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RAHMAN, Syeda Afzalunnisa, 1924- EDUCATION OF WOMEN FOR MODERN INDIAN SOCIETY: A HISTORICAL STUDY WITH A CRITIQUE OF CONTEMPORARY EDUCATIONAL THOUGHT.

The Ohio State University, Ph.D., 1963 Education, history University Microfilms, Inc., Ann Arbor, Michigan EDUCATION OF WOMEN FOR MODERN INDIAN SOCIETY:

A HISTORICAL STUDY WITH A CRITIQUE OF

CONTEMPORARY EDUCATIONAL THOUGHT

DISSERTATION

Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate School of The Ohio State University

Syeda Afzalunnisa Rahman, B. A, (Hons,), M. A,

The Ohio State University 1963

Approved

A dviser Department of Education ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

It is my most pleasant and yet the most difficult duty to mention and adequately thank all who have made valuable contributions to the successful completion of this study, my education at The Ohio State

University and my stay in the United States, Ky deep debt of gratitude is extended to Professor Robert B, Sutton under whose kind and patient guidance this study was conducted. Dr. Sutton's timely advice, scholarly criticism and brotherly understanding proved a source of valuable inspiration and much encouragement throughout my graduate work, and this I shall always remember.

Hy particular thanks are extended to Professor C. B. Mendenhall who with all his critical judgment was always most helpful. His con­ structive criticism and Dr, and Mrs. Mendenhall's friendly attitude are sincerely appreciated by me.

I am highly grateful to Professor Alan F. Griffin, Professor

Sydney N. Fisher and Professor Robert E. Jewett for their kind guidance and helpful suggestions which were most helpful to me.

I offer my sincere thanks to the Institute of International Educa­ tion for the award of the Fulbright Travel Grant which not only enabled me to receive higher education in this country but also provided me with an opportunity to meet and understand different people and their problems especially of the United States, hfy heartfelt gratitude is expressed to the P.E.O. Sisterhood who extended their hand of friendship to me in my

ii most critical situation, I particularly appreciate the Sisterhood's moral support which made me forget that I was a stranger in a foreign land, I am deeply indebted to the Soroptimist Federation for their timely help accorded to me without which my educational pursuits would have been jeopardized. My most sincere thanks to the Altrusa Inter­ national for their kind concern and interest in me,

I most gratefully acknowledge the unbound encouragement, help and tremendous service rendered to me by my parents, Mr, a.jd Mrs, S, A.

Raheem, and my brother, Mr. Aslam, B. Sc,, LLB., not only in taking care of my children during these years of my absence from home but also for having spent long hours in the public and university libraries of

Mysore in order to send me information from rare books regarding the present study. It is with pride and appreciation that I acknowledge my husband Dr, S, A. Rahman's patience, encouragement, kindness, self- sacrifice and self-denial for me throughout all these four laborious years of my study.

My loving thanks to our sweet children Farooq and Naori who endured our long separation with courage and cheer and brightened our feelings with encouraging, cheerful notes.

There are several kind souls but for whose help I would have been at a great difficulty in the completion of this work. To mention at least a few particular friends, my special thanks to Mrs, Melba Griffin of the Graduate School for her understanding. To Mrs, Esther Whaley and Mrs. Marilyn Davy I owe sincere thanks for editing and typing this

iii dissertation respectively, and to the staff of the Education Library and

the Main Library, particularly to Mrs* Barbara B. Seawall and Mrs. Mary

B. H eath, go my h e a rty th a n k s.

iv CONTENTS

Chapter Page

I . INTRODUCTION ...... 1

Need for the Study ,».•••...... 1

Statement of the problem ...... •••••••• 2 Sources used .••••.••••••••••••• 3

I I . EDUCATION UNDER MUSLIM RULE IN IN D IA ...... 6

Introduction • 6 The Spread o f Education ...... •••••• 7 Education in Muslim India ...... ••••«•• 19 Women in Muslim S o c ie ty...... 23

I I I . EDUCATION OF WOMEN IN MUSLIM IN D IA ...... 24

The Philosophy of E d u c a t i o n...... 24

Elementary education of women in Muslim India . . 26 Higher Education ...... 29

Education of Hindu Women ••••.•••• ...... 33 Education of Indian Women during Decline of Muslim Rule 42

Summary .•••••••• ...... 45

A critical appreciation of women's education under Muslim rule in In d ia ...... 45

IV . EDUCATION UNDER BRITISH RULE...... 49

Educational Policy of the British East India Company . • 50

Missionary Movements and Their Influence on Women's E ducation ...... 56 Contributions of the Missionaries toward the Development of Indian Women's Education ...... 62

Spread of missionary educational enterprise . . . 66

The Changing Role of Missionary Education in India . . . 70

Private Enterprise in Women's Education ••••.•• 73

v CONTENTS (c o n td .)

Chapter Page

The Socio-religious Movements and Their Impact on Women1s Education ...... ■ ••••... 7@ Reforms in the Muslim Community...... • . • • 6? Policy of the British Government in India toward Women's Education from the Latter Half of the Nineteenth Century to Independence in 19^7 . . . . 95

A critical look at the position of women's education in the early twentieth century . • • 99

The N ational E ducation Movement ...... 103

Break with Traditional Type of Education «••••. 112 Post-war Educational Reconstruction••••••••• 117 Present Position of Women's Education • • • 118

V. THE EMERGING ROLE OF WOMEN IN MODERN INDIAN SOCIETY . . . 122

Position of Women in Early Hindu Society ...... 122 P o sitio n o f E arly Muslim Women in In d ia ...... 123 Impact of the Western Influence on the Position o f Women 125 P r o g r e s s...... 125 Economic Field •••••• •••••• 126 Education .••••••• ...... »..••••. 128 The Social A spects...... 129

V I. ANALYSIS OF THE CONTEMPORARY EDUCATIONAL THOUGHT ...... 134

Examinations and Some Proposed Educational Changes • 140 The Educational Challenge of the Present Day .... 151 Developing Ideals for Women's Education .•••••• 163 Some D esirab le Goals fo r Women's E ducation ..... 171 Education for Citizenship ...... 177 Broadmindedness and Tolerance •••••••••••• 180 Patriotism ..••••• ...... 183 Community L iving and L eadership ...... 186 Education for Health ...... 189 Vocational Preparation •••.. 193 APPENDIX...... 199 BIBLIOGRAPHY...... 206

AUTOBIOGRAPHY ...... 213

vi CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

Need for the Study

The tradition of Indian women1a education goes as far back as the ancient times when its aims were mostly religious* Later, during the medieval period, more liberal trends were introduced, and under the

British Influence systematic attempts were made to provide education for women on an organized basis. But it is discouraging to note that even today there appears to be a considerable lack of concern about the education of women. Their education has held and continues to hold secondary attention to that of men. Apparently, educators and adminis­ trators have felt that what was good education for men and boys would automatically be good for women and girls also.

Vast changes have come aver the political, social and economic life of the Indian people during the last thirty years, and consequently the position of women in this generation has been completely transformed.

Especially with the onset of Independence, Indian women were faced with numerous challenges, resulting in the elevation of a selected group to positions of rank in educational and social life. This group left far behind them a vast multitude of women in the depths of ignorance and illiteracy. The failure to cultivate the ability of such a great number of the nationals is a serious drawback to the progress of the motherland.

1 Thus it Is desirable that a comprehensive study of the education of Indian women be made in order to determine the past successes and failures and to suggest a system that could provide better education for a wider circle of women* This in turn would ensure a better future for many women as well as for the country*

Statement of the problem

The intent of this study is to provide an analysis of contemporary

educational thought in India with regard to women*s education by examin­

ing, in the light of the historical development of women*s education in

India, certain positions held on this subject by some Indian educators*

Though any treatment of the subject of education cannot be

carried out without references to administration* organisation* finance*

examinations* curriculum and so forth* the major concern of this disser­

tation is a critique of Indian educational thought* It is essential in

such a study as this to give the background of social* historical and

cultural influences which serve as the foundation of the pattern of

modern education* Dr* Mukerji writes,

Any scheme that is devised for the education and uplift of our teeming millions cannot afford to ignore our recent past . . . for it is on the foundation of the past that the structure of the future can be firmly based

Hence a survey of thought and practice regarding women*s education for

the past few hundred years has been made as a background to the main

study*

^S. N* Mukerji, History of Education in India; Modern Period (B aroda: Acharya Book D epot, 1950)» P« 2 . In view of the changing role of women in modern Indian society and on the basis of the comparative study of different educational systems it has seemed well to go a bit further and to formulate some generalizations and also certain recommendations which might bring desirable innovations in Indian women*s education*

Sourcea used

To obtain information on the problem it has been necessary to review a wide range of sources, far beyond that usually called related literature. Very few attempts seem to have been made by educators of different eras to discuss the particular subject of women*s education in

India. Indian educators and historians of education seem normally to have been concerned with the general educational development in the country. Less frequently have reviews and criticism s appeared about the topic under discussion. S till less frequently have there been studies dealing with education in the centuries just before the arrival of the

British in India.

In addition to the books and articles on educational, sociolog­ ical and anthropological topics which come easily to hand, the following classes of other materials have been consulted;

1. Cultural and political histories of India Including books in

Persian and Urdu.

2. Histories of education in India dealing with different p e rio d s .

3. A special collection of Indian literature recently purohased by the Ohio State University Library consisting of brochures and pamphlets k about education and similar documents In the Library of Congress and the

Library of the Indian Ehbassy, Washington, D. C.

J+. A number of doctoral dissertations and Master*s theses from

American universities,

5. Indian National Development Plans reported in government docum ents.

6. R ep o rts.

a . A ll In d ia Women*s C onferences

b. Educational Conferences

c. Ministry of Education

d. Government of India

7. Writings of educated Indian women about education.

8 . Novels, poetry and other Indian literature in Persian, Urdu

and Hindi which reveal social and educational trends of the times being

s tu d ie d . 2

Muslim religious writings in Arabic were also used where

appropriate.

9. Conferences with professors at the Ohio State University who

had been assigned in past years to the India Project of the University

and with Education Secretaries at the Bnbassy of India, Washington, D. C,

2 The Indian literature in several languages is of course not available in American libraries. It was possible for the writer to secure additional books with the help of her father in India and on occasion the latter has provided excerpts and notes from these books which are to be found only in reference libraries. 5

1 0. The writer's personal experiences as a lecturer in a women's college and as an active member of several committees of girls' schools in her state in India.

Among the doctoral dissertations which deal with some aspects of women's education in India, the following were used in this study:

1. George £• Noronha’s published dissertation, Backgrounds in the Education of Indian G irls.^ Dr. Noronha has made a good study of social and religious aspects which have a strong bearing on home life in

India, In the author's own words these are factors "of which cognizance must be taken in the formulation of principles and plans for girls' education."

2. Dr. Shrldevi's dissertation on "Development of Women's

Higher Education in India" (195*0 dealt mostly with progress in the nineteenth century and comprises an attempt to trace the historical development of higher education.**

3. Dr. Manzoorunnisa Siddiqi, in her dissertation "Contributions of Islamic Education with Special Reference to Pakistan," has dealt comprehensively with the contribution of Islamic education in undivided

India and in Pakistan after its creation in 19**7*^

^George E. Noronha, Backgrounds in the Education of Indian Girls (Washington, D. C.: The Catholic University of America, 1939)•

It Sripati Shrldevi, "The Development of Women's Higher Education in India" (unpublished doctoral dissertation, Columbia University, 195*0*

^Manzoorunnisa Siddiqi, "Contributions of Islamic Education with Special Reference to Pakistan" (unpublished doctoral dissertation, Harvard University, 1959)* CHAPTER II

EDUCATION UNDER MUSLIM RULE IN INDIA

Introduction

Islam appeared on the Indian scene In 712 A. D. with the conquest of Sindh, Baluchistan and parts of Punjab by the young Arab General

Mohamed Bln Kasim. This was the first step In the formation of cultural and Intellectual ties between the Muslims and Hindus of India, through which during the last twelve hundred years a truly unique Indian culture has developed. The Muslims familiarised the Indians with a new and confident world religion in the setting of the matured culture of the

Middle East, and the introduction of this new element of thinking paved the way for the development of Indian thought and culture Muslim control of regions along the Indus played an Important part in the political history of India and culminated In the modern Islamic state of

Pakistan, Initially the cultural exchange between the Indians and the

Muslim conquerors was less Important than the m ilitary and political results. The real impact of Islamic thought began to be felt after the conquests of Mahmud Gasnavi in the eleventh century

^Perdval Sp^ar, India, A Modern History (Ann Arbor; University of Michigan Press, 19&1), p, 95* ^Sydney Nettleton Fisher, The Middle East. A History (New York; Alfred A, Knopf, 1959)* p* 3 S pear, 0£. cit», pp. 98-100,

6 Although the m ilitary movement was motivated by a religious seal, i t was not without its cultural importance. The permanent government and a resident Muslim population in many Indian cities necessarily brought changes not only in the way of life but in trends of thought as well. For example, the Islamlo idea of the Unity of God and myetlo thought and practice deeply influenced the Hindu thought. On the other hand, Hindu philosophy and sane Hindu social practices slowly got hold of Muslim thought. Life was affected in many other ways also. For instance, marked changes came about in the habits of food and dress, A new style of architecture developed, which is favored even today after nearly a thousand years. The synthesis of the old with the new is particularly ipparent in the amalgamation of old Indian classical music 4 with that of Persia, which developed in many directions, and resulted in an excellently surpassing style.

The Spread of Education

fy the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, Islamic rule was well established in the north of India, Wherever the oonquering and occupy­ ing Muslim armies marched, there went with them sufis and maulvis^ to preach the doctrines of Islam, These sufis and maulvis were dedicated men who devoted their lives to the study and spread of religion. They taught children and grownups and gave religious instruction. As Spear

Javahar Lai Nehru, The Discovery of India (New Yorkj The John Day Company, 1 9 ^ )» P* 238; also Speeches of Maulana Atad (Delhii Publications Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India, I960), p, 228, 5 8 points out, the maulvis appealed to the heed end the sufis appealed to th e h e a r t .

The enthusiasm of these devoted teachers spread the teachings of

Islam to both Muslims and non-Muslims through knowledge, and a whole network of Muslim schools was established in India during the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries* Provisions for both elementary and higher learning were made in gajctabf^ and madrasahs? which had spread throughout the domain* Besides the maktabs and madrasahs* the sufis also had community houses, called "Khanqa," and religious centers for religious instruction and practice*

The sufis were not alone and unaided in their educational endeavors* There were many royal patrons of learning throughout the centuries under discussion* Generally the Muslim rulers and many of their offioers also took deep interest in the spread of Islamic knowledge and learning by patronizing private individuals as well as building Q mosques, colleges and orphanages* Moreover, it is generally reported to us that royal endowments were made to the schools and that great gifts were made in the early fourteenth century by Sultan Mohammad Bin

Tughlak, who ruled from 1325 1351#^ The reign of his successor,

^Muslim elementary schools* 7 Muslim schools for higher learning. 8 In the early thirteenth century Khutubuddin, who succeeded Mohamman Ghori in 1210, Altamash and his daughter Rada were great patrons of learning and constructed mosques which became centers of edu* cational and religious activities* Literary societies also existed and some of them were managed by Balban's (1266-12 6 7) son* F* E. Keay, Indian Education in Ancient and Later Times (Calcutta: Oxford University Press, 195^ )» pp* 112-113* ^B* C* Majusdar and Others (ed»). The History and Culture of Indian People. The Delhi Sultanate (Bombay: Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, 19^ 0 ) , p . 535. 9

Sultan Flrot Shah Tughlak (1351-1388 A* D,), nay ba wall described as a landmark In tha history of Muslim rule with regard both to administra­ tive reforms and to progress In education, Firot Shah Is reported to have granted annually one-third of a million pounds to learned men and pious endowments,^® He preferred the Persian language to Arabic, since the former was more commonly understood. Under his patronage the Muslim schools came to emphasise Persian and attracted a continually larger number of pupils, Flros Shah also ordered translations of Sanskrit books into Persian in order to encourage the mutual study of the languages by both Hindus and Muslims,!! Another new trend in the educational policy apart from the usual pattern of literary education Imparted in maktabs and madrasahs was the opening of trade schools for vocational training,!^ During this period the formation of Urdu language started, the main incentive being the Increasing necessities which forced more and more Hindus and Muslims to meet each other frequently.!^

10Jbid„ p, 536.

^Mansoorunnisa Siddiqi, "Contributions of Islamic Education with Special Reference to Pakistan" (doctoral dissertation. Harvard Univer­ s i t y , 1959), pp. 87- 88.

!2Humayun Kabir, "Continuity of Tradition in Indian Educational Thought," The Indo Asian Culture (New Delhi, Indian Council for Cultural Relations, January 1959J# Vol. VII, No, 3, p. 231*

!3urdu language is a synthesis from Arabic, Persian and several different Indian languages especially Western Hindi, It is generally written in Persian character. Both Hindus of North India and the Muslims contributed to the evolution and growth of this language. Before India gained Independence in 19^7» Urdu was almost the lingua franca of the country• At present Hindi is the national language but Urdu is spoken by several Hindus of North India and almost all the Indian Muslims, It is now one of the major languages of India and the national language of Pakistan. For full report see Mirsa-M, Askari, Tarlkh-e-Adat>»e-Urdu (Lucknow: Novelklshore Press, 1929); also F. E, Keay, Indian Education in Ancient and Later Times (Calcutta: Oxford University Press, 195M, pp, U5-11&• 10

The synthesis between Muslin end Hindu learning cane to a tenporary halt when Timur invaded Northern India in 1398* After some time, the Sultans restored peace and prosperity and within a century

Sultan Sikander Lodhl revived the progressive trends in education fol­ lowed by his predecessors* He encouraged translations of Vedic medical books and offered important posts at the courts to educated Hindu offi­ cers, These measures led more and more Hindu pupils to be attracted to

Muslim schools.

The educational developments just described were not only in progress in Delhi and the Northern parts of India, but when many smaller

Muslim Kingdoms in the rest of India became independent following the

Timurid disaster, they also became active in this direction,^ Especi­ ally the Bahhmani Kings of the Deccan (South India) took a deep interest in the pronotion of learning. They made provisions for the support and education of orphans and started village schools where religion and learning went together. Several schools and oollegea were founded in

14 Timur or Tamerlane the Great (1336-1405), Timur was a Mongolian Turkish chief, an efficient ruler but a cruel warrior. He reigned from 1369 to 1405, his empire extending from the Mediterranean to the border of China, In 1380 he began the oonquests of Afghanistan and Iran and later captured Bagdad, Moscow, Delhi (1398), Alleppo, Damascus, Ankara and Smyrna, He caused much destruction to the conquered people and places, Timur's successors in later years were misnamed Mughal or Mogal or Mogul, from Mongols, Babur, the first Mughal Emperor of India, was a direct descendant, of Timur—sixth in line and his mother was a descendant of Chengiz Khan. Fisher, 0£, clt., p, 14; Edward S, Holden, The Mogul Ehperors of Hindustan, A,IC lj9fe-A.D. 170? (West­ minster! Archibald Constable and Company7 1895), pp.”57-58*

^ K e a y , 0£. clt.. p, 116 Bijapur, Golkanda, Halva, Jaunpur, Gujrat and M ultan.^ These lnetitu*. tions obviously offered a variety of subjects of study because Shershah who defeated Babur's son Humayun and becane the paramount Husllm

sovereign of India Is said to have studied history, poetry, philosophy,

Persian and Arabic at Jaunpur, which was the most famous place of leariw in g in IndiaAccording to Nadvi some of these schools evaluated

students through examinations and the distinguished among the former were honored with awards and prises. The Madrasa of Mahmud Gavan at

BLdar, with a library of several thousand volunes, Is mentioned by

several historians, archeologists, and travelers of the time. The Char

Minar of Hyderabad also is reported to have contained a college.

These and other evidences show that higher education in much of

India was well established before the invasion of Babur in 1526. We are

therefore surprised to find Babur writing thus in his Memoirs:

"Hindustan is a country that has few pleasures to recommend it, • • •

They have no good horses, no good flesh, no grapes or muskmelons, no ice

or cold water, no good food or bread, no (public) baths or colleges.

• . Perhaps Babur was referring only to Upper India where a great

deterioration had taken place in the closing years of the Sultanate

^A , H. Nadvi, Hindus than Ki Qadim Islaml Darsgahen /(The Old Muslim Educational Institutions in India/ (Aiamgarh: Matbae Kaarif, 1936), p. 70.

1 5 W . o p , clt,. p, 153,

1 0Nadvi, o£. clt.. p. 6 3 .

^Zahiruddin Babur, Memoirs of Zahiruddin Mohammad Babur. Emperor of Hindusthan. Vol. II, trans, John^eyden and Villi am Erakine (2 v o ls .; London: Oxford University Press, 1921), p. 24l. 12 period' or he night have been comparing the colleges of Hindustan with those of his own homeland' Sanarkhand, or with Persia, his second home.

These colleges were renowned centers of Muslim learning at that time*

All that can be said is that even before the sixteenth century there were schools and colleges under Muslim protection throughout much of

India, although a cultured ruler from a highly cultured land might regard the people as needing enlightenment.

