Identification of the Adolescent Male Voice: Unchanged Vs. Falsetto By

Home , Boy soprano, Falsetto, Timbre, Vocal range, Voice change

Identification of the Adolescent Male Voice:

Unchanged vs. Falsetto

John B. Wayman, B.M.E.

A Thesis

Music Education

Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of Texas Tech University in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of

Master of Music Education

Approved

Dr. Janice Killian Chairperson of the Committee

Dr. Bruce Wood

Professor Angela Mariani

Fred Hartmeister Dean of the Graduate School

May, 2009

Texas Tech University, John B. Wayman, 3/2009

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This milestone would not be possible with the assistance of my extremely knowledgeable and supportive committee, the selfless faculty at Texas Tech, and the love and patience of my friends and family. Many thanks specifically to Dr. Janice Killian.

Your inspiration and guidance has been invaluable and much appreciated. To my

Grandmother, your steadfast love and ability to tag team against all odds will forever be remembered.

I dedicate this document to my loving mother’s memory. She so desperately wanted to see me reach this milestone in person, but will smile on me from heaven.

ii Texas Tech University, John B. Wayman, 3/2009

TABLE OF CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ii

ABSTRACT v

LIST OF TABLES vii

LIST OF FIGURES viii

CHAPTER

I. INTRODUCTION 1

II. REVIEW OF RELATED RESEARCH 2

III. METHODOLOGY AND MATERIALS 9

IV. RESULTS 16

V. DISCUSSION 29

BIBLIOGRAPHY 36

APPENDICES

A. HUMAN SUBJECTS APPROVAL – RECORDING CHILDREN

PARTICIPANTS 40

B. RECORDING CHILDREN PARTICIPANTS CONSENT FORM 42

C. HUMAN SUBJECTS APPROVAL – PRE-SERVICE MUSIC

EDUCATOR TESTING PARTICIPANTS 44

D. PRE-SERVICE MUSIC EDUCATOR TESTING

PARTICIPANTS CONSENT FORM 46

E. RECRUITING SPEECH 48

F. SCIENTIFIC PITCH NOTATION SYSTEM 49

G. PARTICIPANT RESPONSE FORMS 50

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H. RAW DEMOGRAPHIC, STIMULUS REPSPONSE, AND PRE- AND -

POST QUESTION DATA 55

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ABSTRACT

Music educators have been trained to assist male students through the voice

changing process. A major challenge of assisting students through this change is

identifying where they are in vocal maturation process. According to John Cooksey, there

are six stages in this process. Identification of the first stage, the unchanged voice, may

be especially problematic. Is the boy’s voice unchanged, or has it changed and the boy is singing in falsetto? The purpose of this study is to examine the abilities of the pre-service music educator to identify, describe, and distinguish between the male adolescent

unchanged and falsetto voices when listening to a stimulus recording. Secondary

questions involve pre-service educators’ confidence in their decisions and their verbal

descriptors of the unchanged and falsetto voices.

Methodology consisted of developing a stimulus recording (N= 16) containing

adolescent male falsetto (n=8) and unchanged (n= 8) vocal samples selected by a panel of

experts. Pre-service music educators (N= 61) then assessed the stimulus recording,

followed with a Likert ranking of the confidence in their choice and written descriptors of

the adolescent male falsetto and unchanged voice.

Some of the significant findings revealed in this population were: the unchanged

voice was more often correctly identified than the falsetto voices; males had greater

identification accuracy than females; and males that had participated in

elementary/middle school music programs were more accurate in identification than

those in only secondary programs. The results yielded supporting data for stronger pre-

service music educator training including, but not limited to: accurate vocal range

identification, aural skills, selection of appropriate solo and choral curriculum,

v Texas Tech University, John B. Wayman, 3/2009 recognition of vocal and physical cues from students, and the ability to assist the adolescent male through the vocal maturation process physically and emotionally.

vi Texas Tech University, John B. Wayman, 3/2009

LIST OF TABLES

1. Stimulus Recording Order 11

2. Descriptors of falsetto & Unchanged Voice of Top 5 Most Accurate

Males & Females 25

vii Texas Tech University, John B. Wayman, 3/2009

LIST OF FIGURES

1. Cooksey Stage of Male Vocal Development 4

2. Spectrogram Reading of Tenor Singing E4 in Modal Voice followed by Falsetto 6

3. Expert Questionnaire Format 10

4. Participant Survey 12

5. Participants’ Response Format 14

6. Unchanged Voice/ Falsetto Identification: Incorrect / Correct 17

7. Results: Participants X Original Sample vs. Repeated Sample 18

8. Major Concentration: Incorrect vs. Correct Responses 19

9. Major Concentration X Gender Response Accuracy 20

10. Male X Major Concentration: Significant difference between Major Concentration 21

11. Classification Breakdown 22

12. Male Singing Experience 24

13. Post Descriptors of Falsetto & Unchanged Voice of All Participants 26

viii Texas Tech University, John B. Wayman, 3/2009

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

Music educators have been trained to assist male students through the voice changing process. The process has affected many aspects of the students’ lives, including recognition of the physical changes in the body, psychological processing, and social pressures in relation to the voice change. A major challenge of assisting students through this change, especially for choral educators, is to identify the exact point students are in vocal maturation. According to Cooksey (1985), there are six stages in this process.

Identification of the first stage, the unchanged voice, may be especially problematic. Is the boy’s voice unchanged, or has it changed and the boy is singing in falsetto? Previous research indicates that the unchanged voice and the falsetto voice share similar qualities, yet represent very different parts of the maturation process, possibly leading to some unsuccessful educational situations in the choral classroom (Killian & Wayman, 2008;

2009). The first step in an examination of unchanged vs. falsetto voices might be the listeners’ ability to discriminate between the two across the vocal range. The next step,

and possibly a greater challenge, is to discriminate between the two voices when they are

singing the same pitches. Therefore the purpose of this study is to determine if pre- service music educators can distinguish between adolescent male unchanged and falsetto voices. Secondary questions involved pre-service educators’ confidence in their decisions

and their verbal descriptors of the unchanged and falsetto voices.

