrated conservation and cooperative carbon offsetting services, including biodiversity development initiatives. A central scheme that for the last conservation in Uganda. obstacle to these efforts, however, 16 years has been consistently is the long-term gestation period mobilizing and delivering a Introduction of sustainable land use initiatives, sustained flow of financing yet most of them rely on short-term to smallholder-led landscape Reducing poverty among rural donor grants to fund activities. restoration initiatives that households and protecting ecosystems and biodiversity on which these households depend for their basic needs of subsistence agriculture, safe drinking water and forest products is one of the challenges faced by most countries in sub-Saharan Africa. Banadda (2010) cites poverty as probably the main obstacle in addressing land degradation, since resources are required for investing in good land management practices. He further asserts that the side effects of degradation affect 88 percent of Uganda’s rural population that subsist on less than two hectares per family and constituting over three million small-scale holdings. The combined challenge of poverty and land degradation among smallholders in developing countries is further exacerbated with the unpredictable weather patterns Photo: ©FAO/Luis Tato as well as extreme weather events associated with climate change.

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“EFFECTIVE MANAGEMENT OF ECOSYSTEMS… REQUIRES EFFORTS THAT ADDRESS POVERTY, CLIMATE CHANGE AND DEGRADATION AS A COMBINED CHALLENGE”

Effective management of TGB for 16 years has been at the of CO2.2 The aim of TGB is to ecosystems on which smallholders forefront of mobilizing foreign produce long-term, verifiable depend, therefore, requires direct investment in smallholder- voluntary emission reductions by efforts that address poverty, led agroforestry and forest combining carbon sequestration climate change and degradation management. The scheme, with livelihood improvements as a combined challenge. pioneered in 2003 by ECOTRUST, through small-scale, farmer-led, has grown into one of the biggest forestry/agroforestry projects while There have been numerous efforts smallholder agroforestry carbon at the same time, reducing pressure to address the combined challenge projects in Africa under the Plan on natural resources in national of poverty, climate change and Vivo standard of certification. parks and forest reserves. The degradation by introducing TGB is currently contributing to fundamental challenge affecting integrated conservation and the restoration of over 6 000 ha poverty eradication in such PES development initiatives. A central with indigenous tree species in (Payment for Environmental obstacle to these efforts however some of the most ecologically Services) schemes is finding is the long gestation period of vital landscapes of Uganda. The effective ways of involving the sustainable land-use initiatives, introduction of trees in the land broader community and the yet most of these initiatives rely on use system seeks to build the sociocultural institutions governing short to medium term donor grants. resilience of the system to climate- them (FAO, 2003; World Bank, To overcome this, smallholders in induced risks, while providing 2012). The PES model under TGB developing countries have begun to an opportunity for farmers to has not only focused on promoting take advantage of carbon finance to diversify income streams. effective participation of relevant support climate-smart agriculture stakeholder groups but also within the context of the global The TGB model won the 2013 establishing efficient financing voluntary carbon markets (Shames SEED Award particularly for its models that remove risks from the et al., 2016). Trees for Global Benefit innovation and entrepreneurship sustainable land-use investments (TGB) implemented by ECOTRUST and promising efforts to promote to continue incentivizing greater in Uganda is an example of one of economic growth, social stakeholder participation. In the few innovative carbon schemes development and environmental this article, we highlight how that have successfully managed to protection in Uganda, and the effective participation has been support communities to address potential of its partnerships to built and how the financing model the combined challenge of poverty, inspire others. The project in 2017 functions to de-risk investments. ecosystem degradation, loss of achieved a significant milestone of biodiversity and climate change. sequestering one million tonnes

2 http://www.planvivo.org/project-network/trees-for-global-benefits-uganda/.

NATURE & FAUNE VOLUME 33 ISSUE 1 23 Photo: ©FAO/Luis Tato

Building Capacity for empowerment of diverse groups Although farmers are trained as a Effective Participation of people to achieve success and group, and are given an opportunity sustainability of the programmes. to participate in the identification In establishing effective TGB achieves this by employing an and making of decisions on priority participation, TGB has mainly all-inclusive ‘pro-poor’ approach local community level problems and focused on approaches that bring where the whole community is solutions, each household is given together local farming community, facilitated to develop a common an opportunity to implement the local technicians and country-based vision and every household plan as and when they are ready. experts to identify and prioritize supported to develop a plan that TGB is designed as a cooperative local problems and solutions. meets the household’s individual carbon-offsetting scheme, in which There are numerous types of needs but also contributes to the each participant retains the rights local community participation in community vision. Participating to land, trees, carbon credits and development programmes globally farmers receive training and attend all the income from the sale of ranging from self-mobilization, workshops to identify forestry the products and environmental interactive participation and activities that are suitable to their services belong to the smallholder. functional participation among needs at community level and at This way the project is able to others as described by Pretty household level. The workshops harness the benefits of a collective (1995). Trees for Global Benefit has are complemented with home vision, while safeguarding each adopted the effective participation visits to support the translation individual rights to decision-making approach, which as recommended of those activities into a land use as well as the tenure rights of by FAO (2003), aims at ensuring map, which also doubles as a land, trees and carbon credits. greater involvement with and business plan for that household.

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“EVERY TONNE OF CARBON EMISSIONS OFFSET THROUGH SMALLHOLDER-LED SCHEMES SUCH AS TREES FOR GLOBAL BENEFIT BRINGS A FAMILY CLOSER TO ERADICATION OF POVERTY AND AT THE SAME TIME IMPROVES BIODIVERSITY AND ECOSYSTEM QUALITY”

The combination of a common in tree growing. Through this agroforestry-based sustainable vision and the household’s right association, women are able to land use a viable livelihood to decision-making in project apply for grants from development option by ensuring availability of adoption through self-selection has partners, able to access markets a sustainable flow of financing at resulted into significant ancillary for their produce and support the different stages of the land-use benefits beyond sustainable land each other in times of need. enterprise. This is achieved through management. Social capital has the creation of opportunities for been built within participating De-risking smallholder- smallholders to tap into multiple communities by creating a sense funding sources, for agroforestry of project ownership, driven by led agroforestry as a means of generating a general vision of achieving a investments income and improving land better future, not just for individual Sustainable land-use investments management while contributing households but also for the general including agroforestry are normally biodiversity conservation and community. Community Visioning characterized by a long-term global climate benefits. sessions have resulted into the planning period of 20 to 50 years. TGB works as a cooperative formation of community-owned The long-term planning horizons carbon-offsetting scheme, through institutions such as Savings and coupled with the lack of financing which credits from across multiple Credit Cooperatives (SACCOS), create a barrier that prevents landholdings are aggregated to farmer marketing groups, artisans, many smallholders from adopting achieve marketable scale enabling tour guides, among others. These these high capital and labour- smallholder rural poor farmers in groups have been instrumental demanding sustainable land use Uganda to access the voluntary in addressing societal challenges investments (Banadda 2010). The carbon market. Farmers receive and bring about socio-economic PES model in TGB is designed to ex-ante payments in installments change. An example of this is ‘The incentivize the transformation of based on farm performance over Bushenyi Women in Development,’ smallholder investment horizons a ten-year period. The income an association of active female from the short-term hand-to- from the sale of the environmental tree growers within Bitereko sub- mouth seasonal plans to long-term services provides the much- county, Mitooma district, in the sustainable land use/business needed capital in form of foreign Albertine Rift region of Uganda, plans. TGB’s PES incentives revolve direct investment to kick-start that has become instrumental in around making the adoption of garnering women participation the agroforestry enterprise.

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“THE PES MODEL IN TGB IS DESIGNED TO INCENTIVIZE THE TRANSFORMATION OF SMALLHOLDER INVESTMENT HORIZONS FROM THE SHORT-TERM HAND-TO-MOUTH SEASONAL PLANS TO LONG- TERM SUSTAINABLE LAND USE/BUSINESS PLANS”

This way, the project’s support the loans. This way, the scheme their land to develop assets in enables rural farmers to provides short-term cash needs, form of trees for fruit production, invest in sustainable resource allowing farmers to invest in timber, medicinal extracts and management using payments sustainable land use, which poles. Extra activities (e.g. nursery received in installments after generates the long-term benefits, establishment and production activities have been monitored. including biodiversity conservation. of seedlings) provide additional The logic behind this ex-ante Farmers are able to use part of income to rural communities. performance-based payment model is that, by the tenth year, sustainable interventions will be fully established, providing CONCLUSION livelihood benefits for farmers, and with no incentive to revert TGB demonstrates that through a combination of effective participation back to the previous system. and efficient financing models, it is possible to address the combined challenge of poverty, ecosystem degradation and climate change. Effective The TGB PES model is designed participation enables the design of initiatives that are relevant and in such a way that creates a practicable to the local population, whereas sustainable financing enables sustainable flow of financing, the investment in these initiatives. The sustainable flow of financing along tailored to the different needs of the the different stages of the agroforestry enterprise has been instrumental various stages of the sustainable in reducing risks, making agroforestry a competitive livelihood strategy for land use enterprises. TGB for smallholders and thus incentivizing its adoption. By creating opportunities example enables access to credit for smallholders to tap into multiple funding sources at different through linking the performance- stages of their enterprises, TGB has enabled farmers to benefit from based PES payments to Village increased incomes and improved land management while contributing Savings and Loans Associations to biodiversity conservation and global climate benefits. Every tonne (VSLAs). The farmers are able of carbon emissions offset through smallholder-led schemes such as to use the PES agreements as Trees for Global Benefit brings a family closer to eradication of poverty collateral for loans and use the and at the same time improves biodiversity and ecosystem quality. subsequent payments to offset

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Photo: ©FAO/Luis Tato

References

Banadda N. 2010. Gaps, barriers and bottlenecks to Pretty, J. 1995. Participatory Learning for Sustainable sustainable land management (SLM) adoption in Uganda. Agriculture. World Development. 23: 1247. African Journal of Agricultural Research Vol . 5(25): 3571,­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­ Shames, S., Heiner, K., Kapukha, M., Kiguli, L., Masiga, December 2010 Special Review. M., Kalunda, P.N. Ssempala, a., Recha, J. & Wekesa, A. FAO. 2013. Participatory Development: Guidelines on 2016. Building local institutional capacity to implement Beneficiary Participation in Agricultural and Rural agriculture carbon projects: Participatory Action Development, 2nd edition. Rome. Research with Vi Agroforestry in Kenya & ECOTRUST in Marsden, D. Reviews Section. Community Development Uganda. Agric & Food Secur. 2016. 5:13. https://doi.org/ Journal. October 1987. 22 (4). 351– 353. https://doi. 10.1186/s40066-016-0060-x org/10.1093/cdj/22.4.351. World Bank. 2012. When do participatory Development projects Work? Plan Vivo. 2020. Trees for global benefits, Uganda. 2020. Press release. November 14, 2012. (also http://www.planvivo.org/project-network/trees-for- available at http:// www.worldbank.org/en/news/ global-benefits-uganda/ press-release/2012/11/14/ when-do-participatory- development-projects-work.)

NATURE & FAUNE VOLUME 33 ISSUE 1 27 The World Charter for Nature revisited: an African initiative

Arthur H. Westing1

Photo: Public Stock 1 Westing Associates in Environment, Security, and Education, USA

28 NATURE & FAUNE VOLUME 33 ISSUE 1 Photo: ©FAO/Luis Tato NATURE & FAUNE VOLUME 33 ISSUE 1 29 The World Charter for Nature revisited: an African initiative

SUMMARY The birth in Africa of the seminal World Charter for Nature of 1982 is outlined in this paper, followed by a sampling of the 24 precepts it promulgates. Suggestions for its implementation and dissemination include the importance of incorporating it into school curricula and making it available in all secondary schools. The Charter is of lasting global significance that must continue to be strengthened and disseminated.

Introduction “Nature shall be respected and its essential The United Nations Environment processes shall not be impaired” (§ 1); Programme (UNEP) was established in 1972 in clear recognition that “Nature shall be secured against degradation caused the natural world was coming by warfare or other hostile activities” (§ 5); under increasing human pressure. Shortly after, the Government of the “In formulating long-term plans for economic development, Democratic Republic of the Congo population growth, and the improvement of standards of (then Zaïre) recognized the need living, due account shall be taken of the long-term capacity for a set of appropriate guiding of natural systems to ensure the subsistence and settlement principles for many states and of the populations concerned, recognizing that this capacity peoples of the world to follow. In may be enhanced through science and technology” (§ 8); 1975, it turned to the International Union for Conservation of “Living resources shall not be utilized in excess of Nature (IUCN) to produce a draft their natural capacity for regeneration” (§ 10.a); document, which was refined by UNEP for final submission to the “Agriculture, grazing, forestry and fisheries practices shall United Nations General Assembly be adapted to the natural characteristics and constraints as the World Charter for Nature. of given areas” (§ 11.d); It was adopted on 28 October 1982 as Resolution No. 37/7. and, as a UN precedent,

“Each person has a duty to act in accordance with the Discussion provisions of the present Charter; acting individually, in The World Charter for Nature association with others, or through participation in the — available in at least Arabic, political process, each person shall strive to ensure that Chinese, English, French, German, Russian and Spanish — establishes the objectives and requirements of the present Charter 24 precepts (some with several are met” (§ 24). parts). Some notable ones: (The full Charter is available at: < https://www. cambridge.org/core/services/aop-cambridge- core/content/view/S0376892900011917 >.)

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Implementation available for inspection and study it becomes too late to do so. And in every secondary school as a it would certainly not be amiss The World Charter for Nature framed poster — and that it become for the concepts embedded in suggests, inter alia, that “the part of both the science and social the Charter also be discussed principles set forth in the present studies curricula for careful study and embraced in the home. Charter shall be reflected in the law and serious discussion. Indeed, and practice of each State, as well the Charter itself so aptly states as at the international level” (§ 14). Conclusion that, “knowledge of nature shall To that end, by way of example, the be broadly disseminated by all The World Charter for Nature is Government of the State of Eritrea possible means, particularly an important document because incorporated the Charter into its by ecological education as an it reflected an emerging cultural “Eritrean National Code of Conduct integral part of general education” norm regarding environmental for Environmental Security” (§ 15). This becomes so important protection arising in Africa in 1975 as part of its 1995 National because it will be the informed and on behalf of the entire globe. Today, Environmental Management motivated students of today who this cultural norm is still timely Plan for Eritrea. Additionally, the offer the best hope for achieving relevant and should certainly be Revised African Convention on a socially and environmentally heeded with ever greater vigour the Conservation of Nature and sustainable future for their country, throughout the continent. Natural Resources of 2003 takes their region, and beyond before note of the Charter. Regrettably, the more emotional Universal Declaration of Rights of Mother Earth proposed by Bolivia in 2010 For further reading did not refer back to the Charter. Burhenne, W.E. & Irwin, W.A. 1986. Westing, A.H. 1987. World Charter for World Charter for Nature: Legislative Nature. Environmental Conservation. Among other means of History; Commentary. 2nd edn. West Cambridge, UK. 14 (2):187. dissemination, the World Charter Berlin. Erich Schmidt Verlag. 194 pp. for Nature should certainly be made

NATURE & FAUNE VOLUME 33 ISSUE 1 31 Country Nature -based Solutions

Photo: Public Stock

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Photo: ©FAO/Steve Terrill

NATURE & FAUNE VOLUME 33 ISSUE 1 33 Nature-based Solutions in Benin Photo: Public Stock

Community ecotourism, a means to reconnect humans with their environment: Case of the Sitatunga Valley Community Natural Park

Martial Kouderin,1 Damien Martin1 and Joseph Dhoussou1

SUMMARY The Sitatunga Valley Community Natural Park is a protected area in Benin covering 670 km2 that was able to transform a threat – its proximity to the two largest urban centers of Southern Benin (Abomey-Calavi and Cotonou) – into an opportunity to develop local ecotourism.

Since 2007, it welcomes thousands Union for the Conservation is a species of antelope confined of visitors every year. Eighty of Nature (IUCN). Created in to swampy areas that we have percent of these are Beninese, of 2007 by the Centre régional de selected as an umbrella species. which 50 percent are pupils. This recherche et d’éducation pour un The Sitatunga valley is located influx of visitors created notable développement intégré (CREDI- about 30 km from Cotonou, the and interesting effects on the area ONG3), today the Sitatunga Valley economic capital city of Benin and visited. These are felt at social, spans 670 km2 of the RAMSAR about 20 km from the center of environmental and economic levels. site 1018 wetlands. Three Abomey-Calavi. Almost 2 000 000 The aim of this article is thus to municipalities manage it jointly in inhabitants thus live at the collect and highlight these effects. an intercommunality spirit involving doorsteps of the protected area. over 150 000 inhabitants. These This proximity breeds big threats Introduction municipalities are Abomey-Calavi, for the protected area. It leads Sô-Ava and Zè. Over 1 000 animal to the loss of natural habitats in A natural heritage of national and plant species are recorded favor of urbanization and peri- interest at the doorstep there in the midst of ecosystems urban agriculture; the increased of the economic capital typical of southern Benin. About 30 risks of organic and chemical The Sitatunga Valley Community of them are threatened at national pollution of wetland ecosystems; Natural Park (PNCVS2) is a or international level, among which the accelerated overexploitation Category VI protected area the Sitatunga or swamp-dwelling of natural resources (wood, non- according to the International antelope (Tragelaphus spekei). This wood forest products, fish, etc.).

1 Centre régional de recherche et d’éducation pour un développement intégré (CREDI-ONG) 2 Parc naturel communautaire de la Vallée du Sitatunga in French 3 Regional Research and Education Centre for Integrated Development

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This trend is perfectly illustrated by the results of the study on land occupation dynamics in the lower delta of Ouémé commissioned by CREDI-ONG which, on the basis of the diachronic analysis of satellite images, shows the disappearance of over 50 percent of natural stands between 1999 and 2017. Unfortunately, this trend is likely to continue due to rural migration and the current annual population growth estimated at more than 2.7 percent (INSAE, 2017). In this context, the State Photo: ©flickr/Susanne Nilsson and local authorities have a hard time ensuring compliance with the environment-related texts Located along the swamp in the These trips enable the public to but also their various territorial Kpotomey village, the village hosted discover the park’s biodiversity plans. For that reason, from the the first ecotouristic developments: but also its culture and the people onset of its initiative, CREDI-ONG a wildlife observatory, an aquatic who keep it alive. These diverse opted for a so-called community- channel for interpreting the infrastructures and ecotouristic based approach. This approach is landscape and a 20-bed eco-lodge. services help welcome all types based on the principle that natural Later in 2009, CREDI-ONG officially of visitors and expectations. resources should be managed opened in the same village the by and for local communities. Green Museum of the Sitatunga 2. Increasing number Thus, we rely mostly on the Valley which became in 2016 the of visitors emergence of a territorial identity Animal Shelter of the Sitatunga and collective ecocitizenship According to internal statistics Valley. In 2011, the Hunting Museum conscience to counter the threats of the organization, between in the village of Dédo, about ten on biodiversity. To that effect, from 2007 and 2018, PNCVS welcomed kilometers away from the first 2017, CREDI-ONG chose to develop 18 345 visitors. This is essentially sites, was inaugurated. Since then, community-based ecotourism. community-based ecotourism either alone or in partnership since 83 percent of the visitors with local tourism stakeholders, 1. Various infrastructures are Beninese and 17 percent are the organization offers a camping for various ecotouristic foreigners. It should be noted that site, accommodation with locals, services of the national visitors, a little over bioclimatic bungalows, a shop 50 percent are pupils. The annual To carry out its ecotourism- selling artefacts, etc. Today, average growth rate of 39 percent enhanced strategy within the CREDI-ONG offers several-day tends to show an increasing interest Park, CREDI-ONG opened up stays, ecotouristic trips of this category of visitors for the its agro-ecologic lasting from 2 hours services offered by the organization. and learning to a day by mountain farm in 2007. bike, on foot or in a canoe.

