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FRAMING TERRORISM AS RELIGIOUS VIOLENCE Implications for Counterterrorism and Conflict Transformation

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FRAMING TERRORISM AS RELIGIOUS VIOLENCE Implications for Counterterrorism and Conflict Transformation Master Thesis FRAMING TERRORISM AS RELIGIOUS VIOLENCE Implications for Counterterrorism and Conflict Transformation Student Franzisca Beeken S2347946 First Supervisor Dr. Joram Tarusarira Second Supervisor Méadhbh McIvor, PhD Word Count 21.088 Date of Submission 29.06.2018 Word Count 20 700 ABSTRACT A variety of previous studies have attempted to answer the question of the causes of terrorism, and more recently, violent extremism and radicalization. Despite the fact that Islam is rarely referred to as the direct cause, it appears that there is an embedded assumption in public discourse that at least some extreme form is one of the main driving forces. Consequently, counterterrorism and CVE/PVE policies have been, and still are, largely focused on Muslims. This tendency is being increasingly criticized, particularly in the light of its impact on human rights and civil liberties, as well as the growth of Islamophobia. Applying insights from framing theory, this analysis shows how the frame depicting terrorism largely as religious violence has emerged over time, how it impacts CVE/PVE policies and conflict transformation and gives suggestions on how to transform it. Through the application of discourse analysis, this research revealed that it is not a problem of availability of information, but rather of the selective and reductionist use of that information in public discourse. The media, significantly influenced by the sensationalist tendencies of its audience, play a significant role in this regard. 1 Most of the time, we take the meaning of our concepts for granted. Of course, we know that our conceptual language is an invention and that the meaning of key terms is not carved in stone. We are aware that a particular concept may be interpreted differently. [...] Usually, [however,] concepts tend to be reduced to static ‘variables’, which are broken down into ‘indicators’, without taken into account the rich history and multiple meanings of the concept underpinning the variable. The reasons for this range from our modern belief that we can actually arrive at the true meaning of a concept, which is singular and simple (Berenskoetter, 2016: 1). 2 TABLE OF CONTENTS TERMS AND ABBREVIATIONS...................................................................................................................... 5 INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................................................... 6 1. LITERATURE REVIEW ......................................................................................................................... 9 2. THE RESEARCH PARADIGM ................................................................................................................... 21 2.1 THE THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK ......................................................................................................................... 21 2.1.1 Behaviourism ...................................................................................................................................... 21 2.1.2 Generative Scapegoating ................................................................................................................... 22 2.1.3 Theory of Moral Disengagement ........................................................................................................ 23 2.1.4 Framing Theory ................................................................................................................................... 24 2.1.5 Knowledge, Power and Orientalism ................................................................................................... 26 2.1.6 The combined theoretical approach ................................................................................................... 27 2.2 METHODOLOGY .............................................................................................................................................. 28 2.2.1 The Paradigm Behind: Orthodox/ Traditional Terrorism Studies vs. CTS ........................................... 30 2.2.2 Research Methods .............................................................................................................................. 30 3. THE INVENTION OF “TERRORISM” AND THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE “RELIGIOUS TERRORISM” FRAME 35 3.1 FROM THE 1970S ONWARDS: THE INVENTION OF THE TERRORISM FRAME ................................................................. 38 The 1972 Munich Olympics Massacre and the development of terrorism conferences ............................. 38 The “terrorism mafia” .................................................................................................................................. 42 The Shift from Counterinsurgency to Counterterrorism .............................................................................. 42 Beginning Concerns about “Islamic Terrorism” and the Iranian Revolution ............................................... 44 The Soviet Invasion of Afghanistan and the Unleashing of Transnational Violence ................................... 46 3.2. THE 1980S SOVIET TERROR NETWORK AFFAIR AND THE FIRST WAR ON TERROR ....................................................... 48 3.3. THE 1990S AND THE “NEW TERRORISM”: “THE MUSLIMS ARE COMING!” ............................................................... 50 4. REIFICATION: RELIGIOUS TERRORISM AS COMMON SENSE ............................................................... 54 4.1 9/11 AND THE GLOBAL WAR ON TERROR ............................................................................................................ 54 4.2. POST 9/11 TERRORISM IN THE 21ST CENTURY: A BRIEF OVERVIEW ......................................................................... 56 Continuing De-politicization and Discourse on Religious Violence .............................................................. 57 Voicelessness ............................................................................................................................................... 58 5. IMPLICATIONS FOR COUNTER-TERRORISM AND APPROACHES TO VIOLENT EXTREMISM.................... 62 5.1 GOING DUTCH & BRITISH EXTREMES: THE ORIGINS AND CVE AND PVE APPROACHES TO VE ........................................ 62 “Going Dutch” .............................................................................................................................................. 63 “British extremes” ........................................................................................................................................ 64 3 The European Union (EU) ............................................................................................................................ 64 The United Nations (UN).............................................................................................................................. 66 5.2 THE MAIN CRITIQUE ON CVE/PVE ................................................................................................................... 67 6. A LOOK INTO THE FUTURE: TRANSFORMATION ................................................................................ 74 CONCEPTS AND LANGUAGE ..................................................................................................................................... 75 GIVING A VOICE AND LISTENING TO ‘THE OTHER’ .......................................................................................................... 78 CVE/PVE/TVE: “FROM DENIAL TO AN INTEGRATIVE APPROACH” .................................................................................. 79 CONCLUSION ........................................................................................................................................... 82 WORKS CITED .......................................................................................................................................... 85 ANNEX 1: COMMUNICATION LOG ............................................................................................................. 97 ANNEX 2: INTERVIEW OTSO IHO ............................................................................................................... 98 INTERVIEW TRANSCRIPT OTSO IHO ......................................................................................................................... 101 ANNEX 3: INTERVIEW GERAN KAAI ......................................................................................................... 116 INTERVIEW GUIDE GERAN KAAI.............................................................................................................................. 116 INTERVIEW NOTES GERAN KAAI ............................................................................................................................. 118 ANNEX 4: INTERVIEW MURRAY ACKMAN ................................................................................................ 125 INTERVIEW GUIDE ................................................................................................................................................ 125 INTERVIEW TRANSCRIPT ........................................................................................................................................ 125 ANNEX 5: CONFERENCE CALL RUKMNI CALLIMACHI AND ANDY MILLS...................................................... 145 ANNEX 6: ANSWERS BY NASHARUDIN MAT ISA ....................................................................................... 148 4 TERMS
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