1 Texas Tech University, John B. Wayman, 3/2009

CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF RELATED RESEARCH

There have been several in depth studies of the male adolescent voice (Cooksey,

1985, 1992) as well as publications regarding techniques for working successfully with the changing voice in the choral classroom (Brinson, 1996; Killian, O’Hern & Rann,

1998). The topic of identifying the modal voice (a voice that has reached maturity) and the falsetto voice has been studied, revealing high levels of accuracy in distinguishing the two (Colton, 1970; Price, Yarbrough, Jones & Moore, 1994). However, a study of identifying the difference between the unchanged voice and falsetto voice has not been discovered. The spectrum of information relevant to the proposed study included:

1) Attempting to define the terms “unchanged voice” and “falsetto”;

2) The physical elements of the unchanged voice and falsetto; and

3) The perception of timbre in relationship to falsetto and unchanged voice.

Definitions of Unchanged Voice and Falsetto

The unchanged voice is just that, unchanged from childhood. A boy’s voice is not considered changed until it reaches a stage of physical development sufficient to reveal an audible change. Swanson (1977) asked several directors of children’s choirs to give descriptors of the unchanged voice. Some of the characteristics conveyed included: clear resonant tones, unforced, full and rich, and controlled. Other musical characteristics described by McRae (1991) included: wide ranges (sometimes over two octaves), clarity, soloistic ability, and even the notion that the male voice is most brilliant right before the change.

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Defining falsetto is much more difficult because of vastly different pedagogical points of view (Jackson, 2005). The term falsetto has conflicting definitions; even from vocal pedagogues: Tosi in 1723, García in 1840, and Miller in 1996 challenged the definitions of falsetto and head voice as two different entities or a combination thereof

(Jackson, 2005). Is the falsetto a “real” voice or a manipulation of other registers? Then there is the gender debate. Do females have a falsetto voice like males? Is this a voice that should be used at all (Ekstrom, 1959)? The translation of the term from Italian means

“small false one.” The Webster dictionary (Slonimsky, 1998) defines falsetto as “voice production using head tones rather than chest tones.” This definition seemed to define falsetto in relation to other registers or tones. Some have defined falsetto by means of quality of sound: breathy, hooty, unstable, light, pure, female like, almost like a big flute

(Brinson, 1996; Ekstrom, 1959; Stanley, 1958; Winsel, 1966). As part of this current study, participants were asked to give characteristics of both the falsetto voice and the unchanged voice.

Physical Characteristics of Unchanged and Falsetto Voices

The process of vocal maturation, according to Cooksey (1985), is divided into six stages, including Unchanged, Midvoice I, Midvoice II, Midvoice IIA, New Baritone, and

Settling Baritone. The criteria Cooksey used to determine the stage or classification were range, tessitura, quality and register development. The ranges that represent each stage appear in Figure 1 (Brinson, 1996).

3 Texas Tech University, John B. Wayman, 3/2009

Vocal Ranges (whole notes) and Tessitura (quarter notes)

Figure 1

Cooksey Stages of Male Vocal Development

Throughout these developmental stages there are changes that occur both externally in the outer appearance of the body, and internally to the vocal fold mechanism. The initial changes in the body are caused by hormonal influxes into the system. These do not necessarily occur at a predictable age (Cooksey, 1985; Killian

1999; Killian & Moore, 1997). When the voice starts to change, the upper vocal range descends and a slight difference in timbre occurs, often noted as breathy. Range changes occur with the lengthening and thickening of the vocal folds (Cooksey, 1985; Rutkowski,

1984). The appearance of these changes in the vocal folds mark the point that the unchanged voice has started the maturation process, and is no longer considered unchanged. Each stage continues in similar fashion until the process begins to stabilize.

The body develops, gradually or not so gradually, revealing the changes of puberty. The upper pitches become less and less accessible, less stable. The singers pass through the

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Midvoice I, Midvoice II, and Midvoice IIA stages. The boy’s voice then reaches a point

of stabilization in the New Baritone and Settling Baritone stages.

According to a Cooksey, Beckett, and Wiseman three-year longitudinal study

described by Cooksey in 1985, the falsetto voice does not exist until the Midvoice II

stage. The most common starting range for falsetto was noted as E4 to B4, but even this

could not be determined until the voice somewhat stabilizes in Midvoice stage II

(Cooksey, 1992). The scientific pitch notation system (Young, 1939) will be utilized throughout the document. Details appear in Appendix F. The original naming of the falsetto register was thought to come from the “false” folds that exist over the vocal mechanism. However, these folds have no vocal function (Proschowsky, 1923). Unlike in the production of other registers, during the process of falsetto singing the larynx does not move. The “false” sense of movement comes from the surrounding vibrations of the vocal cavity (Stringy, 2007). Alderson (1979) stated, only the leading edge of the vocal chords vibrate under low glottal pressure. This low- pressure vibration affects the overtone series of this type of vocal production. The figure below reveals the difference in the overtone production through a comparative spectrogram reading of the modal voice

(mature voice) and the falsetto voice when singing the same pitch. The arrow in the top left box signifies the depth and presence of overtones in the modal voice. The arrow in the bottom left box signifies the opposite; falsetto not containing the same amount of overtones, but to the contrary, very few. The arrow in the top right box reveals the amount of resonance present in the pitch sung in modal voice (CQ = 60) for the modal voice and the box below a much less resonant falsetto tone (CQ = 29) (McCoy, 2004).

5 Texas Tech University, John B. Wayman, 3/2009

See Figure 2. This representation allows the listener to gain a visual perspective of sound between the modal and falsetto voice, which supports the differences they hear aurally.

Figure 2

Spectrogram Reading of Tenor Singing E4 in Modal Voice followed by Falsetto

That brings us to the challenge of distinguishing the difference between the falsetto voice and the unchanged voice. When the pitches are the same, and in a controlled limited range, might timbre be the only indicator of the difference between the two voices?