Photo: Public Stock

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3. A driver for change who discovered our work through riders, etc.). Since 2012, the direct a single ecotouristic visit. Thanks benefits of ecotouristic activities Social benefits to the fund, about 30 socio- on the territory have been Prior to the creation of the Park in community support activities have estimated at over USD 52 500. The 2007, its territory had no particular been carried out (boreholes, public indirect benefits of ecotourism touristic appeal. Today, with its places, remedial classes, etc.) to are deemed to be more than typical high-level attendance, the improve access to basic services double the direct economic park helps create a buzz around for the Park’s communities. benefits over the same period. the rise of a territorial identity formerly unknown to the general Economic benefits Environmental benefits public. Since the beginning of its Ecotourism within the Sitatunga The PNCVS has facilitated several ecotouristic activities, CREDI-ONG Valley has facilitated the direct conducive changes since significant levies 23 percent of the ecotouristic creation of nine permanent jobs improvements have been observed benefits to feed into the Local (permanent guides, caterers, in the practices and involvement Development Social Fund (FSDL4). animal caretakers, watchmen, of communities vis-à-vis the Hence, since 2012, over USD 4 300 cleaners, etc.) and about environment. Regarding species, in have been paid back into the 30 occasional jobs (local guides, spite of its status as a threatened Fund which is also replenished caterers, motorbike and automobile species, the Sitatunga was very by various development partners

Photo: ©flickr/ Valerie Abbott

4 Fonds social de développement local in French.

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little known within the Park and completely unknown by the CONCLUSION general public in Benin. Today, it It should be noted that the Sitatunga Valley Community Natural Park is so popular that even football now enjoys a significant relevance at local level and is highly recognized and sport clubs bear its name. The at national and international levels. Our diagnostic shows that this formerly systematic poaching of the recognition is closely linked to the existence of an ecotouristic activity species prior to the creation of the on the territory. With over 18 000 visitors since the creation of the Park, has declined by 95 percent, park, a cumulated turnover of more than USD 52 500, and an average simply under social pressure. annual attendance growth estimated at 39 percent, ecotourism has Moreover, the PNCVS has also had a a strong impact on the territory and its communities. Granted, a few beneficial impact on other species negative impacts such as the increase in waste generated by visitors listed on the IUCN Red List, namely, have been mentioned, but the ecotourism established by CREDI-ONG the dwarf crocodile (Osteoleamus has mostly had positive impacts. For example, it has enabled local tetraspis) or the Anambra Waxbill communities and the general public to get acquainted with biodiversity (Estrilada poliopareia). The in southern Benin and to be aware of its conservation issues. PNCVS is truly an animal shelter that contributes to preserving biodiversity by welcoming and caring for a vulnerable local wildlife: seizure by the Forestry Services, References accidental capture, wounding, parentless litter, etc.; 45 percent Agbo, E. and Dossou-Togbe, A. 2018. Rapport définitif de l’évaluation Externe of the animals that are tended to Finale du projet de Gestion Communautaire des ressources naturelles et are later on reintroduced into a Développement Rural autour de la Vallée du Sitatunga (GECODER). 97 pp. natural habitat. The others are CREDI-ONG. 2018. Rapport d’autoévaluation participative. 30 pp. kept in captivity, allowing the CREDI-ONG. 2019. Rapport annuel d’activité 2018. 20 pp. general public (especially from Kouton M. 2018a. Dynamique de l’occupation du sol dans le Delta de l’Ouémé. the cities) to discover – often for Étude commanditée par CREDI-ONG dans le cadre de son projet de Gouvernance the first time – species that they et gestion communautaires des ressources naturelles au Sud. Bénin. 34 pp. share a territory with. There are Kouton M. 2018b. Évaluation des services écosystémiques dans le Parc Naturel also specific exhibitions dedicated Communautaire la Vallée du Sitatunga. Étude commanditée par CREDI-ONG to waste management and to dans le cadre de son projet de Gouvernance et gestion communautaires des the definition and interest of ressources naturelles au Sud. Bénin. 54 pp. protected areas. The shelter is thus Mounzoun S., Lougbegnon T. O., Codjia J. T. C. 2018. Pression démographique a wonderful learning tool to create et conservation de la faune dans les réserves de biosphère du Bénin. Nature & awareness among the general Faune. 32(1). FAO. Accra. 140 pp. public on environmental issues. Neuenschwander, P., Sinsin, B. et Goergen, G. 2011. Protection de la Nature en Afrique de l’Ouest : Une Liste Rouge pour le Bénin. Nature Conservation in West Africa: Red List for Benin. International Institute of Tropical Agriculture. Ibadan, Nigeria. 365 pp.

NATURE & FAUNE VOLUME 33 ISSUE 1 37 Nature-based Solutions in Botswana Photo: Public Stock Developing a framework for sustainable coexistence between ecotourism and agriculture

Patricia K. Mogomotsi,1, 2 Melville Saayman2 and Andrea Saayman2

SUMMARY Ecotourism plays a significant role in growing economies in Southern and Eastern African countries. However, it has affected socio-economic development, as well as the environment, negatively.

It has been observed that since institutional perspective. Therefore, Introduction most ecotourist resorts and the present article develops According to Kironde (2009), about activities in these countries are and proposes an institutional 60 percent of Africa’s population located in rural areas, ecotourism framework that will allow for the derive their income and livelihood often affects the lives and sustainable coexistence of both from land utilization through agricultural production of local the ecotourism and agriculture various agricultural activities. communities negatively. This leads sectors in Botswana, using However, it is argued that to conflicts over land use between the Okavango Delta as a case contemporary land-use practices ecotourism and agricultural study. The proposed framework pose a threat to the benefits of activities in many parts of these recommends that the institutional land to traditional farmers and countries. Ecologically-sensitive environment for sustainable land- agrarian societies in Africa (Torres areas such as the Okavango Delta use planning and management and Momsen, 2004). This is in part in Botswana are experiencing such should attain a balance between due to the delayed incorporation conflicts and top-down spatial contemporary and traditional land of contemporary land-use planning have exacerbated these. uses in order to simultaneously strategies such as ecotourism Despite the prevalence of land- improve the productivity and into the countries’ overall rural use conflicts in the Okavango livelihoods for farmers and develop development and poverty- Delta and other areas, there is the business environment for reduction strategies (Ashley, 2000; a dearth of studies that analyze ecotourism-related enterprises. Torres and Momsen, 2004). Over the such conflicts, especially from an

1 Okavango Research Institute, University of Botswana, Maun, Botswana 2 Tourism Research in Economic Environs and Society, North-West University, Potchefstroom, South Africa

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years, some developing countries in Southern and Eastern Africa have devised various strategies to improve the economic benefits of ecotourism at national and local (i.e. community and household) levels. For instance, in Namibia, policies have been enacted to enable exclusive wildlife-based tourism in farms as an effort to increase sustainable economic output from land through land-use diversification (Krugmann, 2001). Honey and Gilpin (2009) argue that generally, governments have a mandate to create a link between ecotourism and agriculture through developing relevant institutions to Photo: ©FAO/Michael Levine-Clark promote the effective contribution of ecotourism in agrarian communities. It is argued that the link between agriculture and in promoting coexistence and for the sustainable coexistence of ecotourism could contribute to the reducing conflict between several ecotourism and rural communities stimulation of local agricultural users with diverse interests. in Botswana, using the Okavango returns (Torres and Momsen, 2004). Delta as a case study. In this study, There is an imminent need to institutions are defined as stable In Botswana, only a few studies develop and implement approaches rules, crystallised in customs, laws have been conducted to define that will ensure maintenance of and traditions (North, 1990). Formal traditional and contemporary the balance between conservation institutions, on the one hand, are land-use patterns as well as of natural resources in and defined as consciously written rules socio-economic activities. The around the Okavango Delta and (such as legislative enactments, Okavango Delta is not an exception sustainable use of resources for regulations and contracts) which to the dearth of studies on socio-economic benefits of rural structure the political, social and sustainable coexistence between communities in the delta amidst economic interactions of agents in ecotourism and the livelihoods inherent conflicts. The attainment the society (North, 1990). Informal of rural communities (Bendsen of a mutually beneficial balance is institutions, on the other hand, and Meyer, 2003; Kgathi, 2002; dependent on the establishment are self-imposed, self-monitored Mbaiwa et al., 2008). Even fewer of quick access and occupancy conventions and norms that studies have been carried out on rights and the creation of a robust structure the interactions and the institutions managing natural institutional environment with relations between agents and their resources in the delta (Darkoh the core aim of helping to attain environment. Informal institutions and Mbaiwa 2005). The authors, sustainable land use. The aim of this are usually deeply embedded in however, did not analyse natural study is, therefore, to develop and culture and societal ideology of resources institutions and the propose an institutional framework traditional rural communities role that such institutions play to policy-makers that will allow (Colding and Folke, 2001).

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Research methodology replica institutions. A further 864 studies were excluded and In order to address the article’s only 86 full texts were reviewed. objective, document analysis Of the 86, only 42 were directly Photo: akamaraqu - Fotolia was used. The document analysis related to the article’s objective. (White, 1993; Campbell et al., 2006; depended on a systematic Sapignoli and Hitchcock, 2013). reviewing technique. The technique The failure is not only manifested provides “a meticulous way of Results and discussions in the propagation of inequalities finding relevant, high-quality Before the enactment of the and the rich–poor divide (Sapignoli studies; and integrating their Botswana’s Tribal Land Act of 1968, and Hitchcock, 2013; Mogomotsi, findings to give a clearer and more the land in the Okavango Delta was 2019) but also in their role in comprehensive picture than any primarily tribal land, governed by instigating conflicts between single study can produce” (Gough customary law. The land zoning traditional and contemporary land et al., 2013: 5). The systematic process guided by the Tribal Land uses. Agricultural productivity review process was performed Act relocated and dispossessed is negatively affected by wildlife in three weeks in June 2018. The some of the traditional land due to constant raiding and/or available literature sources were users, such as farmers. The trampling of crops by ungulates, systematically identified in several spatial planning exercise inherent for example by the vast over- electronic databases. The search in the land zoning process was population of elephants in the used keywords such as sustainable ill-planned with minimal and no country, and livestock predation tourism, agriculture, Botswana consultation with farmers and by wild predators, as well as land legislation and traditional other stakeholders (Perkins, the killing of people by animals stakeholders, among others. In 1991; White, 1993; Campbell et al., such as elephants and predators total, the search generated 1611 2006; Sapignoli and Hitchcock, (Mogomotsi, 2019). The affected documents, ranging from policy 2013). The failure to consult the farmers decry low rates of documents, newspaper articles, traditional land users and other compensation for crop raiding peer-reviewed and non-per- land users have consequently and livestock predation by wildlife reviewed journal articles, books resulted in the marginalisation and (Mogomotsi, 2019). In addition, and book chapters. However, the adverse effects on livelihoods of it has been established that the number of documents retrieved small-scale farmers and the poor linkages between ecotourism and was inflated by duplicate studies (Sapignoli and Hitchcock, 2013; agriculture are weak (Mogomotsi, as well as policy documents and Mogomotsi, 2019). The top-down 2019). One of the key failures of institutions saved in different approach of spatial planning institutions that govern land use names and different search engines. resulted in land dispossession in Botswana, noted by Mogomotsi In order to sieve the relevant and the relocations of rural (2019), is lack of communication literature, the exclusion criteria communities, small-scale farmers with and consultation of local comprised of documents that and their herds. Furthermore, communities when land use were not written in English and the areas of some farming lands changes are made, or when new Setswana. Studies and documents were significantly reduced land uses are introduced. In that contained the keywords with (Sapignoli and Hitchcock, 2013). the light of these concerns, this clear publication details were In Botswana, the land-use laws and study proposes a sustainable included. Using the criteria, 946 strategies, such as the Tribal Land institutional environment premised abstracts were reviewed after the Act, have failed in their production, on four key activities, which form removal of duplicate studies and conservation and equity objectives a continuous process (Figure 1).

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STEP 1: STEP 3: Participatory formulation of land- Implementation of policies and strategies use policies and strategies Due to the participatory nature of the formulation The first step towards the creation of a sustainable of strategies for land-use planning, this study institutional environment proposed by the framework proposes a decentralised implementation. This is the participatory formulation of institutions. The is because a decentralized approach is argued to participation should include traditional land users, be a robust and inclusive approach preferred for contemporary land users and all other stakeholders. achieving sustainable resource use in a way that This could promote the development of institutions responds to individual local community needs that are site specific or at least acknowledge the through transmitting control to communities and complexities, conflicts and resource-use dynamics creating incentives for decision-making aligned that are prevalent within a geographical setting. to their specific needs (Elobeid, 2012). It has the The institutions that govern land use need to be potential to make institutions more responsive to informed by stakeholders and their realities, as local needs, thereby improving the efficiency and well as by the ecological needs. The realities may effectiveness of formal strategies. However, the be influenced by such factors as history and the implementation should not be treated as an end on existing power dynamics. This may provide a more its own, but rather as a means to an end. The evolving holistic understanding of the agriculture–ecotourism and dynamic resource needs require responsive interaction and interference, or the relations strategies. Therefore, constant monitoring, between land uses in general, within a setting. evaluation and revision of the strategies are The incorporation of local needs and knowledge proposed as the fourth step within the continuous during the formulation stages of institutions can cycle of creating a sustainable institutional never be underestimated (Madigele, 2017). environment for land-use planning and management.

STEP 2: STEP 4: Participatory land-use planning Evaluation and revision of A participatory land-use planning approach could policies and strategies promote the zoning, allocation and development of The sustainable institutional environment ought to land in a transparent, democratic and accountable be geared towards responding to the land needs of manner. This follows the Participatory Learning all stakeholders through a process of engagement, for Action (PLA) approach, which benefits from communication and consultation. The evaluation information generated by local communities using and revision processes could help in innovating their local realities. The bottom-up and participatory responses and solutions for conflict resolutions land-use planning could also offer local and affected through lessons learnt. Through the processes of communities a considerable role to play in influencing evaluation and revision of strategies, the sustainable land resources utilisation towards sustainability institutional environment for land-use planning (Pienaar et al., 2013). Some institutional economists and management could be enhanced by making the argue that improved community participation strategies adaptable and dynamic to the changing often leads to increased incentives to preserve and land use needs that are site specific. The process conserve natural resources by communities (Ostrom, could also be useful in offering guidance and 1990; Pienaar et al., 2013). Participatory land-use alternative approaches to promoting the coexistence planning ought to be followed by the third step, of agriculture and tourism within a setting. which is the implementation of policy and strategies.

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FIGURE 1. A sustainable institutional framework for promoting coexistence between tourism and agriculture (Source: Author’s conceptualisation)

Sustainable institutional environment for land-use planning and management

Participatory formulation of institutions Evaluation Participatory and revision land-use planning

Implementation of policy and other institutions

Improvement of Outcomes Outcomes Improvement of the the productivity and feedbacks and feedbacks business environment and livelihoods

Improving Land for farming and the linkages Land for tourism and other traditional other contemporary land uses Enhanced land uses communication

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Over the years, Botswana has experienced a changing institutional landscape of natural resources governance and management in the form of land reforms, policy revisions and enactment of legislature. The changing institutional landscape has consequently created room for the central government to take full control of the natural resources, which used to be in tribal. The Okavango Delta is particularly affected. Although the study uses the case of the Okavango Delta, the framework has been designed in such a way that the emphasis is not narrowly on tourism– agriculture conflicts, but instead on traditional vis-à-vis contemporary land uses in general. Therefore, it can be applied in Botswana, and other cases where there are conflicting land uses and livelihood activities. This article makes a clarion call to land-use institutions to provide viable, effective and affordable options from addressing land-use conflicts. This could promote environmental management and encourage biodiversity conservation that are sensitive to the needs of local communities.

42 NATURE & FAUNE VOLUME 33 ISSUE 1 Botswana

References

Ashley, C. 2000. The Impacts of Tourism on Rural Mbaiwa, J E, A Stronza and U Kreuter. 2011. “From Livelihoods: Namibia’s Experience. ODI Working Paper 128. collaboration to conservation: insights from the Okavango London. Overseas Development Institute. Delta, Botswana.” Society and Natural Resources. 24: 400. Bendsen, H and T Meyer. 2003. “The dynamics of land use Mogomotsi, P K. 2019. An institutional framework for the systems in Ngamiland and changing options of strategies.” sustainable co-existence of tourism and agriculture in Environmental Monitoring of Tropical and Sub-tropical Botswana. Potchefstroom, South Africa: Unpublished PhD Wetlands. Maun. Botswana. HOORC. pp. 278. thesis. North West University. Campbell, B M, Gordon, I.J., Luckert, M.K., Petheram, L. Ostrom, E. 1990. Governing the commons: The evolution & Vetter, S. 2006. “In search of optimal stocking regimes of institutions for collective action. New York: Cambridge in semi-arid grazing lands: One size does not fit all.” University Press. Ecological Economics. 60: 75-85. Perkins, J S. 1991. The Impact of Borehole Dependent Cattle Darkoh, M. B. K and J E Mbaiwa. 2005. Natural resource Grazing on the Environment and Society of Eastern Kalahari utilisation and land use conflicts in the Okavango Delta, Sandveld, Central District of Botswana. Sheffield, England. Botswana. Department of Environmental Science Unpublished PhD thesis University of Sheffield. and Harry Oppenheimer Okavango Research Centre. Pienaar, E F, L S Jarvis and D M Larson. 2013. “Creating University of Botswana. direct incentives for wildlife conservation in community- Elobeid, D E. 2012. “The role of institutions in sustainable based natural resource management programmes development: The experience of Sudan economy.” OIDA in Botswana.” The Journal of Development Studies. International Journal of Sustainable Development. 4 (5): 53. 49 (3): 315. Honey, M. and Gilpin, R. 2009. Tourism in the developing Saner, R, L Yiu and M Filadoro. 2015. “Tourism world: Promoting peace and reducing poverty. Washington, development in the least developed countries: Challenges D.C. United States Institute of Peace. and opportunities.” Camillo, A, ed. Research on Global Hospitality and Tourism Management. Kgathi, D L. 2002. Natural Resources, Tenure and Access in IGI Global. pp. 234. Botswana’s Okavango Basin. Maun, Botswana. HOORC. Sapignoli, M and R K Hitchcock. 2013. “Development and Kironde, J.M L. 2009. “Improving Land Sector Governance dispossession: impacts of land reform in Botswana.” in Africa: The Case of Tanzania.” Paper prepared for the Evers, S. J. T. M, C Seagle and F Krijtenburg. Africa for Sale? “Workshop on “Land Governance in support of the MDGs Positioning the State, Land and Society in Foreign Large- Responding to New Challenges”. Washington, DC. Scale Land Acquisition in Africa. Leiden. Brill. pp. 131. Krugmann, H. 2001. Fundamental issues and the threats Torres, R and J H Momsen. 2004. “Challenges and to sustainable development in Namibia. Windhoek, potential for linking tourism and agriculture to achieve Namibia. Directorate of Environmental Affairs, Ministry of pro-poor tourism objectives.” Progress in Development Environment and Tourism. Studies. 4 (4): 294. Livestock Development and Pastoral Madigele, P K. 2018. “Efficiency of common-pool resource White, R. 1993. institutions: focusing on water users associations in South Production on Communal Rangelands in Botswana. Africa.” Environment, Development and Sustainability. Gaborone. Botswana Society. pp. 1.

NATURE & FAUNE VOLUME 33 ISSUE 1 43 Nature-based Solutions in Cameroon Photo: Public Stock

Human-gorilla conflicts around the Lobéké National Park: Implications for conservation and local development

Samuel Christian Tsakem,1 Martin N. Tchamba2 and Robert B. Weladji3

SUMMARY Several studies have shown the relevance of knowledge about human- gorilla conflicts in developing protected area management strategies.

The shortage of data on these with a land-use plan, but also the deprived of the various traditional conflicts is the motivation sensitization and education of uses of lands and forests. With the behind the current study on populations on the best farming accelerated destruction of natural the Lobéké National Park (LNP), practices and compliance with habitats, gorillas (Gorilla gorilla) are the Cameroonian section of the the existing legislation. living increasingly closer to human Sangha Trinational Park (STP) populations (Hockings and Humle, located between Cameroon, the Introduction 2009). This coexistence implies the Central African Republic and use of the same resources in the Congo. Surveys were conducted In Africa, human-gorilla conflicts same spaces. In the context of this with households in nine villages are not new phenomena (Hockings conflict, the damages to crops, around the park and concluded that and Humle, 2009; Masi et al., 2009) habitat degradation and poaching about 59 percent of households as they date back to the period are by far the main features have recorded damages to their when several protected areas (Marchal and Hill, 2009). Wildlife crops with huge financial losses. (PA) were created (Madden, 2008). remains a major source of animal Moreover, the dry season and the In most cases, these areas were protein for over 75 percent of the distance between the farm and the established without considering human population in the Congo village have significant impacts on the future needs and demographic Basin (De Wasseige et al., 2014). the occurrence of these conflicts. growth of riparian populations who The study recommends a zoning simply fled away and were thus

1 L'Ecole de Faune de Garoua, Cameroun 2 Département de Foresterie, Faculté d’Agronomie et des Sciences Agricoles, Université de Dschang, Cameroun 3 Department of Biology, Concordia University, Canada

44 NATURE & FAUNE VOLUME 33 ISSUE 1 Cameroon

While in Uganda human-gorilla Without conclusive data on human- Methodology conflicts were dutifully handled gorilla conflicts, no concerted and The surveys were conducted in and economic and ecological participatory management strategy the nine riparian villages of the impacts recorded (Muyambi, 2004; devised by LNP would succeed. In park (Figure 1) with 95 households Ahaikundira and Tweheyo, 2011), order to take effective management chosen randomly. The data in the Congo Basin, human-gorilla decisions, there is a need to collected was analyzed using conflicts are hardly documented assess these losses and their SPSS 15.0. The Generalized Linear even though riparian populations impact on conservation and local Mixed Model (GLMM) was used to incur huge material and financial development. This study aims at assess the reaction of some factors losses each year (Hockings and determining the types of conflicts, on the occurrence of human- Humle, 2009). Moreover, most the factors that affect them, as gorilla conflicts. existing studies deal in priority well as their impacts on with human-elephant conflicts local populations and (Tchamba and Foguekem, 2012; on conservation. Granados and Weladji, 2012).

