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1990 The rT ansculturation of Native American College Students Terry Huffman George Fox University, [email protected]

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This Article is brought to you for free and open access by the School of Education at Digital Commons @ George Fox University. It has been accepted for inclusion in Faculty Publications - School of Education by an authorized administrator of Digital Commons @ George Fox University. For more information, please contact [email protected]. The Transculturation of Native American College Students

Terry E. Huffman

ui have advised my people this way - when largely been ignored by researchers, they are worth you find something good in the white man's investigating. This bridging and the progression of road, pick it up. When you find something values, attitudes, behaviors, and feelings associ­ that is bad or turns out bad, drop it, leave it ated with it, is referred to as transculturation. alone. We shall master his machinery, and his Methods - The results of this paper are part of inventions, his skills, his medicine, his plan­ an on-going research project involving Native ning, but we will retain our beauty and still be Americans who are attending or have attended Indians." South Dakota colleges. The subjects consist of Na­ Sitting Bull tive American students attending predominantly non-Indian institutions, students attending reser­ Native Americans have one of the lowest levels vation community colleges but who have attended of higher educational achievement among Ameri­ non-Indian institutions, and former students who can racial and ethnic groups. It has been estimated have dropped-out of non-Indian institutions. that a mere six percent of Native American stu­ The research design utilizes a "double-barreled" dents complete their college education (Astin, approach utilizing both quantitative and qualita­ 1986). tive methodologies. The quantitative approach in­ A variety of factors have been identified to ac­ volves a questionnaire designed, among other count for this dismal record of educational things, to obtain information on cultural, social, achievement. The lack of success has been attrib­ academic, and financial problems encountered by uted to low achievement motivation, poor aca­ Native Americans. The qualitative approach in­ demic preparation, inadequate financial support, volves in-depth interviews in order to gain greater and lack of parental and community support (Guy­ insights on the Native American's subjective ette and Heth, 1983; Falk and Aitken, 1984; Lin, thoughts and views regarding their college experi­ 1985; Mcintosh, 1987; Scott, 1986; and West, ence. 1988). There is little doubt that these factors, indi­ At the time of this writing, thirty subjects have vidually and cumulatively, pose barriers for Native participated in the project. Americans. However, perhaps none of these fac­ The Phenomenon of Native American 1fanscu/­ tors are more problematic for those students and turation - Not all Native American students face mysterious to researchers than the potential for cultural conflicts in college. Many are not appre­ cultural conflict that often seems to be inherent in ciatively different from their fellow non-Indian the college setting. classmates. That is, there are those students who College is an institution of values, norms, and have spent little or none of their lives on reserva­ attitudes. Moreover, it embodies a cultural milieu tions and have relatively little contact with tradi­ which reflects middle-class America. Many Native tional Indian culture. As they generally identify Americans find this cultural milieu foreign, even with and are assimilated into the American cultural alien. These are individuals oriented toward cul­ mainstream, these individuals feel no great sense of tural expectations different than those found insti­ cultural conflict (Huffman and Rosonke, 1989). tutionalized in the college setting. On the other hand, there are those students who For those who face cultural conflicts the options have a strong identification with traditional Indian are-seemingly few: withdraw from the institution in culture. 'JYpically they have lived a great deal, if not an attempt to preserve one's "Indianness," or adopt all, of their lives on reservations. These students non-Indian ways and pursue assimilation. How­ find assimilation repulsive and thus reject the no­ ever, there is another alternative. There are stu­ tion. For these individuals the potential for cul­ dents who have been successful at retaining their tural conflict looms large (Huffman and Rosonke, cultural heritage while negotiating the complexities 1989). of the non-Indian institution. These rather unique A large proportion of the students who encoun­ individuals bridge the cultures and while they have ter cultural conflict simply leave college (Chadwick, 1972; Falk and Aitken, 1984). Scott why biculturalism has endured with relatively little (1986:381), who