Perception of Vocal Timbre

Timbre, or tone quality, allows individuals to distinguish tone with otherwise identical pitch, duration, and loudness qualities (Radocy & Boyle, 2003). Timbre has many dimensions, and could be assessed in as many ways as there are people and their personal experiences. Traube (2006) describing theories of timbre, noted that Roederer divided the perception of timbre into two sections: (1) new sounds placed in the memory 6 Texas Tech University, John B. Wayman, 3/2009

with an adequate label of identification, and (2) comparison of past sound already in the

memory bank. Cooksey (1985) believed that a listener recognizes an adult voice, but hears falsetto as childlike qualities. Thus falsetto may have been exemplified as a multifaceted or multidimensional timbre. Colton’s article on the perceptual differentiation of the modal and falsetto voice (1970) demonstrated that voices could indeed be

classified according to timbre when listening to vocal samples. Vocal samples of speech

in comparison to the singing voice have also been examined. The results yielded

similarities only in the function of the vocal apparatus itself with no common thread of

timbre (Rinta & Welch, 2008). Other studies have been based on the identification of

gender through perception of timbre (Howard, Welch & Graham, 2002; Killian & Moore,

2000/2001; Sergeant, Sjölander &Welch, 2005). It was found that the determination of

gender was difficult when assessing pre-pubescent children; however, as males increased in age, listeners were more able to correctly identify the gender of the voice (Howard,

Welch & Graham, 2002; Killian & Moore, 2000/2001). Perception of timbre and its affect on pitch has also been studied through different registers of the male voice (Price,

Yarbrough, Jones & Moore, 1994). Timbre, or the perception of timbre, has allowed many listeners to accurately assess aural information.

The previous studies have given beneficial information about the developmental stages of the voice and the characteristics of each those stages. However, I found limited information that specifically cross-referenced the comparison of the falsetto voice with the unchanged voice.

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Purpose

The purpose of this study is to examine the abilities of the pre-service music

educator to identify, describe, and distinguish between the male adolescent unchanged

and falsetto voices when listening to a stimulus recording. Secondary questions involve

pre-service educators’ confidence in their decisions and their verbal descriptors of the

unchanged and falsetto voices.

The results of this study may yield supporting data for stronger pre-service music educator training including but not limited to: accurate vocal range identification, aural skills, selection of appropriate solo and choral curriculum, recognition of vocal and

physical cues from students, and the ability to assist the adolescent male through vocal maturation process physically and emotionally.

8 Texas Tech University, John B. Wayman, 3/2009

CHAPTER III

METHODOLOGY AND MATERIALS

The methodology is divided into two main sections. The first section discusses the process of making a stimulus recording. The second section discusses the assessment process by the participants, pre-service music educators.

Stimulus Recording

The stimulus recording was crucial to this study. The singers, consisting of sixth, seventh, and eighth grade boys (n = 31) were individually recorded, demonstrating a vocalise of 1-5-4-3-2-1 through the entirety of their range (Cooksey, 1985; Killian &

Wayman, 2007; 2008). An expert male singer modeled the vocalise utilizing the falsetto voice, which research has shown to be effective for pitch matching accuracy (Green,

1990; Price, Yarbrough, Jones & Moore, 1994). For consistency and in an attempt to diminish any distortion of vocal quality, the recording mechanism (Edirol R-09 digital recorder) was placed approximately thirty centimeters from the student (Castellengo,

Lamesche, Sylvan & Heinrich, 2007; Titze & Winholtz, 1993). After the recordings were collected, a panel of experts (N=4 with an average of 12 years teaching experience) in choral music education evaluated the singing samples using the following procedure.

The experts listened to the entirety of the recordings, identifying the use of falsetto or the unchanged voice and rated the obviousness of the sample on a Likert scale from 1 (not obvious) to 10 (very obvious). See Figure 3. Note that the panel was able to determine changed and unchanged voices based on the expanse of their range, i.e. changed voices could sing much lower than unchanged. As expected, changed voices demonstrated lower pitches and some, not all, had the ability to move into falsetto

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(Cooksey, 1985). The purpose of expert evaluation was to identify the most obvious of the unchanged and falsetto examples for subsequent use.

¾ Student ID#______

Falsetto Unchanged

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Not Very obvious obvious

______

Figure 3

Expert Questionnaire Format

The four experts’ ratings for each sample were averaged to obtain the four most obvious

samples of falsetto and the four most obvious examples of unchanged voice.

The vocal samples were then edited to include only the three vocalise excerpts beginning

on E4, F4, and F#4 for each selected sample (Cooksey, 1985; Price, 1994). A master

stimulus recording was compiled of these eight edited vocal samples (four falsetto and

four unchanged voices). A split-half format (Research Methods Knowledge Base, 2008)

was utilized to address possible learning and order effects yielding sixteen total listening

samples. Following the split-half procedures, the eight original samples were placed in a

random order followed by the repetition of those samples in reverse order. See Table 1.

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Table 1

Stimulus Recording Order

1. Unchanged (1) 9. Unchanged (8R) 2. Falsetto (1) 10. Falsetto (7R) 3. Unchanged (2) 11. Falsetto (6R) 4. Unchanged (3) 12. Falsetto (5R) 5. Falsetto (2) 13. Unchanged (4R) 6. Falsetto (3) 14. Unchanged (3R) 7. Falsetto (4) 15. Falsetto (2R) 8. Unchanged (4) 16. Unchanged (1R) Legend: # - Original Sample #R – Original Sample Repeated

______

Each sample was approximately ten seconds in duration followed by ten seconds of silent

response time. The total time of the stimulus recording was approximately five minutes.

Participant Assessment

The second major portion of this methodology involved the assessment process of the participants (pre-service music educators). The pre-service music educators were undergraduate and graduate students from two southwestern universities (N=61). This portion consisted of four sections: 1. Participant Survey 2. Pre-assessment Questions 3. Assessment of Stimulus Recording 4. Post-assessment Questions.