Photo: Public Stock

FIGURE 1. Locations of the various villages surveyed around the Lobéké National Park in the eastern region of Cameroon (Source: Field data and topographic map funds NA-33-NO)

NATURE & FAUNE VOLUME 33 ISSUE 1 45 Cameroon

Results The GLMM (Table 1) shows that the well as the space occupied by the losses exceeding XOF 100 000 season (P = 0.001) and the distance most attacked cultivars (P = 0.694) (EUR 1 = XOF 655). According to between the farm and the village do not affect the occurrence of the data, more than 12 cultivated (P = 0.004) have significant effects human-gorilla conflicts (Table 1). species are preferred by the gorillas, on the occurrence of human-gorilla including the plantain tree (Musa conflicts. In fact, it appears that According the 45 percent paradisiaca), cassava (Manihot the occurrence of damage is higher of households, poaching is esculenta), maize (Zea mays L.) during the dry season than during exacerbated by poverty and the and cocoa husks (Theobroma the rainy season. Our analyses also lack of alternatives to bushmeat at cacao). The most mentioned wild reveal that the level of damage local level. The gorilla is by far the products were Irvingia gabonensis, in the farms increases with the main species responsible for raiding Annonidium mannii and Tricocepha distance between the farm and crops, according to 94 percent accumulata. Human-gorilla conflicts the village (coefficient = 0.094; of the respondents. Over half of also created a general psychosis P = 0.004) varying from one village the households (59 percent) have in the villages, thus limiting the had their farms raided by gorillas to the other. On the other side, the movements of communities. surface area of farms (P = 0.509) as during the year, with financial

TABLE 1. Estimation of the GLMM parameters on the occurrence of human-gorilla conflicts in the Lobéké National Park. “Conflict season” is a 2-level factor, dry season and rainy season, rainy season being the reference.

CI to 95 Factors F P Coefficient t P percent

Conflict season 11.388 0.001 Dry season 1.076 3.375 0.001 0.442–1.709 Rainy season 0.000 Farm surface area 0.447 0.505 0.076 0.669 0.505 -0.149–0.3 Space occupied by the most attacked cultivars 0.156 0.694 -0.107 -0.395 0.694 -0.645–0.431 Distance between the farm and the village 8.664 0.004 0.094 2.943 0.004 0.030–0.157

CI: Confidence interval; t: Student test; F: Fischer test; P: probability (Source: Summary of survey data)

46 NATURE & FAUNE VOLUME 33 ISSUE 1 Photo: ©FAO/Steve Terrill

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

The main types of human-gorilla conflicts are the raiding of farms by gorillas, poaching and habitat destruction. This conflict typology described around PNL is similar to that of other authors (Hockings and Humle, 2009; Madden, 2008). Despite the households’ reluctance to admit it, the commercial poaching of gorillas has been a real scourge for some time now (Hockings and Humle, 2009). This could explain the fact that over 75 percent of the human population in the Congo Basin still rely on game for their animal protein needs (De Wasseige et al., 2014), hence an increase of the human pressure on the resource (Agrawal and Gibson, 1999).

The most destroyed crops form the basis of riparian communities’ food intake and their sale enables them to meet their needs for essential products. The damage caused by gorillas to these crops regularly creates the fear of a decline in food supply and bodes a worrisome future for any planned conservation strategy. The destruction of plantain trees by gorillas is confirmed by Muyambi’s studies (2004) in Uganda. The isolation of farms near conservation areas makes them easy targets for gorillas’ raids. The GLMM showed that conflicts are more frequent during the dry season and in the most remote farms. In fact, when fruit production decreases during the dry season, some gorillas moved to the marginal zones where damages to the crops have been recorded (Masi et al., 2009).

At the end of our study, we recommend that the monitoring of farms against gorilla raids take into account the seasonal character of their movements. It is also important to encourage home gardens and their enrichment with forest species that are of interest for the communities. A study should be conducted to better define the agroforestry characteristics of these species. This study highly recommends a zoning of the site with mainly a buffer zone around the park to restrict contacts with wildlife. This zoning should be followed, at the marginal areas, with a land-use plan that takes into account the concerns of all the social categories concerned. Additional efforts would be needed to increase crop productivity so as to reduce pressure on the lands. Community awareness and education programmes should be planned to facilitate a better understanding of wildlife behaviour and a good appreciation of their value, as well as that of the park in favor of conservation. Regulating conflicts would be efficient only if the existing compensation approaches and the strengthening of compliance with existing legislation are revisited.

NATURE & FAUNE VOLUME 33 ISSUE 1 47 Cameroon

References

Madden F.M. 2008. The Growing Conflict between Aharikundira M. and Tweheyo M. 2011. Human-Wildlife Humans and Wildlife: Law and Policy as Contributing and Conflict and Its Implication for Conservation around Mitigating Factors. Journal of Inter. Wildlife Law and Policy. Bwindi Impenetrable National Park. USDA Forest Service 11(2-3): 189. Proceedings RMRS. P. 64. Masi S., Cipolletta C. and Robbins M.M. 2009. Western Tchamba M.N. and Foguekem D. 2012. Human elephant Lowland Gorillas (Gorilla gorilla gorilla) Change Their conflict in the Waza Logone Region of northern Activity Patterns in Response to Frugivory. American J. of Cameroon: an assessment of management effectiveness. Primatology. 71:91. Tropicultura 30 (2): 79. Hockings K.J. and Humle T. 2009. Lignes directives Granados A. and Weladji R.B. 2012. Human conflict pour de meilleures pratiques en matière de prévention around Bénoué National Park, Cameroon: Influence on et d’atténuation des conflits entre humains et grands local Attitudes and implications for conservation. Human singes. Gland, Suisse. Groupe des spécialistes des Dimension of Wildlife. 17: 77. primates de la CSE/UICN. 52pp. Muyambi F. 2004. Crop raiding: Human-gorilla conflicts Marchal V. and Hill C. 2009. Primate Crop-raiding: A Study and its implications on conservation around Bwindi of Local Perceptions in Four Villages in North Sumatra, Impenetrable National Park. Institute of Tropical Forest Indonesia. Primate Conservation. 24: 107. Conservation. Bwindi Impenetrable National Park. De Wasseige C., Flynn J., Louppe D., Hiol Hiol F. & Uganda. Mayaux Ph. 2014. Les forêts du bassin du Congo. État des Agrawal A. and Gibson C.C. 1999. Enchantment and forêts 2013. Weyrich. Belgique. 328pp. Disenchantment: The Role of Community in Natural Resource Conservation. World Development. 27(4): 629.

48 NATURE & FAUNE VOLUME 33 ISSUE 1 Nature-based Solutions in Ethiopia Photo: Public Stock Freshwater fish diversity and its role in improving the livelihood of communities

Abebe Getahun1 and Eshete Dejen2

SUMMARY Endowed with a large extent of surface water bodies, Ethiopia’s standing water area is roughly 13 637 square kilometres with a running water length of about 8 000 kilometres. There is considerable potential for fish production in these water bodies. However, the role of the capture fisheries and its sustainable utilization has not been adequately articulated.

This manuscript will address the household consumption and recording and monitoring, importance of the capture fisheries income generation. Most notable inefficient coordination among in improving the livelihoods of the are communities of the Gambella institutions, and lack of human and fisher communities, its contribution region, the Omo Delta, and those infrastructural capacity to manage to the economy of the country, living along the Rift Valley and the resources. The intervention its challenges, and possible the highland lakes. In 2014, measures needed to alleviate management issues. Currently, nearly 45 000 fishers were the problems require the the diversity of the fish fauna of in the primary sector involvement of various Ethiopia stands at 200 species, of with 30 percent of the stakeholders to develop which 191 are indigenous (native) employed on a full-time appropriate sustainable and 9 exotic. Forty-five species basis. However, there fisheries management plans are endemic to the country. The are several challenges and enforcement of regulations. most important commercial fish to the freshwater systems Conserving and managing the species include Nile tilapia, African and the fisheries, and these natural environment, strengthening catfish, Nile perch, giant catfish include overfishing, catchment the fishers’ cooperatives, and and the exotic common carp. degradation, introduction of improving infrastructures and exotic fish species and, invasion facilities will help the sector Several communities living along by aquatic weeds like water to grow and to contribute to a the rivers and lakeshores are hyacinth. There are also additional prosperous future for Ethiopia. largely dependent on fish for issues on pollution, poor data

Photo: Public Stock 1 Department of Zoological Sciences, Addis Ababa University, Ethiopia 2 Agriculture and Environment Division (AED), IGAD Secretariat, Djibouti

NATURE & FAUNE VOLUME 33 ISSUE 1 49 Ethiopia

Introduction Africa has large swathes of arid 2005) the freshwater systems of Gibe, Rift Lakes, Tekeze and Wabi land, but Ethiopia is often called Ethiopia can be conveniently placed Shebele-Genale basins (Figure 1). the “water tower of Eastern under six freshwater ecoregions. The drainage pattern in Ethiopia Africa”. The country has around These freshwater ecoregions can is the result of the uplifting during 13 637 square kilometres of further be divided into drainage the Tertiary period, which created standing water with a length of basins. According to Mesfin the Rift Valley and consequently around 8 000 kilometres of flowing Woldemariam in Shibru Tedla the two separate highlands water. Based on similarities of the (1973), the Ethiopian freshwater (Mohr, 1966; Westphal, 1975). fauna (especially the fish fauna) and system can be classified into seven Since water bodies found in one following the model of freshwater drainage basins. These are the drainage basin are interconnected, ecoregions of Africa (Thieme et al., Abay, Awash, Baro Akobo, Omo- similarity in their biota is evident.

FIGURE 1. The main drainage basins of Ethiopia (Source: Stiassny and Getahun, 2007)

50 NATURE & FAUNE VOLUME 33 ISSUE 1 Country case study: Ethiopia

Photo: ©FAO/Luis Tato

Generally, the diversity of the have elements of these forms. It is Africa. Nilotic fishes are almost fish in Ethiopia is relatively very believed that these lakes and river entirely absent from the Awash high. There is also considerable basins had former connections and northern Rift Valley lakes. potential for fish production in with the upper White Nile (through these water bodies. However, the Lake Turkana in the former case) The country’s fish diversity role of the capture fisheries and as recently as 7 500 years ago currently consists of about its sustainable utilization has not (Roberts, 1975). These Nilo-Sudanic 191 indigenous species of which been adequately articulated. forms are related to Western about 45 species are endemic African fishes and also believed to to Ethiopia and 9 exotic species. The highest species diversity is The fish species diversity be due to past connections with the Nile to Central and Western recorded from Baro-Akobo Basin The freshwater fish fauna of African river systems (Nichols and (119 species) and the highest Ethiopia is of particular interest Griscom, 1917; Nichols, 1928). endemicity from Abay Basin. It since it contains a mixture of appears that this high diversity is Nilo-Sudanic, Eastern African, and The highland Eastern African forms partly attributable to the presence endemic forms (Roberts, 1975; are found in the northern Rift Valley of highly diverse and rich habitats, Getahun and Stiassny, 1998). The lakes (e.g. Lakes Hawassa, Ziwai, but probably also to relatively Nilo-Sudanic forms are represented Langano), the highland lakes (e.g. high level of exploration and by a large number of species found Tana and Hayq) and associated river collections done in these relatively in the Baro-Akobo, Omo-Gibe, systems, and the Awash drainage accessible water bodies. Endemicity and Abay drainage basins (e.g. basin. These include members of seems to be highest in Abay and members of the genera Alestes, the genera Barbus, Labeobarbus, Awash basins due to the endemic Bagrus, Citharinus, Hydrocynus, Clarias, Garra, Oreochromis, and “species flock” of Lake Tana and Hyperopisus, Labeo, Mormyrus Varicorhinus. They are related to the presence of some endemic etc.). The southern Rift Valley fishes of Eastern, Northern and fishes adapted to localized habitats (Lakes Abaya and Chamo), and Southern Africa. Some elements in small streams in the highlands the Shebele-Genale basins also are shared with waters of Western of north and central Ethiopia.

NATURE & FAUNE VOLUME 33 ISSUE 1 51 Ethiopia

The Fisheries Data on the Ethiopian fisheries is in sustaining local communities. the population is minimal. The scanty and not very well organized. In 2014, nearly 45 000 fishers per capita fish production is less This is due to the fact that fishery were employed in the primary than 0.5 kilograms per person per statistics are not properly collected sector with 30 percent employed year, which is one of the lowest in and organized around water fulltime. This is in addition to nearly the world. (The world’s per capita bodies of the country where fishery 700 people who are engaged in production is about 21 kilograms activities are taking place. The aquaculture. In 2016, total fish with Africa pegged at 8 kilograms.) fishery potential of the country production was 45 500 tonnes from This has impact on the food balance is relatively low (estimated at 18 058 tonnes in 2010 (FAO, 2016). of the population. The fish protein about 94 000 tonnes/year) and the consumption is about 0.1 kilogram actual catch is about half of the Fisheries are mainly artisanal per person per year, in which fish potential (45 000 to 50 000 tonnes and conducted by reed boats. contributes only 1.6 percent of the per year). The most important Motorized boats are few and old. animal protein and only 0.6 percent commercial fish species include Commercial fishery is concentrated of the total protein in the country. Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus), to Lakes Tana, Chamo, Ziway, Moreover, the infrastructures and African catfish (Clarias gariepinus), Abaya and Turkana. The overall facilities used in the production Nile perch (Lates niloticus), giant production and consumption are in very poor status and catfish (Bagrus spp.) and the exotic of fish compared to the size of market accessibility difficult. common carp (Cyprinus carpio). Approximately 60 to 80 percent of the catch is tilapia, although FIGURE 2. Fish handling, processing and marketing in Ethiopia Nile perch is caught in large Photo: Abebe Getahun and flickr/Richard Mortel. quantities on Lakes Chamo and Abaya, as well as in major riverine fisheries. Most of the remainder of the lake catches consists of catfish and large Barbus spp.

Several communities living along the rivers and lakeshores are largely dependent on these fishes for household consumption and livelihoods. Most noted are communities of the Gambella region and around the Omo Delta and those living along and surrounding the Rift Valley lakes (e.g. Lakes Koka, Ziway, Langeno, Hawassa, Abaya, Chamo and Turkana) and around the highland lakes (e.g. Lakes Tana and Hayq). Significant workforce is employed both directly and indirectly by Ethiopia’s capture fisheries, which also help

52 NATURE & FAUNE VOLUME 33 ISSUE 1 Ethiopia

Therefore, all the above calls upon organisms for various purposes and easily reachable. As a result, the need to produce more fishes is also one of the greatest threats the catch is further decreasing, using improved and sustainable to aquatic environments. This which affect communities that technologies from the existing calls for the need for sustainable totally depend on the fisheries. water bodies and the newly exploitation. Other threats to created big reservoirs (like the aquatic biodiversity include urban Conservation approaches: Great Ethiopian Renaissance development and resource- What can we do? Dam and Gibe III and IV). This based industries, such as mining In order for biodiversity should be augmented by fish and deforestation that destroy conservation to be effective, production through aquaculture. or reduce natural habitats. In management measures must be addition, air and water pollution, broad-based. Aquatic areas that sedimentation, erosion, and have been damaged or suffered FIGURE 3. Fresh water fish caught by climate change also pose threats habitat loss or degradation can be fishers (Photo: FAO/Petterik Wiggers) to aquatic biodiversity. Dams restored. Even species populations block fish spawning migrations that have suffered a decline can and isolate fish from upstream be targeted for restoration. spawning and nursery areas, causing populations of migratory The following solutions can fishes to decline. There are several contribute to restoration: introduced exotic fish species now dominating the fisheries of the • Establishing aquatic rift lakes, especially Lakes Koka bioreserves: An aquatic bioreserve is a defined space and Ziway (dominated by carp within a water body in which species—Cyprinus carpio, Crassius fishing is banned or other carassius and Coptodon zillii), restrictions are placed in an effort and its effect on the indigenous to protect plants, animals, and species is not fully known. habitats, which will ultimately conserve biodiversity. Many Overexploitation of species leads of the water bodies currently to loss of genetic diversity and Conservation problems used for capture fisheries (e,g, the loss in the relative species Lakes Chamo, Ziway, Langeno, and management abundance of both individual etc.) should be conserved as of fish resources and/or groups of interacting bioreserves with closed seasons species. Overfishing causes and the fisheries production Aquatic species are at a higher risk change in the genetic structure shifting to aquaculture. These of extinction than animals living of fish populations due to loss of bioreserves can then be used in terrestrial habitats, especially some alleles. This results in the for educational purposes, because of human activities. reduction of genetic diversity. recreation, and tourism as well Runoff from agricultural and Many of the large lakes along the as potentially increasing fishery urban areas, the invasion of exotic Rift Valley (Lakes Ziway, Hawassa, yields by enhancing the declining species, and the creation of dams fish populations. This entails Chamo) and the highland lakes and water diversion have been rehabilitating the degraded (Lakes Tana and Hayq) are facing identified as the greatest challenges riparian zones of these water overexploitation problems, since to freshwater environments. bodies and designating buffer they are largely open access Overexploitation of aquatic zones along their shores.

NATURE & FAUNE VOLUME 33 ISSUE 1 53 Ethiopia

• Promoting bioregional wildlife habitat. Plantation of activity in that lake. There are management: Bioregional trees in the catchment area also reports that there are flower management is a holistic of water bodies (for example, farms established along the coasts ecosystem strategy, which Alwero Reservoir and Gillo River of lakes (e.g. Lake Ziway), which regulates factors affecting in Gambella (Figure 4)) prevent are affecting the fisheries in those aquatic biodiversity by balancing soil erosion and subsequently lakes. Therefore, it is mandatory conservation, economic, and reduce the problem of siltation to conduct Environmental Impact social needs within an area. This in water body, resulting in better Assessment studies before the consists of both small-scale survival of aquatic organisms. biosphere reserves and larger establishment of industries, reserves, as being implemented It is obvious that many hotels and chemical plants, hotels, farms in Lake Tana and its environs. recreation centers are positioned and thermal power plants near at coasts of water bodies because the water resources as their • Sustainable Watershed of their scenic beauty (e.g. Bishoftu discharge affect the ecology of management: This is an lakes and Lakes Hwassa and water body, resulting in loss of important approach that supports Tana). However, the fisheries biodiversity. Regulatory measures aquatic diversity conservation. of the adjacent lakes are being must be taken on wastewater Rivers and streams, regardless discharge into the water body to of their condition, often go affected by the waste discharged unprotected since they often into the respective lakes without conserve biological diversity. being treated. One of the causes pass through more than one The following are also vital political jurisdiction, making it suspected for the falling fisheries management measures difficult to enforce conservation in Lake Babogaya recently is the on the fisheries based on and management of resources. waste being discharged from hotels the specific conditions of Activities would include, for constructed along the coast of the the aquatic ecosystem, the example, planting native trees lake. As a result, several fishermen organisms inhabiting it and the and shrubs along riverbanks to are forced to abandon their fishing protect water quality and improve community dependent on it.

FIGURE 4. Relatively well protected water bodies in Gambella Region (Gillo River and Alwero Reservoir) Photo: Getahun, A.