describes the attachment to tradi­ refinement: tional Indian culture as the "difficult situation," re­ . .. even though interrelated and interdepen­ ported: dent, biculturalism and bilingualism are not The data confirm that being a "cultural In­ identical terms. Bilingualism, in its most or­ dian" reduces the likelihood to academic suc­ dinary employment, means fluency in at least cess . .. those committed to Indian ways are two languages, including oral communica­ less likely to become integrated into the uni­ tion, the encoding and decoding of written versity community, and consequently less symbols, and the correct inflection and pitch, likely to succeed. commonly called the superimposed structure Certainly many "cultural Indians" desire to leave of a language ... Biculturalism, on the other once they encounter the cultural dilemmas of col­ hand, refers to the cultural elements that may lege life (Huffman and Rosonke, 1989). The stu­ include language but go beyond language, in­ dents who succumb to this temptation stand out in sofar as it is a functional awareness and par­ the literature as examples of Native Americans who ticipation in two contrasting sociocultures have failed to make the necessary adjustments to (statuses, roles, values, etc.). Thus for the the gesellschaft world of academia. purpose of clarifying the conceptual diffi­ What then separates those who persist from culty here, if it is only the fluency that is as­ those who become another Native American attri­ sessed as bilingual, it is obvious that tion statistic? It can not be merely assumed that bilingualism is not biculturalism ... There is academically successful traditional Native Ameri­ a sense in which it would be hard to find a cans have experienced a radical form of assimila­ better example of the danger of naively defin­ tion. There is a growing body of evidence to refute ing a term in educational discourse in order the assimilationist model of Native American edu­ to win acceptance of the program offered cation (Huffman, Sill , and Brokenleg, 1986; (Pratte, 1979: 183-185). Kerbo, 1981; McFee, 1972). Rather, it is the very Also the idea of biculturalism typically implies a retention of traditional culture that has enhanced kind of acculturated end product. The idea gener­ the performance of many cultural Indians. That is, ally is that biculturalism follows a linear pattern these more culturally traditional Native American with the individual, like a mathematical equation, students undergo a process of transculturation that adding elements from the host culture while relin­ is fundamental to their academic success. quishing elements from the native culture (McFee, The Concept of 11'anscu/turatlon - Transcultu­ 1972). Ultimately the result is a sort of "hybrid" ration is the process by which an individual of one with the necessary repertoire of cultural skills (i.e., culture can enter and interact in the milieu of an­ language) to relate to two cultures. In this sense, other culture without loss of the person's native biculturalism has simply been a variation on the cultural identity and ways. Hallowell (1972:206) idea of acculturation. has defined transculturation as: Furthermore, how an individual receives a . a phenomenon that involves the fate of per­ blended cultural repertoire is largely ignored. The sons rather than changes in socio-cultural point of emphasis is that the bicultural individual systems ... It is the process whereby individ­ is a product rather than a process. Only a few at­ uals under a variety of circumstances are tempts have been made to formulate a bicultural temporarily or permanently detached from process. For instance, Szapocznik and his col­ one group, enter the web of social relations leagues have formulated a three-dimensional bicul­ that constitute another society, and come un­ tural process consisting of: (1) the acculturation of der the influence of its customs, ideas, and cultural elements from the host culture, (2) the re­ values to a greater or lesser degree. tention and relinquishing of native cultural ele­ Transculturation has some important distinc­ ments, (3) the syncretization of the two cultures tions from the more commonly used concept of bi­ resulting in a bicultural individual (Szapocznik and culturalism. Quite often biculturalism is treated as Kurtines, 1979; Szapocznik, et. al., 1980; Sza­ rather one-dimensional. That is, biculturalism typ­ pocznik, et. at., 1984; Szapocznik and Hernandez, ically is associated with bilingualism (Medicine, 1988). However, even in this attempt the implica­ 1986; Pizzillo, 1976; Vasquez, 1979). tion is nevertheless on an end product. The synonymous use of biculturalism and bilin­ Transculturation, on the other hand, implies a gualism has come under attack as naive (Fishman, continual on-going process of cultural encounters 1980; Matute-Bianchi, 1980). Yet, the detractors and resultant realignments (Sill, 1967). The indi­ will admit the usefulness of equating the two terms vidual in a cross-cultural