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Participant Survey The participant survey was designed to collect demographic information that may allow for possible comparisons, correlations, and/or contrasting relationships among the participants. The specific information gathered included: major, gender, primary instrument, singing experience, and student classification. See Figure 4.

Date: ______Code #:

Major:

Gender: Male / Female

Primary Instrument (or Voice):

Singing Experience: (Check which apply and put possible number of years participated.)

Elementary School Choir _____ Church Choir _____

Middle School/ Jr. High Choir _____ Community Choir ____

High School Choir _____ Solo/Ensemble Contest ____

University Choir _____ Solo or Ensembles for special occasions _____ (Ex – Weddings, funerals, etc.) Other______Voice Lessons______

Classification: Freshmen Sophomore Junior Senior Graduate

Figure 4 Participant Survey

Pre-Assessment Questions The following pre-assessment questions were vital for establishing the focus on elements of the falsetto and unchanged voice, and the gathering of the characteristics of

12 Texas Tech University, John B. Wayman, 3/2009

each by the participants. Participants were asked two questions that focused on the topics of falsetto and the unchanged voice. 1. What characteristics of sound do you listen for when determining if you are hearing the use of falsetto?

2. What characteristics of sound do you listen for when determining if you are hearing an unchanged voice?

The responses were examined using a coding system that allowed categories to emerge from the resulting list of descriptors of both the unchanged voice and the use of falsetto. Assessment of Stimulus Recording The participants’ assessment of the stimulus recording was the primary focus of the study. The assessment took place at two different venues: 1) Texas Tech University Music Research Lab, 2) Wayland Baptist University Piano Lab. Texas Tech University Music Research Lab The assessment took place in a controlled environment allowing for two participants to respond independently at the same time. The stimulus recording was downloaded and played on Macintosh computers (iMac 8.1 Intel Core 2 Duo), and heard through external headsets (Bose Quiet Comfort 2). Wayland Baptist University Piano Lab The assessment took place in a controlled environment allowing for up to fifteen participants to respond independently at the same time. The stimulus recording was downloaded on a Macintosh computer (iMac OS X Intel Core 2 Duo), amplified through group education recorder (KORG – GEC #3), and heard through external headsets (Koss SB/40). Upon the completion of the pre-assessment questions, the monitor asked the participants to follow along as he/she read aloud: You will hear a series of adolescent male singers. After you have heard each individual sample, please determine if what you are hearing is an example of an unchanged voice or a falsetto voice. After making your choice, mark the confidence of your decision. You will have ten (10) seconds between each sample. Do you have any questions?

Participants’ response form followed the format appearing in Figure 5.

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1. Unchanged Falsetto

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Uncertain Certain

______

Figure 5 Participants’ Response Format

All monitor directions and response forms were piloted for language and understanding with both experienced choral music educators (n= 4) and pre-service music educators (n= 10). Post-Assessment The post-assessment questions were the final section. The post-assessment questions were very similar to the pre-assessment questions, giving the participants the opportunity to expand upon some of the characteristics they may have identified while listening to the samples. Two of the questions were as follows: 1. What additional characteristics of falsetto, if any, did you think of while listening to the samples?

2. What additional characteristics of the unchanged voice, if any, did you think of while listening to the samples?

A third post-assessment question addressed the estimation of overall accuracy of the choices that had been made during the assessment process using a Likert scale of 1(uncertain) to 10 (certain). These data allowed for a comparative relationship to be analyzed from an overall and individual point of view (Colprit, 2001). Were the parts greater than the whole? The third and final question was: 3. What do you believe was your overall certainty for the assessments you made? (Circle one)

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Uncertain Certain

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Resulting data consisted of participants’ choices of falsetto or unchanged voices for each example, their estimation of response certainty, demographic information and pre- and post-test descriptors of falsetto and unchanged voices.

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CHAPTER IV

RESULTS

The data consisted of information gathered from pre-service music

educators from two southwestern universities (N= 61). The data were gathered in four

stages: 1) Participant Survey consisting of demographic information (major, gender,

primary instrument, singing experience, and classification), 2) Pre-assessment Questions

gathering descriptors of falsetto and the unchanged voice, 3) Assessment of Stimulus

Recording containing sixteen vocal samples and asking participants to decide whether

each sample was sung by an unchanged or falsetto voice, and 4) Post-Assessment

Questions gathering any new descriptors of falsetto and the unchanged voice. The data

gathered through these instruments were used to determine if pre-service music educators

could distinguish between recordings of adolescent male unchanged and falsetto voices,

and addressed secondary questions involving pre-service educators’ confidence in their

decisions and their verbal descriptors of the unchanged and falsetto voices. Results were

analyzed using the Chi- Square statistic (Madsen & Moore, 1978).

Based on the analyzed results, pre-service music educators were able to correctly

identify unchanged voices with significantly greater accuracy than falsetto voices (Χ²

(1,976)= 10.86, p= .0008). See Figure 6. The figure reflects a possibility of 976 total answers (61 participants x 16 samples).

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Unchanged Voice Incorrect Falsetto

Correct

0 100 200 300 400

Figure 6

Unchanged Voice/ Falsetto Identification: Incorrect / Correct

The participants heard eight original audio samples placed in a random order followed by the repetition of those samples in reverse order. Figure 7 allows us to observe any significant difference from the assessment of the first sample to the second sample, and if so, in what direction (positive or negative identification). See Figure 7.