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Closing the fishery during Mesh size regulations should be approve the directives for providing the spawning months implemented seriously and the aim fishing license. The license will limit is to allow immature fish to escape the number of gillnets per boat and Evidence showed that low from being caught by gill nets. number of fishing days per week. recruitment is already a major problem for fish stocks in several water bodies. It is, therefore, Ecosystem Approach Enforcement of very important to reduce the for Fisheries (EAF) management measures fishing pressure on the breeding EAF is a strategy for the integration It is obvious that fishery can play population. To achieve this, it of the activity within the wider a significant role in the lives of the will be important to determine ecosystem, which promotes fishing communities and contribute the breeding seasons of the sustainable development, equity, to the economy if its sustainable fishes and fishing should be and resilience of interlinked socio- yield is maintained. It is crucial, closed or restricted during the ecological systems. In Ethiopian therefore, to design a management main spawning months. fisheries management strategy plan with clear objectives to utilize EAF, the approach developed the fish resource in a sustainable Prevention of destructive by FAO must be incorporated. way. Given that the resource is fishing methods It will address holistically the open access, it is subjected to an human and ecosystem interaction influx of fishers and other illegal Destructive fishing such as on a sustainable way. users. Recognizing the dangers poisoning, explosives, as well as posed on most water bodies in fishing practices that can hinder the country, a National Fisheries the free movement of spawning Licensing of fishers and Proclamation was ratified by stocks, such as fencing the rivers, enforcing the control the Federal Parliament in 2003. beach seines and trawls should be of illegal fishing It provides broad guidelines strictly forbidden. Fish inspectors Any fishing for commercial related to resource conservation, have the duty to check if any of purposes should be licensed. A food safety and aquaculture. these destructive fishing methods license commits the fishers to are in use. Monofilament nets are respect the fishery regulation. currently creating great problems The Bureau of Agriculture should in different fishing areas.

FIGURE 5. Destructive monofilament nets being used in several water bodies Photo: flickr/Carsten ten Brink

NATURE & FAUNE VOLUME 33 ISSUE 1 55 Ethiopia

References

FAO. 2018. FAO yearbook: Fishery and Aquaculture Roberts, T.R. 1975. Geographical distribution of African Statistics 2016. Rome. 104pp. freshwater fishes. Zool. J. Linn. Soc. 57: 249. Getahun, A. and Stiassny, M.L.J. 1998. The Freshwater Stiassny, M.L.J and Getahun, A. 2007. An overview of biodiversity crisis: The case of the Ethiopian Fish fauna. labeonin relationships and the phylogenetic placement SINET: Ethiopian Journal of Science. 21 (2): 207. of the Afro-Asian genus Garra Hamilton, 1922 (Teleostei: Getahun, A. and Dejen, E. 2012. Fishes of Lake Tana: A Cyprinidae), with the description of five new species Guide Book. Addis Ababa University Press. Addis Ababa, of Garra from Ethiopia, and a key to all African species. Ethiopia. Zoological Journal of Linnean Society. 150: 41. Getahun, A. 2017. The freshwater fishes of Ethiopia: Thieme, M.L., Abell, R., Stiassny M.L.J. and Skelton Diversity and Utilization. View Graphics Publishing. P., eds. 2005. Freshwater ecoregions of Africa and Addis Ababa. Madagscar: A conservation assessment. Island Press. Washington DC. pp. 181. 253. Mohr, P.A. 1962. The Geology of Ethiopia. Addis Ababa. University College of Addis Ababa Press. Westphal, E. 1975. Agriculture systems in Ethiopia. Agricultural Research Reports. College of Agriculture, Nichols, J.T. 1928. Fishes from the White Nile collected Haile Selassie I University, Ethiopia and the Agricultural by the Taylor Expedition of 1927. A discussion of the University, Wageningen, the Netherlands. Center for freshwater fish faunae of Africa. Amer. Mus. Novit. 319: 1. Agricultural Publishing and Documentation. Nichols, J.T. and Griscom, L. 1917. Freshwater fishes of the Congo basin obtained by the American Museum Congo Expedition, 1909. Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist. 37:739.

56 NATURE & FAUNE VOLUME 33 ISSUE 1 Photo: Public Stock Nature-based Solutions in Namibia and Tanzania Protecting Africa’s soil in protected areas against crusting, compaction and erosion in the context of Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) of the United Nations: case studies

G.P. Nortjé1

SUMMARY Results of studies in two protected areas, namely, Kleins Camp Concession (KCC) area in the northeastern part of the Serengeti National Park and Etosha Heights Private Reserve (EH), on the southern boundary of Etosha National Park, Namibia, indicate clearly that ecotourism activities like off-road driving (ORD) have negative impacts on the biodiversity (soil, vegetation and wildlife).

Most protected areas in Africa was to map and classify the soils and subsoil compaction (Nortjé focus on wildlife tourism and are in order to identify the sensitive et al., 2012; Nortjé, 2014; Laker financially dependent on tourists soil areas, map the predator and and Nortjé, 2019). The negative visiting these areas to see the “Big Five” sightings over time impacts of ORD occur during so-called “Big Five” of the animal and overlay the road maps onto both dry and wet soil conditions. kingdom, namely, elephant, rhino, these. This information gave a The negative impact of ORD on buffalo, lion and leopard. However, clear picture of where and when soil compaction has, thus, much problems arise when these tourists the animals occur during the year. wider impacts, such as decreasing are driven off-road in order to see All this information was then used water infiltration and availability, the “Big Five”. Off-road driving is to redesign the road networks to limited root penetration, less ecologically not sustainable and optimise game drive activities, in vegetation cover and reduced creates soil degradation (erosion, order to eliminate off-road driving. recovery of soil compaction crusting and compaction). These (resilience) and vegetation. Root then can lead to soil degradation, Introduction penetration and, therefore, root reduced vegetation, reduced wildlife area distribution was drastically and declining ecotourism—a vicious Research has shown that the reduced in research to quantify circle of biodiversity destruction. impacts of ORD has strong the impacts of ORD on root area The approach in these two studies negative impacts on soil crusting distribution (Nortjé et al., 2016).

1 Department of Environmental Sciences, Florida Campus, University of South Africa

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“OFF-ROAD DRIVING IS ECOLOGICALLY NOT SUSTAINABLE AND CREATES SOIL DEGRADATION…”

Nortjé and Mearns (2017) indicated graze out the best grass species, Development Goals. Soil loss and a need for improved visitor/ leaving inferior species behind, the protection of soils, especially ecotourist education on the which eventually take over. in protected areas, form the basis possible negative impacts of This leads to increased erosion, of biodiversity conservation. demands for ORD. The results as proven by South African also indicated that game guides research (Laker, 2004). Factors relating to the protection and tourism operators could play of soils in protected areas include: The 15th Sustainable Development a major role in educating the soil degradation due to soil Goal (SDG 15) of the United Nations • ecotourist. The results demonstrate erosion, soil crusting and states the following: “Protect, that both an understanding of sub-surface compaction the chemical and physical factors restore and promote sustainable influencing soil compaction, as use of terrestrial ecosystems, • ecotourism and game drive management (ORD) well as tourists’ environmental sustainably manage forests, combat desertification, and halt views, are important in formulating • co-existence between ecotourism and reverse land degradation and management strategies and traditional livelihoods to control and manage halt biodiversity loss”. This (i.e. Maasai livestock) and these impacts. is particularly important in Africa’s protected • rehabilitation of degraded soil. The soils in Africa, in areas. Although judicious In order to highlight the above- general, require close management of soils is mentioned aspects, two case management to ensure critical to advancing most studies were undertaken, one in sustainability for of these goals, the word the Etosha Heights Private Reserve, agriculture, rangeland and soil is not once mentioned in Namibia (Nortjé, 2019) and the conservation purposes (Nortjé in any of these laudable goals. other in Kleins Camp Concession and Nortjé, 2017). Proper land-use SDG 15, for example, mentions (KCC) in the Serengeti National planning is critical, in which soil land degradation but does not Park in Tanzania (Nortjé and Nortjé, surveying and appropriate land specifically focus on soils. 2017). The objectives below address suitability assessments should play the four aspects mentioned above: a major role. This is very important In line with previous UN programmes, SDGs thus reflect in wildlife ecotourism areas and 1. To limit or prevent overgrazing an utter lack of awareness of the their surrounding pastoral lands. of sensitive areas, so as to Therefore, there is a need to importance of the most basic of prevent development of barren develop new policies for rangeland all natural resources on which areas that would lead to soil management that support both depends all terrestrial life–soils (Lal erosion and/or inhibit re- et al. wildlife populations and livestock , 2018). The aspect of terrestrial vegetation due to soil crusting; herds. Selective grazing and conservation continues to demand 2. To control and effectively overstocking, by Maasai livestock, accelerated action to protect biodiversity, land productivity and manage harmful game drive causes soil and vegetation activities, such as ORD, so as genetic resources and to curtail degradation in specific areas in to avoid soil and vegetation the loss of species. Protected KCC (Nortjé and Nortjé, 2017). degradation by these activities, In selective grazing, animals areas help to meet the Sustainable especially in sensitive areas;

Photo: Public Stock

58 NATURE & FAUNE VOLUME 33 ISSUE 1 Photo: ©David Berkowitz

3. To develop and effectively by the Institute for Soil, Climate the open, but to enable tourists implement a program of and Water, in Pretoria. Based on to view the predators (lion soil and road management recognizable, as well as inferred and leopard) at close range, and rehabilitation; properties, the soils were classified game drive guides sometimes according to both the South African drive off-road, sometimes for 4. To institute official agreements between the (Soil Classification Working Group, appreciable distances, even land users – ecotourists 1991) and international World up to two kilometres (Nortjé, and local communities. Reference Base for Soil Resources 2014; Nortjé et al., 2012). Classification System (WRB, 1998) The studies, in the two selected soil classification systems. In order to meet Objective 2, it protected areas, were aimed at was necessary to plan a road meeting Objective 2 above. A set of These systems are based on the network that would eliminate or recommendations are presented recognition of diagnostic soil substantially reduce the need based on these studies and on horizons and materials. Soil forms for ORD to enable close range earlier research by the author. in the South African system are viewing of the predators. For defined in terms of the type and this, the spatial distribution of vertical sequence of diagnostic predator, sightings has to be Research methodology horizons or materials. Soil maps known. Thus, data regarding the The methodologies described were created with the application sites of predator sightings were below were followed in of Predictive Soil Mapping or collected and GPS referenced over both case studies. Digital Soil Mapping (DSM). a specific time period for Etosha Heights Private Reserve (EH) and This was done to be able to Soil survey and mapping Kleins Camp Concession (KCC), identify sensitive areas, to respectively. From these sighting Google Earth images were used take action that would enable density maps were then prepared. and DEMs (digital elevation models) meeting Objectives 1 and 2. were created to generate base Road network planning maps for semi-detailed soil surveys Predator sightings at a scale of 1:25 000. Soil profile Predator sighting density maps determination description and auger sampling were used to determine where points were identified, sampled One of the main goals of (geographical position) and when and classified. The latitude and ecotourism, in the two protected these animals roam and are sighted longitude of each sampling areas, is to provide a wildlife most during the year. The soil point were determined by GPS (environment and animals) maps were then superimposed during the field soil surveys. experience to tourists. Ecotourists on these to demarcate sensitive in Southern and Eastern Africa areas. Road networks could then During the field soil surveys, prefer viewing the “Big Five” be planned that would afford the individual soil profiles were animals (elephant, rhino, buffalo, tourists the biggest opportunity investigated and the important soil lion and leopard) (Nortjé and to see these animals at close properties were described following Mearns, 2017). Elephant, rhino range without game drive vehicles standard procedures as prescribed and buffalo are usually seen in needing to drive off-road.

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Findings roads were proposed according to roads were proposed. Figure 1 the predator sightings. Permanent, indicates the predator sightings The road networks for game drive well-managed roads are better densities at EH and Figure 2 the soil activities needed to be adapted than ORD. At KCC the road network map with current and new roads. (changed, decreased or increased) needed to be adapted according Figure 3 indicates the dominant soil at both EH and KCC. At EH extra to the predator sightings and new types and predator sightings at KCC.

FIGURE 1. Predator sightings at EH

FIGURE 2. Dominant soils, current road network and proposed new roads at EH

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FIGURE 3. Dominant soil types and predator sightings at KCC

Discussion Road network routes and densities should be as optimal as possible to minimize negative impacts on the soil and environment. In order to eliminate or substantially reduce ORD, it is necessary to establish a road network that is ecologically sustainable, but also eco-tourism sustainable. The proposed road map suggests that only permanent roads should be established and be managed as such. Permanent roads in the right areas (planned according to predator sightings and soil type), can limit the need for ORD. This in turn will limit soil crusting, soil compaction and soil erosion, which have earlier been identified as serious consequences of ORD (Laker, 2004; Laker and Nortjé, 2019; Nortjé, 2014; Nortjé et al., 2012; Nortjé et al., 2016; Nortjé, 2019).

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Management concerning soil and vegetation • prohibit ORD in the following recommendations management should seriously areas: Ramsar pans, vleis and soils be considered, investigated with Prismacutanic B-horizons In order to promote maintenance and implemented in order to (so-called ‘sodic’ sites, silt-loam of biodiversity in ecotourism ensure the long-term survival soils and soils with high (fine protected areas by limiting damage and sustainability of the soils, sand + silt) contents, sandy soils with less than 15 percent clay to vegetation and soils, the author vegetation and wildlife (Nortjé content, barren areas with no wishes to make a number of and Nortjé, 2017). The following grass cover ('Solonetz' soils); management recommendations, are highly recommended: based on previous research • further research regarding (Nortjé, 2014; Nortjé et al., 2012; • prevent further bare soil soil, game sightings and the Nortjé et al., 2016; Nortjé and development by not allowing road network utilization, Nortjé, 2017; Nortjé and Mearns, overgrazing or unnecessary ORD; should be initiated; 2017), which has led to the studies • design/redesign road networks rehabilitate damaged areas highlighted in this paper. • according to a detailed soil in particular with available map, to minimize soil and The management recommendations non expensive approaches vegetation degradation due to and techniques; focus on prevention of land runoff and erosion from roads, degradation and soil erosion as while at the same time enabling • investigate possible ways to well as road network planning. The excellent animal sightings promote packages for walking recommendations and suggestions without the need for ORD; safaris in wilderness areas;

Photo: ©flickr/Megan Coughlin

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• no water points on the ‘Estcourt’ • ORD may only be undertaken • NO ORD should be permitted (Solonetz) soil or on steep slopes; in the event of a confirmed at river crossings; sighting of leopard, lion, rhino, Regarding ORD, the following buffalo, wild dog and cheetah; • use the lowest possible tyre recommendations should pressure on game drive vehicles; apply: No ORD. However, • ORD should not be permitted in areas where Red List Plant • ORD is not permitted in wet if ORD is necessary in conditions, on sodic patches exceptional circumstances, species are known to exist or in any other areas that EH and KCC (‘Solonetz’ soils) or duplex follow the following rules: are using for conservation or soils (Valsrivier); and • no ORD to be allowed from other management purposes; • any off-road damage to Class A (main) roads; • vehicles driving off-road must be repaired immediately under all circumstances follow (compaction reversed; the tracks of another vehicle; ruts erased).

References

Laker, M.C. 2004. Advances in soil erosion, soil Nortjé, G.P. & Nortjé, C.J. 2017. Findings and provisional conservation, land suitability evaluation and land use recommendations regarding environmental impacts of planning research in South Africa, 1978-2003. S Afr J Plant land management in pastoralist and wildlife ecotourism Soil. 21 (5). 345. co-existence: A Maasai and wildlife eco-tourism case in Laker, M.C. & Nortjé, G.P. 2019. Review of existing the Etosha National Park, Tanzania. Spastoralism and knowledge on soil crusting in South Africa. Advances in rangelands in Africa. Nature & Faune. FAO. 31(2):47. Agronomy. 155 (5):189. Nortjé, G.P., van Hoven, W. & Laker, M.C. 2012. Factors Lal, R., Horn, R. & Kosaki, T. 2018. Soil and sustainable affecting the impact of off-road driving on soils in an area development goals. GeoEcology Essays. Schweizerbart. in the Kruger National Park, South Africa. Environmental July 2018. Management. 50 (6):1164. Nortjé, G.P. 2014. Studies on the impacts of off-road Nortjé, G.P., van Hoven, W., Laker, M.C., Jordaan, J.C. driving and the influence of tourists’ consciousness and & Louw, M.A. 2016. Quantifying the impact of off-road attitudes on soil compaction and associated vegetation driving on root-area distribution in soils. Afr J of Wildlife in the Makuleke Contractual Park, Kruger National Park. Res. 46:33. Unpublished PhD Thesis. Centre for Wildlife Management. Soil Classification Working Group. 1991. Soil University of Pretoria. (also available at www.up.ac.za) Classification: A Taxonomic system for South Africa. Nortjé, G.P. 2019. A game drive optimisation strategy for Department of Agricultural Development. RSA. Etosha Heights Game Safaris Etosha Heights, Namibia. World Reference Base (WRB). 1998. Rome. FAO. Report prepared for Etosha Heights Game Safaris. Nortjé, G.P. & Mearns, K. 2017. Tourists’ perceptions of off-road driving in the Makuleke Contractual Region of Kruger National Park. African Journal of Hospitality, Tourism and Leisure. Nortj. 6(4).

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Plant cover trends in a context of drought and pastoral activities’ resilience in the Matam Region: The case of the Ferlo Biosphere Reserve (RBF1)

Djibrirou Daouda Ba,2 Tegaye Diop2 and Seydou Alassane Sow2

SUMMARY The Matam Region is affected by the impacts of climate change exacerbated by human activities. Its vegetation is typically Sahelian with mostly thorn trees and has worsened due to recurring droughts, farmland expansion, logging and bushfires. Restoring and conserving natural resources, especially within the Ferlo Biosphere Reserve (RBF) is an essential element of the resilience strategy of livestock production in this agropastoralism-based area.

Introduction is a fundamental element of their entire Senegalese Sahel, a highly fertility; it expresses in various ways precarious situation related to Western Africa remains highly the possible links between soil and its geographical location and its sensitive to climate variations (Ba plant (Ruelan and Dosso, 1993). land management choices, thus et al., 2018; Quarto and Thiam, The Matam Region has a large perfectly showcasing the challenges 2018). The successive droughts potential for pastoral activities. associated with drought and combined with man-made pressure Traditional extensive husbandry environmental degradation (Ba, are ‘socio-natural’ environmental occupies almost 70 percent of the 2018). That is why, RBF which mostly degradation factors (Sy and Sow, population (CRM, 2004) either as falls under the Matam Region 2018). They impact both the a major or secondary activity, and surface area, aims at reconciling soils and nature and plant cover contributes tremendously to food biodiversity conservation density (Ba, 2018). However, the security. However, this activity is with its sustainable use. morphological organization of soils still facing, as is the case for the

1 Reserve de biosphère de Ferlo (RBF) in French 2 Université Gaston Berger de Saint-Louis, Sénégal

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Materials, methods 1.2. Methods ecogeographical areas of Walo (or alluvial plain), Diéri, the part and results The study was mostly based on that is not submersed by the a survey conducted with the Senegal River flooding, and Ferlo. 1.1. Introducing the communities in the area. The Some of the questions targeted area under study survey involved plant cover trends exclusively farmers or only and the adaptation strategies The region is located between pastoralists. In total, 400 people developed by populations and 14°20' and 16°10' north latitude and were interviewed: a 150 in the the authorities. The survey used a 12°40' and 14°60' west longitude, Matam Department, a 150 in the questionnaire and interviews in the upstream the Middle Valley of Kanel Department and 100 in three departments: Matam, Kanel the Senegal River and stretches the Ranérou Ferlo Department. and Ranérou. The interviews were over part of the Ferlo (Figure 1). The localities visited included conducted with resource persons Ranérou, Louguéré Thiolly, Kanel, The economy in the region is such as grassroots organizations Bow, Sinthiou Bamambé, Matam, dominated by agropastoral leaders and the service heads Boyinadji and Tiguéré Yéné. The activities (Kaéré, 2004). Due to involved while the questionnaire data collected was extracted and climatic stresses, the region targeted the populations. has become a marginal farming analyzed using the Sphinx software. region for rainfed agriculture, The selection of respondents compensated by large irrigated was based on their activities with 1.3. Results agriculture developments a preference for pastoralists. It 1.3.1. An increasingly and recession crops in Walo was also based on their place of sparse plant cover (area of hydro-clay soils). residence since there was a need to interview both the residents of The plant cover is mostly made up of Sahelian tree steppes dominated by species such as FIGURE 1. Location of the area under study Acacia nilotica in the Walo area (Source: Ba Djibrirou Daouda, 2018) on hollalde soils. Depending on the geographical zones, thorn trees abound with species such as Balanites aegyptiaca, Acacia seyal and Ziziphus mauritania. The other tree species are Combretum glutinosum, Boscia senegalensis and Tamaris senegalensis. There is also an almost essentially seasonal herbaceous stratum, dense during the raining season and quasi inexistent during the rest of the year except for Cenchrus biflorus (cram-cram) that could be found throughout the year. Azadirachta indica (neem) is often planted inside residences to provide shade.