situation never achieves in finding support for a particular "cross-cultural" the "end product" of biculturalism. This is more program (Bartell, 1979). A fact that could explain analogous to a person on an international journey experiencing many differing cultural encounters, is learning how to learn a new and old culture. some of which he/she can relate to, many others in The difference in the use of the transculturation which he/she cannot. At first, the traveler is disori­ and biculturalism is more than a mere matter of ented and finds little with which to relate. This is semantics. It is a matter of theoretical and practical the time of first awareness. Each cultural element implication. The use of transculturation reduces needs to be tested and evaluated. In time the trav­ the subtlety of assimilation that resides somewhat eler learns to relate to the new culture on its own below the surface of biculturalism and attempts to terms. This does not mean, however, that the indi­ give recognition to the resilience, integrity, and un­ vidual has surrendered the native cultural heritage. dergirding strength of minority cultures in a plural­ On the contrary, the individual has simply put it istic society (Ortiz, 1947). aside long enough to make way in the new cultural The Process of 'Iransculturatlon - The chal­ setting. lenge for traditional Native American students is When the individual returns to the native cul­ to interact on two cultural levels simultaneously tural milieu, former ways have not been lost. Expe­ (Davis and Pyatskowit, 1976). That is, successful rience and skills are certainly broadened but not at performance in college requires dual operation at a the expense of native ways and skills (as implied in Native American cultural level and a college main­ biculturalism) (Ortiz, 1947; Polgar, 1960). An in­ stream level. ternational sojourner typically returns with a wid­ Transculturated students have the unique ability ened cultural perspective and worldview. The to interact within and between cultures as de­ individual, nevertheless, is still the cultural product manded by the situation (Qoyawayma, 1964). of his/her society. However, the process leading through this cultural­ When the cross-cultural experience involves social-psychological maze is not easy. Through in­ members of subcultures within a larger society, the terviews with students, four stages of the Native same process applies. Here too journeys into the American transculturational process have been mainstream result in an enriched and broadened identified: initial· alienation, self-discovery, re­ worldview. The important point is that the cultural alignment, and participation (Figure 1).

Figure 1. Stages of Native American transculturation

STAGE 1 STAGE 2 STfiGE 3 STAGE 4

lt1 1. INITIAL lA I ALIENATION Ill SELF-!llSCOVERY I REALIGNMENT Itt I Y1 I V1 I PARTICIPATION lA feelings of a rediscovery of I Ill I learn to relate use of Native not belonging; native cultural to both cultural American heritage as little with lA heritage I worlds source of strength which to relate lll ! '111 t

TRANSCULTURATION THRESHOLD

heritage still remains intact: however, new options Stage 1: Initial Alienation exist. Because traditional Native American students TI'ansculturation is a process of exploring ever­ first experience the mainstream college as cultural more deeply into a cultural context, testing out an­ "outsiders," their initial feeling is one of aliena­ other culture, realigning with what is learned, and tion. At first there are very few things about college leading to more discovery. Therefore, it is also a life with which they can relate. The institution itself journey into one's own culture. Each new discovery (i.e., administration policies and procedures, even about a new culture leads to a revelation about the to an extent classroom etiquette, etc.) seem rigid, complexities of one's own cultural world. Thus, an· overly formalized, and altogether strange. individual never arrives as a "product," but rather A young man who had spent his entire life on the Cheyenne River (South Dakota) reservation, who that because the cultures are so opposed that was active in Native American religion, and re­ it would be a hard transaction; that they ported a great deal of cultural difficulties while in won't see the benefits of it right away and college (he was, in fact, nearing the end of his first might become disenchanted." semester when the interview took place) is typical Because of their disenfranchisement from col­ of the impression and reaction of many culturally lege life, it is at this early stage of college life that traditional Native American students: traditional Native Americans have the greatest po­ " ... I felt like I'm where I didn't belong ... I tential for unsuccessful academic careers. Many set a lot of goals, I wanted to come to school. students leave college because of the alienation But when I got here I found that it was really they feel. Unfortunately, it is these students who hard. I