The Onset of the Mughal Period

Once the Mughals became masters of India (1526 A.D.) a new era of progress and enlightenment started which endured till the oomplete end of their rule in 1857, although its finest development was in the years before 1700* This period of Indian history has many distinguishing marks, particularly its personalities. As Spear observes.

By coincidence or the working of some yet unfat homed historic law, the sixteenth century was an age of greatness and cre­ ative endeavor nearly everywhere. Europe had its Renaissance and Reformation, its age of discovery and its literary glory. France with its Francis I. • • • England with its Queen Elisa­ beth and Shakespeare. . . . In the Near East the Turkish Ottoman Dynasty with Salim and Sulaiman the Magnificent. . . . In this galaxy the Indian constellation shone brightly with Babur. Sher Shah and Akbar in the political field, Abul Fasl in the field of literature and scholarship, the poets Faisi and Tulai Das and the artistic creators of Fateh-pur Skirl and the Mughal school of painting. . • .20

One of the most remarkable and unique features of the Mughal

Etapire was the integration and unification of different communities of the country. Under the firm administration of successive emperors,

20 Spear, oj>. clt., pp. 115-116, 13 rivalries between religious groups and political parties gave way to understanding and cooperation. The life of the average man became more secure. Above all, for the first time in India a strong rule with a broad outlook and liberal policy afforded great opportunities for intellectual pursuits. The Mughal period on the whole was one of 21 intellectual rebirth in India.

Within a short time, the Mughal Empire stretched from Kashmir in the North to Madura in the South and from Sindh in the West to Bengal in the East. There remained a very few small Hindu and some Muslim inde­ pendent kingdoms, but the rays of the Persian culture spread throughout 22 India—from the fortress of Rajasthan to the temple courts of Madura.

As has been 6aid, Islamic thought and culture were established in many parts of the country before Babur came, but it was under the Mughal monarchs that the real flowering of Islamic civilization in India took place. With their highly intellectual outlook, ambition for power and wealth, love of learning and fine arts, attachment to religion and tolerance, they transformed India into "The Land of the Great Mughal."

The Mughal monarchs, who were great admirers of art and lite ra ­ ture, graciously patronized the learned, the scholars and the artists of

21Siddiqi, oj>. cit., p. 96.

22 Spear, og. clt.. p. 116. 14 the time,2!3 Each Mughal Qoperor personally contributed much toward the spread of knowledge and education in India.^ Almost all the Emperors from Babur to Bahadur Shah Zafar (deposed 1857) were highly cultured, well-read and well-eduoated rnen,^ Each of them considered it one of his important duties to support scholars and to establish schools and colleges for the promotion of learning in the country, as is fully evi­ denced from their material contributions,

Babur was not only an able general and administrator, but he was also an accomplished linguist and poet who frequently used poems of his own composition as gifts to his nobles. He died only a few years after he oame to D e lh i, too soon to have made much d ir e c t c o n trib u tio n to th e promotion of learning in India, His son Hunayun Is known to have collected a large library and to have founded a college. It is reported that his strongest interests were in astronomy and mathematics, but he was also a poet who cultivated the company of literary men and scholars,

Babur*s grandson, Akbar the Great (155&-1605), actually brought a renaissance in the field of Indian education. He Introduced broad reforms in the curriculms and methods of teaching in the schools and

^3"The Mughul Period," The Cambridge History of India. Vol. IV, ed. Sir Richard Burn (6 vols.; Cambridge: University Press, 1937), Chap, VIII, pp, 523-576, This chapter titled "Monuments of the Mughul Period" gives a comprehensive report of the Mughal contributions to art and architecture, 24 See Appendix I for a fuller report, 25 Perdval Spear, Twilight of the Mughals (Cambridge: University Press, 1951)* also Holden, op. clt,, have fully discussed this aspeot. 15 colleges of his day,^ Hs tried to ohsck ths was tags and stagnation In primary sohools and emphasised ths tsaohlng of practical and seisntific subjects in colleges,2? Xs a great advocate of HindtfeMuslim unity,

Xkbar suggested special measures for the education of Hindu pupils enrolled in Muslim schools. He ordered that instead of the study of

Qoran in Arabic, they should study their own national literature in

Sanskrit and in their own mother tongues,2®

The other Great lfaghals, Akbar's son and grandson, Jahangir and

Sah Jahan, contributed to learning and education in their own way.

Jahangir, a great patron of art and learning, went so far as to require hy law that the property of his subjects who died without heirs should be used for the purpose of maintaining colleges and monasteries* Shah

Jahan not only built Taj Mahal and beautified the country with several masterpieces of architecture in the shape of palaces and mosques, but contributed both to the cultural and intellectual side of the nation by building several schools and colleges. Particular mention should be made of his Imperial College founded in 1650 near the Jamia Masjid in

Delhi. The most noteworthy figure in the development of educational thought in the Muslim period along with Akbar is his great-grandson,

Baperor Aurangteb. For the first time in the history of education in

India it is Aurangseb who pleaded that a broad humanism be included in the curriculum, in which "history, geography and the languages of

^ K a b i r , 0£. cit., pp. 232-233,

^?Muha»ad Shamsul Huq, Compulsory Education in Pakistan (Paris: UNESCO, 195*0, p , 1 8 ,

28tIb m £ , d . 16

surrounding nations" hava a largo place, inatoad of tho formal study of

olaaaloal Arable which had continued to dominate* He strongly suggested

that education should bo linked with life and emphasised that the mother

tongue of the Muallms which was then Persian should be the medium of instruotion rather than Arabic, the literary language*29 The french

traveler Francois Bernier visited India during the reign of Aurangsob

and received many opportunities to attend the Baperor's court and per­

sonally see and hear the Bbperor's actions and views* In his "Travels

in the Mughal Empire" he reports a gentle reproof which the Baperor

administered to his teacher. It clearly expresses Aurangsob 1 s views of what good education should bet

Was i t not incus bent upon my preoeptor to make me aoquainted with the distinguishing features of every nation of the earth, its resources and strength, its mode of warfare, its manners, religion, form of government and wherein its interest princi­ pally oonstated; and by a regular course of historical reading to render me familiar with the origin of states, their progress and decline, the events, accidents or errors owing to which such great changes and mighty revolutions have been effected? Far from having imparted to me a profound and comprehensive knowledge of the history of mankind scarcely did I learn from you the names of ay ancestors, the renowned founders of this empire* You kept me in total ignorance of their lives, of the events which preceded and the extraordinary talents that enabled them to achieve their extensive conquests* A fam iliarity with the languages of the surrounding nations may be indispensable in a King, but you would teach me to read and write Arabic and waste ay time on the study of a language which required 10 or 12 years* • • • The mother tongue as the medius of instruction was ignored* • • • On the other hand that philosophy should have been taught which adapts the mind to reason. • • • Lessons should have been imparted as elevate the soul and fortify it against the assaults of fortune, * * *™

29Ib4d*. pp. 18-19. 3^Francois Bernier, Travels in the Mu££ Beplre. trans, Archibald Constable, rev* Vinoent A* £bdth (London t Oxford University Press, 1914), PP. 155-157* also T* H* Slqueira, The Education of India. History and Problems (4 th ed*; Bombay * Oxford University t*ress7 1952). pp. 153S* 17

This broad eduoational policy with emphasis on ths mother tongue, as laid down by Aurangseb, seems to be mors progressive than the one of the nineteenth century when the Medium of instruction in India was changed to a foreign language, i.e ., English instead of the vernaoulars of the people of the country. The Ekperor is reported to have established several schools and colleges* Several historians wake special report of the excellent arrangenents for the education of the nrther backward

Bohras of Gujrat* He had ordered that attendance be nade compulsory and that Monthly examinations be held and the results reported to hin*31

The strongly religious Mentality of the Ekperor Made him a patron of

Islanio learning, which gave little favor to such aesthetio arts as

Music, painting and sculpture* Hence in spite of all the enlightened and progressive views, Muslim education in Aurangseb*s time adopted a theological outlook rather than the secular one of Akbar.

The successors of Aurangseb were not able to provide significant encouragement to education because of the devastating wars and the precarious state of their own positions* let they founded oolleges, equipped libraries and gave endowments to soholars and institutions whenever they could* In this group two outstanding personalities deserve to be Mentioned for their own scholastic abilities as well as for their encouragement of the talented* They are the unfortunate Shah

Alan (1760), who is reported to have had the best education, consisting particularly in the knowledge of religion, oriental languages, history

31Ibld*. p. 15 16 and writing of on*1! academic exercises, 3? and the last Mughal Emperor

Bahadur Shah Zafar, ths Philosopher-Poet-Prince who had a high litarary and aesthatio taste . 33 Bahadur Shah composed aavaral volumes of lyrical and philosophical poatry in Parsian and Urdu languagas which occupy an important placa in tha raspactiva lltaraturaa. "Ha was raligious with** out baing fanatic and laarnad without balng pedantic."3^

Dalhi bacaaa tha cantar of high litarary activitias in tha aarly ninataanth oantury undar Bahadur Shah Zafar's rula* Calabratad poets, philosophers, taachars, theologians, historians and artists from several parts of India as wall as from different Muslim countries gathered round tha patron emperor*— but politically the empire was almost broken down.

Tha famous Indian poets Ghalib and Zauq ware at Bahadur Shah's Court.

9pear describes Bahadur Shah's Delhi as an Indian Weimar with Ghalib for its Goethe.35 Tha whole atmosphere of Dalhi and surrounding cities was saturated with tha love of learning poatry and philosophy at tha time of its doom.3^

Just before the decline of the Mughal empire, Oudh, with Lucknow as its capital, had become a vary important cantar of Islamic learning and culture. Tha Nawabs of Oudh vary generously patronised scholars and pupils, artists and poets. They had excellent volumes of rare

3^ Spear, Twilight of tha Mughala. p. 66.

33 I b i d .. p . 73. 34I b id . 35I h id . 36 Maulvi Mohammad Hussain Asad, Aba Hyath ^The E lixir of L ife/ (Lahore: Matba-e Kareemi, n.d.). Azad belonged to one of tha noble families of Delhi of the early 19th century. He was a very prominent figure in Muslim literary circles. This voluminous book is a detailed history of Urdu literature with a hroad perspective of all social and political developments of the period. Asad has given a full description of the literary atmosphere of time in Abe-Hyat which is regarded as one of the rare masterpieoes in Urdu and Persian literature. 19

collections in their lihrsries end they personally took great interest in the pronotion of learning,3?

Educational conditions in such other Islanic states of India as

Mysore under Hyder All and Tlpu Sultan and Hyderabad under the Nizam were relatively the same* The rulers favored Islamic education but at

the same time they gave endowments to Hindu pundits and their path-

shalas.3® Individual scholars and Institutions were given monetary help.

The state used to allot a certain amount for helping the cause of educa­

tion* but there was no organized and universal system of schooling.

Education was left mostly to private enterprise* Some state-managed

sohools did exist* but obviously in very limited numbers.

Education in Muslim India

The educational developments of a particular period and place can

be better understood against a background of the social* cultural and

economic situation of the soaiety. The conditions of sixteenth- and

seventeenth-century India have been elaborately reported by historians

of that period* particularly by Abul Fazl in his Ain-i-Akbari which is a

political* administrative and cultural encyclopedia. The history of

37 Azad* op, c i t *. and a ls o Abdul Halim Sharar* M ashrloi Tamuddun Ka Akhri Mamoona ^The Last Glimpses of the Eastern Civilization/* This is an authentic historical-cultural encyclopedic record of the last days of the glories of Muslim power and culture in India* Sharar was a cele­ brated Urdu novelist and historian who not only contributed originally to Urdu literature but also made excellent translations of a larger number of English histories and novels of medieval and later times*

-^Mahmood Khan Banglori* Tarlkhe Saltanate Khudadad Mysore ^The History of the Heavenly Bestowed Kingdom of K y to r if (Lahorei United Book Depot* 19*+?). % 20

Kafi-Khan, Aurangseb* s letters, reports, and tha obaarvationa of traveler a and official a who lived In tha Mughal Eknplre for a eonaider- a b la t in e ( f o r example B e rn ie r, S ir Thomas Roe and s e v e ra l o th e r s ) describe political, social, and oivlc conditions of the period very vividly. There la abundant evidenoe in these writings that "during the seventeenth century India was more peaceful and prosperous and presented a more impressive face to the world than had been the case for a thousand years and was to be for more than a hundred years to come."^ For the first time in history, India had become all-India minded. The government regarded maintaining order and upholding the laws of various conaunities as its prime responsibility in order to encourage the cultural life of the people. Music and art in India received a great impetus by the

MugmL ru lers.^ The love of art and architecture resulted in the con­ strue ti on of many world-famous buildings. The emperors and omrahs built beautiful mosques, sarais (rest houses for travelers), colleges, mausoleums and tombs. Directly, this was a display of their wealth, generosity and ambition, as well as an act of religious piety. Indirectly it gave a greater impetus to the spread of education because to almost all of the above-mentioned buildings, schools and libraries were attached.

While describing education in India Mukerji writes that during the 41 Muslim rule the whole country was dotted with mosques. According to

39 Spear, India. A Modern History, p. 1*46.

^Rabindranath Tagore, Creative Unity (London: Macmillan & Co., 1950), p. 198.

^ S . N. Mukerji, Education in India Today and Tomorrow (Baroda: Acharya Book Depot, 1957!), pp. 3-5 • 21

|tO Hartog every mosque was a madrasah or school of learning In miniature and distinguished Arabic scholars taught in these schools free of charge*

This suggests that opportunity for higher learning* and more particu­ larly that of elementary eduoation, came within easy reach of great masses of people*

The sohools and colleges of Muslim India from the fifteenth up to the eighteenth century imparted good academic as well as practical education* As has been remarked earlier, there were institutions for vocational training as well* Delhi became famous for its arts and orafts* It was only under royal or aristocratic patronage that the artists flourished* "The arte in the Indies*" wrote Bernier, "would long ago have lost their beauty and delicacy if the Monarch and principal

Omrahs did not keep in their pay a number of artists who work in their houses, teach the children* • • *"**3 He described the "Kar-Kanays or workshops" for the artisans where embroiderers, goldsmiths, painters, shoemakers, tailo rs, manufacturers used to work the whole day,****

Some of the institutions of higher learning were endowed by the state, and those for elementary education were ty and large left com- pletely to private enterprise*^ The Muslim rulers did not interfere with the education of their subjects in their own religions* Religious

Jo Sir Philip Hartog, Some Aspects of Indian Education. Past and Present (Londoni Oxford University Press, 193977”pT 50.

^Bernier, Travels in the Mj^jAJSjafire, p. 228*

^Ibld*. pp* 258-259.

■TCabir, 0£. d t*. p. 230* 22 instruction was regarded as an important part of one*s education, "None of them denied the principle that every child should be educated in his own religion if he is educated at all. None of them advocated a religion- less or neutral education to cut the Gordian Knot of m ultiplicity of religions,Since all Muslim schools and oolleges were open to every one, these educational institutions were attended b y the norwMuslims also,Som e Hindus, as has been pointed out, studied Persian because it was the Court language and was an accomplishment necessary for a culti­ vated society—as French was in the Western countries. Whatever educa­ tion they might prefer or whatever reasons they might have for their preference, the need and worth of education for obtaining social recognition as well as material benefits was keenly felt b y many parents, including the Hindus of many castes and the Muslims alike, who considered it their duty to send their sons to school. The Muslim schools also shed a great influence over the outcasts a ad aboriginal tribes of India.

The translations of treasured Vedic literature under Muslim influence

jjQ helped to modify the rigid Brahmanic notions about castes. Thus

Mohammedan education promoted the cultural unity of India and helped to break down caste barriers, for the Muslim schools were open to one and a ll.**9

ixA Siqueira, o£. cit., p. 18, k? Kabir, op. cit,. p, 232; also Keay, 0 £. cit.. p, lUl,

**®Rano K. Mukerjee, "An Investigation into the Uses of Mass Media for Religious Education in (Rural) India" (unpublished Master*s thesis, The Ohio State University, 1952), p. 10.

^Keay, op. cit., p. 140, 23

Wo—n in Muslim Society

Although the seventeenth csntury was the most flourishing period of Ialamlo eulturo and Indo-Ialamic dviliaation, a critical examination of the position of women during this period reveals that certain unde­ sirable characteristic restrictions had developed which retarded the progress of women,

Ety this time India had become predominantly a man's world* Ladles of the leading Muslim and Hindu families observed purdah or seclusion,^

Women of lower socioeconomic groups were freer to move, but the sight of strange men would make them hide themselves. This withdrawal of women proved to be a serious handicap to the education of girls, but there are nonetheless several notable women scholars who are worthy of special references as we study the education of women in Muslim India,

N ehru, oj>, c i t , . p . 265. CHAPTER III

EDUCATION OF WOMEN IN MUSLIM INDIA

The P h ilo sophy o f E ducation

Fourteen hundred years ago when different societies of the world looked down upon woman as a weak and inferior being, Islam placed her in the foremost ranks of society. The Qoran and the Prophet elevated her status by according her rights and privileges oqual to those of man, in spiritual, economic and social fields. Under the impact of Islamic teachings the acquisition of knowledge also became a duty as important for women as for men, "Koran addresses itself to the faithful without distinction of sex. It imposes on women no less than on men belief in the creed and adherence to its religious and ethnical obligations."^

Prophet Mohammed himself clearly indicated the Importance of knowledge and learning, both for men and women, "Acquisition of knowledge is incumbent upon all the faithful, men as well as women, • . . Seek knowledge from the cradle to the grave, • • • Acquire it even if it be O in China," Thus from its beginning, Islam introduced a system of

^George E. Noronha, Backgrounds in the Education of Indian Girls (Washington, D, C,s The Catholic University of America, 1939), p,

Mohammad Shamsul Huq, Compulsory Education in Pakistan (Paris: UNESCO, 195^), PP» 1^15; also Abul Fadl, Sayings of the Prophet Mohammad, ed. and trans, from original Arabic, with an Introduction by Mirsa Abul-Fadl (Allahabad: Reform Society, 1924),

24 25 literate knowledge which replaced the oral tradition.3 Hence as has been already stated education cans to be associated with religion in

Muslin India, as in the rest of the Muslin world under Qoranic injunc­ tions which emphasised preference for the learned ast "God will uplift those who believe and those endowed with knowledge to higher ranks*^

In spite of these provisions for the eduoation of all, we do not find in the early centuries of Muslin rule in India any special oonoern with women's eduoation in general* But for that natter, a general study of contemporary educational conditions of many countries shows that there was no concern anywhere for the provision of the academic type of education for woman until the late eighteenth century except in a few individual private cases*

Even in the United States as late as the eighteenth century, well-to-do families of the South provided their daughters "with such embellishments as music, dandng and French, talents that eligible young gentlemen, according to the fashion, increasingly demanded*In the

3 Maneoorunnisa Siddiqi, "Contributions of Islamio Eduoation with Special Reference to Pakistan" (doctoral dissertation. Harvard Univer­ sity, 1959)* P* 35; also Hunayun Kabir, "Islam and India," Indo-Asian Culture. Vol. 9# Mo. 3 (January 1961), 2hh-2h6.

^Siddiqi, o£. d t*. pp. 35-36*

-*Merle C u rti, "The E duoation o f Women," The S o c ia l Id e a s o f Amer­ ican Educators (New Jersey; L ittle Field, Adams * Co., 195977" PP. 193. It Is most interesting to compare the sodal ideas of the Western Society (American) and Eastern Society (Indian) in past centuries, to learn that these ideas were almost alike with regard to eduoation of women, even though there was not much contact between the two societies* Both differentiated among the type of eduoation to be given to girls of different economic backgrounds. Both emphasised the feminine skills* At the same time it is evident that the literary eduoation for Muslim girls of higher economic level was already highly emphasised in the l?th century although we find such an emphasis lacking in the 1 7th century American Society* Northern states also the showy graces were expected from girls and woman. Moreover the education of women was differentiated according to the classes to which they belonged* Girls of the lower economic groups were fortunate if they could get the opportunity of learning their letters and "a pittance of figures*1 as it was called. Girls of more privileged groups acquired from private masters or adventure schools polite and elegant education which suited their station.^

Toward the end of the eighteenth century ideas of intellectual learning for women seen to have been entertained in America. Otherwise, up to the time of the Revolution in 1776 the fundamental arts cultivated by American women appeared to be those of embroidery, music, dancing and French. It was thought that women should better content themselves with feminine skills and refrain from meddling in those things which are proper for men. It is recorded that even as late as the 1820*8 the

Mayor of Boston closed the first high school opened to girls on the ground that it would bankrupt the city to educate them.?

Elementary education of women in Muslim India ~

The elementary or primary education for girls during the seven*, teenth and early eighteenth centuries comprised the same subjects as that for boy^-reading, writing, simple arithmetic, religious instruction and the study of the Qoran. Study of the Qoran in Arabic formed the main part of the curriculun for Muslim girls, but the remainder of the 27

education was imparted in the mother tongue, either Persian, Urdu or Q Bengali, Committing a part of the Qoran to memory was emphasized, as

it is even today. But as already indicated, education was a private

matter and a handmaid of religion.