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The diagnostic survey reveals and by over 90 percent of on their conservation and that the plant cover is worsening. breeders in Ranérou as a major restoration. Thus, the Department Farmers who know about the ecological challenge (Figure 3). in charge of Waters and Forests previous situation all agree initiated the planting of fodder that perennial grasses had a In Ferlo, bushfires are considered species. However, this project was more prominent place prior the most frequent disaster constrained to the pilot phase to the 1970’s drought. as they not only swiftly burn due to a water unavailability. the grass cover but also affect However, the idea resurfaced 1.3.2. Man-made pressure: its regeneration capacity. with the increase of boreholes an exacerbating factor of In order to counter these challenges in the context of the Project for plant cover degradation and restore the resilience and the Integrated management of 3 Over the past years, charcoal adaptation of these ecosystems, Ecosystems in Senegal (PGIES ) production has drastically declined there would be a need to focus within a framework of participatory in the Matam Region. However, community involvement, the the impact of these activities services involved and the partners FIGURE 2. Sale of fuelwood near Ranérou within the context of the FAO- is still felt in the Senegal River Photo: Djibrirou D. Ba plain, especially in the Matam initiated Farmer Field Schools (FFS) Department. Rehabilitating the programme to counter climate plant cover is an ongoing process change. This is how most of these that has been slowed down by the strategies were started in RBF. actions of shepherds who prune the trees during the dry season, 1.3.3. The Ferlo Biosphere and the sale of fuelwood (Figure 2) Reserve (RBF): the main facilitated by the rehabilitation adaptation strategy of the Matam-Linguère road: Located in the northeastern part of Senegal between 14°20' and In fact, the isolation of Ferlo 16°10' north latitude and 12°40' and accentuates logging with the sale FIGURE 3. Bushfire in Ferlo. 14°60' west longitude, RBF covers of fuelwood for the inland and Photo: Ndiaye P. A . a total surface area of 2 058 214 ha capital cities’ consumption. In (Ngom et al., 2012). It stretches the Ranérou Department, one over the administrative regions of can frequently observe large Matam, Louga and Saint-Louis. It quantities of fuelwood arranged is composed of several areas with on both sides of the National Road. various complementary functions. Another important factor in soil The central area which is under and plant cover degradation is constant surveillance, covers the overgrazing by the large number of Ferlo North and Ferlo South wildlife livestock heads in pastoral areas reserves protected by decrees and around water points. Bushfires since 21 March 1972; traditional have also been mentioned by harvesting carried out by the local 60 percent of the respondents, communities are authorized. The

3 Projet de gestion intégrée des écosystèmes du Sénégal (PGIES) in French

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buffer zone covering 56 percent of cooperation with national and investment plans with the aim of RBF is allocated to the communities subregional biosphere reserves, managing and enhancing Ferlo. for their use such as the livestock and on the other part, to conduct All these adaptation strategies of rangeland, and pruning and research on plant and animal agropastoral activities are part of trimming of fodder species only species in the region and the forms the mainstreaming of issues and if conservation objectives are not of silvopastoral management. challenges associated with logging compromised. In the transition or Thus, RBF fulfills various and animal production (Figure 4). cooperation area that integrates essential functions including the the Pastoral units (PU) of Malandou, preservation of various ecosystems: In the context of climate change, Loumbol, and Winde, land use savannahs and pastures, gallery environmental degradation has varies according to human forests, shrub-steppes, valleys been observed with areas of settlements, pastures, farming (mostly fossils) including that of wind erosion and an increasingly areas and transhumance corridors. Ferlo, Mboune, Thiangol Mangol and sparse plant cover (Figure 5). Thiangol Gaiparadji, the numerous These challenges include land Hence, RBF favors the sound pans and temporary backwaters, use of pastoral resources and degradation, the decline in pastoral and the plants, especially those productivity and the reduction of transhumance, ecosystem of Pterocarpus lucens in the rehabilitation and restoration, and perennial vegetation. Consequently, south, and of Acacia and Boscia even though it is hard to assess easier access to water through angustifolia in the north. This boreholes and wells. Moreover, livestock production resilience, it initiative offers a policy framework is related to its intensification and it enables, on the one part, to for the establishment of regional also explore opportunities of to livestock genetic improvement.

FIGURE 4. Female farmer with livestock. FIGURE 5. Wind erosion area in Photo: ©FAO/Luis Tato the Matam Department. Photo credit: Djibrirou D. Ba

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2. Discussion According to some authors into account climate variability by ensuring, among others, food (Ibrahim, 2012; Sy, 2013) the Sahel (Kamile and Labordière, 2010). security, while reducing pressure is going through a long drought Thus, in Ferlo where the nomads on natural resources (FAO, 2017). cycle which continues up till have returned due to more The results are also in tune with today with the desertification clement climatic conditions, those of Ngom et al., (2012) exacerbated by deforestation they still desire to clear new who believe that as a wildlife and rainfall deficit (Ibrahim, lands for settlements (Bas, 2018). acclimation site, RBF also aims at 2012). The gradual destruction of The impacts of human activity, developing experimental activities forest stands appears inevitable including bushfires, combined with in the area of wildlife husbandry, in Ferlo since bushfires remain recurrent droughts, have affected including fish farming. Similarly, a serious concern there (OCDE/ natural resources both at plant and RBF aims at improving traditional CSAO, 2008; Ndiaye, 2012). The animal levels (ANSD/SRSD, 2015). activities through management results also agree with Sy and Sow actions in the context of pastoral (2018) who believe that man-made Moreover, some strategies such units. To improve the sustainable deforestation worsens the natural as the CEP are in harmony with use of plant biodiversity, there processes. Consequently, the United Nations Sustainable is a need to strengthen the the development of Development Goals that synergy among stakeholders as extensive pastoralism aim as strengthening rural recommended by the Ministry of in Ferlo should take populations’ livelihoods Environment’s report (MEDD, 2015).

Photo: Public Stock

CONCLUSION AND OUTLOOK

The Matam region is characterized by plant cover degradation with increasingly sparse thorn trees. The climate is not the only factor behind this trend since human activities largely contribute to it. Man- made activities also contribute to the reduced biological diversity and productivity and have led, over the past years, to severe breakages in the vital ecological processes. The restoration, improvement and sound management of these ecosystems are thus the basic features that would facilitate economic development in the Matam Region. The creation of RBF is a good strategy for enhancing resilience of pastoral activities. There is a need to strengthen its management so as to fulfill its sustainable development goals. Moreover, the study of the contribution of animal production to food security in relation to the abundance of plant species and their regeneration ratio, would be an exciting research subject.

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References

ANSD/ SRSD. 2015. Situation économique et sociale Ngom D., Faye O., Diaby N. & Akpo L.E. 2012. Le zonage régionale 2012. pp. 61. ou la spatialisation des fonctions de la réserve de International Journal Ba, D. D. 2018. Sécheresse climatique, dynamique actuelle biosphère du Ferlo (Nord-Sénégal). et perspectives des activités agropastorales dans le Ferlo of Biological and Chimical Sciences. 6(6): 5042. et la Moyenne Vallée du fleuve Sénégal (Région de Matam). OCDE/CSAO. 2008. Climat, changements climatiques et PhD Thesis. Gaston Berger de Saint-Louis University. pratiques agro-pastorales en zone sahélienne. 8pp. Geography Section. 196 pp. Ruelan A. & Dosso M. 1993. Regards sur les sols. Paris. Ba, D. D., Ndiaye P. M. & Faye C. 2018. Variabilité Foucher. 192 pp. pluviométrique et évolution de la sécheresse climatique Quarto, A. & Thiam, I. 2018. Restauration communautaire dans la vallée du fleuve Sénégal. Revue Togolaise des et écologique de la mangrove (CBEMR): rétablir un Sciences. 12 (1):57. écosystème côtier plus riche en biodiversité et plus Conseil Régional de Matam. 2004. Présentation de la résilient avec la participation de la communauté. Nature région de matam: ses atouts et ses contraintes. Forum pour & Faune. 32(1) 44. le développement de matam (fodema). 11. March 2004. Sy A. A. 2013. Dynamique sédimentaire et risques actuels Matam, Senegal. 18 pp. dans l’axe Saint-Louis. Gandiol, littoral nord du Sénégal. FAO. 2017. Champs-coles des producteurs. Document PhD Thesis. Gaston Berger de Saint-Louis University, d.orientation. 123 pp. Geography Section. 328 pp. Kaéré A. B. 2015. Les enjeux du financement sur les Sy A. & Sow S.A. 2018. Variabilité pluviométrique, pression changements climatiques. Act es du Séminaire anthropique et dégradation de l’espace couvert par la International de Dakar sur le climat: Les États et forêt classée de Diamel (Commune de Nabadji Civol au les villes face aux défis du changement climatique. 11. Sénégal). Revue de géographie du laboratoire Leïdi. 13 September 2015. p. 38. 19: 101. Kamil, H. & Larbodière, L. 2010. Pastoralisme, Wade C.T. 2008. Écosystème et environnement : développement durable et changement climatique dans problématique de la gestion durable des usages le Ferlo. Actes de l’atelier. AVSF. 90 pp. littoraux au niveau de la Grande Côte sénégalaise. Ministère de l’Environnement et du Développement PhD in Geography Thesis, Paris 1 University, Durable (MEDD). 2015. Rapport sur l’état de Panthéon Sorbonne. 301 pp. l’environnement au Sénégal. 201 pp. Ndiaye, P.A. 2012. Les Actions de la Grande Muraille Verte: quels enjeux pour un développement local? Communauté Rurale de Loughéré-Thioly (Matam). Master in Geography Thesis. UCAD. 111 pp.

NATURE & FAUNE VOLUME 33 ISSUE 1 69 Nature-based Solutions in Zimbabwe Photo: Public Stock Ecotourism and sustainable development in rural communities bordering protected areas: a case study of opportunities and challenges for Mahenye, Chipinge District

Boycen K. Mudzengi,1 Edson Gandiwa,2 Never Muboko2 and Chiedza N. Mutanga3

SUMMARY This study is aimed at assessing the opportunities and challenges for sustainable development provided by the community ecotourism project at Mahenye Ward located adjacent to Gonarezhou National Park, southeast Zimbabwe in the context of socio-economic and climate change adaptation.

The study was based on the leadership, increased incidences devolve authority to sub-Rural review of literature and authors’ of droughts and frequent cyclones District Council (RDC) institutions experiences of the study area. associated with climate change by granting de jure ownership The opportunities include the and the international anti-hunting of natural resources to local awareness by local people of the lobby. The paper concludes communities while ensuring importance of conserving nature that community ecotourism communities are capacitated to due to environmental education, at Mahenye needs to continue effectively manage and market availability of unique and diverse relying on both safari hunting and the resources in the face of socio- natural resources that are attractive non-consumptive ecotourism economic and climate change. to ecotourists, wildlife viewing while also further diversifying within the Jamanda community income-generating activities in Introduction game ranch and the Great Limpopo order for the approach to end Transfrontier Conservation Area perpetual reliance on aid donors Community ecotourism falls under (GLTFCA) initiative. The challenges and government subventions. The the Community Based Natural include insecure tenure over natural paper also recommends that the Resources Management (CBNRM) resources, withdrawal of donor ecotourism players should lobby programme, which subscribes to funding leading to local failures of the Zimbabwean Government to the concept of community-based

1 Department of Geography and Environmental Science, Great Zimbabwe University, Masvingo, Zimbabwe 2 School of Wildlife, Ecology and Conservation, Chinhoyi University of Technology, Chinhoyi, Zimbabwe 3 School of Hospitality and Tourism, Chinhoyi University of Technology, Chinhoyi, Zimbabwe

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visitor management for socio- economic benefits (Cetin and Sevik, 2016). It represents a shift from fortress conservation toward more active local participation in natural resources conservation by giving local communities a great stake in conservation (Boonzaaier, 2012; Chigonda, 2018). Community ecotourism is also supportive of pro-poor tourism initiatives whereby marginalized local communities living close to or around resource Photo: ©flickr/Erin Johnson rich protected areas can accrue socio-economic benefits through tourism (Goodwin, 2009). Research These ecotourism activities are 1994 and Chilo Lodge in 1996 in by Montana and Mlambo (2018) all available at Mahenye Ward partnership with private tourism has also shown that environmental which presents an opportunity corporations (Mudzengi and awareness was highest in for local socio-economic Chiutsi, 2014). However, there communities most exposed to development (Murphree, 2001; were challenges related to climate the Gwayi Valley Conservation Mudzengi and Chiutsi, 2014). change as the elephant trophy Area. Community ecotourism is hunting quota was not achieved also embedded in the Communal Community ecotourism at Mahenye from 1993 to 1996 due to a severe Areas Management Programme for has been resilient in the face drought in 1992 (Murphree, 2001). Indigenous Resources (CAMPFIRE) of international wildlife trade From 2004 to 2009, the project was in Zimbabwe and has potential restrictions, local socio-economic on the decline due to withdrawal to significantly contribute to and climate changes (Murphree, of funding by international local community development 2001; Machena, Mwakiwa and donors in 2003, local failures of and environmental sustainability Gandiwa, 2017). Factors associated leadership and reduced ecotourism (Scheyvens, 2007; Snyman, 2017). with this resilience include visitation numbers as the socio- intra-communal cohesiveness, economic and political conditions Ecotourism in Zimbabwe is ecotourism resource richness in the country characterized by based on both consumptive and and enlightened private sector hyperinflation, foreign currency non-consumptive activities. involvement (Murphree, 2001). shortages and contested elections Consumptive ecotourism continued to deteriorate. encompass activities such as Community ecotourism was This post-2000 socio- trophy hunting and fishing established at Mahenye in economic and political while non-consumptive involves the year 1990 and through instability is associated game viewing, wildlife-based to 2004, the project was with the implementation photographic safaris, scenic views, largely successful. of an accelerated land boat cruises and bird photography This was epitomized redistribution programme and identification (Machena, by the development to address racial land Mwakiwa and Gandiwa, 2017). of upmarket ecotourist lodges, namely, Mahenye Safari Lodge in imbalances inherited from colonial

Photo: Public Stock

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“MAHENYE OFFERS MANY OPPORTUNITIES FOR ECOTOURISM DEVELOPMENT... IT IS POSSIBLE TO ATTAIN SUSTAINABLE COMMUNITY ECOTOURISM DEVELOPMENT IN THE FACE OF SOCIO- ECONOMIC AND CLIMATE CHANGES WITH STRATEGIC PLANNING”

settler rule and struggles over the trade restrictions due to its heavy Study Area country’s political future (Balint reliance on safari hunting (Machena, Ecotourism at Mahenye Ward is a and Mashinya, 2006; Gandiwa et al., Mwakiwa and Gandiwa, 2017). community private partnership 2014). The Mahenye Safari Lodge project between the local was also extensively damaged by The purpose of this study was Shangaan-speaking peoples and flooding of the Save River in 2008 to examine the opportunities and challenges for ecotourism at River Lodges of Africa, which owns after heavy rains, leading to its Chilo Lodge. Mahenye lies at the closure (Chigonda, 2014). Then Mahenye Ward within the socio- extreme southern end of Chipinge from 2009 to 2018, due to the economic and climate change District, covering a spatial area stabilizing effect of the Government adaptation framework. The of about 210 square kilometers of National Unity (2009–2013) selection of Mahenye was based on (Figure 1). Annual average rainfall and the opportunity presented its great potential for ecotourism is low, ranging between 450 and by co-hosting the United Nations development, as it is part of the 500 milimetres and supports Tourism Organization assembly Great Limpopo Transfrontier little rain-fed crop cultivation, with Zambia in August 2013 to work Conservation Area (GLTCA) thus making ecotourism an on the bad image the international initiative. Community ecotourism at important non-agricultural source community has on the country Mahenye has also been resilient in of livelihood (Murphree, 2001; (Mudzengi and Chiutsi, 2013), the the face of environmental changes Gandiwa, 2011). Mahenye is also project was on the mend. This is in Zimbabwe, enabling it to remain characterized by intra-communal evidenced by increasing ecotourist running from 1990 to present. The cohesiveness rooted in history and arrivals and current innovative significance of this study promotes strong adherence to traditional attempts of creating the Jamanda ecotourism and sustainable customs (Wild Programme, 2015). community game ranch (Mudzengi development in rural communities Incidences of extreme climate and Chiutsi, 2014; Wild Programme, that are bordering protected events such as drought and intense 2015; Parliament Budget Office, wildlife areas. The specific cyclones are increasing in the area. 2018). The game ranch represents objectives of the study were: (i) to The Mahenye area is characterized a further step in devolution of explore the strengths, weaknesses, by a tropical savanna ecosystem user rights over biophysical opportunities and challenges experiencing alternating dry cool resources from the Chipinge of community ecotourism at winters and wet hot summers. The Rural District Council (RDC) to Mahenye and (ii) to recommend area is mainly covered by mixed the local communal community strategies that will make the mopane (Colophospermum mopane) if implemented successfully. ecotourism model at Mahenye more and combretum (Combretum) However, the Mahenye ecotourism successful in the face of socio- woodland but a dense riverine project is susceptible to wildlife economic and climate changes. forest is found along the Save River supporting a broad range of floral and avian species.

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FIGURE 1. Location of Mahenye in southeast Zimbabwe (Source: Authors)

Some of the avian species are rare leopard (Panthera pardus), (SWOC) analysis. The SWOC in Zimbabwe, such as the southern buffalo Syncerus( caffer), giraffe analysis was also made feasible banded snake eagle (Circaetus (Giraffa camelopardalis), zebra by the authors’ experiences of fasciolatus), Madagascar squacco (Equus burchelli), hippopotamus the study area spanning 14 years heron (Ardeola idea), green coucal, (Hippopotamus amphibius) and while undertaking research work. also known as Blue Malkoha kudu (Tragelaphus strepsiceros). (Ceuthmochares aereus) and barred Results and Discussion cuckoo (Cercococcyx montanus) Methods (Murphree, 2001). A wide variety The results are presented of animal species are also found The data obtained from the using SWOC analysis (Table 1). in the area, including the African review of literature is presented Strategies are also proposed elephant (Loxodonta africana), using the Strengths, Weaknesses, to enhance ecotourism Opportunities and Challenges development at Mahenye.