had a lot of problems with wanting to often stand out in the literature and serve as stereo­ leave ... My first impression was to get back typical models of Native Americans who could not into my car and just go home." release the "old Indian ways" and make the neces­ Another young man from the Pine Ridge (South sary adjustments to the mainstream. Dakota) reservation succinctly summarized his col­ Yet, despite these difficulties, many muddle lege experience in a similar manner by simply stat­ through. Every day of the first few months (in ing: "I feel like l don't belong." some cases even years) is a test to their commitment Many students are overwhelmed by the lack of and endurance. A Standing Rock (North Dakota) familiar cultural connections. Little contact is student, who was nearing the end of his academic made with non-Indian students and the institution career, reflected: itself begins to be regarded with suspicion (due to a "I felt like this was the last place on earth I growing perception that it is simply another agent wanted to be because there was nothing that I of assimilation). Often traditional Native Ameri­ could relate to. It was all just really different can students even feel alienated from their fellow . , . I had a bunch of walls around me. It was Native American classmates, particularly those hard for me to be here. I look at it as being who are more assimilated, viewing them with some afraid, being out of place, feeling like I was contempt as "urban Indians." The same Cheyenne different and a lot of people treated me dif­ River student stated: ferent . . . l just had to take it one step at a "I just try to keep to myself ... It's like they time." · (other Native American students) more or less have accepted the values of non-Indians Stage 2: Self-Discovery over Indians ones." If traditional Native American students can en­ At this stage, traditional Native Americans are dure the pangs of the initial alienation, they reach a extremely vulnerable. An experience in which the transculturation threshold. At this point they begin perceived threat of assimilation looms large com­ to realize that they have not been snared in a web of pounded by feelings of isolation from other Native assimilation, that they can compete academically, Americai1s leaves many students disillusioned and and that they can interact with Indians and non­ thus they reject the college experience. In this Indians alike, all without a loss to their cultural sense, Scott's idea of the "difficult situation" is to a self. In short, they come to realize that they have point correct. That is, Native American cultural not lost their "lndianness" and yet they have sur­ traditionalism and the rigors of academic life do vived academically. not at first make a blissful marriage. Thus, they begin an introspection and make a A student \Vho had lived all his life on the Thrtle most curious discovery. They have succeeded be­ Mountain (North Dakota) reservation contem­ cause they are Indian and have not attempted to be plated on the difficulties that he and many other anything else. It is striking to this writer just how students experience: profound this stage is in the experience of the "I really think they (Indian students) become transculturated Native Americans interviewed. Vir­ disenchanted really quick. I think they per­ tually all the transculturated students could relate a ceive it (college) as this huge, monstrous in­ specific time in their academic career when they stitution rather than a person walking daily. had to take stock of their cultural selves. Because it's foreign, I know for a fact, that At that transculturation threshold a conscious they do suffer some sort of 'culture shock' be­ and deliberate decision is made to attempt to relate cause the surroundings are new and the way to both cultural worlds when necessary while using of life is new. The objectives of your time, traditional Native American values and heritage as how you spend your time, what you do, is all a personal anchor. The Thrtle Mountain reserva­ new. The emphasis is placed on self and try­ tion student referred to above recalled reaching his ing to fend for yourself and I think that there threshold: are a lot of handicaps like that ... I think "I really had to do some searching and really some finding out; am I going to accept the have largely overcome the alienation of their early way I am or am I going to try to conform or college experience and discovered that it is possible am I just going to leave it alone? Finally I had to be an ulndian" in the heart of the non-Indian to accept what I was and that there are some world. They learn that they can interact with both things that are more to being an Indian than Indians and non-Indians alike. Also, typically their just the 'Indian.' There was [sic] feelings and goals and desires are crystallized. family and culture, there was [sic] ways of Much like other students, at this stage Native doing things. When I learned to separate the American students begin to