The formal education of all Muslim girls, as that of boys, began when they were four years, four months and four days old. The oeremony

of initiating the child, whether a boy or girl, to the study of letters

is observed by almost all Muslim families in India, This is called the

maktab or Bismillah Khani. When the child is four years, four months and

four days old, all relatives assemble, the child is dressed grandly and

the oldest member of the family (usually the grandfather) teaches the

child to pronounoe some verses of Qoran and alphabets. Thus formally,

he or she is introduced to literate knowledge and religious instruction

and it Is supposed that the child*s education w ill continue now onwards.

But quite often many children do not receive eduoation beyond this formal

i n i t i a t i o n . Anyway, th e presenoe o f t h i s custom among Muslim fa m ilie s

of past centuries also indicates their concern for girls education as

well as for boys. This formality is customary even at present and is

considered as an important event in the child*s life,^

F, E, Keay, Indian Education in Ancient and Later Times (2d ed,, reprinted! Calcutta: Oxford University Press, 195^), P, 137, quoting from Quinquennial Review of Eduoation in India, 1907-1912, p, 272, 9 f k mention of this is also made in Adam1s Reports (Calcutta Edi­ tion), pp,290-91, according to Syed Nurullah and J. P, Naik, A History o f E duoation in In d ia (durin g th e B r itis h P e rio d ) (2d e d , ; Bombay: Macmillan A Co., Ltd., 1951), p. 25, 2? education vaa imparted in the mother tongue, either Persian, Urdu or Q Bengali. Committing a part of the Qoran to memory was emphasised, as it is even today. But as already Indicated, education was a private matter and a handmaid of religion.

The formal education of all Muslim girls, as that of boys, began when they were four years, four months and four days old. The oeremony of initiating the child, whether a boy or girl, to the study of letters is observed by almost all Muslim families in India. This is called the maktab or BLssdllah Khani. When the child is four years, four months and four days old, all relatives assemble, the child is dressed grandly and the oldest member of the family (usually the grandfather) teaches the child to pronounce some verses of Qoran and alphabets. Thus formally, he or she is introduced to literate knowledge and religious instruction and it is supposed that the child’s education will continue now onwards.

But quite often many children do not reoeive eduoation beyond this formal initiation. Anyway, the presence of this custom among Muslim families of past centuries also indicates their concern for girls education as well as for boys. This formality Is customary even at present and is considered as an important event in the child’s life.'*

Q F. E. Keay, Indian Eduoation in Ancient and Later Times (2d ed., reprinted} Calcutta: Oxford University Press, 195^)* p. 137, quoting from Quinquennial Review of Eduoation in India, 1907-1912, p. 272.

^A mention of this is also made in Adam’s Reports (Calcutta Edi­ tion), pp.290-9 1, according to Syed Nurullah and J. P. Naik, A History of Eduoation in India (during the British Period) (2d ed.; Bombay: Macmillan A Co., Ltd., 1951), p. 25, 28

The agencies for imparting aducation vara maktabs* Qoran schools and Mulla schools* which wara usually attaohad to aithar tha no aquas or monasteries, in both citias and villages. Tha Muslin alanantary schools wara opan to all dasaaa of sodaty in contrast to tha Hindu and Buddhist

systan wharain aduoation had cona to ba rastriotad to oartaln classes,

saotlons and groups of sodaty. But thara appaar to hava bean no organ­ ised schools for girls. Tha Mulla of tha nosqua usad to assanble tha

Mohammedan boys and g irls and taach than . 10 Education was inpartad

mostly on an individual basis* and tha young girls wara taught in tha

sana schools whara thair brothers studied.^ In view of lack of enough

evidence it is not known as to what extant separata schools for girls

existed but evidences prove that whenever parents desired, arrangements

for separata teaching of girls wara also made. ". • • In Mughal India

sonatinas tha Mulla of tha nosqua gave instruction to a group of little

girls fron tha neighborhood whose parents wished them to ba educated.

Tha domestic system of providing education at hene by private teachers

seams also to have bean prevalent in many families, as it is reported

that householders of naans engaged tha services of a teacher to instruct

thair children in reading, writing and arithm etic.^ Xn tha historical

*°Jadunath Sarkar, Studies in Mughal India (London: Longman's Green & Co., 1920), pp. 299^5^”

^Keay, op. cit.. p. 80,

^ S a r k a r , 0£. cit.. pp. 299- 302.

quoting from Imperial Gaaeteer of India. Vol. IV. 29 writings and general litsraturs of the period which deal with cultural and sodal aspects of Muslim society, it is evident that learned parents usually took upon themselves the responsibility of educating their own as well as the children of their neighbors and relatives, as this was oonsidered a sacred religious duty.

In spite of all the facilities which might have been made avail­ able, the education of girls with some exceptions does not seem to have gone very far. There were a number of reasons for this. The social restriction upon girls in the form of seclusion or purda seems to be one of the major causes which prohibited them, after they reached maturity, from attending boys* schools. This meant that their further eduoation could be continued only in separate schools, Moreover, as has been remarked earlier, some traditions of the Hindu society had gained their way into the Indian-Muslim way of life . One such influence was the early marriage custom which became common long before the eighteenth

century, mostly among the lower strata of the Indian Muslim society. In the middle olasses, with some exceptions, it was oonsidered a matter of

social prestige for the girls to marry as early as possible after they matured. These customs were obviously major roadblocks in the progress

o f women1s e d u c a tio n .

Higher education

Purda or seclusion and early marriage seem to have been responsi­

ble for an almost complete lack of women's higher education in Islamic

sohools and colleges. It was a misfortune that on account of social disabilities girls were denied the opportunity of attending some of the 30 celebrated colleges of the tine which war* situated in North, West and

Central India, There were to be found the Madrasahs of Tatth, Jaunpur,

Sialkot, Ajudhan, Sirhand, KanauJ where fam ilies of hereditary Muslin scholars laparted the highest instruction in special subjects,^*

Although there is a paucity of aaterial which would establish the existence of foraal organisations or institutions of higher learning for girls, the literature relating to the life and trend of thought of the tine presents abundant evidence that during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries and even in the early eighteenth century higher education of

Muslia girls was not uncommon,"^ India at this tine had reached the senith of cultural and Intellectual developments* The Mughal court was the school of manners for Hindusthan as the court at Versailles had a similar influence upon Europeans, Even as late as the early deoades of the nineteenth century when the power of the Mughals had declined, the

Delhi court under Bahadur Shah and Lucknow under the Nawabs had great cultural influence, and scholarship and learning, and arts and crafts in the leisured classes were highly encouraged by royal and noble patronage}^

lifSarkar, 0£, cit,, p, 300,

^Hueh of the Urdu and Persian literature consisting of histori­ cal, social and cultural novels, dramas and Urdu epic poetry written in the early years of the nineteenth century suggest this fact. To quote a few exaaples. Masnavi Gulsar-o-Maseaai Bagh-o-Bahar by Mir Aaaan; and particularly ty Sarshar describe the literary atmosphere which surrounded girls of highly-cultured fsallies, Sarshar1s work is regarded as a cultural enqydopedia of I8th-19th-century India and gives comprehensive information about education, training and sodal disdpllne with regard to both sexes and people of different groups and classes. This voluminous novel was published in parts in the Oudh Akbar (periodical), between 1878- 1879, 16 Spear, Twilight of the Mughals. p, 83, As ths general atmosphere was saturated with learning, poetry and arts, tha Muslin elite thought it wall to acquaint thair ladies also with these intellectual pursuits* It beoane the fashion of the day for well-to-do parents and other interested ones to provide intellectual opportunities for their daughters* Hence in many upper-middle class fam ilies, we learn that Muslim girls aoquired literary education along with training in the social graces* It is evident that this was primar­ ily within the reach of the urban population, since most of the institu­ tions of higher learning are reported to have been situated in cities.

Hence the opportunity of receiving education under able private tutors might have been available only to women of the cities* But we are not surprised to learn that sometimes pleasant results came about, such as middle-class girls with good eduoation and training marrying into the noble or royal families*1?

In the pre-Muslim period education either was generally denied to women or was purely religious,but the aims of women*s education in

Muslim India seem to have been broader and more varied. Along with religious and literary education, emphasis was laid on the cultivation of the social graces and of such fine arts as painting, embroidery, and instrumental music so that girls would be able to adorn their home

17 'The Urdu literature of the time gives several evidences of this fa c t* and brighten the lives of their husbands and children apart from spend­ ing their leisure time usefully, ^

The aims of education naturally guided the content of education.

Muslim girls who had an opportunity for higher education made a thorough study of Qoran (in Arabic)( of Persian literature and of the humani­ ties.^® The writing of poetry, the impromptu composition of verses and skill in eloquence were the fashion of the day, and they formed the main parts of the higher education program.21 The fine arts of painting, drawing, and music were cultivated not only for aesthetic reasons but also as a practical matter. S till more practical, perhaps tending to be

"vocational" were the general teaching of cooking, embroidery, sewing and occasionally medicine at home.

Education of Muslim Princesses and Noble Girls

Though Muslim emperors of India were great patrons of art and learning, there does not seem to be enough evidence that they were inclined to provide facilities for the education of women in general.

But a study of the lives of many Muslim princesses of India indicates

19 The poetic literature of Maulana Hall, Nazeer Ahmed's essays, Akbar Allahbadi's humorous poems and much more Urdu and Persian lite ra ­ ture of the period implies that women's goals in life should be the above-mentioned ideals.

^® Sarkar, o jj. c i t . . p p . 301-302. 21 The literature, both Urdu and Persian, of the time, such as Chahar Dervish by Mir Amman, Salre Kuhsar by Sarshar, and the works by Sarshar and A, H. Sharar which have already been mentioned, very vividly express this aspect. The literary activities of the princesses also proves this point. that their eduoation was not negleoted and that several Muslim rulers had made excellent provisions in different areas for the education of their ladles.

It is reoorded that Ghiasuddin (1469-1500), the ruler of Malwa, and, later, Akbar the Great (1556-1605) made arrangements for the educa­ tion of ladlea who lived within the harem. 22 School mistresses were appointed for them and Akbar had set apart certain rooms at Fateh-pur

Sileri for this purpose.2^ Similar arrangements must have been made in other prominent noble and royal families, for the literature about the period contains references to several ladies well versed in religion and literature. The names of several learned ladies in the families of the

Bahmlni Kings of Deccan, Nawab V izirs of Oudh, Nizams of Hyderabad and

Tipu Sultan of Itysore are recorded in histories.

We learn that famous Muslim scholars were engaged for the educa­

tion of the prinoesses. Many instances have been reoorded of learned women from Persia being employed as teachers. For example, Satiunnisa,

a respectable native of Mazendran, Persia, belonging to a family of

scholars and physicians, herself an elocutionist and Persian and Arabic

scholar, was appointed tutoress to the Princess Royal Jahan Ara, daughter

of Shah Jahan and elder sister of Aurangzeb. Similarly one of the

teachers of Princess Zebunnisa, the poetess and scholar daughter of

^ K e a y , 0£. cit.. p. 80.

23I b id .

2^ S a rk ar, 0£. alt., pp. 21-22. Aurangqeb, was "a learned lady named Hafita Mariam , . . whose family originally oama from Maiahabin in Khurasan,*2^

Tha royal ladlas studied humanities in prafaranoa to theology, but raligion was emphasised in thair studies, also study of tha Qoran in

Arabic was a main raquiramant of thair aduoation and it is raported that av ary ona o f them who mada soma p ro g re s s i n h e r s tu d ie s had to commit

2 f s the Qoran to memory* Knowledge of Persian literature was a necessary requirement as Persian beeame the mother tongue and was regarded as the language of the polite and tha diplomat*2^ In fact most ladies of tha royal households mastered several additional languages as wall* For example, in the far South Chand Bibi, the oelebrated Queen of Deccan, who fought at the head of an army and "made a gallant and successful realstance to Akbar's son Prinoe Murad,"2® had received an excellent education and could speak Arabic, Persian, Turk!, Kanarese and Marathi very w ell,2?

Delhi, being the court of the Mughal Kings, was the greatest oenter of all literary activities and here the royal ladies had good opportunities for gaining and making good use of their learning, Babur's daughter Gulbadan Bano Begum, who was well acquainted with Turki, Persian and Arabic, is said to be one of the first autobiographers in the royal

25Ibid„ p. 79 . 26Ibid„ p. 301,

Spear, Twilight of the Mughals, pp, 82*83,

^^Vinoent A, Saith, The Oxford History of India, ed, Perdval Spear (3d ed,; Oxford: Clarendon Press, 195$), p. 2 9 5. 29 Keay, d t ,. p. 80, fa m ily .3° She w rote th e memoirs o f hor b ro th e r— Humayun Nama in T urki language, Sho 1* reported to have had a library of hor own and a good oolloction of books.

Salima Sultana, nlooo to Humayun and Gulbadan Bano and wife to

Akbar, was a postsss wall vsrssd In tfas Psrsian language, Akbar’s lsarnad nurss and fostsr mother Maham Anaga promoted the oause of eduoation fay founding a college or madrasah at Delhi in 1561,^ 1 Host famous and more learned than these was the beautiful Noor Jahan, the wife of Jahangir, whose reign was nearly contemporaneous with that of Elisabeth I of

England, Noor Jahan about idiom Holden the historian quotes the oompll- ments whioh were onoe paid to Sultana Ratla that, "she was endowed with every princely virtue and those who scrutinise her actions w ill find in her no fault but that she was a woman, was unusually accomplished in the arts of painting and needle work, Noor Jahan*s ingenious mind and artistic taste helped her to invent certain new designs in Jewelry and dresses which even today are very much appreciated fay the Muslim ladies of India, Jahangir in his memoirs writes that Noor Jahan*s mother invented the "Attar of Roses"^ (a very popular perfume used in India),

The best remembered of all the ladies was Mumtas Mahal ih whose memory

^Cambridge History of India, op, cit,, p, 19,

31T. N. Siqueira, The Education of India. History and Problems (hth ed,; Bombayt Oxford University Press, 1952), p. 13*

^Edward S, Holden, The Mogul Bsperors of Hindustan A,D, 1398* A.D,1707 (Westminsteri Archibald Constable and Company, 18957, p. 256. 36

Shah Jahan built tha Taj Mahal* But it la not alona for this tributa th a t Muntaz, Mahal i s known, fo r both sha and h ar d au g h ter Jahan Ara

Begun wara wall versed in literature and eonposed good Persian poetry*

Emperor Aurangteb had four daughters who wara all wall educated.

Tha eldest of them, Princess Zebunnisa, 11 inherited her father's keen intellect and literary taste and completely mastered the Arabic and

P e rsia n languages.3^ She had successfully committed the whole Qoran to memory and was, moreover, a scholar in Mohammedan law* Zebunnisa was a remarkably gifted poetess as well. Her refined language and excellent insights are enthusiastically appreciated by all who read the Persian tongue* Her eloquent and impromptu Persian verses have long been used like proverbs in circles of intellectual taste* Zebunnisa*s Persian poetry has been translated into many languages. As an additional artistic accomplishment she had gained excellence in writing different kinds of Persian hand~_Nastallkh, Nasakh, Shlkastha—with neatness and grace*35 Not only was she herself a scholar but she was also a patron of men of knowledge and learning* Sarkar mentions that her library surpassed all other private oolleotions of books, and she employed many

scholars on liberal salaries to produce new books and oopy old manuscripts*

Bernier in his Travels in the Mughal Bnplre describes the Inter* esting "fairs 11 or "Meena-Bataar" held every month on a particular day in

^ S a r k a r , 0£, cit*, p. 79*

35Ib jd * . pp. 79-90* 37 the royal seraglio*^ Those were eonduoted by the wives of the Gmrahs, or nobles, and their daughters* On these occasions rich embroidery and other articles of handicraft were exhibited; these were bought by the

Bmperor and ladles of the royal fsally. The sellers* aanners, witty jests, good huaor, their skill in arts and craftn..«sll these reveal the care and attention paid to the general eduoation and training of girls in noble and higher middle class families* On the whole, girls and woaen of higher socioeconomic groups aust have received opportunities for a good education* Later aarriages among women of these groups also help to account for their superior education* They were generally married at sixteen and eighteen years of age, whereas in the lower economic groups ehilcLssarrlage became prevalent* So it is evident that upper class girls could have aore time for eduoation* In the lower middle class families, as one would expect, after elementary eduoation very few girls had a chance for further education exoept to learn the domestic arts and house* hold matters*37 On the whole a great disparity prevailed between the eduoation of boys and girls, as well as between the eduoation received by the girls of high socioeconomic groups and those of the common stock*

^Francois Bernier, Travels in the Mogul Empire, trans* Archibald Constable, rev* Vincent A* Sbdth (2d ed*; London: Oxford University Press, 1914), PP* 272*274. According to Bernier these fairs whioh were held on every festival day were introduced by Ekperor Shah Jahan.

37 Sarkar, 0 £. d t*. p. 301* Education of Hindu Woman

Among records of the ancient Hindu culture there is evidence that some Hindu women of ancient times, before the Christian era, received benefits of knowledge and learning, Hindu scholars hold that some Hindu girls received eduoation in the institutions of the day known as forest ashrams and even kept pace with philosophical schools of the day.

Apparently in ancient India, Vedic instruction was regarded as the best eduoation and it was taught to those who took part in religious ceremonies and sacrifices. The opportunity was extended to several Hindu women who participated in performing the religious rituals. Hence some women are mentioned as being well grounded in the Vedic literature and even to have made contributions by composing hymns of the Rig Veda.^ We learn that apart from religious education several Hindu women of ancient times were UO talented in spinning, weaving, toymaking, dancing, singing and cooking.

However this situation underwent a change. Women came to be iri regarded as inferior beings, and the right to study was denied to them.

Numerous social restrictions were imposed upon women which curbed their freedom. Finally around 200 A.D. Manu, the chief Hindu lawgiver, wrote

3 Keay, 0 £, c it,. pp. 7^75, see also Padmini Sen Gupta, Women1 s Education in India (New Delhi: Ministry of Education, Government of In d ia , 196(57, PP« 1 -2 ,

*^A, S. Altekar, Education in Ancient India (Varanasi: Nand Kishore and Brothers, 19573, pp* 20S-209. 39 in his famous cods,^ "In chlld-hood a female must be subject to her father, in youth to her husband, when her lord is dead to her sons; a woman must never be independent,"^ Thus very rapidly a serious deteri­ oration came over the position of Hindu women. They were not allowed to study the Vedas, Customs of early marriage, deva d asi,^ suttee^ and enforced widowhood became widespread, making woman a victim of man1s selfish and cruel fancy.

The advent of Buddhism in the sixth century B.C. struck another blow to Indian woman's position as the following passage explains:

"Under the shadows of the great ideal of Sanuayasa (renunciation) the weaknesses of women were exaggerated as a warning to the monks. To

42 Code o f Manu. I t i s th e a n c ie n t Hindu law book which i s claim ed to have been constructed at the dawn of civilisation. Historians think that the data of this work was probably between 200 B.C. and 200 A.D. Warren Hastings is said to have selected this book to be translated and officially used by the British East India Company. D. MacKensie Brown, Indian Political Thought—From Hanu to Gandhi (Berkley & Los Angeles: University of California Press, 195977pp. 2&-27.

^Keay, op. cit.. p. 75* quoting Manu, V, pp. 147-149.

^During the Medieval period some gross social customs developed in Hindu society which led to very serious results as far as Hindu women were concerned. Peva-dasl. suttee, etc., are examples of this. fisva- dasi means servant of god} it may probably have started as a mark of religious devotion to a particular god but as time progressed it is reoorded to have led to temple-prostitution and immorality. This was vigorously attacked by the Hindu religious and social reform movements in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. 45 Suttee— Hindu women used to burn themselves on the funeral pyre of their dead husbands. Sometimes true love for the deceased might be the motivation for this, but more generally it became an enforced social custom, especially among high-caste Hindu fam ilies. Akbar and several other Muslim Kings tried to stop this evil custom but were not success­ ful. Then in the early nineteenth century Raja Ram Mohan Roi with the help of Lord William Bentinck put an end to this through government laws. encourage renunciation, women were despised as the source of worldli- ness."^ But later on the Buddhist monastic system included a few women as well in its fold who were called Ehikkunis; perhaps nuns of this order reeeived instruction in reading and writing also along with religious instruction, for it is held that some of them contributed to literature and other intellectual attainments.^ Yet it is not evident as to what extent the Buddhist nunneries helped the progress of women's education in India, Histories of education however indicate that the religious status of women received a great set back by 200 A.D, and this had a serious effect on their educational progress. In general, educa- tion of common women came to a standstill and this state of affairs con­ tinued for a very long period.

During the fifteenth to the eighteenth centuries the privilege of education seems to have been enjoyed by some women in a few Hindu aristocratic fam ilies, Mira Bai, a Rajput princess, and Blbi Ratan Kaur in the fifteenth and eighteenth centuries, respectively, were known for their poetic compositions and they were considered to be gifted poetesses.^ Mention is often made of four Tamilian women philosophers in South India. This group consisted of Avyar and her three sisters,

Avyar is reported to be well versed in astronomy, medicine, geography,

^S . Radhakrishnan, Religion and Society (London: 19^7), p«1^3, quoted by Sripatl Shridevi, "Development of Women's Higher Education in India" (doctoral dissertation, Columbia University, 1959)* p. 3. poetry, science end a rts.^ Nehru writes of Lekshnl Devi of the eighteenth century who wrote a great legal commentary on a famous law book of the medieval period.^0 But It Is evident that these were the most exceptional cases of Hindu women scholars.