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TABLE 1. SWOC Analysis and recommendations for Mahenye community ecotourism project

Strengths Weaknesses 1. Unique and diverse natural resources 1. Weak natural resources 2. Part of GLTFCA property rights 3. Presence of upmarket lodges 2. Increased poaching 4. Easily accessible by ecotourists incidences during periods 5. Existence of community private of drought-related socio- partnerships with private corporations, economic hardships non-governmental organizations 3. Heavy reliance on the (NGOs) and conservation agencies international trophy-hunting 6. Government support for CAMPFIRE market, therefore, susceptible to trade restrictions 7. Intra-communal cohesiveness

Opportunities Opportunity-Strength Strategies Opportunity-Weakness 1. Awareness by local people of the 1. Partnership with NGOs and conservation Strategies importance of conserving nature agencies to create a holistic environmental 1. Planning and enforcing of due to environmental education education hub at Mahenye rigid natural property rights 2. Attractive ecotourism resource base 2. Spatial planning that accommodates 2. Planning of proper 3. Wildlife viewing within the Jamanda both safari hunting and non- anti-poaching units community game ranch and GLTFCA consumptive ecotourism 3. Enhancing the marketing 4. Generation of sustainable 3. Forge further partnerships with of non-consumptive income through partnerships international volunteer programmes that ecotourism combined with lodge owners, NGOs and pay to come, live and work in the community with safari hunting conservation agencies 4. Improve community private partnerships to 4. Planning for the 5. Generation of substantial enhance ecotourism skills and technological diversification of ecotourism income from safari hunting transfers to the local community income-generating activities 5. Enhance partnerships with GLTFCA by promoting beekeeping, management, conservation agencies and fisheries, selling of universities to increase the marketability traditional wild foods and of ecotourism products in order for beverages, crafts, oils and the project to be self-sustaining by natural healthcare products attracting more fee-paying ecotourists rather than perpetual reliance on aid donors and government subventions

Challenges Challenge-Strength Strategies Challenge-Weakness 1. Insecure tenure over natural 1. Lobbying government to devolve Strategies resources as RDC and central authority to sub-RDC institutions in 1. Promotion of climate government seek to retain control order to reduce conflicts between the change-compatible 2. Withdrawal of donor support local community and the RDC and ecotourism development in community capacity- central government bureaucrats as 2. Promotion of climate- building leading to local well as enable the locals to solely own proof ecotourism by failures of leadership and manage the ecotourism project pumping underground 3. Strong international 2. Capacity-building in effective leadership water to ensure sufficient anti-hunting lobby skills by NGOs and conservation agencies water for the wild animals 4. Strong reliance on the international 3. Conflict resolution with international during drought years and ecotourism market which is and national ecotourism stakeholders constructing climate-smart freckle as visitation fluctuate 4. Engaging stakeholders in developing buildings and roads depending on socio-economic a hunting code of ethics 3. Benchmarking with and political stability 5. Ensuring the local people receive Challenge-Strength 5. Climate change-related issues greater benefits than costs from Strategies 1–5 including increased theft of wildlife in order for them to be actively fauna and shortage of water for engaged in preventing poaching the wild animals during drought years as well as flood-induced damage of buildings and roads

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CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Mahenye offers many opportunities for ecotourism especially in the awarding of hunting concessions development. There is, however, need to enhance and sharing of benefits. These conflicts arise from partnerships and cooperation with all ecotourism the fact that as things stand in Zimbabwe’s current stakeholders for the Mahenye ecotourism model to legislation, formal authority over Mahenye’s land and be more successful and self-sustaining in the face of natural resources is vested in the Chipinge RDC, not socio-economic and climatic changes. This is also with the ward’s people and their leadership who only supported by other studies in China (Huang and have de facto ownership. Political and economic elites Chen, 2015) and in Finland (Bjork, 2000). Community are less willing to give power to local communities as ecotourism at Mahenye also needs to continue they fear losing their control and benefits as noted relying on both safari hunting and non-consumptive by Muboko and Murindagomo (2014). Devolving ecotourism while also further diversifying income- legal authority over the management of natural generating activities in order for the approach to end resources and ecotourism to community institutions perpetual reliance on aid donors and government has led to more secure property rights and socio- subventions. The Mahenye ecotourism project also economic benefits for communal people in Namibia, faces the challenge of insecure tenure of natural leading to the enhanced sustainability of Living in resources (Balint and Mashinya, 2008; Frost and Bond, a Finite Environment CBNRM project (Machena, 2008) as is the case in most parts of Africa where Mwakiwa and Gandiwa, 2017). Further research property rights are not clearly defined (Mbaya, 2010; can explore the forging of partnerships between Romano and Reeb, 2010). Climate change and its Mahenye ecotourism project and universities to adverse impacts affect large herbivore populations undertake research on climate change mitigation (Prato, 2009; Gandiwa, 2014) and infrastructure and adaptation, including developing strategies (Chigonda, 2014) also poses a challenge to community that will ensure sufficient water and food sources ecotourism. The development of climate change- during periods of extreme climatic events for the compatible ecotourism is, therefore, key. wild animals so important to ecotourism. The research can also explore the development of other This study has shown that it is possible to attain options for ecotourists in case wildlife declines sustainable community ecotourism development in due to climate change. Climate change mitigation the face of socio-economic and climate changes with research can also integrate indigenous knowledge strategic planning. To address the issue of insecure systems with modern scientific climate know-how, tenure of natural resources being faced by Mahenye taking advantage of Mahenye community’s strong ecotourism, it is important for ecotourism players adherence to traditional customs. The utility of local to lobby the Zimbabwean Government to devolve ecological knowledge in adapting and coping with de jure authority by granting ownership of natural climate change has been shown by some research resources to local communities. This will enable in the Middle Zambezi Biosphere Reserve (Kupika the local Mahenye community to effectively own et al., 2019). Future studies can also seek to carry and manage the ecotourism project while reducing quantifiable SWOC analysis that adopts the concept of conflicts with the Chipinge RDC and other government Multiple-Criteria Decision Making to simplify complex departments and ministries. The community sees problems related to ecotourism development. the RDC as financially predatory and manipulative

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Balint, P. J. & Mashinya, J. 2006. The decline of a model Frost, P.G.H., & Bond, I. 2008. The CAMPFIRE programme community-based conservation project: governance, in Zimbabwe: Payments for wildlife services. Ecological capacity, and devolution in Mahenye, Zimbabwe. Economics. 65: 776. Geoforum. 37(5): 805. Gandiwa, E. 2011. Importance of savanna woodlands Balint, P.J. and Mashinya, J. 2008. CAMPFIRE during in rural livelihoods and wildlife conservation in Zimbabwe’s national crisis: local impacts and broader southeastern Zimbabwe. In: Bojang, F. and NdesoAtanga, implications for community-based wildlife management. A (Eds.). The forest sector in the green economy of Africa. Society & Natural Resources. 21(9): 783. Nature & Faune. 26(1): 60-66. Bjork, P. 2000. Ecotourism from a Conceptual Perspective, Gandiwa, E. 2014. Population Dynamics of Large an Extended Definition of a Unique Tourism Form. Herbivores and the Framing of Wildlife Conservation in International Journal of Tourism Research. 2: 189. Zimbabwe. Open Journal of Ecology. 4: 411. http://dx.doi. Boonzaaier, C. C. 2012. Towards a Community-Based org/10.4236/oje.2014.47036. Integrated Institutional Framework for Ecotourism Gandiwa, E., Sprangers, S., van Bommel, S., Heitkönig, Management: The Case of the Masebe Nature I. M .A., Leeuwis, C. & Prins, H. H. T. 2014. Spill-over Reserve, Limpopo Province of South Africa. Journal of effect in media framing: Representations of wildlife Anthropology. 2012: 1. 11. doi10.1155/2012/530643. conservation in Zimbabwean and international media. Journal for Nature Conservation. Cetin, M., & Sevik, H. 2016. Assessing Potential Areas 2009-2010. 22: 413. of Ecotourism through a Case Study in Ilgaz Mountain Goodwin, H. 2009. Contemporary Policy Debates. National Park. In: Leszek Butowski, eds. InTech. pp. 81. Reflections on 10 years of pro-poor tourism. Journal of Policy research in Tourism, leisure and Events. Cetin, M., & Sevik, H. 2016. Assessing Potential Areas 1(1): 90. of Ecotourism through a Case Study in Ilgaz Mountain Huang, S. & Chen, G. 2015. Tourism Research in China: National Park. In: Butowski, L., eds. From Empirical Themes and Issues. Channel View Publications. Bristol. Research Towards Practical Application. Intechopen. DOI: Kupika, O.L., Gandiwa, E., Nhamo, G. & Kativu, 10.5772/62573. S. 2019. Local Ecological Knowledge on Climate Chigonda, T. 2014. Biodiversity Conservation and Rural Change and Ecosystem-Based Adaptation Strategies Livelihoods: A Comparative Study of selected Conservation Promote Resilience in the Middle Zambezi Biosphere Strategies in Zimbabwe. DPhil, Thesis. University of Reserve, Zimbabwe. Scientifica, 2019. https://doi. KwaZulu-Natal, Durban. org/10.1155/2019/3069254. Chigonda, T. 2018. More than Just Story Telling: A Review Machena, C., Mwakiwa, E. & Gandiwa, E. 2017. Review of Biodiversity Conservation and Utilisation from of the Communal Areas Management Programme for Precolonial to Postcolonial Zimbabwe. Scientifica. 2018. Indigenous Resources (CAMPFIRE) and Community https://doi.org/10.1155/2018/6214318. Based Natural Resources Management (CBNRM) Models. Government of Zimbabwe, Ministry of Environment, Water, and Climate, Harare.

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Mbaya, S. 2010. Resource tenure systems and poverty Romano, F. & Reeb, D. 2010. Factors that constrain forest alleviation in Africa. In: Bojang, F. and Ndeso-Atanga, tenure security and diversification in Africa. In: Bojang, A, eds. Natural resource tenure systems and their F. and Ndeso-Atanga, A., eds. Natural resource tenure implication for agriculture, food security and nature systems and their implication for agriculture, food conservation in Africa. Nature & Faune. 24(2): 38. security and nature conservation in Africa. Nature & Faune Montana, M. & Mlambo, D. 2018. Environmental . 24(2): 67. awareness and biodiversity conservation among Scheyvens, R. 2007. Exploring the tourism-poverty nexus. resettled communal farmers in Gwayi Valley Current Issues in Tourism. 10 (2&3): 231. International Journal of Conservation Area, Zimbabwe. Snyman, S. 2017. The role of private sector ecotourism in Sustainable Development & World Ecology. 26(3): 242. local socio-economic development in southern Africa. Muboko, N. & Murindagomo, F. 2014. Wildlife control, Journal of Ecotourism. 16(3): 247. access and utilization: Lessons from legislation, policy Wild Programme. 2015. Jamanda Community evolution and implementation in Zimbabwe. Journal for Conservancy. (also available at www.wild-africa.org/ Nature Conservation. 22: 206. jamanda-conservancy/4588094811.) Mudzengi, B. K. & Chiutsi, S. 2014. Socio-political and macro-economic factors influencing ecotourism competitiveness in Zimbabwe. International Journal of Development and Sustainability. 3(2): 306. Murphree, M. 2001. Community, Council & Client: A Case Study in Ecotourism Development from Mahenye, Zimbabwe. In: Hulme, D. and Murphree, M., eds. African Wildlife & Livelihoods: The Promise and Performance of Community Conservation. James Currey, Oxford. pp. 177. Parliament Budget Office. 2018. 2018 First Quarter Budget Performance and Outlook Report. Parliament of the Republic of Zimbabwe. Harare. Prato, T. 2009. Evaluating and managing wildlife impacts of climate change under uncertainty. Ecological Modelling. 220: 923.

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Kristina Rodina,1 Fabiola Espinoza Cordova1

Photo: Public Stock 1 Forestry Department, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), Rome, Italy.

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Photo: ©flickr/Bernard Dupont NATURE & FAUNE VOLUME 33 ISSUE 1 79 Addressing human-life conflict in Africa: challenges and achievements

SUMMARY This article provides an overview of the current state of affairs on human-wildlife conflict (HWC) in Africa, and showcases FAO’s efforts in supporting its member countries in effective management of HWC. HWC is one of the most pressing threats to conservation of biodiversity and a significant barrier towards achieving the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and the Aichi Biodiversity Targets.

HWC jeopardizes the healthy co-existence of people and wildlife, and undermines conservation efforts and rural development in the African continent. The multifaceted nature of HWC requires that a cross-sectoral and coordinated approach be undertaken, involving various and, at times, quite distinct sectors. FAO is exceptionally well positioned to play a connector role, by facilitating dialogue between those who have the knowledge and those who need it and, furthermore, by bringing critical partners and stakeholders together to the same table.

Human-wildlife conflict: scale and impacts More than 1.2 billion people currently live in Africa and this population will almost double by 2050 (UN DESA 2019). The ever-growing human population significantly increases demand for natural resources, which in turn leads to degradation and Livestock kraals in the Binga District, Zimbabwe. Photo: FAO/Rodina fragmentation of wildlife habitats, as humans and livestock encroach

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on them. Wildlife is increasingly In Uganda, the number of More specifically to forests, HWC competing with humans for limited reported cases has increased by incidents cause negative impacts natural resources, resulting in an 37 percent between 2010 and 2019 on forest resources, mainly in the increase in the number of human (Owoyesigire, 2019). In Namibia form of the loss of viable trees and and wildlife conflicts (HWCs). HWC alone, 8 000 HWC occurrences were the destruction of planted forests, is defined as negative interactions reported in 2017 (World Bank, 2019). especially when seedlings are still between people and wild animals, vulnerable (Nolte and Dykzeul, with consequences for both people HWC are also a growing problem 2000). Forest damage caused by and their resources and wildlife for communities located at the HWCs leads to reduced productivity and their habitats (IUCN, 2020). borders of protected areas. The and forest regeneration and can livelihoods of these communities affect restoration efforts and have In Africa, HWCs are not restricted to often involve the direct exploitation serious economic consequences. a particular geographical location of natural resources, bringing the Prevention and mitigation of HWCs and occur in all areas where communities into direct conflict should be considered as an integral wildlife and human populations with wildlife and parks authorities. element in restoration efforts, co-exist and must make use of For example, in South Africa, in particular in the forthcoming nature’s limited resource (Le approximately 30 to 55 percent UN Decade on Ecosystem Bel, 2011). HWCs currently rank of local community members Restoration (2021–2020)2. among the major threats to the reported HWC occurrences due to survival of many wildlife species problem animals from neighbouring Between 2014 and 2016, agro- (including endangered), as well protected areas (Spenceley, 2005). based communities in the southern as the security and well-being of Zimbabwe incurred in average communities and their livelihoods. On the whole, HWC causes the annual losses of USD 834.65 per In recent years, in several African destruction of crops, reduced household due to elephant crop countries, communities suffer farm productivity, increased raiding and lions killing livestock frequent encounters with wildlife, competition for grazing lands and (Clayton et al., 2018); and within which has led to a significant water, livestock predation, injury the Game Management Areas increase in the number of recorded and death to farmers, damage to in Zambia, damages due to HWC. In Zambia, an average of infrastructure and an increased monkeys and elephants raiding 4 600 HWC incidents have been risk of disease transmission among caused 31 percent and 20 percent reported annually, over the past wildlife and livestock (FAO, 2019). in loss of crops, respectively eight years (Zyambo, 2019). (Subakanya et al., 2018).

2 https://www.decadeonrestoration.org/

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The inability of poor communities The survey’s findings revealed the the exchange of experiences among to afford fencing, grow alternative three most pressing obstacles that member countries. It is worth crops or implement other needed to be overcome in dealing noting that apart from choosing preventive measures magnifies with HWC, in their countries, training as the preferred means for the impact HWC have on these namely: lack of funding; inadequate improving knowledge and skills on already resource-limited policy and legal framework this subject, the survey findings communities, exacerbating and poor law enforcement; and show that developing case studies food insecurity in Africa. capacity shortcomings, including on HWC and establishing knowledge people, and technical knowledge. exchange and expert forums are Drawbacks of today’s The lack of engagement and also recommended. The survey dialogue among relevant ministries did not contend to entirely assess HWC management and other public and private the full scope of HWC in Africa, Considering the current growth sectors was also pointed out but rather provided a snapshot rate of human population, the by the survey respondents. of governments’ perceptions of increasing demand for natural the issue itself, the future needs A sizeable amount of respondents resources and the growing and priorities at the national level, (68 percent) indicated that a clear pressure for access to land, HWC and what they perceive should be mandate to deal with HWC and the poses ongoing challenges that FAO’s role in helping them confront issues it causes has been given to are likely to escalate. There is a this issue in moving forward. a specific ministry or government pressing need to learn how to agency in their country. However, effectively reduce or offset such in the current state of affairs, HWC FAO’s efforts to reduce conflicts, to bring them to a level interventions are not adequately where communities are willing to HWC and enhance framed within a national mandate tolerate long-term coexistence co-existence of many countries. Furthermore, with wildlife (CPW, 2016). In tackling HWCs, FAO uses a there are significant disparities in multisectorial approach that Each case of HWC is unique the policy and legal frameworks deliberately brings together and its successful management of different countries when all stakeholders affected and requires understanding of complex tackling HWC. The lack of involved in the HWC itself. When social, political and ecological supportive national frameworks managing HWC it is paramount processes. In order to assess the and standalone strategies to deal to appropriately identify and enabling environment and current with HWC, poor enforcement, meaningfully engage key challenges and capacities of and inadequately well-defined stakeholders and correctly record member countries in Africa to deal responsibilities are what primarily the occurrence of HWCs in order with HWC, FAO conducted an online deters the implementation of an to ensure that they and their survey with technical government integrated response to HWC issues. underlying, are well understood. officials from the Ministries of The survey results clearly suggest In turn, correct sound testing, Natural Resources, Forestry and that HWC issues at a regional level adapting and communication Wildlife3, in September 2019. would benefit from transboundary strategies can be formulated, collaboration and the facilitation of which should have the ultimate

3 In total, 61 technical government officials from 31 countries, which are members of the African Forestry and Wildlife Commission, completed the survey. In terms of the geographical distribution, 29 percent of respondents were from Eastern Africa, 25 percent from Western Africa, 20 percent from Central Africa, 14 percent from Southern Africa and 12 percent from Northern Africa.

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FAO has been supporting the efforts of member countries in managing HWCs by providing technical Multisectoral Dialogue to address issues at the human-wildlife-livestock- ecosystem interface (Accra, October 2019). Photo: FAO/RAF assistance in various fields. For example, FAO’s support includes assistance in the development on HWC and its consequences. idiosyncrasies of different and implementation of a clear Specifically, at its 21st Session people and different cultures policy and legal framework held in Senegal in 2018, the AFWC in addressing this issue. in Mozambique, Gabon and requested that FAO provide Zimbabwe; development of a platform to exchange good Coexistence between humans and a HWC toolkit for use by rural practices and lessons learned wildlife is possible only if local farmers and local communities, in from initiatives related to HWC communities inherently recognize collaboration with CIRAD, BIO-HUB, and facilitate capacity-building on the tangible value and benefits WWF and CAMPFIRE Association; sustainable wildlife management. derived from wildlife itself, and production and distribution of if such a perspective becomes general and species-specific HWC Following the AFWC’s request, and intrinsically cultural. For this to be guidelines and manuals; and in recognition of the importance achieved, efforts in mitigating HWC delivery of training on how to of intersectoral collaboration, FAO must be co-designed and co-owned use the HWC toolkit in Kenya. organized, together with technical by the affected community – this government officials from 11 AFWC lies at the heart of FAO’s work in As many African countries countries, a Multisectoral Dialogue dealing with HWC and diminishing increasingly grapple with this to address issues at the human- its detrimental impacts on multifaceted challenge, HWC wildlife-livestock-ecosystem communities and their livelihoods. is beginning to be taken into interface, in Ghana, in October account in a number of national 2019.4 The Dialogue took stock of The ongoing field activities in policies and strategies for wildlife, current efforts to manage HWCs Zimbabwe are a prominent development and poverty and diseases at the interface and example of FAO’s efforts to engage alleviation. However, the current practical experiences at different local communities from the situation has shown that there is levels; identified country-specific very beginning when designing a pressing need for transferable priorities, including areas of initiatives to manage HWC. In interdisciplinary approaches to be cross-sectoral actions; and helped July 2019, in close collaboration further developed and that cross- to formulate a plan with next with CIRAD and BIO-HUB Trust, sectoral collaboration be improved steps to be taken at a national FAO facilitated the dialogue with across forestry, wildlife, agriculture, and transboundary level. local authorities and the affected livestock, health and other relevant communities in the Binga Rural sectors, at national level. The Dialogue also recognized the District by conducting two field importance of understanding workshops. These workshops had In recent years, FAO’s African the underlying causes of HWC, the explicit goal of formulating Forestry and Wildlife Commission and better considering the a HWC mitigation strategy at the (AFWC) has put greater emphasis

4 FO:AFWC/2020/inf.4

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district level. The Binga District is management for alternative located in the Kavango-Zambezi livelihoods, vaccination of Transfrontier Conservation Area livestock against Foot and (KAZA), which is one of 12 pilot Mouth Disease, and by building sites of the Sustainable Wildlife capacity to implement a wildlife Management (SWM) Programme.5 serosurveillance programme. Further efforts in implementing the HWC mitigation strategy In Botswana, FAO has completed and strengthening the capacity a technical cooperation project of local communities to deal (TCP) which aimed at improving with HWC are expected to be livelihoods in wildlife dominated continued in the coming years, landscapes and had a strong through the implementation HWC component. In partnership with the Botswana Predator Local communities discuss the process of the SWM Programme. human-wildlife conflict strategy, Conservation Trust and Panthera, the Binga Rural District, Zimbabwe. Photo: FAO/Rodina In the Hurungwe District of local capacity was built in order Zimbabwe, since March 2019, FAO is to prevent and mitigate HWC implementing a project promoting by ensuring monitoring of the the sustainable management of area by community scouts, HWC and appropriate agricultural better livestock management practices among vulnerable (including herding practices), the food and nutrition-insecure construction of predator-proof communities. FAO supports the bomas, and by engaging local local government by promoting communities in ecotourism and sustainable natural resource wildlife-based businesses.