concentrate on their two and learn that this is the way you do it at studies. Interestingly they also make maximum use .work, this is the way you do it at home, and of their Native American heritage as a source of you conduct your family affairs this way, strength, confidence, and identity. The Pine Ridge then that's good. I think the turning point student cited above observed: came when I decided to separate the two ... "I think that the time we spend away from Then I resolved my 'Indianness' and the way our people, we appreciate our ways and our the system works." people even more. People that have left the A Standing Rock reservation student who was reservation to go away to school. I have never president of his college's honor program and the seen them participate in things like pow-wows president of the campus Native American student or sweats or sun dances. I've never seen them organization put it this way: do that. Yet they go away for four or five "The first thing I found out when I came to years and then they come back and they are college is how much Indian I was ... I'd say really strong into spirituality;· they're really my strongest identification with my own 'In­ different. And I was thinking that they appre­ dianness' has been since I've been here ... ciate things more when they are away like It's a real source of strength because I guess it that. They must think about it or something sort of gives me a reason for being here." happens while they are away/' Support from others is important to sustain the Stage 3: Realignment participation of this stage. Native American stu­ With the strength and confidence that they find dents look to others for the moral support neces­ in their cultural identity, Native American students sary to continue the educational process that still begin a realignment process. At this stage, students proves to be difficult. The same Pine Ridge student make the necessary practical adjustments in their stated: personal, social, and academic worlds. That is, "I had a lot of elderly people talk to me and they begin to learn how to relate at both cultural tell me that I wasn't here for them (prejudiced levels as demanded by the situation. The Standing whites}, that I was here to learn and that Rock student cited above referred to this stage as someday I was going home to help them out "learning to play the game." and not to pay attention to them. 4Put those Students reassess themselves and their situation. feelings aside. Remember what you're doing They evaluate their repertoire of values, attitudes, but also why you are doing.' So that's where and goals and measure them against those institu­ my support comes from. From the elderly tionalized in the fabric of higher education. They people from home, When I go home, I get can then begin to align themselves with the nature handshakes, I get hugs. I come back all re­ of academia and use the appropriate norms and newed again. I can handle anything that behaviors as needed. In short, they learn to cross comes my way." cultural boundaries when necessary. At this stage, they are well into the process of transculturation. Thansculturated students are the least researched A middle-aged woman from Pine Ridge, by any and understood among Native American college standards a traditional Indian person (whose late students. The reasons for this lack of recognition father was a well known Lakota spiritual leader), are several fold. First is a conceptualization diffi­ described the realignment process this way: culty related to the very ability these students have uwhen we go to school we live a non-Indian to operate at two cultural levels. That is, the ability • way but we still keep our values ... I could to operate in the college mainstream has led some put my values aside just tong enough to learn to assume that these students are simply assimi­ what it is I want to learn but that doesn't lated (Boutwell et al., 1973; Carroll, 1978). Work­ mean I'm going to forget them. I think that is ing from such an assumption there is a failure to how strong they are with me.'' recognize the retention of Native American cul­ tural traditions implied by transculturation (Medi· Stage 4: Participation cine, 1986). At this stage students begin to settle in. They Second is a methodological difficulty. Most studies have been quantitative attempts to measure References the degree of assimilation (Huffman et al., 1986; Astin, A. W. (1982). Minorities in American Roy, 1962; and Scott, 1986). 1Ypically these instru­ Higher Education: Final Report of the Commis­ ments have not been sensitive to transculturational sion 011 the Higher Educmion of Minorities. San phenomenon. Unfortunately few attempts have Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. been qualitative research designs dealing with the Bartlett, G. {1979). Two approaches to accultura­ perceptions of Native Americans on their aca­ tion: Bilingual education and ESL. Journal of demic experience. 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