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40 Original 30 Repeat 20

0 1/16' 2/15' 3/14' 4/13' 5/12' 6/11' 7/10' 8/9'

Original Repeated Significance Positive/ Negative/ Sample Sample None 1 16 Χ² (1,122)= 3.04, p= .0497 Negative 2 15 Χ² (1,122)= 2.46, p= .0672 None 3 14 Χ² (1,122)= 2.27, p= .0848 None 4 13 Χ² (1,122)= 0.06, p= .639 None 5 12 Χ² (1,122)= 5.90, p= .0089 Negative 6 11 Χ² (1,122)= 0.00, p= .7642 None 7 10 Χ² (1,122)= 0.37, p= .4201 None 8 9 Χ² (1,122)= 0.08, p= .5967 None

Figure 7

Results: Participants X Original Sample vs. Repeated Sample

Significant differences were found between the repeated samples 1/16 and 5/12. Sample

1/16, an unchanged voice, and 5/12, a falsetto voice, were answered correctly more often during the first hearing than the second hearing, thus having a negative direction of response for the second hearing. Gender of the participants listening to the stimulus recording also made a significant difference. Males (n= 30) identified the vocal recordings with significantly greater accuracy than did females (n= 31) (X2 (1,976)=

3.53, p= .0506). 18 Texas Tech University, John B. Wayman, 3/2009

The participants (pre-service music educators) were divided into three sub-

categories in relation to Major Concentration. Those categories were orchestral (n= 8),

vocal (n= 31), and band (n= 8). Two of the participants’ listed piano as their main instrument; they were placed in the vocal category because both were on the choral track

and thus taking choral techniques coursework. Another participant listed guitar as their

main instrument, but was placed in the orchestral category due to he/she being on the

orchestral track. Figure 8 shows the division of the correct and incorrect responses of the

recording stimulus according to major concentration.

400 350 300 250 200 Incorrect 150 Correct 100 50 0 Orchestral Vocal Band

Major Concentration Significance Comparison

Band : Orchestral Χ² (1,480)= 10.01, p= .001 Band : Vocal Χ² (1,848)= 2.55, p= .0937 Orchestral : Vocal Χ² (1,624)= 4.90, p= .0196

Figure 8

Major Concentration: Incorrect vs. Correct Responses

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Data analysis indicated an overall significant difference between the major concentration

categories (Χ² (2,976)= 11.15, p= .0038) in correct identification of the stimulus

recording. No significant difference was found between band and vocal. However, there

were significant differences between orchestral and band, and between orchestra and vocal as shown in Figure 8. When comparing gender within major concentration groups, the data also revealed significant differences. Males were overall more accurate in correctly identifying the recording stimulus. The only major concentration in which males and females differed significantly was within the vocal category. See Figure 9.

250

200

150

100 Band

50 Vocal Orchestral 0 Male Correct Male Incorrect Female Correct Female Incorrect Orchestral Vocal Band

Major Concentration Significance

Orchestral Χ² (1,128)= .02, p= .6892 Band Χ² (1,352)= 0.0, p= .9203 Vocal Χ² (1,496)= 8.97, p= .0019

Figure 9

Major Concentration X Gender Response Accuracy

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Upon further investigation of gender, females were found to have no significant

difference (Χ² (2,496)= 5.55, p= .0623) in assessment accuracy regardless of

major concentration. However, males did exhibit significant differences in relation to

major concentration (Χ² (1,480)= 11.93, p= .0026). There were significant differences

between males in band compared to the males in vocal and orchestral category. The pie

charts in Figure 10 reflect how males in band were less successful in identifying the vocal

samples correctly. There was no significant difference found between the males in vocal

and orchestral categories.

Band Orchestral Vocal

Correct

Incorrect

71.15 % Accuracy 85 % Accuracy 83.85 % Accuracy

Major Concentration Significance Comparison

Band : Orchestral Χ² (1,288)= 5.19, p= .0151 Band : Vocal Χ² (1,400)= 8.45, p= .0025 Orchestral : Vocal Χ² (1,272)= 0.00, p= .8065

Figure 10

Male X Major Concentration: Significant difference between Major Concentration

The data were also broken down according to Classification: freshman (n= 17),

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sophomore (n= 8), junior (n=12), senior (n= 19) and graduate (n= 4). One participant did

not give a classification therefore altering the N= 60. There were no significant

differences among the different classifications (Χ² (4,960)= 7.28, p= .1218). However, referencing Figure 11 below, there were higher levels of accuracy in the freshman and senior categories. Results between the classification groups may differ with an increased or more equal number of participants in each classification group. See Figure 11.

Graduate

Senior

Incorrect Junior Correct Sophmore

Freshman

0 100 200 300

Figure 11

Classification Breakdown

Information on singing experience was gathered from each participant in reference to these categories: elementary school choir, middle school/junior high choir, high school choir, university choir, church choir, community choir, solo/ensemble contest, solo or ensembles for special occasions, voice lessons, and other. Originally participants were asked to place the number of years of experience by each category,

22 Texas Tech University, John B. Wayman, 3/2009 however, do to possible confusion many only placed check marks. Therefore, a ranking system of 0 to 3 was derived to classify their experience.

0 – No experience

1 – Little experience – elementary, middle school/junior high choir, and/ or a

semester of university choir

2 – Moderate experience – little experience + high school choir/ church choir/

community choir

3 – High level of experience – moderate experience + solo/ensemble contest / solo

or ensemble for special occasions + voice lessons

Results indicted participants at each level of singing experience (0 – n= 2, 1 – n= 19, 2 – n= 15, 3 – n= 25). Overall, there were no significant differences among the different levels of experience (Χ² (3,976)= 6.73, p= .081). However, the male participants with elementary and/or middle school/junior high school vocal music experience identified the vocal stimulus with greater accuracy then those with secondary vocal experience alone

(Killian & Wayman, 2008; 2009). The table below shows a comparison of male students with singing experience during elementary and/or middle school/junior high school and those with only secondary singing experience, and the correctness of their responses. See

Figure 12.

23 Texas Tech University, John B. Wayman, 3/2009

Elementary/Middle School Experience vs. Only Secondary Correct 2 Correct Incorrect X (1,480)= 6.61, p= .0071 Incorrect

Elementary/Middle Secondary

Figure 12

Male Singing Experience

Characteristics of falsetto and the unchanged voice were collected at two different times in this process through pre- and –post assessment questions. These data were gathered to identify any common language among musicians and falsetto/unchanged voice terms. The table below presents a compilation of the characteristics provided by the five males (n= 5) and the five females (n= 5) with the most accurate responses to the assessment of the vocal samples (N= 10). See Table 2. The middle column, “Both,” contains those terms that appeared in the pre- and –post question responses for those 10 participants.