CONCLUSION

Addressing human-wildlife conflict is a critical element for the successful achievement of several SDGs, specifically the ones related to tackling the root causes of poverty and hunger, namely, SDG 1 (No poverty), and SGD 2 (Zero Hunger), and through its relation with forest management and biodiversity, SDG 15 (Life on Land). The multifaceted nature of the issue of HWC requires cross-sectoral collaboration among various sectors, including forestry, wildlife, agriculture, livestock, health and others. FAO will continue to play a critical role of connector by facilitating multisectoral dialogue, guided by its Strategy on Mainstreaming Biodiversity across Agricultural Sectors,6 which has been adopted at the 163rd Session of the FAO Council in December 2019, and also through its Biodiversity Mainstreaming Platform.7

5 Further info about the SWM Programme: http://www.fao.org/forestry/wildlife/95602/en/ 6 http://www.fao.org/3/ca7175en/ca7175en.pdf 7 http://www.fao.org/biodiversity/mainstreaming-platform/en/

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Clayton, M., Mhuriro-Mashapa, P., & Mwakiwa, E. 2018. Rodwell O'Connell-, C., Rodwell, T., Rice, M., & Hart, L. Socio-economic impact of human-wildlife conflicts on 2000. Living with the modern conservation paradigm: agriculture based livelihood in the periphery of save Can agricultural communities co-exist with elephants? A valley conservancy, southern Zimbabwe. Journal of five-year case study in East Caprivi, Namibia. Biological Animal and Plant Sciences. 28. Conservation. 93. 381-391. (also available at https:// CPW. 2016. Fact sheet on sustainable wildlife management www.researchgate.net/publication/222046826_Living_ and human wildlife conflict. (also available at http:// with_the_modern_conservation_paradigm_Can_ www.fao.org/3/ai4893e.pdf) agricultural_communities_co-exist_with_elephants_A_ five-year_case_study_in_East_Caprivi_Namibia) Gebresenbet, F., Bauer, H., Vadjunec, J. & Papes, M. 2018. Beyond the numbers: Human attitudes and Spenceley, A. 2005. Nature-based tourism and conflict with lions (Panthera leo) in and around Gambella environmental sustainability in South Africa. J. Sustain. National Park, Ethiopia. (also available at https:// Tour. 13:136. (also available at https://www.researchgate. journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal. net/ publication/228651602_Nature based_Tourism_ pone.0204320) and_ Environmental _Sustainability_in_South_Africa) FAO. 2019. Sustainable Wildlife Management Programme Subakanya, M., Tembo, G. & Richardson, R. 2018. Newsletter. Issue 3: July to October 2019. (also available Land Use Planning and Wildlife-Inflicted Crop at http://www.fao. org/3/ca5100en/CA5100EN.pdf) Damage in Zambia. Environments. (also available at https://www.researchgate.net/publication/327943748_ Le Bel, S., Murwira, A., Mukamuri, B., Czudek, R., Land_Use_Planning_and_Wildlife-Inflicted_Crop_ Taylor, R. & Grange, M. 2011. Human Wildlife Conflicts Damage_in_Zambia) in Southern Africa: Riding the Whirl Wind in Mozambique and in Zimbabwe. 10.5772/23682. (also available at United Nations, Department of Economic and Social https://www.researchgate.net/publication/221916924_ Affairs, Population Division. 2019. World Population Human_Wildlife_Conflicts_in_Southern_Africa_Riding_ Prospects. 2019: Highlights (ST/ESA/SER.A/423). (also the_Whirl_Wind_in_Mozambique_and_in_Zimbabwe) available at https://population.un.org/wpp/Publications/ Files/ WPP2019_Highlights.pdf) Nolte, D. L. & Dykzeul, M. 2000. Wildlife impacts on forest resources. Human Conflicts with Wildlife: World Bank. 2019. Global Wildlife Programme Phase Economic Considerations. 20. (also available at https:// 2: Summarized version of child projects. (also digitalcommons. unl.edu/nwrchumanconflicts/20) available at https://www.thegef.org/sites/default/ files/webdocuments/10200_PFD_Wildlife_Annex_ ChildProjects.pdf)

NATURE & FAUNE VOLUME 33 ISSUE 1 85 Diversity of restoration plants for Africa’s Great Green Wall implementation

Moctar Sacande,1 Marc Parfondry1 and Antonio Martucci1

Photo: Public Stock 1 Forestry Department, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), Rome, Italy

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SUMMARY FAO’s Action Against Desertification (AAD) was conceived by an understanding that development challenges are interlinked and require integrated solutions. In support of the implementation of Africa’s Great Green Wall Initiative (GGWI), the project addresses the three pillars of sustainable development – environmental protection, economic viability, and social equity.

Over the last decade, FAO has Introduction its original landscapes. Such become a key technical partner re-greening efforts are sustained On the global scale, biodiversity in building this programme of through the implementation of erosion is such that current trends opportunities for Africa’s drylands the ambitious Africa’s Great Green are already deemed by the scientific and its people. In five years, Action Wall initiated in 2007 by the African community to foster the extinction Against Desertification has brought Union (AUC, 2012), aiming to restore of an estimated one million species 50 000 hectares of degraded 100 million hectares of degraded currently at risk (IPBES, 2019). land under restoration, planting agrosylvopastoral lands by 2030, According to IPBES, human actions 25 million diverse trees and fodder as recently pledged at the UNCCD threaten more species with global herbaceous species useful to rural COP 14. Moreover, African countries extinction now than ever before, communities. A total of 90 tonnes at the Paris climate summit in and on average, around 25 percent of forest seed and over 5 million 2015 have committed substantial of species in assessed animal seedlings of 110 woody and pledges for the AFR100 with the and plant groups are threatened. herbaceous fodder species were goal to also restore 100 million However, one most promising trend produced and planted in support hectares in Africa by 2030. is that forests in protected land of its land restoration work. Plant areas or protected by conservation diversity is crucial to sustainably Globally, there are almost schemes are very likely to survive produce enough nutritious food 400 000 plant species, of which there the impacts of human development in the face of challenges, such are more than 60 000 tree species in (Chazdon et al., 2016). During the et al., as climate change, emerging the world (Beech 2017). Around last decades, many reforestation diseases, pressure on feed and 2 400 species of trees, shrubs, palms efforts and initiatives have tried to water supplies, and shifting market and bamboo are actively managed reduce the further disappearance of demands of a growing human for products and/or services. A species not only that of a degraded population. Promoting biological little over 6 000 plants species and fragile ecosystems but also diversity is important both for have been cultivated as food of a continuously degrading ones. food production and conservation crops. In general, natural forest For some species of which stand of the ecological bases that are areas are decreasing and planted at the brink of extinction (IUCN necessary to sustain life and forest areas are increasing. The Red List, 2016), sowing diversified build rural livelihoods. This land global annual net loss of natural endemic and naturalized tree and restoration approach is being forests decreased from some grass help to restore the spatial replicated elsewhere and has 10.6 million hectares in the 1990s patterns of the original Sahel great potential to be upscaled. to 6.5 million hectares between forest fragments while recreating 2010 and 2015 (FAO-FRA report).

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In its 2018 report on land avoid or reverse degradation The Great Green Wall can be degradation, IPBES warned that and maintain biodiversity, and a game-changer for Africa, land degradation negatively affects successful examples are found in transforming the lives of millions 3.2 billion people and represents different ecosystems. On average, of people by creating a great an economic loss in the order of the benefits of restoration are 10 mosaic of green, biodiverse and 10 percent of annual global gross times higher than the costs, and productive landscapes across North product. According to IPBES, include food security, reduced Africa, the Sahel and the Horn. “combatting land degradation… negative effects of climate change FAO’s Action Against Desertification is an urgent priority in order and biodiversity protection (AAD) supports restoration to protect the biodiversity and (IPBES, 2018). Without such interventions recognized as a ecosystem services that are vital actions to restore, there will be a priority by the Great Green Wall to all life on Earth and to ensure further acceleration in the global countries. It is estimated that human well-being”. Desertification, rate of species extinction. 166 million hectares of the GGW land degradation and drought FAO is a long-standing supporter core area provide opportunity are grave challenges. They lead of the Great Green Wall Initiative, for restoration and to reach this to hunger and poverty, drive Africa’s flagship programme target by 2030, 10 million hectares unemployment, force migration to combat climate change and need to be restored each year and conflict while increasing desertification. Launched as a (Berrahmouni et al., 2016). But the risk of extreme weather. tree-planting scheme to hold back how will it be possible to translate Together, they have far-reaching the desert, it is now an integrated these numbers into reality? And negative effects on human rural development programme, how will it be possible to win the health, physical infrastructure, championing a grassroots- race for restoration against time? natural resources, and security. driven, science-based approach We present here the achievements Many well-tested land restoration to environmental restoration of Action Against Desertification practices and techniques, both and sustainable development in restoring degraded land with traditional and modern, can help (Sacande & Berrahmouni, 2018). well-adapted multipurpose species.

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Diversity of community priority restoration plant species

1: Community mobilisation and selection of restoration species

Experience has shown that the level of community knowledge on species, their uses in the communities participation from the early stages of restoration and their presence in the area. The categories and often determines the degree of success in restoration. proportions of native species selected and preferred Communities are central in the restoration process by communities are presented in Figure 2. and may be directly involved in the selection of sites to restore, species selection, seed collection, Once the preferred species have been identified, a planting and management of the restored areas. The prioritization exercise can be carried out by community selection of species used in restoration in particular members according to their lifestyles, well-being has to be carried out based on community’s needs aspirations and opportunities to generate value from and priorities (Sacande and Berrahmouni, 2016). their environment. It is important to complement local knowledge and preferences for species with accurate Engaging with rural communities and up-to-date botanical and ecological analyses, as some of the species desired by community members For restoration to succeed, communities needs and may not be suitable for restoration in the targeted concerns have to be well understood (Figure 1). As sites, such is the case for exotic species or species for any project or development activities affecting adapted to more humid environments. Native species them or their territories, communities have the should be preferred, as they are adapted to local right to give or withhold consent to a restoration ecological conditions and are more suitable for the project. They need to be able to conduct their natural re-establishment of the native flora and fauna own independent and collective discussions and species, thus contributing to ecosystem resilience decision-making. Free, Prior and Informed Consent (Le Houerou, 1989). Exotic species, on the other (FPIC) provides a set of guiding principles that hand, may cause major environmental disruptions, guarantee indigenous communities these rights, especially invasive species that compete with and and uses participatory assessments to understand replace native species. However, on communities’ and document people’s needs and concerns. request, some of those exotic species are planted, Consultation meetings with communities can allow not for restoration but for other purpose such as assessing their commitment and motivation but also home/nutrition gardens, firewood production, etc. their needs and requirements for restoration. Moreover, Across the eight African AAD countries, over 200 species these meetings provide a forum for communities to including at least 86 tree species were mentioned as suggest possible sites for restoration. Clear land tenure useful species by communities (Figure 3). Plant use is a prerequisite for restoration activities to begin. data was also recorded and used to classify species. Species with multiple uses and high market value were Selecting useful species for restoration usually preferred, with the largest proportion of given A key factor of success is if communities determine uses respectively human and veterinary medicine, which plant species (of trees, shrubs and grasses) they food and livestock feed (Figure 2). Acacia senegal, want to use in restoration and how well those species (also known as Senegalia senegal), for example, is a are adapted to the local landscapes. Due to the fact major restoration species with multiple uses, mainly that traditional ecological knowledge is usually poorly improving soil fertility and used to produce gum documented and may only be captured through local arabic, but it is also a source of food, fodder and surveys, AAD uses questionnaire surveys and focus honey (NGARA, 2017; Sacande and Parfondry, 2018). group discussions to capture traditional or local

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2: Restoration interventions

The large-scale restoration approach of AAD in support (i) Promoting natural regeneration, in which farmers of the GGW is implemented at the landscape scale and protect and manage the natural regeneration of and across land uses and production agrosylvopastoral enrichment with native species in forest woodlands, systems. It involves many sectors and groups, and it croplands and grasslands (most likely to be puts communities – and their livelihoods – at the centre effective in the dry subhumid and semi-arid zones). (Sacande and Berrahmouni 2018; Sacande et al., 2020). Restoration must be understood, planned and tackled (ii) Investing in large-scale land preparation and along the entire value chain, from land and seed to end enrichment planting where degradation is so products and markets, so that to serve both economy severe that natural vegetation will not regenerate and ecology. Restoration success requires supportive on its own. Mechanized ploughs are used to prepare policies; good governance; sufficient technical, land at bigger scale 50 to 200 ha per village and operational and financial capacities; incentives for communities select the native woody and grass communities to sustain their actions; and continuous species to be planted (most likely to be required monitoring and learning. AAD intervention actions in the arid and semi-arid zones). On any given according to contexts and landscapes include: site, the diversity of planted species amounts to a minimum of ten species per hectare, combining grasses, trees and shrubs, so as to maximize ecological functions and build better resilience on the ground (see Figure 4; Sacande et al., 2020).

(iii) Fighting sand encroachment by establishing and protecting native woody and grassy vegetation adapted to sandy and arid environments (most likely to be required in the arid, hyperarid zone).

(iv) Mobilizing high-quality seeds and planting materials of well-adapted native woody and herbaceous fodder species to build ecological and social resilience.

(v) Developing comprehensive value chains that benefit local communities and countries and enable the flourishing of green economies and enterprises.

(vi) Building simple, cost effective, robust, participatory monitoring systems to support baseline assessments, identify interventions, track progress, inform stakeholders and investors, and aid learning and adaptive management.

Photo: ©FAO Benedicte Kurzen

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FIGURE 1. AAD’s large-scale restoration approach with the rural communities at the heart, with dual benefits to their livelihoods and the agrosylvopastoral landscapes.

FIGURE 2. A diversity and important plant species selected and used by AAD’s rural communities for their livelihoods in eight African GGW countries (Burkina Faso, Ethiopia, the Gambia, Mauritania, the Niger, Nigeria, Senegal and the Sudan). Only native species are planted for restoring degraded lands in agrosylvopastoral landscapes, while the exotic species are planted in home gardens.

Percentage of AAD households using different tree species

60%

50%

40%

30%

20%

10%

0% Ficus spp Aloe vera Musa spp Citrus spp Acacia asak Acacia Acacia seyal Acacia Opuntia spp Opuntia Catha edulis Catha Delonix regia Acacia tortilis Acacia Schinus molle Acacia saligna Acacia Acacia etibyca Acacia Cola cordifolia Acacia nilotica Acacia Acacia senegal Acacia Cocos nucifera Cocos Grewia bicolor Grewia Olea europaea Eucalyptus spp Eucalyptus Raphia hookeri Cordia africana Cordia Tectona grandis Tectona Cordyla pinnata Cordyla Acacia raddiana Acacia Psidium guajava Psidium Parkia biglobosa Parkia Sesbania sesban Ceiba pentandra Moringa oleifera Moringa Prosopis juliflora Prosopis Mangifera indica Mangifera Gmelina arborea Grevillea robusta Grevillea Prosopis africana Prosopis Cassia sieberiana Acacia abyssinica Acacia Commiphora spp Commiphora Faidherbia albida Faidherbia Sclerocaria birrea Sclerocaria Persea americana Persea Juniperus procera Saba senegalensis Dodonaea viscosa Bombax costatum Bombax Tamarindus indica Tamarindus Azadirachta indica Azadirachta Combretum molle Combretum Bridelia micrantha Calotropis procera Calotropis Adansonia digitata Maeroua cracifolia Maeroua Vitellaria paradoxa Vitellaria Ziziphus spinacristi Bauhinia rufescens Lannea microcarpa Phoenix dactylifera Khaya senegalensis Khaya Rhamnus prinoides Hyphaene thebaica Boscia senegalensis Ziziphus mauritiana Anona senegalensis Guiera senegalensis Guiera Parinari macrophyla Parinari Boswellia papyrifera Boswellia Borassus aethiopum Borassus Balanites aegyptiaca Balanites Acacia erhanbergiana Acacia Detarium senegalense Detarium Pterocarpus erinaceus Pterocarpus Casuarina equisetifolia Dalbergia melanoxylon Dalbergia Piliostigma reticulatum Piliostigma Combretum glutinosum Combretum Euphorbia candelabrum Anacardium occidentale Anacardium Oxytenanthera abyssinica Oxytenanthera

Native species Introduced species

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FIGURE 3. Classification of species by use category defined by the rural communities in AAD intervention areas. Out of the 150 preferred species, most are multipurpose and plants with high market value were usually preferred, with the largest proportion for human and veterinarian medicine, food and livestock feed.

Medicine for humans Veterinary medicine Food for humans Bee-friendly plants Feed for animals Materials Fuels Environmental uses Social use

Benefits of large-scale initial land preparation (manual Results of two products, i.e. restoration to communities and/or mechanised), planting with planted herbaceous fodder and Action Against Desertification is multispecies and maintaining collected Balanites aegyptiaca not about the planting of trees, planted plots over a period fruits (desert dates, planted as shrubs and grasses and increasing of five years (2014–2019). The seedlings but fruits collected biomass only. Its interventions reclaimed restored land is managed from existing natural stands) help rural communities to earn in a sustainable way, aiming at show that there are substantial a decent income by supporting increased agricultural productivity, direct benefits from restoration the development of value chains while improving the resilience of interventions and plant diversity. of non-timber forest products, the agrosylvopastoral systems. At In Burkina Faso, an average of including beekeeping and honey the same time, five main sectors 1 200 kg of planted herbaceous production. So far, there are two of dryland non-timber forest fodder per hectare was harvested categories of restoration benefits to products are developed to reach on restored plots just one year communities: the primary benefits local, national and international after planting, generating revenues being for farmers who directly markets. These include production of USD 40 per hectare, equivalent take part in the interventions and transformation of (i) feed, to half of Burkina’s monthly (whether through participation including selected herbaceous minimum wage. One can speculate in training courses, capacity- fodder, and food (adapted pulses); that the over 10 000 ha under strengthening or a planting (ii) gums, including gum Arabic, restoration in Burkina potentially campaign, for example) and the and resins; (iii) native dryland yield USD 400 000 per year as benefits derived from access to plant oil (including balanites); direct benefit from fodder only to and development of non-timber (iv) restoration seeds, wild fruits Burkinabe farmers. Women making forest products. An estimation of (including Citrullus, a group soap from balanites oil, which is investment costs comes to about of melons); and (v) hides and also edible, saw their incomes USD 400 per hectare including skin for leather (livestock). double, with one harvest per year.

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“PLANT DIVERSITY IS CRUCIAL AS A SOLUTION TO SUSTAINABLY PRODUCE ENOUGH NUTRITIOUS FOOD IN THE FACE OF CHALLENGES, SUCH AS CLIMATE CHANGE, EMERGING DISEASES, PRESSURES ON FEED AND WATER SUPPLIES AND SHIFTING MARKET DEMANDS OF A GROWING HUMAN POPULATION”

A specific recent study on the operation generated 80 000 USD Agronomique of Niger (INRAN, socio-economic impacts of AAD on average per yearly harvest for 2019 forthcoming) concludes that interventions finds similar results in the communities. In the same in FAO’s AAD intervention areas, Senegal. The report highlights that localities, women groups are ecological restoration efforts in during the last two years 2017–2019 supported in transforming fruits sylvopastoral systems is improving in the dry season (November to of balanites, the desert dates, into biodiversity, increasing biomass May), the village communities that products including its edible oil and vegetation cover. Of 28 plant benefited about 4 000 ha degraded sold 4 USD per litre, its soap sold species investigated, including lands planted for restoration, at 1.5 USD/100 g and its jam at 15 woody and 13 herbaceous issued a token system for fodder 2 USD the litre (Vrydagh, 2019). species, the cattle diet in rainy harvesting in their plots. They season was composed of all earned 2 USD per donkey cart or A recent comparative study on of the 13 planted herbaceous 4 USD for a car, (a volume of fodder ecological restoration contributions species, then decreasing to of about 100 kg). At an estimated to fodder supply and food security nine of those species after the biomass production of 1 ton of hay of local communities by the rainy season and to just three per hectare sold at 10 carts/ha, this Institute National de Recherche species in the hot dry season.

FIGURE 4. An example of large-scale restoration interventions and the transformative change of the 200 ha landscape in Burkina Faso. The diversity of planted species amounts to a minimum of 10 useful native species per hectare, combining fodder grasses, trees and shrubs, so as to maximize ecological functions and build better resilience on the ground.