By the time Muslim rule was well established in India during the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, the eduoation of girls in Hindu society seems to have been almost completely obsolete. When the Muslim schools were founded, they were open to all communities, and the curriculum was modified to suit the needs of the time and also of Hindu children. It has been pointed out that the numbers of noiwMuslim pupils steadily increased, but there are no evidences to show that Hindu girls attended the Mualim schools. This was so perhaps on account of the deterioration of the social position of Hindu women, as is obvious by the common practice of suttee, especially in the territories where no

Mohammedan governors were appointed.^ According to the French observer

Bernier, Eaperor Aurangseb did not forbid these practices by a positive law because "he did not wish to disturb the Gentiles (Hindus) in the /

JlQ Minna G. Cowan, The Education of the Women of India (New Yorks Fleming H. Reveil Company, 19l£), p. 32.

^Jawahar Lai Nehru, The Discovery of India (New Yorks The John Day Company, 19^*6), p . 2 6 5.

^Humayun Kabir, "Continuity of Tradition in Indian Educational Thought," The Indo Asian Culture (New Delhi, Indian Council for Cultural Relations, January 19597* Vol. VII, No. 3* P* 230. 52 Bernier, op. cit.. p. 30?# 42 free exercises of their religion" but the practices were sometimes cheeked by indlreot m e a n s , ^ 3

E|y the eighteenth century numerous prejudices sgalnst women*s education had come over the Indian society. One of the saddest beliefs was that a girl taught to read and write would beoome a widow soon after her m arriage.^ This and several other views proved to be the strongest road block in the way of Hindu women*s education in general. But It is a fact that there were some honorable exceptions to this general deteri­ oration* Although it is true that many Hindu women were instructed for religious duties and performances, there were many superstitions which served to inhibit any additional education.

Education of Indian Women during Decline of Muslim Rule

With the death of Aurangseb the Muslim Ekpire in India practioally collapsed and there followed a period of devastating wars and foreign intrigues creating continual disorder and unrest in the country. The suceessors of Aurangseb and especially the rulers of such independent

Muslim states as Oudh. Hyderabad, >(ysore (known during the reign of

Tippu Sultan as Sal tanate-Khudadad), and the Nawabs of Karnatak

53 Bernier gives a full account of the prevalent customs in his Travels in the Mughal Aspire and describes how widows were forced by their relatives to burn themselves, and how the Muslim governors under Aurangseb*s orders tried to stop this practice by promising monthly income and provision of respectable life to the party. In fact Bernier himself was once sent by his patron "amrah" the governor, to persuade a would-be-suttee from burning herself. See Bernier, og. c it.. pp. 303-308,

54 Nurullah and Naik, op. d t .. p. 26, quoting Adam* 8 R ep o rts, op. cit.. pp. 138- 1 5 9. 43

contributed greatly to the cause of learning and education by giving liberal endowments and rich gifts to the maulvis and pandits for the

adninistration of their nadrasahs and pathshalas and this kept the flaae of knowledge burning.55 Sometimes colleges and libraries were founded

in these states and elsewhere* This Must be one of the chief reasons

for their existence, that when the British administrators began to take

steps for organising the modern systen of education, a popular systen of

education survived throughout the country and there renained a network

of indigenous s c h o o l s , ^ but learning very much deteriorated.

In the early nineteenth century after British arrival into India,

different inquiries into the indigenous systen of eduoation were nade in

order to determine the character and extent of this education, Nurullah

and Naik Mention three such inquiries which were ordered by the British

Governors of Madras in 1822 and of Bonbay in 1823,^? A special inquiry

into the indigenous eduoation of Bengal was nade in 1835-1838 by William

Adam, a missionary who had devoted himself to the cause of eduoation

under the order of Lord W illian Bentinek, the Governor General of India.

These reports throw light on the conditions of eduoation of the country,

and sone information about women*s education in the eighteenth century

is also gained through then,

^Mahnood Khan Banglori, Tarlkhe Saltanate Khudadad Mysore j j he History of the Heavenly Bestowed Kingdom of tyaorej (Lahore; United Book Depot, 194?) gives a full account of historical, social and educational events of this period in Mysore, South India,

^K . G, Saiyldain, J. P, Naik, S.Abid Hussain, Compulsory Education in India (Paris! UNESCO, 1952), p. 11.

^ Nirullshand Naik, op. cjt., pp. 2-50. 44 A careful study of these reports indicates that adueatlon of

Indian girls had completely deteriorated during this period. Native customs excluded females from the advantages of eduoation. "The girls are never taught to read and write amongst the natives of India 11 ran one of the reports. In general. Hindus had retained the old suspicions about educating girls as Adam reports:

Under the influence of these fears there is not only nothing done in a family to promote female instruction but an anxiety is often evinced to disoourage any inclination to acquire the most elementary knowledge. . . . The superstitions and dis­ tasteful feelings prevail extensively although not univer­ sally both amongst those Hindus who are devoted to the pursuits of religion, and those who are engaged in the business of the w orld

Some of the Hindu Zemindars seem to have provided instruction to their daughters in the elements of knowledge because they hoped they would marry into rich families, and they thought that in the event of widowhood girls without knowledge of accounts and writing would get into trouble. But the reports reveal that those men did not admit the fact of their girls1 education to the officers when the survey was made, evidently because they were afraid of public prejudice in this regard.^9

Even the Muslims, with the loss of political and economic power and position, began to develop superstitions and enforce undesirable social restrictions on their girls. The serious deterioration in regard to

Muslim g irls 1 education is referred to by Adam in his report: "The

Mohammedans p a r tic ip a te in a l l th e p re ju d ic e s o f th e Hindus a g a in s t th e

^ Ibld.. quoting Adam's Reports, pp. 187-188.

^ I b l d . *5 instruction of their female offspring. • • . Although he adds that there were a few exceptional cases, on the whole the indigenous system of schools which provided for boys was meant exclusively for the male

sex.

Summary

A critical appreciation of women1s educa­ tion under Muslim ruie in India

Under the impact of Islamic teaching the Muslim educational system did not neglect women in the scheme of universal instruction. Early or elementary education was regarded as a religious duty, and the majority of all classes could have benefited by it, but several social and economic

restrictions were imposed on higher education for women. Thus elementary

education was open to girls of all classes in cities as well as villages

and was free and democratic, but higher education tended to be selective, limited, and available mostly to those in rich urban communities.

A critical look reveals that though Mohammedan education was a

foreign system transplanted to India, yet it developed quite favorably

in the new country. Obviously its influence was mostly upon the members

of Muslim society, yet several Hindu men resorted to this education for

reasons of material and cultural gains or intellectual developaient. But

as far as women were concerned, there is lack of evidence to show that

Indian women of other faiths directly came under the influence of Muslim

education. This seems to be due to the fact that the Indian social and

60 I b id . H6 religious customs prohibited them both from receiving education as well aa freely mixing with members of other religious groups. But the impact of Islamic mysticism and religious thought seems to have left a deep mark on the thought of some celebrated, though rare, Hindu poetesses,

such as Bihi Ratan Kaur and Mirabai,

A marked feature of the education of girls under Muslim influence was the emphasis on religious instruction. Both elementary and higher eduoation required the girls to study Qoran, Arabic and religion. Among the Hindu communities also, even though education of women was generally

neglected, several women were instructed in the performance of some

religious rites and duties.

A very significant fact attracting our attention is that Islamic higher eduoation of the two sexes was pursued on different lines.

Whereas men vere required to study arithmetic, agriculture, rules of

government, astronomy, theology, law and so forth, girls studied humani­

ties, literature and languages and attained accomplishment in the fine

arts of painting, embroidering, and music. The curriculum was not

designed on th e same l in e s fo r both men and women a s i t l a t e r came to be

under British educational thought.

Education of boys was guided more by vocational motives. When we

examine women's education we do not find much concern for this aspect.

It was probably so, because the society of the time did not think of women in terms of any other career except that of "home-makers." There­

fore necessarily the home took the responsibility of training girls for

domestic life and leisurely pursuits. Ibis was apparently one of the

reasons for the insistence on learning of fine arts. When we examine the literary education there appears to be a cer­ tain conflict in the type of education inparted and the actual life situations which the vonen faced. Higher education prepared then intel­ lectually for free thinking and expression of their thoughts as well as a better understanding of hunan nature and the world around then. But the real environment, of which they were a part, was different from what they thought it should be. Their actions, thoughts, words, and deeds had to conform to the strict laws set by society which were not all in favor of womanly sentiments. Women were to be on guard in expressing their views lest they incur the displeasure of the society. Their thoughts and deeds were controlled by outside forces, which their education might have taught them to think it was rather unfair. Here lay the conflict.

Morality and training of character was the intent of education, not intellectual freedom. A puritanical personality was to be formed and not a free thinking, natural hunan being. The system of education emphasised development of memory and abstract reasoning instead of

critical thinking. This was probably one of the chief reasons why the

Western type of education was so readily and successfully accepted by the

Indian women. A study of the poetic compositions of the period gives evidence of this position. Such themes as religion, sin and forgiveness,

truth, and kindness received attention, but women were not looked upon with dignity if they expressed their emotions about love, joy, hatred, jealousy. Thus Muslim women often faced a perplexing situation because

of the conflict between the world of thought and the world of practice.

This makes us wonder to what extent the higher education of women from 48 the sixteenth to the eighteenth century under Muslin rule truly prepared then for life. One also is oonpelled to think that perhaps the age-old unrelatedness of women's education to real life situations is a chief reason for the comparative retardation of Muslim women1 s e d u c a tio n and their inability to tackle life ’s problems without depending upon their men. CHAPTER IV

EDUCATION UNDER BRITISH RULE

The modern system of education in India is an outcome of sevaral

different influences on Indian thoughts Of the various factors that

helped to shape the present pattern of Indian eduoation, chief among

them were the educational policy of the British East Indian Company end

later of the British government of India, the missionary educational

activities, and private Indian enterprise, as well as several reform and

national movements which prevailed in the nineteenth and early twentieth

centuries. It is obvious that each of these influences was itself interrelated with economic and complex historical developments, but for

our purposes it is desirable to hold general considerations to a niminum

and concentrate on matters of education in the past few centuries.

In the days of the Great Mughals, the richness of their land, the

liberal attitude toward people of all faiths, and the great trade oppor­

tunities attracted traders of different European nationalities to come

and settle down in India, This 6et the stage for several attempts by

the Portuguese to find a new sea route to India which ultimately led to

Vasco D1 Gama*s arrival at Calicut on the southwest coast of India in

11*98 &nd motivated other European trading companies to follow the

example. As the Muslim power weakened in the early eighteenth century

the different trading companies—Portuguese, Dutch, French and British—

began to interfere in the country*s politics. This not only expedited

1*9 50 the decline of the Moghal rule but also had a vast influence on the course of social and educational developments of the country.

The European foreign trading companies were usually directed by two different motives to come to India—commercial and religious. This is evident by the remark that Vasco D* Gama made when he landed at

Calicut. He is known to have said that he came here to seek "Christians and spices."1 For the implementation of such a policy Christian mission* aries followed their respective companies. Histories of India mention the presence of different missionary groups in different parts of the country in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries and it is interesting to note that the religious zeal of the missionaries was mostly responsi­ ble for paving the way for the modern education in India , 2

Educational Policy of the British East India Company

The official British contact with India started with the arrival d u rin g E hperor J a h a n g ir 's re ig n o f th e B r itis h E ast In d ia Company fo r the purposes of trade. On the last day of 1600 a royal charter was granted by Queen Elisabeth of England to the Governor and Company of

Merchants of London to trade with the East. The East India Company thus constituted got itself well established in India by the first decade of the seventeenth century. Within a very short time factories of the company were founded in Bengal. Madras, and Bombay.

^Percival A. Spear, India. A Modern History (Ann Arbor: Univer­ sity of Michigan Press, 1961}, p. l6fc.

2S. N. Mukerji, History of Education j.n India. Modern Period (B aroda: Acharya Book D epot, 195 1 ), p p . 4-5* 51

As far as the early educational activities of the British East

India Company were concerned, they seem to have been guided by a religious motive. However, lack of considerable evidence suggests that in neither sphere was there vigorous activity in the earliest days, though some special measures are reported to have been taken by the Company for recruiting and preparing Indian missionaries.^ Under the missionary clause of the Charter Act of 1698 th e Company was d ir e c te d to make provisions for maintaining ministers at their factories, who were required to learn native languages in order "to instruct the Gentoos

(Hindus) that shall be the servants or slaves of the same Company or of their agents, in the Protestant religion*

It was only after the Company became a political pow»r in l?6l

(the Battle of Panipat) that a real concern began for the education of the people under their dominion* With the progress of the eighteenth century, the new rulers took a greater interest in Indian learning and in the preparation of Indians for administrative jobs* At the same time education seems to have been used as a part of the divide-ancUrule policy as well*5 All these aims of education are explicit in the reasons given for the founding of the Calcutta Madrasah and the Benares

Sanskrit College*

^9yed Nurullah and J* P* Naik, History of Education in India (Bombay; M acm illan and Company L td*, 195177 P* 52, qu o tin g N* N* Law, Promotion of Learning in India by Early European Settlers, pp. 7-8.

^Ibid*. p. 53.

^Arthur Henry Moehlman and Joseph S, Roucek (ed.). Comparative Education (New Yorks The Dryden Press, 1952), p. 508. 52

Whereas the Calcutta Madrasah was said to have been founded "to qualify the sons of Mohammedan gentlemen for responsible and lucrative offices of the State, even at that date largely monopolized by the

Hindus?^ the Benares Sanskrit College was established In 1791 "for the preservation and cultivation of the laws, literature and religion of the

Hindus • • • to accomplish the same purpose for the Hindus as the Madrasah

f o r th e Mohammedans and s p e c ia lly to supply Hindu a s s i s t a n ts to European

ju d g e s ."7

It is evident from these facts that, in the early stages, the

Company did not intend to anglicize Indian education but even went so

far as to establish In Calcutta the Fort William College in 1800, with

the aim of training English civil servants in the customs, languages and

history of India.®

After the Company became a political power in the latter part of

the eighteenth century, it adopted a policy of religious neutrality.

This was clearly reflected in its educational policy as well. Up to

this time the Christian missionaries had enjoyed a favorable and

sympathetic attitude from the Company, which had given financial assist­

ance to the mission schools. But later, after l?6l, the Company's

attitude toward them changed and religious neutrality was maintained.

6I b i d .

^Mukerji, History of Education, p. 26. g Manzoorunnisa Siddiqi, "Contributions of Islamic Education with Special Reference to Pakistan" (unpublished doctoral dissertation, Harvard University, 1959)» p. 123. 53

In the early years of the nineteenth century the Charter Act of

1813 laid the origins of the modern system of education in IndiaA t the time of the renewal of the Company's charter, the Director discussed educational problems also, and a sum of one lakh of rupees was sanctioned for educational purposes* The most important questions discussed on this occasion were these

1. Whether the Company should accept the responsibility of the education of the Indian people. If it should, what should be the nature and scope of its educational activities?

2, Should the missionaries be allowed to work in the Indian territories for education and proselytisatlon purposes?

On the first question, which was basic, there were conflicting points of view. One faction held that education in India should be related to the culture of the country and conducted through the medium of its own languages. The other advocated the introduction of Western culture through the medium of the English language. This group strongly believed that India could be remade on the model of England and that this was the sacred and imperial mission of the fritish to do so. As has been pointed out, the latter view was not that held by the company when edu» catlonal activities were begun, A long and bitter controversy ensued over this issue which was

^K. G. Saiyidain, J. P. Naik, S. Abid Hussain, Compulsory Educa­ tion in India (Paris: UNESCO, 1952). p. 13.

l^Nurullah and Naik, op. cit.. p. 80.

^ H e n ry C. H a rt, Campus In d ia . An A p p ra isal o f American C ollege Programs in India (Ann Arbor: Michigan UniversityTress, 1961), ppV 25-26, 5^

M a c a u l a y ^ in 1835* While expressing his legal opinion about a question involving the utilisation of a sun of ten lakhs of rupees for educational purposes, Macaulay pointed out that the literature of India and Arabia—

Sanskrit and Arabic, was absurd. According to him Indian languages were too poor to be the vehicles of thought and expression.^ Hence he l 4 observed that English would be the best media of instruction* During the oourse of writing he stated forcefully:

We must at present do our best to form a class who may be interpreters between us and the millions whom we govern—a class of persons Indian in blood and color but English in tastes, in opinions, in morals and in intellect* To that class we may leave it to refine the vernacular dialects of the country, to enrich those dialects with terms of science borrowed from Western nomenclature and to render them by degrees fit vehicles for conveying knowledge to the great mass of the populations*15

Thus apparently Macaulay sought through education "to sweep away

everything of the past and to modernise entirely on English lines—to write on the clean slate of the Indian mind the word English*But a

study of the historical events as described later under Missionary and

Reform Movements reveals that a strong desire toward Westernization of

12 Thouas Babington, first Baron Macaulay, 1800-1859, English essayist and historian, was at this time the Law Member of the Executive C ouncil.

^M ukerji, History of Education, p. 19.

^Ibid*. p. 83.

1^Mohammed Shamsul Huq, Compulsory Eduoation in Pakistan (Paris: UNESCO, 195*0, P* 26, quoting A. Sharp* Selections from EdocAional Records. Part 1 (1781-1839), Calcutta, 1920, p. 23*

^W illiam J. McKee, New Schools for Young India (Chapel H ill: The University of North Carolina t^ess, 1930), p. 19, quoting C. F. Andrews, The Renaissance in India, p. 26. 55

Indian education already existed among some prominent Indian leaders as well as British missionary educators like Raja Ram Mohan Roy and Alexander

Duff, respectively. In fact Maoaulay was probably only instrumental in helping this policy to be officially adopted by the British government.

At the same time though, he supported the filteration theory by which

"education was to permeate the masses from above. Drop by drop from the

Himalayas of Indian life useful information was to trickle downward, forming in time a broad and stately stream to irrigate the thirsty plains,"I? This view which Macaulay again shared in common with Duff was another great mistake committed in the Indian educational field. It is both surprising and sad that the wrongs and mistakes through which

England had already passed were repeated with a right and pride in

India's education.

One month after Macaulay's Minute was issued, the Governor-General,

Lord William Bentinck, also had come to this resolve. Expressing the view which had rapidly become dominant, he declared, "The great object of the British Government ought to be the promotion of English litera­ ture and science and all the fund appropriated for the purpose of education would be best employed in English education alone,"*® Not surprisingly thus, the English education advocated by Macaulay, Bentinck, and their compeers did not aim at giving education directly to the masses; instead an educated class was aimed at, who, it was hoped, would be the means of diffusing among their countrymen some portion of the

^M ukerji, History of Education, p, 93* 1 Q Ibid.. pp. 19-20, quoting Chirol, India. Old and New, p. 79. 56 knowledge Imparted to them. All these educational developments had a serious effect on the future development of Indian women's education, but until this time, and even for two decades more, the Government (that is, the Company) took no Interest in female education. The suspicions about girls 1 education prevalent in nineteenth-century Indian society were said to be the primary reason for this lack of interest. It was feared that Indian sentiment would be highly offended if the Government 19 of India interfered with the social customs of the people.

The official introduction of Western education, emphasis on the development of an elite class, and the obvious aim of education to pre­ pare men for white-collar jobs precluded any concern for the cause of women's education. Moreover, neither was public opinion in favor of girls' education nor did the Government provide any measure for it until

185^, when for the first time official recognition was accorded this problem under Wood's Educational Despatch, which will be discussed later.