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Table 2

Descriptors of Falsetto & Unchanged Voice of Top 5 Most Accurate Males & Females

Falsetto Unchanged Voice

Pre- Both -Post Pre- Both -Post

Light Pure A little flat Heavily Airy Less control Supported Darker quality Airy More grounded Hooty Breathy Light More support Breathy More confidence Pure Cracking Not immediate Forcing sound Less strain Consistent response Little strain Smooth A tug on the Closer to voice like a speaking string voice Manly but in Less in tune Better tone womanly range

Even for those with the more accurate responses, contradictions appeared within and between the pre- and –post sections of the descriptors. Under the pre- category of

Falsetto, the descriptors “heavily supported” and “pure” are examples of this contradiction. Another example was found in the appearance of the descriptor “light” in the –post category. Also, note that the descriptors “airy” and “breathy,” not only exist under the “Both” column of Falsetto, but as well as the “Both” column of the Unchanged

Voice. Due to these contradictions, the scope of data was enlarged include all participant responses. Figure 13 presents a compilation of the most common descriptors conveyed in the post question responses by all participants (N= 61).

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Falsetto Unchanged Voice • Break/ Breathy • Pure/Clear Cracking • Easier/ •Raspiness/ Airy More Confident

Throaty • Consistent/ Intonation •Less Confident Stronger Challenges •Strained

Figure 13

Post Descriptors of Falsetto & Unchanged Voice of All Participants

The post-test descriptors present the two voice types in a dichotomy; one pure and clear while the other is throaty and raspy. Note the commonality of the descriptors, “breathy, airy, and intonation challenges” in Figure 13 are also conveyed in Table 2.

As part of the assessment process, the participants were asked to rate the confidence of their over-all response, resulting in one confidence number per participant.

These ratings were given on a Likert scale from 1 (not confident) to 10 (very confident)

(Price, Yarbrough, Jones & Moore, 1994). The over-all rating for the orchestral participants was 7.25 out of 10; vocal participants were 7.22 out of 10; and band participants were 6.0 out of 10. There was little connection between the accuracy outcome of the major concentration categories and their certainty ratings. However, they did have a parallel relationship when comparing major concentration accuracy and

26 Texas Tech University, John B. Wayman, 3/2009 confidence. Orchestral participants had the highest confidence rating as well as the highest accuracy; vocalist had the second highest rating as well as the second highest level of identification accuracy; and band participants had the lowest rating as well as the lowest accuracy in identification of falsetto and the unchanged voice.

Results may be summarized as:

• Significantly more adolescent male unchanged voices were accurately identified

than the adolescent male use of the falsetto.

• Significantly more males successfully identified the adolescent male unchanged

and falsetto voices than did females.

• Sample 1/16, an unchanged voice, and 5/12, a falsetto voice, were answered

correctly significantly more often during the first hearing than the second hearing,

thus having a negative direction of response for the second hearing.

• Major Concentration: orchestral participants were significantly more accurate

than vocal and band participants.

• When comparing gender within the major concentration categories, males

assessed the vocal stimulus with significantly greater accuracy than females in

orchestral, vocal, and band.

• Classification in school had no significant effect on assessment accuracy.

• Singing experience had no significant effect on assessment accuracy.

• Male participants with elementary and/or middle school/junior high school vocal

music experience identified the vocal stimulus with significantly greater accuracy

then those with secondary vocal experience alone.

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• Common descriptors when assessing the identification of the adolescent male

unchanged voice included pure, clear, easier, more confident, consistent and

strong.

• Common descriptors when assessing the identification of the adolescent male

falsetto voice included break, cracking, raspiness, throaty, less confident and

strained.

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CHAPTER V

DISCUSSION

This study grew from the Disney movie Shrek where “Gingie the gingerbread

man,” echoes in falsetto tones, “No, not my buttons, not my gum drop buttons!” As part of past vocal studies, this clip was repeated over and over with great enthusiasm by middle school boys (Killian &Wayman, 2007; 2008). In the process of analyzing these data, the question of, “…is that falsetto or an unchanged voice?” became increasingly repeated. Furthermore, I speculated that the ability to correctly identify these vocal characteristics might directly affect the instructional success of music teachers and their

students. Thus, the study of pre-service educators being able to distinguish between

recordings of adolescent male unchanged and falsetto voices, and addressing secondary

questions involving pre-service educators’ confidence in their decisions and their verbal descriptors of the unchanged and falsetto voices, came to fruition.

In this study, the ability to distinguish between the adolescent male unchanged voice (80.49% accuracy) and falsetto voice (71.25% accuracy) was not done with as much accuracy as the distinction between the falsetto voice and the modal voice in

Colton’s study in 1970 (95% accuracy). The assessment accuracy between the unchanged voice and falsetto was found to be significantly different. The unchanged voice was assessed correctly more often the falsetto voice. A possible reason for the participants’ ability to more accurately identify the unchanged voice is that, regardless of gender, all have personally experienced the unchanged voice.

In this study, assessment responses were significantly different for two of the eight repeated samples. The repeated samples were answered more inaccurately than the

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original samples. One would surmise, with the unchanged voice having been answered

more correctly than falsetto, that both samples were falsetto. However, one sample was

an example of falsetto and one was an example of the unchanged voice. The next closest

example that reveals similar, but not significant differences (Χ² (1,122)= 2.46, p= .0672),

was a falsetto repeated sample 2/15. With addition of this sample, the statement of the

unchanged voices being assessed correctly more often seems more supported.