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These cases illustrate that the sub-Saharan African communities Berrahmouni et al., 2016). Using a restoration impacts that seem and their drylands. FAO and similar analyses from the global to be the most important to the partners are working with the dryland assessment data, AAD has population are those that can be regional/SADC countries on a derived the GGW/SADC core area observed directly or in a short similar operational programme and estimated 228 million hectares, time, as well as those that will have approach to address desertification within which the restoration economic benefits. These criteria and land degradation issues. As needs and opportunities cover of speed and economic interest a whole, 221 million hectares of 55 million hectares in the drylands seem essential. The needed trees Africa’s drylands are restorable of that sub-Saharan African region with slower growth, it is in the years – 166 million in the north and (see Figure 5). Taken together, to come that the inhabitants will 55 million in the south of the a global potential of 221 million be able to measure the benefits. continent. Overall, the Great hectares in Africa’s drylands are By all means, this highlights that Green Wall core area of arid and restorable. These are, therefore, land degradation cannot be tackled semi-arid zones covers nearly huge opportunities to make the without unleashing the economic one billion hectares – 780 million most of ‘unused’ and/or non-arable potential of Africa’s drylands. in the north and 228 million in lands fertile again, providing a the south. Two hundred and massive prospect for mitigating Expanding Africa’s Great fifty-six million people live there – climate change and for socio- Green Wall of opportunities a ratio of 4 hectares per person. economic prosperity for the What has started in the GGW for continent, the scale of which is GGW Sahel core area is the Northern Africa, the African unparallel and never seen before. estimated at 780 million ha with Union is now expanding it to 166 million ha restorable (see

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FIGURE 5. Mapping landscape restoration needs and opportunities in Africa‘s drylands, estimated 221 million hectares in arid and semi-arid zones (all green within hatched lines). High restoration needs and opportunities (in dark green); Low or no need/ opportunity for restoration (in light green); GGW core areas are shown within the borders with hatched lines.

Algiers

T

u

n

i

Rabat Fez s

i GLOBAL SCALE a Tripoli o cc o Alexandria or M Cairo Algeria GGW Sahara-Sahel Libya Egypt • 780 million ha core area Mauritania • 166 million ha restorable Mali Niger Sudan Khartoum S Dakar en Chad eg al Bamako Ouagadougou GGW Kalahari-Namib Kano Maiduguri G Zaria uin ea a

Conakry n

a Nigeria Addis Abeba h Ethiopia • 228 million ha core area G Ibadan So n lic ut Kumasi Lagos Benin pub h S Monrovia o n Re udan Accra o frica Abidjan Aba r tral A e Cen Douala m D 55 million ha restorable a e •

C m

o Muqdisho c a o r li g a a n t Kampala i m o c Kenya o n o C R S b Nairobi a e U G p n u it b e Total = 1.008 billion ha core areas d l i Kinshasa c R e o p

f u b t

Mbuji-Mayi h l ic e o Dar es Salaam

C f T

o a n Luanda n z g a

o n ia Lubumbashi Angola e u iq Zambia Lusaka b m a z o Harare M Antananarivo People living in these drylands Zimbabwe r a c s Namibia a Botswana g a GGW Sahara-Sahel - 232 million d a

M Soweto Maputo GGW Kalahari-Namib - 24 million

South Africa Durban

Cape Town Total = 0.256 billion - equivalent 4 ha/person

CONCLUSION

The conception of FAO’s Action Against Desertification was guided by an understanding that development challenges are interlinked and require integrated solutions. The project was designed to address the three pillars of sustainable development – environmental protection, economic viability and social equity. Plant diversity is crucial as a solution to sustainably produce enough nutritious food in the face of challenges, such as climate change, emerging diseases, pressures on feed and water supplies and shifting market demands of a growing human population. In agricultural ecosystems, safeguarding biological diversity is important both for food production and conservation of ecological bases necessary to sustain life and build rural livelihoods. In five years, Action Against Desertification has brought 50 000 hectares of degraded land under restoration, planting 25 million trees and reaching 500 000 people in 325 communities. Over 100 useful woody and herbaceous fodder species were used in land restoration work.

The land restoration approach developed by AAD (biophysical and socio-economic) is being replicated elsewhere and has great potential to be upscaled massively. After nearly a decade of involvement in dryland restoration, culminating in Action Against Desertification, the devised blueprint for large-scale restoration of drylands in Africa can make a substantial contribution to achieve land degradation neutrality by 2030.

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References

AUC/PAGGW. 2012. Harmonized regional strategy for the IUCN. 2016. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. implementation of the Great Green Wall for the Sahara (also available at www.iucn.org) and the Sahel Initiative. Document 1. FAO. Rome. (also Le Houerou, H.N. 1989. The grazing land ecosystems of available at http://www.fao.org/in-action/ action- the African Sahel. Springer verlag. against-desertification/news-and-multimedia/ detail/ en/c/1051386/) NGARA. 2017. The Network for Natural Gums and Resins in Africa: Overview and Framework of Priorities. 2017. Beech, E., Rivers, M., Oldfield, S. & Smith, P. P. 2017. GlobalTreeSearch: The first complete global Sacande, M. & Berrahmouni, N. 2016. Community database of tree species and country distributions. participation and ecological criteria for selecting species Journal of Sustainable Forestry. 36:5, 454. and restoring natural capital with native species in the DOI: 10.1080/10549811.2017.1310049. Sahel. Restoration Ecology. DOI. 10.1111/ rec.12335 Berrahmouni, N., Laestadius, L., Martucci, A., Mollicone Sacande, M. & Berrahmouni, N. 2018. Africa’s Great Green D., Patriarca, C. & Sacande, M. 2016. Building Africa’s Wall: A transformative model for rural communities’ Great Green Wall: Restoring degraded drylands for stronger sustainable development. Nature & Faune. 90. and more resilient communities. FAO. Rome. Sacande, M. & Parfondry, M. 2018. Non-timber forest Chazdon, R.L., Brancalion, P.H.S., Laestadius, L., products. From restoration to income generation. Rome. BennettCurry, A., Buckingham, K., Kumar, C., Moll- FAO. 44 pp. (also available at http://www.fao.org/3/ Rocek, J., Vieira, I.C.G. & Wilson, S.J. 2016. When is a CA2428EN/ca2428en.pdf). forest a forest? Forest concepts and definitions in the era Sacande ,M., Parfondry, M. & Cicatiello, C. 2020. of forest and landscape restoration. Ambio 45: 538. Restoration in Action Against Desertification. A manual IPBES. 2018. The IPBES assessment report on land for large-scale restoration to support rural communities’ degradation and restoration. Bonn, Germany. 744 pp. resilience in Africa’s Great Green Wall. Rome. FAO. 92 pp. (also available at www.ipbes.net/). (also available at http://www.fao.org/3/ca6932en/ ca6932en.pdf). IPBES. 2019. Summary for policymakers of the global assessment report on biodiversity and ecosystem Vrydagh, L. 2019. Contribution à l’évaluation des services. Paris. (also available at www.ipbes.net/) impacts socio-économiques du projet Action Contre la Désertification, implémenté par la FAO dans le Ferlo sénégalais. Master thesis. University of Louvain.

For further information, see: AAD Website: http://www.fao.org/in-action/ action-against-desertification

NATURE & FAUNE VOLUME 33 ISSUE 1 97 Africa’s biodiversity mainstreaming across agricultural sectors

Nora Berrahmouni,1 Irene Hoffmann,2 Rosalud DelaRosa,3 Isabel Kuhne,1 Gualbert Gbehounou4 and Ki Min1

Photo: Public Stock 1 Regional Office for Africa, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), Accra, Ghana 2 Commission on Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), Rome, Italy 3 Land and Water Division, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), Rome, Italy 4 Country Office in Rwanda, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), Kigali, Rwanda

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Photo: ©FAO/Luis Tato NATURE & FAUNE VOLUME 33 ISSUE 1 99 Africa’s biodiversity mainstreaming across agricultural sectors

Africa’s biodiversity: rich but at risk Biodiversity at all levels – genetic, species and ecosystems – is critical for safeguarding global food security, underpinning healthy and nutritious diets, improving rural livelihoods, and enhancing the resilience of people and communities.

Biodiversity, coupled with a contributions to human well-being Mainstreaming wealth of traditional knowledge is still underappreciated, biodiversity across of the continent, play a key particularly in decision-making role in promoting resilience in processes and investments. agriculture sectors production systems, improving Biodiversity is still and often is the answer livelihoods and supporting taken for granted. The fast-paced With the critical need to address food security and nutrition. economic development, rapid this issue immediately, the FAO urbanization and population Conference in 2017 welcomed FAO’s Africa hosts 25 percent of the global growth are major threats to the initiative to act as the Biodiversity biodiversity, but its biodiversity rich biodiversity of Africa, which Mainstreaming Platform.5 The is alarmingly under pressure. continues to be depleted at Conference recommended FAO to Recent findings on the threats of an alarming scale. The current facilitate, in collaboration with its biodiversity loss and ecosystem economic growth model can no partners such as the Convention on degradation from the Food and longer be sustained since the Biological Diversity (CBD) and other Agriculture Organization of the earth’s carrying capacity can UN organizations, the integration United Nations (FAO)’s The State no longer meet the demands and coherence of actions on the of the World’s Biodiversity for of the growing population and conservation, sustainable use, Food and Agriculture and The urbanization in the region. management and restoration Global Assessment Report of of biological diversity across the Intergovernmental Science- Africa’s current population of agricultural sectors at national, Policy Platform on Biodiversity 1.25 billion is likely to double by regional and international levels. and Ecosystem Services have put 2050 and will put severe pressure on agriculture at the crosshairs of an the continent’s biodiversity. Unless In 2018, FAO co-organized the first intense debate about sustaining the appropriate policies, investments global multistakeholder dialogue future of the people and the planet. and strategies are adopted and on biodiversity mainstreaming effectively implemented, especially in Rome, which was followed by Despite several positive in this region which is extremely a series of regional dialogues. developments that support vulnerable to the impacts of climate The African Regional Dialogue biodiversity conservation and change, the ability of nature to was held on 4–5 November sustainable use in Africa, great satisfactorily contribute to people’s 2019 in Kigali, Rwanda. challenges are still faced because survival will greatly diminish. the true value of biodiversity

5 C 2017/REP, paragraph 55. The Biodiversity Mainstreaming Platform Brochure is available at: http://www.fao.org/3/CA2403EN/ca2403en.pdf

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An Africa weak enabling environment for agriculture sectors to be engaged Multistakeholder cross-sectoral collaboration and ensure that biodiversity is among different ministries. mainstreamed across agricultural, Dialogue geared environment, finance, education, Conference participants discussed towards action culture and other sectors. at length new opportunities to bring During the two-day event, biodiversity actions at the fore of Additionally, FAO global highly participatory and vibrant the global, regional, national and biodiversity-related instruments, dialogues highlighted the main local level awareness. At the global such as the International Treaty biodiversity challenges in Africa. level, the development by the CBD on Plant Genetic Resource7 and These challenges include land of the Post-2020 Global Biodiversity the Global Plans of Action of the conversion, deforestation, Framework, the UN Decade on Commission on Genetic Resources encroachment, unsustainable Ecosystem Restoration (2021–2030) for Food and Agriculture,8 provide land and agriculture practices, co-led by FAO and UNEP, the UN tools and entry points for regional climate change, drought and water Decade on Family Farming (2019– and national actions. The FAO scarcity, conflicts, land tenure 2028) co-led by FAO and IFAD, and Committee on Agriculture (COAG), insecurity, inadequate investments FAO’s Strategy on Mainstreaming Committee on Fisheries (COFI) and for biodiversity-friendly practices, Biodiversity across Agriculture Committee on Forestry (COFO) lack of integrated planning for Sectors6 are highly relevant have also integrated biodiversity local-level implementation, opportunities and spaces for mainstreaming in their agendas. lack of access to markets, and

“THE CURRENT ECONOMIC GROWTH MODEL CAN NO LONGER BE SUSTAINED SINCE THE EARTH’S CARRYING CAPACITY CAN NO LONGER MEET THE DEMANDS OF THE GROWING POPULATION AND URBANIZATION IN THE REGION”

6 CL 163/11 Rev.1 7 http://www.fao.org/plant-treaty/en/ 8 http://www.fao.org/cgrfa/en/

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At the regional level, the • The Sustainable Forest In some countries, national and following initiatives and/or Management Framework for local level participatory platforms platforms can be built upon: Africa (2020–2030) endorsed or mechanisms have been put at technical and ministerial in place. Biodiversity-friendly Africa’s Great Green Wall • levels by the AU Specialized agriculture practices, which are under the leadership of the Technical Committee on very familiar to most Africans, African Union Commission Agriculture, Rural Development, should not be difficult for scaling- and member countries; Water and Environment, up and adoption. There are held on 21–23 October 2019 The African Forest Landscape • in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia; interesting innovations with youth Restoration Initiative (AFR100) playing significant roles in many under the coordination of the • The AU Strategy on Combatting global, regional and national African Union Development Illicit Exploitation and Trade projects and programmes that Agency (AUDA-NEPAD), engaging in Wild Fauna and Flora; make them the ‘agents of change’ 29 countries committed to restore in an interconnected world over 100 million hectares by 2030; • The Africa Youth Ambassadors; through the use of Information and • The Pan-African Agenda on • The AU Eco-Agriculture Communications Technology (ICT) Ecosystem Restoration for Initiative; and and technologies in agriculture. Increased Resilience as part There are ongoing inclusive national FAO regional statutory and of Africa’s contribution to the • governance bodies such as the training initiatives for agribusiness UN Decade on Ecosystem African Forestry and Wildlife and entrepreneurships, targeting Restoration (2021–2030); Commission and the African the 60 percent of the population of Regional Conference. women and youth in many African countries, which are boosting job creations and vibrant opportunities.

Photo: ©FAO

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Recommendations and next steps Participants of the African Regional Dialogue agreed to put forward the following recommendations to the global and regional intergovernmental institutions, financial partners and national governments, and to FAO specifically:

1. Awareness-Raising and Identifying “Country 2. Research, Documentation and Development of Champions” on Biodiversity Mainstreaming New Tools for Biodiversity-Friendly Agriculture across Agriculture Sectors. Participants Business Case Models. The lack of evidence- called for a “paradigm shift” of agriculture based information should be given a priority. and food systems, taking into account the Traditional practices are often not acknowledged urgent need for all stakeholders to ensure that and there is a need to bring together science and biodiversity is mainstreamed in agriculture traditional knowledge. Several African countries sectors. The call for a “paradigm shift” of the started to capture the value of biodiversity- agriculture and food systems would require: friendly practices through natural capital • Connecting biodiversity conservation and accounting, paving the way for new policies and sustainable use with food security and incentive schemes. Participants recommended: nutrition, neglected crops species, human • Building the business case for agriculture health, climate resilience, among others; sectors that are biodiversity-friendly and viable; • Recognizing and fostering the conservation • Committing to a stocktaking exercise of of neglected and traditional crops and documenting and exchanging (accessible breeds, and practices, which increase and cost-effective) good practices to provide the provisions of ecosystem services good insights for replication and scaling- such as pollination, among others; up, and more importantly as support • Enabling biodiversity-friendly and conscious to policy instruments on biodiversity decision-making along biodiversity-based mainstreaming in agriculture sectors. products and ecosystem services value chains; 3. Knowledge and Information Sharing to • Considering the true value of biodiversity Create Synergies toward the Redesign contributions to human well-being of New Agriculture and Food Systems. and ecosystems services and in return Knowledge should be coordinated coherently investing proactively in its conservation across Africa, shared at national level and and sustainable use by decision- trickled down to community levels. Participants makers, governments and investors; recommended to FAO to develop: • Identifying the champion countries that • A searchable, web-based database of will promote the institutionalization of policies, tools, guidance and business biodiversity-friendly interventions, policies and cases for sustainable use, conservation investments and serve as examples for others. and valuation of biodiversity; • A participatory regional web-based discussion forum and information-sharing mechanism (new tools, success stories and failures, events, funding opportunities).

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Recommendations (Cont.)

4. Multistakeholder National Platforms for agroecology, agroforestry, in-situ and ex-situ Networking, Alliances and Partnerships conservation of genetic resources for food on biodiversity sustainable use and and agriculture, pollinators, conservation conservation should be strengthened and of heritage and traditional agricultural institutionalized. Participants recommended: practices and sites like Globally Important • Upon request by governments, FAO Agricultural Heritage Systems (GIAHS). country offices would act as facilitators for national biodiversity dialogues across 7. Strengthened Enabling Laws, Regulations sectors of agriculture,including crops and and Policy Frameworks. The national livestock, forestry, fisheries and aquaculture, implementation of already ratified biodiversity- environment, planning, finance, education, related global treaties and protocols remains culture, among others. These dialogues should a challenge. Few countries exemplified their include representatives from national and enactment of laws and policies that are directly local levels and build and strengthen alliances related to biodiversity. Insecure land tenure among women, youth, farmers, pastoralists, remains a major challenge in Africa. Since youth forest users and producers, traditional leaders, are “agents of change” in agriculture sectors, private sector, academia, research, etc. it is essential to make agriculture sectors attractive for youth through creating attractive 5. Capacity-Development including livelihoods in rural areas and reducing the Training, Especially Targeting Youth and drudgery of work. Participants recommended: Women that constitute 60 percent of the • Giving women and youth the opportunity population, enabling them to work with their to become leaders and to express communities with technical and financial their voices in policy fora; tools. Participants recommended: • Investing in rural development and • Harnessing fresh graduates who would like to diverse markets, and work-saving give back to their communities by giving them technologies such as ICT, mechanized start-up kits and training for biodiversity social agriculture and other innovations. entrepreneurships in agriculture sectors; • Supporting producers, especially youth and 8. Involving of the Private Sector in Biodiversity women, with new models of vocational training Financing. Participants recommended: (away from traditional classroom models); • Considering and developing innovative funding • Developing education programmes on models for biodiversity-friendly investment, biodiversity values, conservation and such as blended financing, public-private sustainable use, across different learning partnerships and private sector initiatives. curriculum, formal and informal education. 9. Reviewing and revising value chains 6. Strengthened Integrated Ecosystem to allow for the development of markets Approaches for Uptake by Governments. for biodiversity-friendly products. Participants recommended: 10. As a follow-up to these above Scaling up existing successful projects and • recommendations, FAO will prepare regional experiences into larger programmes, such as priority actions for the development of the national initiatives on sustainable fisheries and Action Plan for the implementation of the FAO aquaculture, sustainable forest management, Strategy on Mainstreaming Biodiversity. landscape restoration, conservation agriculture,

104 NATURE & FAUNE VOLUME 33 ISSUE 1 For further read on Biodiversity

The State of the World’s The Sustainable Forest Biodiversity for Food Management Framework and Agriculture (2019) for Africa 2020–2030 (2020) The State of the World’s Biodiversity AU Sustainable Forest Management for Food and Agriculture presents Framework (2020–2030) was the first global assessment of collaboratively developed with biodiversity for food and agriculture worldwide. the active participation of AU Member States and The report complements other global assessments the Regional Economic Communities under the prepared under the auspices of the Commission on coordination of the African Union Commission. This Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture, which framework serves as a guideline for AU Member have focused on the state of genetic resources States and other African stakeholders in the forestry within particular sectors of food and agriculture. sector to assist them in their efforts to eliminate Link: http://www.fao.org/3/CA3129EN/ca3129en.pdf deforestation and forest degradation by 2063.

Africa Regional Synthesis The IPBES Global Assessment for The State of the World’s Report on Biodiversity and Biodiversity for Food Ecosystem services (2019) and Agriculture (2019) The IPBES Global Assessment Report on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services This report summarizes the is the first intergovernmental report state of biodiversity for food and builds on the landmark Millennium Ecosystem and agriculture in Africa based on the information Assessment of 2005, introducing innovative ways of provided in country reports submitted to FAO as evaluating evidence. The Report assesses changes part of the reporting process for The State of the over the past five decades, providing a comprehensive World’s Biodiversity for Food and Agriculture. picture of the relationship between economic Link: http://www.fao.org/3/ca4643en/ca4643en.pdf development pathways and their impacts on nature. Link:  Restoration in Action Against https://ipbes.net/sites/default/files/inline/ Desertification (2020) files/ipbes_global_assessment_report_ summary_for_policymakers.pdf This publication supports processes related to rural communities’ resilience in implementing land restoration of the Great Green Wall programme on the ground. It serves a dual purpose of consolidating biophysical operations and socio-economic assessments, and is mainly built on five-year interventions and practical experiences gathered through Action Against Desertification. Link: http://www.fao.org/3/ca6932en/CA6932EN.pdf

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FAO Regional Office for Africa [email protected] http://www.fao.org/Africa Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations Accra, Ghana CA8253EN/1/12.20

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