Missionary Movements and Their Influence on Women's Education

Christian missionaries were active in the Indian educational field even before the advent of the British in the country, as evidenced by records of the presence of Jesuits in Ebperor Akbar's discussion groups and of their continued activity during the time of Jahangir.20

19 M. R. Pranjpe, "Historical Survey of Female Education," The fearbook of Education. 1939. ed. Harley V. Usill and Others (London: University of London Institute of Education, Evan Brothers, Ltd., 1939), p . ^1 2. ^Keay, Indian Eduoation in Ancient and Later Times (Calcutta: Oxford University Press, 195^7* p» 120. 57 As far back as 1577 and 1593 European missionaries probably other than

British and particularly Jesuits are reported to have printed Tamil 21 books, and a Jesuit College is said to have been established in Goa on the western coast in 1575*^ Later on, English teaching missionary societies seem to have taken the leading role*

It has been previously pointed out that the early attitude of the

E a st In d ia Company was fa v o ra b le to a l l m issio n ary a c t i v i t i e s . But after it became the ruling power, its attitude toward the missionary activities seems to have taken a rather hostile turn in view of some incidents that were interpreted as being caused by the proselytising a c t i v i t i e s o f th e m issions* Moreover th e e a r ly p o lic y o f th e Company favoring Oriental education might also have come in the way of free missionary enterprise* These strained relations were one of the motives for the Charter Act of 1813 which opened the Indian shores to the missionaries without any restrictions.^

From the beginning the spread of Christianity was the chief aim of all missionary endeavors, from their earlier practical experiences the mission leaders believed that no other agency could gain more con- versions than schools, as contact with people could be more easily achieved through them*6 It was also regarded important for native

21 Sir Philip Hartog, Some Aspects of Indian Education Past and Present (Londoni Hunphrey Milford, Oxford University Press, 1939)* p. Tamil is a regional language of India mainly spoken in the state of Madras, which constitutes Tamilnad or Tamil-speaking area in South India* 2 2 Mukerji, History of Education, p* 15*

23Ib £ d ., p . 37* ^Bishop James M. Thoburn, The Christian Conquest of India (New Yorki Young P e o p le 's M issionary Movement, 190&), p p . 177«T7&* 58

Christian leaders to be prepared to carry on the evangelisation activities.2^

An eminent missionary of the early nineteenth century said this about the importance of schools as an essential means of proselytisationt

One reason for them is to eduoate the minds of the people so that they may be more capable of understanding and appreciating . . . the doctrines and duties of the Soripture. Another reason for them is to inarease the influence of the missionaries with the people. . . . Another reason for such an education, is in its procuring means and opening ways of aocess to people, and opportunities of preaching to them. . . . Schools beoome very important, as a means of communieation with different classes of people, with children and parents and with men and women, . . . School houses beoome chapels under the control of missionaries. Their use for this purpose is often more important than for e d u c a tio n,^6

In several important ways, the earlier missionary outlook toward

education was different from that of the Government of India. The nature of missionaries* work necessitated closer association with the masses, and thus most of their converts came from the lower strata of

the Hindu society who were usually illiterate. Since they regarded

Bible reading of highest importance, the missionary teachers recognized

that the vernacular of the people must be used to disseminate the

Christian faith through education. Hence translations of the Bible in

25I b ld .

^Nurullah and Naik, o£. cit.. p. 60, quoting R. C, Wilder, Mission Schools in India, pp. 36-37* 59

Indian languages were made by such m issionaries as Adam2? and Marshman2® and vernacular textbooks were published.

All this Implies that the missionaries must have favored elemen­ tary eduoation on a broad base. But after 1813 their educational policy seems to have tended toward favoring higher eduoation under the influence of observations and suggestions made by Charles Grant who was a Director of the Company. Grant strongly advocated that Western light and knowl­ edge should be communicated through the medium of the English language and that the natural sciences should be taught along with Christian religion.2^ This resulted in schools and colleges being started. In particular, the establishment of Seramptre College under the inspiring

2?For full report see Nurullahand Naik, pp. cit.. pp. 18-37; a ls o Ha► w. — _ _ _ _ - . _ M w ______pp. 13-15* William Adam came to India in 1818 from Scotland, worked with the Serampore missionaries for some time, then resided in Calcutta where he studied Sanskrit and Bengali languages. Influenced by Raja Ram Mohan's friendship Adam became a Unitarian minister and took a leading part in public life . At his own suggestion Lord William Bentinck appointed him to make an inquiry into the indigenous education in Bengal and Behar in 1835* Adam made three inquiries. He strongly supported the cause of elementary education. 2fl One of the members of the "Serampore Trio." Marshman arrived in Caloutta in 1799 to join the missionary Carey in North Bengal for the purpose of carrying on his mission work. On account of the Company's refusal, Carey joined Marshman and Ward and they settled in the Dutch colony of Serampore. This was the famous Serampore Trio who translated and printed the Bible in different Indian languages. Along with this they conducted several schools for boys and girls in Calcutta.

29Aubrey Albert Zellner, Eduoation in India. A Survey of the T " V alley in Modern Times CNew York: Bookman A s so c ia te s, 60 guidance of William Carey,who arrived in India in 1793# 1*4 others to open several missionary schools and colleges.

The cause of higher education, however, received a greater impetus with the arrival of Alexander Duff -^1 in Bengal in 1830. He strongly aimed to bring the upper classes into closer contact with the mission** aries by offering Western education. He is reported to have said that

every branch of Western Knowledge would destroy some corre­ sponding part of the Hindu system, and so one stone after another would be thrown down from the huge and hideous fabric of Hindusim, And by the time an extensive range of instruc­ tion is completed, the whole w ill be found to have crumbled into fragments; not a shred w ill be left behind,32

The Scottish Church College founded by Duff in 1830 in Calcutta embodied his ideals. Every variety of useful knowledge through English language and the study of the Bible daily by every class were its particular characteristics,^ A new policy was now introduced in missionary educa­ tion through high schools and colleges which incorporated belief in the filtration theory that education would radiate its effects from the

30 A Baptist missionary and great scholar of England reached Calcutta on a Danish ship, Later became Professor of Bengali, Marathi and Sanskrit at Fort William College, Calcutta. He made Serampore a famous missionary and educational center with the help of Marshman and Ward, See Thoburn, op. cit.. for a detailed report about Careyrs missionary work, pp. 139-1^5,

^Alexander Duff (1806-1876), One of the very zealous missionar­ ies who greatly contributed to the development of the modern eduoational system of India, Duff1s eloquenoe awakened the missionary spirit in many parts of the world, Duff*s views differed from the earlier mission­ aries in that he championed the cause of the English language, believed in the downward filtration theory and held that the state should with­ draw in favor of private educational enterprise,

^M ukerji, History of Education, p, 55*

33Rev, Henry Huizinga, Missionary Education in India (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan, 1909), p. 23, 61 classes to the aitsses. Thus the stags was set for official anglicise- tion of Indian education in 1835 which later resulted in the British government's adoption of the educational plan set forth by Duff, though with the omission of the religious phase,3^

The missionaries were as much interested in providing education for Indian women as for Indian men. In fact it was the Christian missionaries who were the pioneers in Introducing organised education for Indian girls in the early decades of the nineteenth century, when, as mentioned in Chapter III, for several reasons education of Indian women except for a few rare cases had become a thing of the past, What

Jadunath Sarkar, an Indian historian, observed about the education of

Bengali Hindu women is almost an equally true picture of the poor educa­ tional conditions which prevailed in almost all Indian communities.

No honest man can deny the fact that up to the accession of Queen Victoria in 1837, the universal belief among the Bengali Hindus was that a women who took to writing was an accursed sinner, doomed to widowhood and the life of a harlot, Bankim Chandra . • , gives a true picture of our whole high class mentality when he makes Devi Chaudhrani on her return to her father-iiwlaw*s family conceal every trace of her having learned to read and write during her ten years of obscure exile,35

It was on such a dark scene that the missionaries began to do their educational work, but as they aimed at spreading the gospel in the homes with the help of the girl pupils and made Bible teaching compulsory,

34 Thoburn, o j j . c i t , , p , 1 ? 4 ,

^Jadunath Sarkar, "Foreword," to Jogesh Chander Bagal, Women*s Eduoation in Eastern India (Calcutta: The World Press Private Ltd,, ~ 1956J, pp. ix-x. 62

Indian non be cam* auspicious of them and opposed their g irls1 education,^

Considering the seal, nature and purpose of Christian missionary work, it may be safely assumed that missionary activities in the field of women1s eduoation may have started long before the Charter Act of

1813, but authenticated information is at present lacking. Historical records and statistics indicate that the period between 1813 and 1833

became one of great mission education activity in British India, Several organisations like the Baptist Missions, London Missionary Society,

Wesleyan Mission and others started a network of schools (for Indian

girls) in all the three presidencies, Madras, Bombay, Bengal, as well as

at several important places all over North and South India.

Contributions of the Missionaries toward the Development of Indian Women1s Education

It was mentioned in Chapter III that between 1822-1835 three

inquiries were made into the indigenous education by the governors of

Bombay and Madras along with the orders from Lord William Bentinck for

an inquiry into Bengal, Much of our knowledge of the education of

Indian women in the early nineteenth century has been gained from the

reports of official Inquiries instituted by British governors in Bombay,

Madras, and Bengal in the l8201s and l830,s. The Bengal inquiry, in

particular, should be noted. It was carried on by the missionary

W illiam Adam, an e d u c a to r h im s e lf, Adam1s r e p o rt shows t h a t th e f i r s t

36 McKee, op, c l t . . p . 105, 63 attempt to instruct Indian girls in Bsngal in an organized school was mada in 1818 at Chinsura by tha Ravarand May, But this school appears

to hava baan closed after a short period for some unknown reasons. The next year Carey is reported to hava opened a school at Serampcn in

Bengal,and by 1826 his schools for girls nultiplied by twelve, wherein

about three hundred girls are said to have been instructed in elementary

secular eduoation and also in Christian religion,^ Obviously a network

of girls* schools spread under the auspices of several mission organi­

sations, for by 1821 the London Missionary Society itself had established

five girls* schools in and around Calcutta,39 But most of these early

mission schools evidently were attended by Christian girls. In these

schools, which were mostly day schools, though occasionally boarding

schools were also started, girls were generally taught reading, spelling

and geography and considerable particular attention was paid to reli­

gious instruction,^ The curriculum is said to have included writing h i and needlework as well.

In their efforts to propagate Christianity the missionaries

directly as well as Indirectly helped the women of India, especially the hp poor Hindus of the lower classes, to receive education. They were

taught to read and write so that they could read the Bible, which was

3?Mukerji, History of Education, p. 291,

-^Huizinga, 0£. cit.. p. 11, ^ IbAd.. pp. 12-14.

^Nurullah and Naik, op, cit,, p, 167,

^M ukerji, History of Education, p. 291, 4Z That education and Christianity have gone together is shown by the faot that at the present time the highest percentage of eduoation among women is in the State of Kerala where the concentration of Christians is highest in India, made available to them free of cost In a number of Indian languages.

However, a m ajority of Muslim women as well as many Hindu women of higher caste were not subject to these influences for a very long time, for they were not allowed to attend missionary schools which emphasised

Christian religion. Therefore in order to reach the middle and higher classes of Hindu women, the missionaries opened special caste schools by which they hoped to win converts to their faith and to develop leaders for Christian communities. It is hard to believe that education thus imparted might have been regarded as a gift, rather than a bribe. It is reported that "students were compelled to attend Christian teaching not so much because an education divorced from religion is a maimed educa­ tion but because it was hoped thereby to make converts,"^3

Another significant measure adopted for spreading women's educa­ tion was Zenana teaching, or domestic instruction, whereby women teachers of mission organisations would go to those homes from which women would not be allowed to go to the Christian schools because of family prestige or fear of proselytlsation or adherence to the social h ji custom of purda. This usually brought a number of Muslim girls and high-caste Hindu girls under the influence of modern education. The popularity of this system can be judged from the fact that by 1882 about

^S rip ati Shridevi, "The Development of Women's Higher Education in India" (doctoral dissertaion, Columbia University, 195*0, p, 106, quoting P. N, E, Young,

J iJ i K, L, Joshi and P, D, Shukla, "Women and Education in India, Women and Education. Problems in Education (Parisi UNESCO, 1953), p, 110. 65 nine thousand women in all India were being taught under the Zenana system,**^ In such cases education remained mostly secular, and thus domestic instruction imparted by the visiting missionary women teachers consisted of reading, writing, sewing and lace-making and sometimes music. There are instances to show that sometimes wives of missionaries also took active interest in organised eduoation of girls. For example as early as 1816 Mrs, Bailey (of C,M«S, /Christian Missionary SocietjJ) instructed a few girls at her own house in Kottayam Travancore, without charging any remuneration. In 1829 Mrs, Rhenlus and in 1832 Mrs, Drew opened girls schools in Palam Kottah and Madras respectively. The

Bentinck School is reported to have developed from the latter.

Thus through their religious seal, the Christian missionaries contributed more toward women1s education than the British government of

India and the administration could and should have done. By the mid­ nineteenth century mission schools spread almost all over the country regardless of whether it was British India or the princely states. It is interesting to note that it was not uncommon for Indian nawabs and rajas to offer liberal financial aid to the missionaries in their philanthropic activities. Reliable sources indicate that as early as

1786 the Nawab of Arcot presented a building for the Female Orphan

Asylum in Madras which was started by the Governor*s wife,**? In fact

^5 H uisinga, 0£. a it,, p. 57# quoting Thomas, "British Education in I n d i a ," LA K. Nora Brockway, A Larger Way for Women, Aspects of Christian Education for Girls in South India, 1712-19^*8 (Madras i Oxford Univer- sity Press, 19^5). PP * 13&-139. **?Mukerji, History of Eduoation. p, 23, The author points out that these philanthropic efforts had their influence on the Madras 66 the mleeloneries* orphan asylums also were educational institutions*

Earlier Hiader All of tysore was responsible for the opening of an

English Charity School and orphan asylum at Tanjore which was estate

h a lished by the famous missionary leader Schwartz. Likewise in the

nineteenth century large donations were made by rich Indians for the

purpose of Indian women's eduoation*

Spread of missionary educational enterprise

Between 1821 and 1850, the eduoation of women under the mission-

ary influence was greatly enhanced throughout wide areas of the country*

The Church Missionary Society is reported to have opened seven g irls1

schools in Madras during these years* Three different societies were

active in this field of endeavor in Bombay* Even American missionaries

seem to have established girls' schools as early as 1824* Dr* and Mrs*

Wilson of the Scottish Church Society are mentioned as being extremely

active in girls' education in Bombay between 1829 and 1830, and are

reported to have started several schools* Dr* Wilson, who arrived in

Bombay in 1829, is said to have established a oollege where classical

languages and vernaculars of India as well as English were emphasised,

Mrs* Wilson, formerly Miss Mary Ann Cook, reached Calcutta in November

1821 in the company of William Ward of the Serampore Trio, to help the

government which, against its policy of neutrality, aided this institui­ tion financially* Perhaps as a result of this enoouragement, by 178? a similar institution for boys was started* Its first superintendent is said to have been Dr* Andrew Bell* It was here that Bell tried his Monitorial system for the first time, which was later adopted in England*

46 Thoburn, o£. cit*. p. 138; also Nurullah and Naik, op. c it*. p . 62* 67

Calcutta School Society in its female aduoation activities.*^ But aha was employed by tha Church Missionary Society to sat up fraa primary schools for girls in and around Calcutta* Within fiva years Miss Cook was responsible for establishing about thirty schools wharain six hundred girls vara instructed in reading, writing, Bengali and needle- 50 work* Another famous personality with missionary seal who considerably influenoed tha development of Indian women's education was John Anderson who had come to India being deeply impressed by Duff's speeches. He had a large number of girl pupils in his schools, and founded the Madras

Christian College*

Along with the missionary societies, several notMnisslonary philanthropic organisations also helped the growth and progress of women's eduoation, though most of such independent or union societies of the period were definitely organised in the interests of Christian education. Special mention should be made of the Calcutta Female Juven- lie Society (1820) and Ladles' Society for Hatlve Education vhioh were 51 patronised by the Governor General's wife, Lady Amherst, Raja

Boidonath of Calcutta is reported to have donated Rs 20,000, which

enabled the above society to build and conduct a central girls' school*^

Between 1830 and 1855 the general population of the mission

schools increased by large mubers. This is evidence of the fact that

^Bagal, o£. cit*. pp* 18-24,

5 °H u itin g a , oj>, c i t . . p . 17*

^Shukla and Joshi, op. cit*, pp* 104-105*

^M ukerji, History of Education, p* 292, 68

6y this tins ths public was beginning to accept the idea of sending girls to school, though it was mostly the Hindu girls who formed the bulk of the school-going population* It is interesting to note that in the early years only children of low castes and poor classes joined the missionary schools, but as time passed, parents of higher castes and wealthy classes began to take pride in sending their daughters to the mission-sponsored educational Institutions*

As the missionary girl schools expanded, the emphasis evidently shifted from elementary to secondary and higher education, with instruc­ tion in the English language and the teaching of religion being the essential programs of the curriculum. Secondary education for girls as organised under mission auspices seems to have been guided along the same lines as for men, which was directed by Duff's ideas of Western education in the medium of English* Bible teaching was made compulsory*

By the last decade of the nineteenth century the mission organ­ isations had founded three famous institutions for female higher and secondary education—the Isabella Thoburn School in Lucknow (18?0), which later developed into Isabella Thoburn College for Women^ (1887),

Sarah Tucker School*’** at Palamoottah and Free Church Mission School

Calcutta (1880 and 1881 respectively). The missionaries apparently controlled most of women's higher education up to the early years of the

The very first American oollege for Indian women*

^The first women's college in South India* 69 twentieth century. Shridevi reports that "even ss late ss 1907* 33 schools out of 43 secondary schools for girls in Indie were under missionary management*Another significant contribution by the missionaries to the cause of women's education was the provision of professional training for women teachers for the purpose of training teachers for their own girls1 schools and also to enable the converted girl to have a decent career and a respectable life. The missionaries organised a number of training schools* but for some time these institu­ tions also could not appeal to large numbers of Hindu and Muslim ladies for they were residential colleges where Bible teaching was compulsory.^

'Hie missionaries were pioneers in the field of medicine* which over the years had a considerable influence on Indian women's education.

A lthough th e f i r s t women m is s io n a rie s came to In d ia a s e d u c a tio n ists* some of them strongly felt that due to prevalent conditions doctors were needed even more urgently than teachers.^ The medical missions were regarded as an important handmaid to preaching also.^® They helped to relieve Indian women—particularly of the Zenana—of their ailments and at the same time took the opportunity to preach the gospel at an 59 opportune moment. The general ignorance of medical care* infant mortality and Indian women's traditional aversion to being attended by

^Shridevi, oj>, c it. , p. 124, quoting W* H. Orange* "Progress of Education in India, I 90H 1907* Government Quinquennial Review," Vol. I, Calcutta, 1909, p. 257.

^Nurullah and Naik, oj>, c it.. p. 389* 57 Brockway* op. c it., p. 76.

^Huizinga, o£. oit.. pp. 4^5.

^ T h o b u rn , 0£. oit.. p. 183. 70 men doctors provided the medical missionaries appropriate chances of meeting Indian women of all castes and classes who received them with gratitude* This measure enabled them to preach as well as attract more and more Indian girls and women to the missionary institutions for medical training*^

The Changing Role of Missionary Education in India

The latter part of the nineteenth century witnessed a change in the role of the misalon agencies* The Despatch of 185^ had recommended that in the field of secondary and higher education the state should not carry on direct work but foster private efforts through the system of liberal grants-in-aid.^" This had aroused hopes of great expansion in missionary educational enterprise* But the War of Independence of 1657* which was termed as the Mutiny by the British* and the consequent trans­ fer of power from the Company to the Crown led to the proclamation of striot religious neutrality ty Queen Victoria. At the same time the government established several institutions of higher education on a cheaper scale* This greatly weakened the missionary educational enter­ prise in the country. As a result the missionaries began a virulent campaign attacking the government*s policy of secular education by

Dr* Ida Scudder who began work as a medical missionary in 1900 opened the first Christian medical training school in South India at Vellore. The Vellore medical school for women was opened by her in 1918* This institution has developed into the present Christian Medical College Vellore* Brockway, op* d t *. p . 77*

^ Report of the Indian Education Commission 1862-83 (Calcutta; Government Printing Press, 1903 5» pp* 279-2&0, 71 declaring government institutions "godless" and "irreligiousThis attack, coupled with the general feeling among several Indian communities that the policy of secular education should be abandoned and provision for religious education for each child in his own faith should be made, led to the appointment of the Education Commission of 1882 under the presidentship of Sir William Hunter who was a member of the Viceroy*s

Legislative Council and was considered an authority on Indian affairs*

The Commission consisted of 21 members representing the Educational

Department, executives of the different provinces, the educated native community and missionary bodies.

The reoomaendations of the Education (or Hunter’s) Commission were very disappointing to the missionary organizations, since on finan­ cial and administrative grounds the Commission had reiterated the necessity of keeping all government schools secular,^ 3 This naturally resulted not only in the denial of the missionaries' demand for teaching

Christianity in all government sohools but also in the denial of the demands of the Indians that each child should be instructed in his own r e l i g io n .

This new concept in eduoation was quite alien to the age-old

Indian practice of education being subordinate to religion. Both the

Hindus and Muslims had so far advocated and practiced a non-secular type of education. But from about the last decade of the nineteenth century the policy of a secular education continued for the rest of the British

62 Moehlman and Roucek, op, c it,. pp, 511-512.

63Raport . , . 1882-83. o£. cit., pp. 295-296. 72 period in Indie end proved to be one of the mein fectore in laying the foundation of the Indien Republic ee e eeculer state.