The fact that orchestral concentration participants were the most accurate was

rather unexpected. One might assume with this study based on vocal samples, that those participants with a vocal concentration would be most accurate. However, the orchestral

participants were significantly more accurate than the vocal. This could have been related to the small population of the orchestral participants, or could be the result of an actual difference between the vocal and orchestral participants. Early studies (Muckey, 1915) lend credence to a possible relationship between strings and the vocal mechanism.

Muckey presented the vocal mechanism as a stringed instrument recognizing that the

“…vocal apparatus must include a mechanism for changing length, weight, and tension of the vibrator (vocal chords) similar to those found in other stringed instruments”

(Muckey, 1915, p. 626). This may explain the ability of the orchestral participants to process the sounds of the voice accurately. This may also be a possible explanation of an orchestral participant stating in that his/her description of falsetto, “The voice does not immediately respond, it’s like a tug on the string.” Also, the possibility exists that orchestral participants are generally better at ear training exercises than vocalists

(Harrison, 1990). Thus, if considering this an ear training exercise in vocal identification,

we are able to generalize that orchestral participants would be able to answer more

30 Texas Tech University, John B. Wayman, 3/2009 accurately than vocal participants. Furthermore, males within the vocal and orchestral concentrations were significantly more accurate than those within the band concentration.

Regardless of major concentration, males were able to identify the vocal stimulus with greater accuracy than females. This may be due to the fact that males experience a more dramatic vocal change process, and related this study as a changed/unchanged assessment rather than falsetto and unchanged voices. Those having made reference to past personal experiences would support the Traube theory of perception presented earlier (2006). In Killian’s article on perceptions of the voice change process, she alludes to the relation of the memory of the voice change process as it pertains to the emotional experience of the process (Killian, 1997). In other words, those that had a more negative experience through the voice change process may have had a more vivid recollection of the event. The emotional experience of the voice change process was not part of the data collected, but would be interesting for further study.

Regardless of gender, amount of previous singing experience had no significant difference on accuracy. This was surprising. However, when analyzing the elementary and /or middle school/junior high school level of vocal experience versus only secondary experience, significant differences appeared. Only males, not females, assessed the stimulus with greater accuracy. This again supports the Traube theory of perception

(2006). These results also support the importance of male students having vocal music while going through at least the beginning stages of the vocal maturation process. This early opportunity may help them understand, or develop a concept of what happens to their voices. This potential understanding could also have a significant positive impact on their desire to sing.

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Another surprising result was related to the non-significance of the classification of participants. The freshman and senior classes, however, had more correct assessments

than the others. The freshman may have had an advantage because their ears have just come from an environment that contains many people going through the vocal maturation process (Cooksey, 1985). And in the case of freshman males, the experience is more recent for them. In fact, they might more easily be able to recognize the sounds related to this type of assessment. Seniors’ positive ability to respond accurately could be due to several reasons. A music education professor confirmed that participants’ study of the unchanged and falsetto voices was covered in their upper-level methods course work.

Also, many of the seniors were given opportunity to do public school observations, and would be around those more noticeably going through the vocal change process.

Sophomores and juniors were possibly less successful in the assessment process due to

the focus on the collegiate sound, and the development of that at sound at that point in

their careers.

Sounds are often categorized by their timbres (Traube, 2006). It was interesting to

read all of the different descriptors given for the evaluation and distinction of falsetto and

the unchanged voice. Although most terms seemed to be universal, several were

indicative of specific music concentration categories. Three examples of this were:

1) Band – (Falsetto Example) “Clear, fluty sound…”

2) Orchestra – (Falsetto Example) “The voice does not immediately respond, it’s

like a tug on the string.”

3) Band – (Unchanged Example) “Strong tone, smooth process between notes,

clarinet tone.”

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Another interesting comparison between falsetto and the unchanged voice was made with the reference of the “Mickey Mouse tone” versus the “Non-Mickey Mouse tone.” These

examples lend themselves to broader views of musical reference, and could possibly be

the reason for such a vast variety of descriptors. The common descriptors gathered for

falsetto through this study (i.e. cracking, airy, throaty, less confidant) seem to support

past information gathered (Brinson, 1996). The common descriptors gathered for the

unchanged voice through this study (i.e. pure, easy, strong, confidant) also seem to

confirm past research (Eskrom, 1959; Killian, 1997; Stanley, 1958; Winsel, 1966). For

this study, falsetto and the unchanged voice had these descriptors in common: airy,

breathy, and intonation challenges. These terms may be common descriptors because

they are actually characteristics of the adolescent male voice, and not necessarily specific

to falsetto or the unchanged voice.

Implications of Further Research

Due to the small and regionalized sample of this study, generalizations of these

results beyond this population should be made with caution. One could consider the

replication of this study with regional representation across the United States. One might also consider this study with the alteration of having only vocal concentration participants, or having a population that has a more equal representation of the all three concentrations (orchestral, vocal, and band). A further study representing experienced teachers compared to pre-service teachers would also be useful.

The effects on curriculum change for those that are able to identify the student that is no longer singing in the unchanged voice, but in falsetto would also be useful.

Although the given descriptions of falsetto and the unchanged voice seem to have

33 Texas Tech University, John B. Wayman, 3/2009

remained consistent with past research, working classroom definitions of the terms still

remain nebulous. A qualitative study that gathers a group of vocal classroom teachers,

compiling definitions of falsetto and the unchanged voice could provide for an interesting

perspective.

Terminology used when describing falsetto, whether or not in comparison with the unchanged voice, would appear to be fruitful for further research. Research involving falsetto might include, but not be limited to, gender studies, age comparisons, the use of falsetto in different genres, and the countertenor.

Several populations might benefit from the information provided in the current study. Choral educators of all levels, but especially those dealing with the changing voice population, could utilizes this information in reference to curriculum, vocal identification, and music selection. Those teaching private voice could also make a transfer of this information into selecting appropriate solo literature for their students. Those educators that are not able to distinguish between characteristics of the voice that may identify elements such as range and vocal production could have serious challenges on the

effectiveness of their teaching. Inappropriate literature could be taught resulting in vocal

damage. Lack of successful classroom situations could decrease retention in structured music settings, as well as increase emotional frustration during an already challenging adolescent life. Also, anyone who works with the voice throughout the time of

adolescent development such as speech therapist, pediatricians and/or teachers, to name a

few, may also benefit from some facet of these data.