Another development which effected the course of missionary educetion wee thet the position of mission egendes wes regerded es 64 interaediete beoeuse though they were private, yet they were not local, nor certeinly were they national. This ambiguous stetus curteiled the help end encouregement they hoped for from the government end resulted in restricting their educetionel activities*

Gjjr 1902 therefore the missioneries lim ited their educetionel ectivities to the meintenenoe of e few institutions egeinst e large-scale expension of schools end colleges* It is interesting to note their chenged attitude ebout the eims of girls' schools* es it wes expressed in 1910:

The eim of girls' schools should be directed towards e sound elementary education in reeding, writing end arithmetic* e knowledge of domestic economy, hygiene end the formation of e strong morel character• • • • We should eim • • • therefore • • • at demonstrating to the people thet the girls who have been to school become superior housewives end mothers* whet they learn is of reel value to them in the house, end above , ell thet their morel character is improved end strengthened* ^

In order to provide an opportunity to learn the significance end the need of social service in Indie, several missionary educational institui­ tions were converted into residential oolleges* This development enabled the students of these colleges to have opportunities to live end serve in the respective communities*

64 S id d iq i, 0£. cit.. p. 136*

^Shridevi, o£. d t *. p. 125, quoting from The World Missionary Conference Report (London: 1910), Vol. 3f P- 5» 73

On the whole the Christian missionaries greatly influenced the educational thought of the country and also contributed to the educa­ tional advancement and specialised training of Indian women. They did more for the eduoation of women in India than did the government* The following observations made by Dr. Muthulakshmi Reddi^ in her address to All India Women's Conference* rightly state the contributions made by

Christian missionaries in the progress of Indian women's education:

The woman population of this country has been placed under a deep debt to the several missionary agencies for their valu­ able contribution to the educational upliftment of Indian women* Had it not been for this noble band of Christian women teachers who are the produce of missionary training schools* even this much of advancement in the eduoation of the Indian women would not have been possible* even at this day in every province we find the women missionary teachers working hard in the spirit of love and faith* in out of the way villages* where the Hindu and Muslim women dare not penetrate*”7

Private Enterprise in Women's Eduoation

As the missionaries began to dominate the Indian educational scene* another school of thought arose which had a different outlook about the aims and purposes of education. This group of thinkers strongly favored private enterprise in education and also advocated the policy of secularism. As far as women's education is concerned, private enterprise played an important part in the second half of the nineteenth century. Considerable encouragement in this direction was first forwarded

Dr* Reddi was responsible for persuading the Madras Legislative Council to pass a bill limiting the deva dasi system. This system was essentially abolished in Madras in 19^7* Brockway, 0£. cit*. p. 127.

^H ester Gray* Indian Women and the West (London: Zenith Press* 1 9 ^ ) , p . 25. 7*

by several British officials and other non-official British residents

and later by several Indian nationals who took a deep interest in the

cause of women's education. A small group of British, from the early

years of British control, entertained the belief that secular eduoation was more reasonable for Indian children than the missionary religious

education. Further, they strongly favored the value and power of private

enterprise in eduoation by the Indians themselves. The pioneer of this

educational thought who introduced a system different from that of the

m issionaries was David Hare, 1775-1842, a watchmaker and jeweler of

Calcutta who is reported to have come to India in 1800. Hare was greatly

interested in the improvement of Hindu society. According to him

nothing was more essential for the progress of Indians than the dissem­

ination of European learning and science. His seal and enthusiasm in

this respect led to the establishment of a society of Indians and

Europeans to promote Western education in India. Raja Ram Mohan Roy of

Bengal also was equally interested in the above and appreciated Hare's

views. Together they established the Hindu Vidyalaya or college at

Calcutta.^®

Further, Hare supported the cause of Indian women's eduoation.

Secularism was his contribution to the modern eduoation which up to this

time had usually oentered around religion. As Nurullah and Nalk point

out, at this time the Company's institutions were teaching Islam and

Hinduism, and the missionary institutions, Christianity. But in his

^®Hartog, 0£. cit.. p. 10. 75 collsge Hare emphasised the teaching of English literature and language

Instead of the Bother tongue, but would not agree to religious Instruc­ tion, At the sane time the Eastern classical languages, Sanskrit and

Arabic, were discarded, as were scientific studies. This new tendency introduced in education made a great appeal to certain groups, but certain others opposed it. The exclusion of oriental studies was criti­ c is e d by s o b s , so also that of sciences. But the Company, as different sources indicate, was such fascinated by the suitable practicality of the idea because the policy of religious neutrality could be aaintained and Engli sh-educated government servants oould be obtained for the several governaent departments. As far as private Indian enterprise was ooneerned, this policy seens to have gained approval, since the absence of scientific studies would sean a reduction of expenditure and secularism would not create any serious problems of administration,

Henoe a large number of schools and colleges adopted Hare*a policy, and it became a chief feature of Indian eduoation on the whole and is so even today.

The most noteworthy figure in the British official circle of the early days who made remarkable contributions toward Indian women*s edu­ cation was John Eliot Drinkwater Bethune, the Law Member of the

Executive Council of the Governor General and President of the Council of Education, I8h&-I851.^ Bethune, like Hare, believed that the education of Indian girls would progress rapidly if it were not dominated by religion, as he found that the major reason that the Hindus kept

69 7Joshi and Shukla, 0£, cit.. p. 104, 76 their girls away from missionary schools was ths rallglous education which was imparted there. Ha realised tha naad of saoular schools for girls, but tha company was not yat raady to aocapt tha rasponsibillty of woman's aducatlon; hanoa ha startad a school with tha halp of a faw sinoaraly intarastad citizens at Calcutta on Hay 7* 18^* with twenty- ona girls anrollad. Thus tha raaction of aducatad Hindu soolaty against tha taaching of Christian religion by tha missionaries, in girls' schools, finally culminated in tha first secular Indian girls' school. Tha reasons for tha establishment of this school, which was first called

Calcutta Female Sohool and later Hindu Female School, are explained in a letter to Governor General Dalhousie by Bethune himself:

The failure of every attempt to induce respectable Natives to sand their daughters to a Missionary School, and tha corrvio- tion which I have that tha system of tha Government Schools is bast calculated for producing a rapid and salutary affect in tha oountry induced me to establish my school on tha same, principle of excluding from it all religious teaching. • • .'

Thus this became tha first secular school for girls. In this sohool

English was taught to those students whose parents indicated a desire for the language. Instruction in Bengali, tha mother tongue, and teach­ ing of plain and fancy work ware made compulsory for all pupils. Bethune himself pointed out:

As far as literature is conoarnad, wa shall make Bengali the foundation, and resort to English only for some of those subsidiary advantages, and whan wa know that tha oomunication of such knowledge is not in opposition to tha wishes of tha

70 Nurullah and Naik, o£. d t .. pp. 186-187, quoting from Selections from Records. Vol. II, p. 52. 77

parents• Besides which, there ere e thousand feminine works and aooomplishments, with their needles, In embroidery and fanay work, in drawing. • • .71

Characteristic features of this sohool as described by Bagal were the provision of a school carriage for girls from distant localities and the restriction of adsdssion to girls from respectable Hindu families o n ly .T h e establishment of this school introduced a new era in the field of women1 s education.^ Several enlightened Indians in different parts of the country followed Bethune*s example, proving that public

consciousness concerning the long-forsaken problem of women*s eduoation was rapidly awakening.

Private enterprise in women's eduoation was not only widely prevalent in Bsngal but it was in full swing in Bombay as well. Here

significant work was carried out under the patronage and support of its

Governor Mount Stuart ELphinston and Mr. Patton, Professor of Elphlnston

College, Bombay. Under the Students' Literary and Scientific Society of

Bombay, which was most probably planned by Professor Patton, girls*

education received a great stimulus. Moreover a group of young men who were members of this society (among idiom was the illustrious Dads Bhai

Naoroji—later to be called the Grand Old Kan of India) took upon them-

selves the task of erasing illiteracy. They opened three schools for

Marathi Hindu girls and four for Parses girls before the close of the

^Bagal, o£. cit.. pp. 79-80.

?2Ibld.. pp. 81-82.

^Ey the end of the nineteenth century Bethune *s school achieved the status of one of the first government colleges for women in India. S h rid e v i, 0£. cit.. p. 102. year 18b9. But as early as 1850 there existed a dissatiafiad and unfavorabla attituda toward English aducatlon. Tha Bombay Times. a laadlng papar of tha period, rafara to It as "tha usalass system of Ok eduoation" which was forming "a class of man that ware not wanted."'

As a result therefore, tha Students* Literary and Scientific Society formulated its design "not simply to teach reading and writing but to give such an education as would have an influence on the whole character."^

The Socio-religious Movements and Their Impact on Women's Education

The several social and religious reform movements of the nine* teenth century were another great force which played an important part in shaping and developing Indian women's education. These movements partly originated as a protest against the aggressive religious activ- itles of some missionary groups in the country which challenged the indigenous religions and age-old social beliefs. The new education and the influence of Western thought on Indian outlook were also partly responsible for the reform movements. In the beginning of the century, as remarked earlier, Duff and Macaulay had hoped that English education and Western knowledge would thoroughly anglicise and Christianise the

^"Education in British India," Students* Literary and Scientific Society (1848-49 to 1947-48) (Bombay; Mouj Printing Press, 1950), pp . 1 -5 . 79

Indians. Mukerji mentions Macaulay as having written to his father:

• • • If our plans of education are followed up, there will n o t be a sin g le ld o la to r among th e re s p e c ta b le c la s s e s in Bengal thirty years henoe and this w ill be affected without any effort to proselytise, without the smallest Interference In their religious liberty, merely by natural operation of knowledge and reflection./”

But on the oontrary, the inflow of new ideas had awakened the Indians to the need of social and religious reforms which the society badly needed.??

The Hindu society of that time suffered greatly from social and religious disabilities and had come under direct attack by the Western observers. As a result, the Hindus received and accepted the influence of the new or Western education more eagerly than did the other Indian communities. Thus it was among them that the need for reforms was felt earlier, and vigorous attempts were made which resulted in early progress and enlightenment of that community. The reform movements, which had a direct bearing on the development of Indian women1 s education, seem to have oovered the entire Hindu way of life and thought. Their breadth has been described by Nurullah and Naik thus:

Within the Hindu community therefore we find movements for the liquidation of the easte-system; for the acceptance of widow., remarriage and divorce among the higher castes; for raising the ages of marriage and consent; for the removal of dietary restrictions bssed on caste; for the abolishing of untouch- ability; and for the amelioration of the economic condition of the Harijans.?”

The social and religious reforms were interdependent and the aim of these movements was twofold: (1) to create an enlightened Hindu community

?^Mukerji, History of Education, p. 92. 77 Arthur Kayhew, The Education of India (London: Faber and Gwyer, 1926), p. 15. ?®Nurullah and Naik, op. c it., p. 313* 80 with social and religious privileges for men and women and (2) to present andent Indian ideals as a source of inspiration and future guidance to th e oommuni ty .

The reform movements were highly indebted to the pioneer efforts of Raja Ram Hohan Roy (1772-1833) of Bengal. Ram Mohan was a Brahmin, educated under Mohammedan influence and a scholar of Sanskrit, Arabic, and Persian*^ As a radical reformer, he worked sincerely for the emancipation of Hindu women in modern India and vigorously attacked the cruel practice of sati and enforced widowhood which were prevalent among them in their community.

The greatest contribution of Ram Mohan to the advancement of

Hindu society was the founding of the reformed Sect of Brahmo Samaj, which pledged itself to eradicate the social disabilities of their com­ munity. The Samaj leadership paved the way for Hindu women1s emancipa­ tion by acknowledging their social equality with men and by permitting widow remarriage.

Being an educationist, Ram Mohan believed in India1s need of a synthesis of Eastern and Western culture for the welfare of the people.

Even before Macaulay, Ram Mohan had thought it advisable to introduce

Western education in India. "He sought . . . to build up a system of eduoation which would be secular, scientific and empirical in its approach but would not repudiate the spiritual values which are common

79 George E. Noroaha, Backgrounds in the Eduoation of Indian G irls (W ashington, D, C ,: C a th o lic U n iv e rsity o f A m erica, 19^9*57 p* 81

o a to all tha graat religions of tha world," To voMn't aducatlon In particular. Ran Mohan randarad a graat aarvlca. It was only through hia tlrelasa and alnoara efforts that tha education of Hindu girls 81 beoame popular In India, Ha proved that on tha basis of Hindu Shastras, tha education of Hindu women would be permissible, thus disproving tha old theory and practice of forbidding women from attaining knowledge and le a r n in g .

The Brahmo Samaj seems to have gained p o p u la rity among many

Bengal Brahmins, and several educated members of this group dedicated their time and effort to bring about a renaissance In their women1a position and status. Particular mention may be made of Keshab Chandra

Sen (1838-1884) who was almost regarded as Ram Mohan1s spiritual suc­ cessor and was an upholder of women1s rights and education, Keshab

Chandra1s higher studies in London might possibly have deeply Influenced his thinking to a great extent. He became considerably interested in social reforms and eduoation and the uplift of women. With great perseverance and seal, he was able to bring into effect the olvil marriage act which stopped the practice of child marriage in the Brahmo

Samaj sect. At the same time he took deep interest in the eduoation of girls as Shridevi quotes Farquhar, pointing out that Keshab Chandra

"inaugurated a normal school for girls, the Victoria Institute for girls and the Bharat Ashram, a home in which a number of fam ilies were gathered

Humayun K ab ir, "C o n tin u ity o f T ra d itio n i n In d ia n E d u ca tio n a l Thought," The Indo Asian Culture. Vol. Ill, No, 3 (New Delhit Indian Council for Cultural Relations, January, 1959), p« 235,

Hindu religious laws. 82 together for the cultivation of a better home life and for the education of women and children*

Poet Rabindranath Tagore and his family also belonged to this group, and the poet1a father, who was himself a social reformer, appar­ ently supported the Samaj very strongly. It is no surprise that Tagore's ideas of the synthesis of the East and the West and his liberal ideas of nationalism may have originated from Ram Mohan Roy's ideas, for the poet had a great regard and appreciation for the great reformer. Ram Mohan's ideals were taken up by other reformers of the century, which contributed to large-scale social and religious reforms, and at the same time served as an Incentive to the rise of Indian nationalism. Following the lead given by Brahmo Samajists, a vigorous organisation called Arya Samaj was started in 1875 under the leadership of Swami Pyanand Saraswati. The chief goal of this organisation was a "search after a regeneration of

Hindu!n such as would enable it to meet the Christian challenge and yet remain racy of the soll."®^ Along with social and religious reforms the leaders of Arya Samaj planned to give educational opportunity to all Oj> persons in such a manner as to prepare them for life.

82 Shridevi, op. cit.. p. 49.

■^Noronha, op. c i t . . p . 135«

84Lala Lajpat Rai, The Arga Samaj (London t Allen and Unwin, 1915). p. 138. Evidently the Arya Samajists were less liberal than the Brahmo Samajists even though the former denounced the social abuses of the Hindu community like ehild^marriage and enforced widowhood. They vigorously opposed the Christian missionaries and Bishop Thoburn reports that they usually had a strong partisan bias. See Thoburn, op. d t.. p . 240. 83

The rise of the R m Krishna Mission undsr ths leadership of Swami

Vivekananda®^ was anothar development of tha century easting diffarant

types of influaneas ovar tha society* Its main objective apart from ranaissanoa in raligion is daseribad ss balng "to in stil in youth s

spiritualised davotion to social service."

Undar tha auspioas of tha above-mentioned organisations savaral

girls1 schools vara said to put spaelal emphasis upon tha aradication of

evil customs from Hindu womanhood. Schools undar tha Arya Samaj influ­

ence, which was widespread in tha United Provinces of north oantral

India, appear especially to have aimed at tha revival of Vadic culture

and hanoa of that anoient learning* Tha Arya Samaj School is known as a

"Gurukul, a religious and educational powerhouse" as described by

Noronha* McKee describes a typical gurukala—a school for education of

Hindu g irla—as aiming at "regeneration of Indian womanhood through

Brahmacharya discipline * * * eradication of evil customs like child-

marriage* * * * Tha girls1 education and discipline are regulated with

a view to making them intelligent mothers, attractive wives and helpful

companions to their husbands (rather than mere drudges of all work),

vise and considerate daughters and sisters, efficient citisens and

patriotic Indians*"®?

9wami Vivekananda represented Hinduism at the World Parliament of Religions of 189*+ and earned the greatest honor and recognition for himself and his religion* The Rama Krishna mission at present seems to pay more attention to problems of theology and education*

Noronha, 0£, d t*. p. 136. 8? McKee, oj>. c it., pp. 92-93# quoting Indian Social Reformer. January 30, 1926* 84

The exponents of the Arya Samaj movamant concentrated on offaring tha typa of adueatlon that would kaap tha Hindu youth from aocapting tha lure of Christianity and that would prepare a olaaa of people—both man and woman—who would look back to tha old Hindu ideal of Vedic daya as a true way of life* Tha latter part of tha view oontinuad to be a major thought in tha eduoational developments of tha country.

Meanwhile, to tha east, a number of girls* schools in Bengal ware opened under the Rama Krishna Mission, and an English disciple of

Vivekananda, who was known as Sister Nivedita, was very helpful in this respect.® ®

While the social and religious revolutions were in progress in

Northern India the scholarly Decoan or the South was also undergoing a change under the zealous leadership of Justice Ranade, the sooial reformer Bhandarker, Professor Gokhale and several other prominent and vigorous reformers. They formed the Deccan Education Society which had as its chief aim the creation of a society of patriotic Intellectuals who would selflessly devote their time and efforts to the cause of educating the country*s youth of all classes.®^ Justice Ranade (1842-

1906) of Poona and his wife Rama Bai were highly responsible for the emancipation of women by freeing them from the age-old bondage of anti­ quated Hindu oustoms and by opening schools for married women with an emphasis on adult education.

®®Sister Nivedita (Miss Margaret Noble) strongly upheld the cause of Hindu women* s life and through her emphatic w ritings awakened the sense of need for their eduoation. Her various essays and writings on Indian national eduoation created a deep consciousness and Interest in the hearts of the readers. See Sister Nivedita, Hints on National Education in India (3d ed.; Caloutta: Jdobhan Offioe, 19237# ——— ®9Noronha, oj>. d t . . p . 137. 85

An organisation for tho causa of women known as Sava Sadan or

Slatars M inistrant was astablishad in 1909 in Bombay by G. K, Davadhar,

Mrs* Ranada was its first President, and tha soeiaty was undar a unitad committee of Hindu, Muslin and Parsi raprasantatives.^® Tha chiaf ain of this organisation was philanthropie and aduoational work. Its high idaals wars "to inpart raligious, litarary, soiantifie, nadioal and industrial knowladga to wonan. , * • To prapara woman for service, both at horns and to tha country at largo, • • . To work towards tha gsnsral walfars of women, There appeared a few pioneer wonan as wall, soma of than Hindu and soma not, who took upon themselves tha task of educating woman and girls, Mrs, Sorabji, a Parses lady in Bonbay, and her daughter

Cornelia Sorabji are particularly mentioned in educational circles for establishing three schools with tha main purpose of bringing together children of all tha communities for creating unity among Indian woman.

Mention is often made of Rama Bal Pandit (1858*1922) as a popular lady reformer who though Hindu later became a Christian, She opened Ashrans or homes for Hindu widows, providing them with tha opportunity of receiving useful education. Professor Karve, who opened a school for

Hindu widows in 1889 which later developed into the S,N,D.T. Indian

Wonan1 s University (1916), was much influenced by Pandlta Rama B ai,^

No work on modern eduoation in India can be complete without making a reference to the tireless efforts and unbounded services rendered by

90 Minna G, Cowan, The Education of the Women of India (New York: Fleming H, Revell A Co,, 1912), p, 17,

^ S h r i d e v i , oj>. d t , , p , 35, 92 Brockway, op, c it,. p, 9J+, 86

Professor Gokhale (1866-1915) of Ferguson College, Bombay, for the spread of eduoation in the country, Gokhale, whoa Gandhi called his guru, was the most redoubtable opponent of Lord Curzon, viceroy of India,

1898-1905* He devoted his whole life to serving his countrymen. He tried to bring quantitative advances in education, whereas Lord Curzon believed and supported qualitative improvement, Gokhale was a staunch supporter of "free, universal, oompulsory, primary education even if it be of the humblest kind."93 He was equally aware of the necessity and importance of Indian women's education. He said, "I want our men and women without distinction of caste or creed, to have opportunity to grow to the full height of their stature unhampered by cramping and unnatural restriction."9^ The aims of the Servants of India Society, which was founded by Gokhale in 1905* also bear testimony to his deep interest in the problem of Indian women's education as these aims particularly refer to "assisting educational movements, especially those for the education of women,"93

It was a disappointing situation that, despite the strenuous attempts of several educators and social reformera, satisfactory results in the education of women were not achieved. Gokhale observed that the greatest drawback to the progress of women came from their own ignorance and aversion to change.

93jjurullah and Naik, o£, cit,. p, 533.

O /i G, A. Natessan, G. £• Gokhale* s Speeches (Madras: Natessan and Company* 1920), p . 1 .” "" ~

93shridevi, 0£. cit.,pp. 27- 29. 87

All who know anything of Indian wonan know that tha turn of thair mind ia Intensely religious—a raault dua in no anall maaaura to thair baing shut out from all othar intellectual pursuits. And this combination of enforced ignoranoe and overdone religion not only nakas than willing victims of custom unjust and hurtful in tha highest degree, but it also nakas than tha most formidable, because tha nost effective, opponents of all attempts at ahange or innovation.96

Therefore he strongly advocated that the only effective naans for the emancipation of wonen was education. But being aware of the society's discouraging attitude toward women's education he knew that it was not a matter which could be smoothly solved.

Reforms in the Muslim Community

The statistics on educational progress during the nineteenth century indicate that by the close of the century education of Muslim girls was still in the making, whereas Parsees and Anglo-Indians were already considerably advanced in the field and Hindu girls also had already started their eduoation.97 The reason for the slow development of Muslim women's education is not hard to discover. The nineteenth century was a time of great stress for the Indian Muslins. With the collapse of their political power and the loss of chief offices of the state they faced a terrible economic depression. The introduction of

^Gokhale, "Female Education in India," Progress in Women's Education, ed. The Countess of Warwick (London: Longman, Green and Company, 1098), pp. 256-257. 97 The fo llo w in g i s a p a r t i c u l a r example o f t h i s : "By 1901-02, the number of women students of Indian Universities rose from 6 in 1881- 1882 to 264 . . . Of these 148 were Anglo Indians, 49 were Indian Christians, 38 were Parsees, 28 were Hindus, 1 belonged to other groups. Not even one Muslin girl read at the University stage." Nurullah and N aik, oj>. d t . . p . 396* 88

Western education and the subsequent abolition in 1837 of Persian, which was still the language of oulture of Indian Muslims,9® further intensified the cultural and economic depression of the community, the Parses and

Hindu communities took advantage of the new or Western education, because for them it was just a matter of changing one foreign language for another, and thus secured a lead in the new world. But for the Muslims who had ruled the country for seven hundred years it was a great humili­ ation as Mukerji rightly points out.^ Hence they protested and tried to seek escape in a sterile isolation among the memories of their glorious past; sought refuge in religion and clung to their own social institu­ tions*^®®

Another reason for the unacceptability of Western education by

Indian Muslims during the early Ebritish period was the fact that the new schools had generally come to be identified with missionary educa­

tion which undoubtedly emphasised Christian beliefs and religion.

Through lack of support the Muslim schools rapidly decayed, and a

general state of poverty and ignorance prevailed over the community, yet

the pride of their religious and cultural outlook led the Muslims to discard the opportunity of receiving mission or government-sponsored

Western education for a considerably long period. This culminated in

^®Hartog, 0£. cit.. p. 13,

^M ukerji, History of Education, p. 81.

^®®Muhammad Shamsul Huq, Compulsory Eduoation in Pakistan (Paris: UNESCO, 195*0, PP. 2 3 -2 4 . 89 thair neglecting tha nav aducatlon up to tha last dacada of tha nine- taanth century.

However tha inpact of persistent missionary activitiaa and inatructiona had a gradual influence on Ielamic thought which resulted in aocial raforna in tha Muslin community. This in turn cast a vast influence on thair aducational prograss. Many aducatad Muslima strova hard to prova Islam1s progressive and liberal thinking in tha face of

Christian attacks, thus revising and re-interpreting nany values. The first leading step in the direction of educational reforms started with

Sir Syed Ahmad Khan (lS l7-1898) of Delhi, a descendant of a Mughal family, who was a judge and member of the Governor General1s Council and was knighted in 1888.^^

Sir Sjyed advocated a change in the outlook on life which was prevalent among Indian Muslims. Sir Syed interpreted tha problems of

Muslim education in tha background of their cultural history and the special circumstances in which they ware placed. In this light ha championed the causa of such Western knowledge as was consistent with the tenets of Islam and sought to bring Islam in India in tune with modern thought and progress. Salyidain points out the harmony of the best elenents of East and West in Sir Syed's educational thought which is evident from the latter*s own words, "Philosophy w ill be in our right hand, natural sciences in our left and the crown of religion will adorn our heads.The Anglo oriental College founded in 1875 at Aligarh

10^-Vineent A. Smith, The Oxford History of India, ed. Percival Spear (3d ed.; Oxfordi Clarendon Press, 1956)» p. §0ji. 1^K . G, Saiyidain and G. Anderson, "Muslim Education in India," The Year Book of Eduoation. ed. Lord Eustace Peroy (London: Evans Bros., Ltd., 193^}. p. 6ll. 90 with its British principal and staff, residential system, mosque, religious instruction and its balance of Eastern and Western learning^ embodies the lofty ideds held by Sir Syed, According to Saiyidain,

"This was the first attempt in educational self-help on the part of any community in the modern history of India founded on the belief that no 10U government can by itse lf solve educational problems of the people,11

This great leader was also the pioneer of modern education of

Muslim girls in India, He did almost the same service for Muslims by bringing about a social and educational renaissance as Ram Mohan Roy had done for the Hindus in his own day, A g irls1 sohool was established in

Aligarh by him which in due course was elevated to its status as the present leading Muslim Women's College in India under the Aligarh

Muslim University, Here also the emphasis lies on a synthesis of Muslim

culture and Western sciences. This college with its residenoe hall and hostel for girls, along with a blend of Eastern and Western ideas, is regarded as an ideal institution of higher education for Muslim girls even today.

The Mohammedan Educational Conference founded by Sir fyed Ahmed

Khan in 1886, through its annuel sessions held in different parts of the

country, created an awareness of needs among the members of the various

communities, and served as a great stimulus to the cause of Muslim women's education,

■ ^ S d ith , 0£. cjt, ; also Spear, India. A Modern History, p. 609, loh Saiyidain, og. c it.. pp. 797-816, 91

His brilliant Ideas attracted a group of distinguished Muslim educators and scholars of the country around him, who came to be collectively known as the"Aligarh School," The members of the "Aligarh

School" participated both theoretically and practically in the further­ ance of social reform and in the promotion of the Educational Confer­ ence. Particular mention in this respect should be made of Khaja Altaf

Hussain Hali of Panipat,^^ the famous poet, scholar and champion of

Indian women's cause, Hali wrote extensively and delivered very effec­

tive speeches about the education of women and girls, as a President of

the Educational Conference as well as in a private capacity, emphasizing

the need of social and educational reforms. His presidential speeches vividly depict the extremely backward position of Indian women as a whole.

Without any distinction of caste or creed, he appealed to the nation to

lift the women of India from their ignorance and superstition by afford­

ing them opportunities to gain wisdom and knowledge through education.

Hie emphatic writings and most appealing verses which are in Urdu and

Persian often describe the evils of child marriage, enforced widowhood

and illiteracy which had sneaked into Muslim society and were a source of

misery and unhappiness to all Indian women alike, Hali was instrumental

in establishing the first private Muslim girls' school in Panipat.^^

^^Born 1837; died 191^, Hali was a great social reformer as well as a celebrated literary figure and was a great scholar in Urdu, Persian and Arabic, In consideration of his literary and social achievement and services, the Government of India awarded him the title of "Shamsul Ulema" or the greatest scholar. One of his grandchildren, K. G, Saiyidain, is today one of the leading educators of India.

10^Saliha Abid Hussain, Yadgar-e-Hall (Delhi: Union Printing P re s s , 19*+9), PP. 116-117. 92 Maulana Nasser Ahmed, a scholar, linguist and a renowned Urdu novelist, was also a great champion of women* s oause -—social and educa­ tional, He wrote a number of very interesting social and literary novels deploring the evils resulting from the lack of women*s education in Indian Muslim society and the absenoe of sound training for home and family life for girls in Indian Muslim homes, Naseer Ahmed often sug­ gested models for ideal eduoation and training for Muslim girls for making a happy and successful home life. In these models he emphasised religious instruction, hygienic rules, knowledge of home management and synthesis of simple Eastern and Western ideas. Several of his interest­ ing books are translated in English, as for example, Mirathul-Uroos.

Mirror of the Bride. The educationist Yusuf All and the historian Ameer

All, and such other leaders as Chiragh All and Nawab Viqarul-Mulk—a ll these contemporaries of Sir Syed and Hali contributed much to the developswnt of women*s education and progress. As Siddiqi concludes, they "functioned in different capacities to bring Muslim education in line with the modern standards and content,

Though as the century progressed, Muslim educators gradually favored English education for women, yet there seemed to exist deep feelings of dissatisfaction with the product which was the outcome of this type of education, A study of the literature of the time, for . 108 example, Dr, Iabal*s philosophic poetry, very clearly lndioates the

107 S id d iq i, oj>. c i t . . p . 143, 108 Dr, Sir Mohammed Iqbal (1873-1938), Iqbal was a philosopher and celebrated Mualim educationist and poet of India, bar-at-lav from London and he earned a doctorate in philosophy from Germany. Iqbal was a great advocate of Hindu-Muslim unity at first, but later his views changed on aooount of sooial and political reasons and he advooated the establishment of an independent Muslim state, that is, of Pakistan for the Muslims of India, 93 defects of the existing education. Foremost among them according to

Dr. Iqbal is that education does not prepare the students for life and it is merely literary not practioal. He often speaks in highly favorable tones of the Khanqahs (Muslim monasteries of the early Muslim days) where the pupils used to have opportunities to practice what they learned.

All this indicates dissatisfaction with the type of women*s education, which many held was not preparing girls for what Indian life desianded of them .

On the whole it is found that with the turn of the century the prospects of modern education for Muslim girls brightened. Muslim educators collectively voiced their opinion that the aim of women*s education should be to make the girls worthy daughters and responsible housewives. Some private training institutions or Tarbiyatgah (i.e. school and training home combined) were set up in different parts of the country where girls were provided with suitable training to achieve the above objectives. A good example was the Tarbiyat Gah-e-Banat at

Delhi, founded and personally supervised by Maulana Rashidul Khairl, a well known scholar, novelist and journalist. Girls from different parts of the country lived in this residential institution and received educa­ tion up to the level of high school. A remarkable feature of this

Tarbiyatgah was practical training afforded to the girl students by participation in various literary activities as well as home management and group living.

This Institution used to publish a bi-weekly magazine called

"Banat" (meaning Daughters), which gave information about the various academic, cultural, religious and social activities of the Tarbiyatgah. 94

To the influenoe of this journal and of the school, Rashidul Khairi added tha strangth of his novals« Ha wrote a number of celebrated books in Urdu, all having tha aim of social and educational reform, Ha took a deep interest in the welfare of Muslim girls and women through the

Tarbiyatgah till his death a few years before the Independence of India in 1947, Then his work was taken over by his able son who migrated to

Pakistan during 1947,

Apart from numerous books written by Rahidul Khairi, the following is a complete series of novels which is considered as a very valuable addition to Urdu literature and an asset to the education of Muslim women i n I n d ia ,

Subh-e-Zlndagi f~Dawn of Life_J Sham-e-Zlndagl T ~Sunset of Lif Shab-e-Zlndagj £ End o f L ife _ J

This series depicts the life of a Muslim girl from the beginning to the end, and the author describes all influences good and bad which make or mar the lives of Muslim girls in India.

The Hartog report of 1929 indioates that there were by that time 109 some private Islamic schools for girls of all grades. In these schools, the community was particular about providing religious instruc­ tion in the Arabic, Persian and Urdu languages. Such schools were an adaptation for girls of the classical education which had long been available to boys. But eventually more and more Muslim parents began to send their girls to the Western type of schools and colleges which were more numerous in India,

109. Nurullah and Naik, o£. c it.. pp. 718-719, Policy of the British Government In India toward Women1a Eduoatlon from the Latter Half of the Nineteenth Century to Independence In 19^7

During the early decades of the nineteenth century, eduoatlon of

Indian women was not considered a responsibility of the state. On the other hand, the British government adopted a policy of norwinterference.

As pointed out earlier, the authorities seemed to think that education was socially prohibited for Indian women and therefore any attempt made in this direction would provoke the sentiment of the people. But this state of affairs gradually took a favorable turn after 1850 following the abolition of the system of sati and Governor General Dalhousie's open support of women's education, Dalhousie was deeply impressed by

Bethune's secular school^0 and its popularity among the people. The

Governor General even went to the extent of meeting expenses of the school from his private funds after Bethune's death in 1851, Not only was he thus personally interested In Indian women's education, but he strongly believed that the Government of India also should openly patronise it. He expressed these views in his letter of April 11, l850t

"No single change in the habits of the people is likely to lead to more important and beneficial consequences than the introduction of education for their female children,

110See pp. 75-77.

I l l Hartog, o£. cit., p, 54, On this basis hs recommended that

Government ought to give It frank and cordial support • • . and the Council of Education should be Informed that It was thenceforward to consider Its functions as oonprlsing the superintendence of native female education, and that It would be its duty to give all possible encouragement to any disposi­ tion shown by the natives to establish female schools,112

Evidently this support and reoommendation of the Governor General was one of the main reasons for the official recognition of women's educa­ tion on the state level which was expressed in Wood's Educational

Despatch of 185**, This important historical document was named for

Charles Wood who was at that time the President of the Board of Control.

It sought to make compensation for the neglected issues in education and served to check the filtration theory of education which had been in vogue since 1835» hence it is that "the Despatch is the climax of the Indian education; what goes before leads up to it; what follows flows from it,"^ ^

The Despatch dealt with a number of very important and notable questions such as (a) primary education, (b) creation of Education

Departments, (c) establishment of three universities in Calcutta, Madras and Bombay as examining bodies, (d) teacher training, (e) grants-in-aid and (f) particular mention was made of encouragement of women's educa­ tion, About the last feature the Despatch observed:

The importance of female education in India cannot be over­ rated and we have observed with pleasure the evidence which is now afforded of an increased desire on the part of many of the natives of India to give a good education to their daughters, by this means a far greater proportional impulse 97

is imparted in the educetionsl end moral tone of the people then by the eduoetion of men* • • • Our Governor Generel-in- Council hes deolered . . . thet the Government ought to give to the nstive female eduoetion in Indie its frenk end cordiel support; end in this we heertily concur

As e result of these recomaendations voaen's eduoetion came under the direot responsibility of the governaent for the first tine* The newly oreeted departments of eduoetion peid attention to the problen end e few girls1 schools were started in various parts of the country* Yet few tangible results seen to have been achieved, for in the Despatch of

1859* the Court of Directors was still concerned with this state of a f f a i r s i

Although the special interest of the hcsie authorities and of the several governaents in India in the work of female educa­ tion has been plainly declared and though there is no reason to doubt that the officers of the department have availed themselves of such opportunity as offered to promote the object it would not appear that, except in the oase of Agra and the neighboring distriets, any active measures have been taken by the Department of JEduoation for the establishment of female sc h o o ls* H 5

But the educational statistics reveal that within a decade, women1s primary education had made gains* This implies that the public was increasingly aocepting the importance of elementary education for girls, though higher education was generally opposed, as it meant English education, which was to be studied only if government jobs were to be aspired for. Indian society at this time did not accept any of these views, although for men it was considered necessary* Moreover, the age of marriage also must have served as a barrier in the attainment of

H 4 Joshi and Shukla, op. d t*. p. 106*

^ ^ S h r id e v i, o£* d t *. p* 171* 98 higher eduoatlon, as usually girls below twelve years were married and undar suoh circumstances thsra could arlss no question of aduoation beyond tha primary level.

In 1882 Lord Ripon appointed an Education Commission, referred to earlier, under the chairmanship of Sir William Hunter, a member of the

Viceroy*s Legislative Council. This Commission was appointed partly for the reason previously given: There was a conflict of ideas about Indian education policy between missionary educators and British administrators, but also for the reason that the government desired to make a review of educational developments since 185^.

After a careful study of the question of women*s education.

Hunter’s Commission concluded that female education was in an extremely backward condition and should be given larger funds. The Commission made some valuable suggestions for the development and expansion of female eduoetion. Especially it emphasised the Introduction of a scholarship system, the establishment of hostels, the training of women H 6 teachers, and the appointment of women inspectors. But in spite of these periodic recommendations no practical measures for the progress of women’s eduoatlon seem to have been adopted at the governmental level.

The grant-in-aid system was in force, which must have been a major reason for the existence of several private girls* schools. This seem­ ingly gave rise to a favorable attitude toward girls' higher education

1J^ Rcport of the Indian Education Commission. 1882-1883. pp. 5 ^ 5 - 5 ^ . 99 as several prlvats sodstiss were crsatsd for ths furthsrancs of women's highar sduoation.

Primary sduoation for girls expanded considerably in ths last dsoads of ths ninstssnth century, whereas secondary education developed mostly after the beginning of the twentieth centuryWcswn's h ig h e r education (seoondary and college) took longer to start as most of the people were still unused to the idea of Western culture* The boys who received the "new" education exhibited a very unorthodox type of behavior which was quite disappointing for many parents* This might have naturally added to many parents1 Indifference to sending their daughters to high school because they night have thought that girls educated in these schools and receiving the same type of education would create even graver social problems*

A critical look at the position of women1s education In the early twentieth century ”

With the dawn of the new century* more and more girls began to attend high or seoondary schools* Most of these pupils belonged either to the educationally advanced or upper class families whose main object was the achievement of higher status and prestige in social circles, along with material gains* In those days the idea that higher education was instrumental in providing white-collar jobs to the boys did not

^^Aocording to the statistics for 1882* the number of girls studying in primary schools (government* aided* unaided* mixed—all Included) was about 124*491* as compared to a total of 127*066 girls who were in educational institutions (6 in colleges* 515 in normal schools and 2*054 in seoondary schools)* For full information see Nurullah and N aik, 0£. d t*. p* 338* 100

equally hold true of girls1 higher education* but It usually provided

the girls with opportunities of securing a mate who was well educated

and highly placed in life*

Host of the women who received higher education in the early years of the twentieth century belonged to the progressive and materially

advanced groups, especially the Anglo-Indians, Parsees and Indian

Christians. Later, as a result of the various religious and social reform movements, some higher caste Hindus and a few Muslim g irls began

to receive the privileges of Western education. Hence It is not sur­ prising that higher education came to be dominated by a select few, and money took the plaoe of intellect. This situation shaped higher educa­

tion aooording to the needs of the government and the fancy of the upper

classes rather than by the needs of the community.

With the expansion of higher education, however, some serious defects entered into the education of women. The general tendency of the high schools came to be to prepare students for universities.

English language became the medium of instruction for all subjects,

chiefly because the universities conducted their courses in English.

This meant that the mother tongue and Indian languages were seriously

n e g le c te d .

In general, high schools prepared students for the Matriculation

examination, which, instead of preparing the pupils for different walks

of life, just trained them for service under the government. Another

118 T. N. Slqueira, The Education of India. History and Problems (4 th e d .; Bombay: Oxford U n iv e rsity P re ss , 1952), p p . 9°-97» 101 drawbaok was that for this course no science studies were required* hence only liberal eduoatlon became dominant. Thus there were no provisions for technical and professional education since the high schools were dominated by the universities, and education came to be controlled by examinations. Pupils had no alternative but to prepare for passing them* and this meant emphasis on memory and repetition to the neglect of initiative and reasoning. This was a very unsatisfactory position as the examinations dominated the whole oourse of education heavily. At the same time they influenced teaching which in turn con­ trolled the curricula. Success in the examination led to the universi­ ties whereas the social, practical or vocational aspects of life were neglected* giving cause for great concern, because the needs of those students who did not go to the university and required different courses were not met. This was observed by the Education Commission of 1882 who suggested that "in the upper classes of high schools there should be two dlvislons-one leading to tne Entrance examination of the Universities, the other of a more practical character intended to fit youths for commercial and non-literary pursuits.Similarly the Indian Univer­ sities Commission of 1902 was much concerned about this state of affairs on the college level and it commented that "the greatest evil from which university education in India suffers is that teaching is subordinate to examination and examination to teaching."x120

119Ib4d„ pp. 95-96.

^°M ukerji, Hi story of Education, p. 172. The expansion of women1a education in the early twentieth century brought the question of the suitability of the existing type of educa­ tion for them, with special reference to the curriculum. On the primary eduoatlon level the usual practice was to teach the same literary sub­ jects taught to boys* Even as late as 1882 the Indian Education

Commission wrotei

It ought not to be taken for granted that the instruction which is suitable for a boy must necessarily be good for an Indian girl* In purely literary subjects* girls need not go so far as boys and there are subjects of a practical kind to which girls might at least be introduced during their school course,

But the caution was not heeded* Secondary and higher education developed characteristics which were considered to be very undesirable in g irls1 education* The curriculum did not take women1s needs into consideration but rather was modeled after the curriculum for boys and men: "Courses of studies in girls1 schools are modelled on those in schools for boys* with some variation in the middle school courses and 122 to a lesser extent in the matriculation courses of universities."

A general note of dissatisfaction with women1s education is reflected in both government resolutions and private speeches and lite r­ ature* For example* among several important problems discussed in the

Government Resolution on Educational Policy (1913)* it is particularly observed that "(l) Education of girls should be practical with reference to the position which they will fill in social life* (2) It should not

121 Nurullah and Naik* oj>. d t . p. 393 f 103 seek to imitate the education suitable for boys nor should it be dominated by examinations, • • ,*^23 The government colleges and high schools of the period contributed little to the preparation of girls and women for life . There was no specific differentiation between the curriculums for boys and girls in high schools except the addition of the so-called "specially suitable subjects" to the curriculum in place of such traditionally masculine subjects as math, agriculture, and so on. But histories of education indicate that such substitution some­ times resulted in a ridiculous extreme.