The research, and data gathered through this study is important to the

advancement of the identification of similarities and differences of the falsetto and

34 Texas Tech University, John B. Wayman, 3/2009 unchanged voice. These data could also help in the stabilization of male participants in choral programs from elementary music through secondary schools by providing assistance for curriculum choice, correct literature selection, and better understanding of the male voice and its abilities.

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Colton, R. H. (1970). Perceptual differentiation of the modal and the falsetto registers. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America. 47(1A), 105.

Cooksey, J. M. (1985). The male changing voice: Some new perspectives. Proceedings: Research Symposium on the Male Adolescent Voice. State University of New York at Buffalo.

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Ekstrom, R. (1959). Comparison of the male voice before, during, and after maturation. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Southern California, California.

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Harrison, C.S. (1990). Relationship between grades in the components of freshmen music theory and selected background variables. Journal of Research in Music Education. 38(3), 175-186.

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Jackson, R. (2005). Performance practice: A dictionary guide for musicians. New York, New York: Routledge.

Killian, J. N. (1997). Perception of the voice-change process: male adult versus adolescent musicians and non-musicians. Journal of Research in Music Education. 45(4), 521-535.

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Killian, J. N. (1999). A description of vocal maturation among fifth- and sixth grade boys. Journal of Research in Music Education. 47(4), 357-369

Killian, J. N. & Moore, M. (1997). The vocal range of fifth- and sixth-grade boys: A preliminary report. 31-34. In R. Duke (Ed.), Texas Music Education Research. Austin, TX: Texas Music Educators Association. www.tmea.org/080_College/Research/Kil1997.pdf.

Killian, J. N., O’Hern, M. & Rann, L. (Eds.). (1995). Essential Repertoire for the young Choir. Tenor Bass Edition. Milwaukee, WI: Hal Leonard Corporation.

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Madsen, C. K. & Moore, R. S. (1978). Experimental research in music: Workbook in design and statistical tests. Raleigh, North Carolina: Contemporary Publishing Company of Raleigh, Inc.

McCoy, S. (2004). Your Voice: An Inside View: Multimedia voice science and pedagogy (pp.66-70). Princeton, New Jersey: Inside View Press.

McCrae, S. W. (1991). Directing the children’s comprehensive choir: A comprehensive resource. New York, New York: Schirmer Books.

Moore, R. & Killian, J.N. (2000/2001). Perceived gender differences of solo and group treble singers by American and English children and adults. Bulletin of the Council of Research in Music Education Special Edition: Proceedings of the International Society of Music Education Research Commission. 147. 138-144.

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APPENDIX A

HUMAN SUBJECTS APPROVAL – RECORDING CHILDREN PARTICIPANTS

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APPENDIX B

RECORDING CHILDREN PARTICIPANTS CONSENT FORM

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APPENDIX C

HUMAN SUBJECTS APPROVAL- PRE-SERVICE MUSIC EDUCATOR TESTING PARTICIPANTS

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APPENDIX D

PRE-SERVICE MUSIC EDUCATOR TESTING PARTICIPANTS CONSENT FORM

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APPENDIX E

RECRUITING SPEECH

Hello –

I’m working on a research project to determine if pre-service music educators can hear the difference between the adolescent unchanged and falsetto voice. If you choose to participate, you will listen to a 5-minute set of recordings of unchanged and falsetto voices. If you or a friend are studying to become a music teacher I would really appreciate your help, and it’s a great way to see where your listening skills are. Here is an informational flyer with all the details. Contact me so we can set up an appointment. It only takes a total of about 10 minutes.

Thanks

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APPENDIX F

SCIENTIFIC PITCH NOTATION SYSTEM

QuickTime™ and a TIFF (Uncompressed) decompressor are needed to see this picture.

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APPENDIX G

PARTICIPANT RESPONSE FORMS

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APPENDIX H

RAW DEMOGRAPHIC, STIMULUS REPSPONSE, AND PRE- AND -POST QUESTION DATA

Singing Exp. rate HS Date: Code # Major Institute Gender Primary Inst. Cat. EL. Choir MS Choir Choir U Choir 2/5/09 1 ED/Perf T M Trumpet B N 0 2/5/09 2 ED T M Violin O Y 1 X X 2/5/09 3 ED T M VIOLA O Y 2 X 2/5/09 4 ED T M Trumpet B Y 1 X 2/5/09 5 ED T F CELLO O Y 2 X X X 2/5/09 6 ED T F Trumpet B Y 1 X 2/6/09 7 ED T F Piano P Y 2 X 2/6/09 8 ED T F SOP V Y 3 X X X X 2/6/09 9 ED T F Violin O Y 2 X X 2/6/09 10 ed/piano T F Piano P Y 1 2/6/09 11 ED T F Alto V Y 3 5 3 4 2 2/6/09 12 ED T F Sop V Y 3 2 3 3 3 2/6/09 13 ED T F Sop V Y 3 4 3 4 5 2/6/09 14 ED T M Tenor/Trombone V/B Y 2 X 2/6/09 15 ED T M Tenor V Y 2 2 1 2/6/09 16 ED T F Flute B Y 3 2 3 1 2/6/09 17 ED T F Violin O Y 1 1 2/6/09 18 ED T F Sop V Y 3 6 2 4 1 2/6/09 19 ED T M Bass Bone B Y 3 3 2/6/09 20 ED T M Bari Sax B Y 2 X 2/6/09 21 ED T M Alto Sax B Y 1 X 2/6/09 22 ED T F Sax B Y 1 1 2/6/09 23 ED T F Sop V Y 3 X X X X 2/6/09 24 ED T M Bass V Y 3 X X X X

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