The National Education Movement

The domination of the rigid external examinations, and English beooming the medium of instruction to the neglect of Indian languages together with the policy of secularism and absence of vocational courses, was felt bitterly in connection with women's education. These handicaps gave ground for sweeping criticism s by the public against the English educational system, and finally reached the climax in the National IZk Education Movement,

123Ibld.. pp. 572-573- 124 According to Lajpat Rai the feeling of national education started as far baok as the last decade of the nineteenth century when he raised a cry for the same in 1883, It was narrow and sectarian then. The Aligarh Muslim University, Eyananda Anglo Vedlc College at Lahore and the Arya Samaj Central Hindu College at Benares all embodied with the founders' national ideals and were open to all, but truly speaking, they were all denominational. Though the love of the motherland was always present, yet there was a sectarian bias. Besides these institutions there were other institutions like Gurukula at Hardwar, and Tagore School at Bholepur which, according to 104

The growing sp irit of nationalism among the Indians culminated in an outburst for political reforms in the early years of the twentieth century. In spite of many blessings brought by the British rule, a feeling of India for the Indians developed among the people. The 125 9wadeshl and Boycott movements starting in Begal (1905) resulted from a general feeling of dissatisfaction and the administrative policy of

Lord Curs on.

Political controversies soon reached the educational field. With

the organisation of the National Council of Education in Bengal, under an able leadership (including Rabindra-nath Tagore), an open revolt against the prevalent official system of education was launched. Under its guidance a number of national schools were opened in Bengal, and the

chief characteristic came to be the teaching of a trade (which was ignored in the existing system) along with the ordinary matriculation sub jests.^ 6

The leaders of the National Education Movement, among whom were

Gokhale, Dada Bhai Naoroji, the Ali brothers, Tilak, Annie Besent and

Gandhi and several others, unanimously agreed that the prevailing educa­

tion was unfavorable to a strong national development. This is clear

from what Annie Besant is reported to have said: "Nothing can more

surely weaken national character than allowing the education of the

Rai had a greater olaim to being national as they were founded, managed, staffed and financed by Indians but the former was more in tune with the spirit of Hinduism. At present the Jamia Millla Islamia (1920-21) and Viswa Eharati (1922) are two very famous national universities in India. Lajpat Rai, The Problem of National Education in India (London: A llen and Unwin L td ., 1 9 ^0 ), p p . 1 6-24. 125Muk•rJl* History of Education, p. 198. ^^Mohlman and Roucek, oj>. c it.,jp . 512-513* 105 young to bo oontrollod by foreign ideal*.12? The oharacterietic feature* of the national education program, apart from emphasis on vocational education, were instruction in the mother tongue instead of

English and inclusion of national heritage in the eurriculua instead of the history and culture of Britain. To quote Mrs. Besant againi

National education must live in an atmosphere of proud and glorious patriotism , and this atmosphere must be kept sweet, fresh and bracing by the study of Indian literature, Indian history, Indian triumphs in scienoe, in art, in politics, in .2 0 war, in colonisation, in manufactures, in trade, in ooeneroe.

This movement gave a new approach to Indian women's education. It was held that women occupy an important position in the uplift of the nation but they have a different office to fu lfill. This attitude is well represented by Karve, a leader in women1s education, who founded

the S. N. D. T. Indian Women1* University in Bombay in 1916 on the model of the Japanese Women's University. In his Presidential address Karve

s a id .

If men and women . . . therefore are to be fitted by educa­ tion to bear their own respective shares in the preservation, development and evolution towards perfection of the whole community, they must be brought up on different lines. The differentiation in the educational courses must correspond in time and nature approximately to the differentiation in their conscious individuality.1^

On the whole there prevailed a general trend of thought in the

country that the official type of education imparted in higher education

12^Rai, o£. d t.. pp. 26-29.

128Hohlman and Rouoek, o£. d t .. pp. 512-513.

^2^Rai, oj>. c it.. pp. 28-29. 130 Karve, Looking Back (Bombay, 1930), 106

Institutions was not suitsbis for Indian woman. Instead, ths idsal of highar sduoation should ba to prspars woman to bscoms ldsal mothsrs and sfflelsnt housswives. In ordsr to attain this objsctivs ths sdueators generally con dud ad that M(l) Most natural and thsrsfors most sffioisnt msdium of instruction Is ths learner’s mother-tongue• (2) Woman as a class havs dlffsrsnt functions to fu lfill In ths social economy from thoss of men." Ths nssd to provide a useful sduoation for girls which would prspars them for masting life situations successfully was also emphasised by ths Calcutta University Commission of 1919 which spoke of

Ths nssd of ths vast majority who will spend their lives in ths senana, whose sduoation w ill cease at an early age and who ought to be trained on ths one hand to perform their senana duties with interest and knowledge and on the other to understand and sympathise with the Interests and work of their husbands and brothers, and secondly the need of the « a ll but very Important minority who will go out with the world to serve their fellows in professional callings or will play their part in the intellectual activities of the progressive section of Indian society, and want a higher training to be enacted to do so.131

The political developments of the country centering around the

M Stlonalist movement led to the Montague-Chelmsford reforms under the

Government of India Act of 1919 which introduced a new political consti­ tution known as the Diarchy or Double Rule, Under this new system, the

Department of Education was classified as a "transferred" department, and with certain reservations its control came under Indian M inisters.

This developMnt marked the beginning of a new period in the history of e d u c a tio n .

, quoting from the Report of the 107

The Indian Ministars In spit# of thalr ambitious plana to introduoa rsfom s in tha existing system of education, faoad unsurmount- abla difficulties on aocount of unfavorabla financial conditions. This provad to ba a sarloua handicap to tha prograss of education sine# tha ministers did not have access to tha necessary funds for tha reorgani­ sation and expansion. At this juncture tha Central Government also withheld financial assistance under the new administration, and thus the interest shown by the Center in early educational natters of the country case to an end. This absence of central interest and assistance was extremely unfortunate for the development of women*s education.^-^ This is referred to in the Hartog Committee Report—an important document of the periodi

We are of the opinion that the divorce of the Government of India from eduoatlon has been unfortunate, and holding as we do that education is essentially a national service, we are of opinion that steps should be taken to consider anew the relation of the Central Government with this subject.^33

Nonetheless, the period between 1922 and 1930 can be called a flourishing period of Indian education. As the histories of education indicate, there followed a great enthusiasm by the parents to send their children to schools, and large nwbers of enrollments were reported. But after this period, events took a reverse position. The world economic depression hindered the cause of education and so also did the Civil

132 We learn that out of 333 million population only 24 million could be termed as literates; out of this 24 million only 4 million women were literate. Progress of Education in India: Quinquennial Review 1927-32 (11 vol.; Delhit Bureau of Education 1886-1937). pp. 1^-15. 133 Nurullah and Naik, op. d t.. p. 6l7. 108

Disobedience Movement which was organised by the Indian National

Congress for polltloal reasons* Because of these difficulties many children were taken out of school*

The Hartog Committee*s observations concerning women*s education are very valuable In that they throw light on the prevailing condition*

According to the Committee*s report a social and political consciousness had awakened the Indian women to the point of demanding education and soolal reform* A great impetus to this cause came from the enthusiastic efforts of several enlightened women who in the earlier period had reoeived the benefits of higher eduoatlon* In fact the efforts of the government along with the spade work of Indian reformers for social reforms and provision of educational opportunities for girls were greatly successful in preparing women of the upper middle classes to realise their own worth and Importance in the upbuilding of the nation* Indian educators* as already indicated, firmly believed that the country would never progress and become free from the bonds of slavery until its women got emancipation from the age-old chains of disabilities imposed upon them—some under the sacred label of religion* others under the false prestige of custom* Hence with the passing of the bill of Age of

Consent for girls at fourteen years* followed by the Sards Act in 1929 which fixed the minimum age of marriage at the same level* the age-long prejudices against female education rapidly broke down* This lengthened the period of eduoatlon for many girls and also provided an opportunity for more of them to go to school*

The Montague-Chelmsford reforms gave women a chance to work for franchise* and a place in public life, and this both directly and 109 indirectly helped the progress of eduoetion* The guidance provided by national leaders, and realisation of their social disabilities by educated women themselves, was more strengthened by the inspiring guid­ ance and support of several sincere and enthusiastic English ladies like 13ij. Mrs* Margaret Cou sins, Lady Irwin, and a few others. J This led to the establishment of the All India Women* s Conference in 191^* and in 1917 135 women leaders of the country launched the Women's India Association*

Under the auspices of the above, enlightened women strove hard from 1917 to gain franchise* This pioneer association, which was open to all members of the sex without distinction of caste or creed, led to the

creation of several other important women* s organisations, such as the

National Council of Women and the All India Women's Conference on

Educational Reform* The chief object of this Conference was to bring about reforms in the prevailing methods of female education and to remove the various drawbacks and deficiencies in the system*

In 1927 the first All India Women1s Conference on Educational

Reform was held, which has continued to this day to take keen interest in women's educational and social problems. This conference marks the

beginning of a new era in Indian women's education as it insisted on including moral training as well as physical training for students. It also aimed at reforms in both the educational and social position of

W Slr*. Cousins was very active in the Indian Women's Movement* She organised the attempt to gain female franchise as a secretary of the Women's India Association, and it was led by Mrs* Sarojini Naidu* She was also hon. organising secretary of the All India Women's Conference on Educational Reform, 1927*

13!>Noronha, og, d t *. pp. 161-162, 110

Indian woman and girls; that is, it unanimously damandad compulsory primary education for young girls and protested against early marriages and early motherhood. The educational ideals set forth by the Confer­ ence express a deep eonoern for the individual's personal development.

This is in direct contrast to the British-Indian educational thought which did not take into consideration the physical, psychological and cultural aspects of the pupil. The first resolution of the All India

Women's Conference (192?) clearly lays down the functions of education,

This conference defines education as training vhioh w ill enable the child and the individual to develop his or her latent capacities to their fullest extent for the service of humanity. It must therefore include elements for physical, mental, emotional, civic and spiritual development. The courses of study arranged for this purpose must be so flexible as to allow of adaptation t^Jthe needs of the individual, the locality and the community.

Equality of educational opportunities for boys and girls was a signifi­ cant demand put forth by this organization. Remarkable efforts were made toward the reorganization of curriculum with particular reference to special textbooks for girls, appointment of women to school committees, and so forth. In fact the expansion in women's education had produced a deep concern for planning a suitable type of education for them. As early as 1929 the Hartog Committee had strongly emphasized g irls' education and directed the attention of the government toward this problem. They had recommended the Inclusion of such courses as domestic

136 Report of the All India Women* s Conference on Educational Reform. January 5-8. 1927 (Poona: Scottish Mission Industries Company, Ltd., 1927), p. 5VT 1 U

science, hygiene, and ■udo for girls in high school. Instead of ths latter being dominated by university requirements devised for boys.

The whole case for women's education rests on the claim that education is not the privilege of one sex, but equally the right of both and neither sex oan advance itself without a strain on the sooial and national system and injury to itself. . . . The time has come to redress the balance . . . in the Interest of the advance of Indian education, priority should now be given to the claims of girls' sduoation in every scheme of expansion.137

The same oonoern was upheld by the members of A. I. W. Conference when

they felt the need of providing "a new type of education which would be

national and natural and equally capable of application to both urban

and rural life .11^® This led them to establish the Lady Irwin Institute

of Home Science In Delhi in 1932. The Ideals and endeavors of the

Women's Conference met with widespread approval of most of the country's

in telli gentsia.

In the educational as well as social activities this organisation

has continued to take a good deal of interest even to the present day.

Throughout the period it has rendered signal service to Indian womanhood

by enhancing the position and status of women and by training and

educating them for a happy and useful life. The following extract from

the Presidential address of one of the Berar's Women's Conferences

(October 7t 19**6) summarizes the lofty ideals and aims of the organization.

We shall haVe to overcome the prevailing notions about women as only fit to produce children, wash and cook . . . we will have to fight against customs like purdah and polygamy. . . .

137 Nurullah and Naik, op. d t .. p. 717, quoting from The Report of the Hartog Committee, p. 1$3.

138 Shridevi, op. c lt.. p. 58, quoting from The All India Women's Fund Association Report (Delhi, 1931), p. 3. 112

Our greatest curse la Ignorance. India la what aha la today beoause of tha backvardneas of woman* which in turn la dua to thair ignoranoa. Ignorance of women ia tha greatest clog in tha wheal of progress—unless we move it we shall not advance far. . . .

Break with Traditional Type of Education

Subsequent to the Government of India Act of 1935. the Indian

National Congress M inisteries in 1937 came into power in eight out of eleven British Indian Provinces. It was hoped that now had arrived the time of fulfilling the educational objectives of the Nationalist movement* vis., the evolution of a national system of education and introduction of free and compulsory mass education. Moreover this political situation provided Gandhi, the country's most prominent national leader* with the right opportunity for the reconstruction of Indian education as well as the society in accordance with his social, economic and political ideas.139

But to put these high ideals into practice required tremendous sums of money from a government whose resources were lim ited. This led

Gandhi to present his proposal of the Nai Talim* or New Education* or

Basic National Education, as it later came to be known. This scheme suggested that universal compulsory education should be introduced between the ages of 7 and 1^. Obviously Gandhi felt that the foundations of education which Macaulay laid down were responsible for the enslave­ ment of the Indians. The best remedy, according to him* therefore would be to unlearn whatever had already been learned during the last half century. Therefore all teaching was to be done in the mother tongue*

139 K. L. Shrimali* The Wardha Scheme t The Gandhi an Plan of Educa­ tion for Rural India (Udaipurt Vidya Bhavan Society* 19^9), p. 7^. 1*f0McKee, op. d t . . p . 80 . 113

instead of a foreign language* Moreover it was to be craft-centered

as against the prevalent practice of book-centeredness. He reflected

that things thus produced by children could be sold and the money be

utilised to sake the process of schooling self-supporting. Under these

circumstances the provision of free and compulsory education for all would be no longer a mere dream.

As a nation we are so backward in education that we cannot hope to fu lfill our obligations to the nation in this respect in a given time during this generation, if the programme is to depend on money. I have therefore made bold, even at the risk of losing a reputation for constructive ability, to sug­ gest that education should be self-supporting. . . . I would therefore begin the child1s education by teaching it a useful handicraft and enabling it to produce from the moment it begins its training. Thus every school can be made self- supporting, the conditions being that the State takes over the manufactures of these schools.!**!

To Gandhi the end of education was not literacy but the all-round

development of body, mind and spirit. On this ground he suggested that

education should be centered around a craft that would accomplish the

intellectual, physioal and spiritual development of the individual. The

emphasis on vooation as advocated by Gandhi is clearly expressed in the

following excerpt from his proposals:

For the all-round development of boys and girls all training should, so far as possible, be given through a profit-yielding vooation. . . . Vocation should serve a double purpose—to enable the pupil to pay for his tuition through the products of his labour and at the same time to develop the whole man or W0H£g !n h!* or h#r* through the vooation learnt at school.

X kl H. 0. Schaefer, "Basic National Eduoatlon in India from 1937- 1957" (Ph.D. dissertation. The Ohio State University, 1962), p. 27, quoting from Harl.lan. July 3!* 1937. !**^Kurullah and Nalk, o£, cit., p. 801. 114

So far, the main aim of aduoatlon was oonaldarad to ba the training of the Intellect but under the Gandhian philosophy It cane to be defined aa education for and through life* According to Gandhi, social progress and educational reoonstruction were interrelated* The objective of the baslo national education, as its originator explains, comprises the life of the individual as well as of the society* In his own words the New

Education alas at a Juster social order in which there is no unnatural division between the "haves" and the "have-nots" and everybody is assured a living wage and the right to freedom.^3

However, the proposal of the basic education created much contro­ versy* In October, 1937 the First Conference of National Education was held at Wardha* As observed by Sdyldain tjandhiji1s proper function was not to present a complete educational picture but only to suggest certain broad and fruitful ideas to be scrutinised, modified and imple- l Vi mented by educationists*" Therefore a committee was appointed under

Dr. Zakir Hussain to study the whole question from the point of view of an educationist.

This report which is both interesting and Invigorating describes in considerable detail the shortcomings of the existing system of educa­ tion as the intelligentsia felt and experienced and in that light justifies the principles of Basic National Education* According to Dr*

143 The Basic National Education. Complete Syllabus for Grades I to VIII (Sevagram, Wardha, Hindusthani Talimi Sangh, n*d*),' p. 5,

li+J+Brockway, oj). oit*, pp. 146-147. 115

Zakir Hussain, superficial literacy is not required of the child but

"the Literacy of the Whole Personality" is necessary,

Vsry valuable suggestions were made in this connection by Zkir

Hussain which later became the foundation of the scheme of the compulsory, universal education of the nation. Two necessary conditions as he termed them were that (l) the productive work around which the education of the child centers should be rich in educative possibilities and that

(2) method of teaching was to be considered very important. Emphasis was to be laid on the principles of oooperatlve activity, planning accuracy, initiative and individual responsibility in learning,-*-^5

Women*s education was greatly influenced by Gandhian educational thought. In fact the greatest impetus to the cause of the social emancipation of Hindu women came from him. He strongly advocated the eradication of social and legal disabilities which were imposed upon

Hindu women. His call to them to serve the country by participating in the struggle for political freedom is of greatest significance as thousands of women came out of seclusion and associated themselves with members of the opposite sex as well as with different aspects of life 146 o u tsid e t h e i r own p r iv a te home l i f e .

The strong oonviction of all social reformers and national leaders

that women* s eduoatlon was a very Important factor in achieving national progress was equally emphasised by Gandhi and later culminated in the provision of equal educational opportunity for men and women under the

145 Report of the Dr, Zakir Hussain Committee on Basic Education (Wardha: Hindusthani Talimi &angh, 1950), pp. 92-95* 1^6 Horonha, o£. d t .. pp. 163*164, 116

Constitution of the Government of India. But tha existing type of aducation for women which was nodalad on tha English aducational pattarn.

Gandhi fait, was unsuitsbis for tha women of India, Ha particularly criticised tha domination of tha English languaga and foraign cultural influonoo on wonon1 ■ oducation. ^ Ho obaorvad that tha fov wcnon who raqulra English aducation for living or for commercial purposas can Join lhfi men's schools. According to him it was the duty of enlightened woman to work for social reform,

Nhat is all tha aducation worth thay are racalving," ha aaks, "if on marriage thay are to baooma mere dolls for their husbands and prematurely engaged in tha task of rearing would-be- manikins?" Thay may fight if thay like for votes for woman. It costs neither time nor trouble. It provides them with innooent recreation. But where are tha brave woman who would work among tha girl widows and who would taka no rest and leave none for man till girl marriages become an impossi­ bility. . . ,w

In tha schema of basic aducation no differentiation was made between girls' and boys1 education. Girls, too, were required to receive education through a basic craft. Spinning and village handi­ crafts were emphasised in the early years of basic national education, but at present, need for home craft and mother craft as definite subjects in basic schools is being strongly felt. The implementation of such subjects of importance for women would broaden the avenues for g irls' basic education.

147 M, S, Patel, The Educational Philosophy of Mahatma Gandhi (Ahmedabadt Na v J iwan ^ublishing House, 19J6). p. 255:

^ Ibid.a pp. 236-237, quoting from Young India. October 7, 1926. 117

Post-war Educational Reconstruction

The period after 19^0 was the most challenging era in the history of the country as the nation was faced with serious dislocations and disorganisations in economic, political and social fields. The educators as well as the administrators were seriously concerned with the prevail­ ing state of affairs. They questioned the adequacy of the old educa­ tional institutions to meet the challenges and demands of modern times.

This concern gave rise to new formulations of plans and projects for national, social, educational and economic reconstruction. There was no doubt that education would play the most important part in the recon­ struction of this critical situation, but the perplexing question con­ cerned the type of education that would suit the changing conditions.

Very shortly India was going to be a free country. What would be its need th en ?

Two plans were proposed as an answer to the challenge of national reconstruction, one of economic development which represented the view that the country could not progress industrially unless the standard of life of the masses was raised.^® This implied that the aim of educa­ tion should be spelled in terms of mass education—the removal of illiteracy—and the development of technical education.

The other approach was of educational development. In 19*+4 the

Central Advisory Board of Education made a comprehensive report on

Post-war Educational Development. This report known as the Sargent

Hansa Mehta, Post-war Educational Reconstruction (Bombay: Pratibha Publications, 19^5), pp. 5-7. 118

Report recognised the importence of women's education but did not make a separate study of this problem by Itself* On the other hand It made general recommendations which according to the report are to be applied nutatls mutandis to women.

Some apology or explanation may be required for the absence of much specific reference in this respect to the question of education for girls and women. This is certainly not due to any failure to recognise the magnitude of this issue; . . . it is even more important for the mothers to be educated than the fathers and consequently all educational facilities mutatie mutandis.151

The Sargent Plan proposed that basic education be made compulsory at primary stage, and s variety of subjects, especially Domestic Science, be made compulsory at the secondary level. No particular difference was mentioned in the type of university education.

Present Position of Women's Education

One of the many and important tasks which India faced after attaining Independence on August 15, 19^7» **s the reconstruction and expansion of the educational system. With the aim of providing oppor­ tunity of education to everyone it was drafted under the Constitution of

India that universal, compulsory and free education shall be provided for children up to the age of fo u rtee n It was also provided that no citisen shall on the ground only of religion, race, caste, sex, or

^^Mehta, Post-war Educational Reconstruction, p. 12.

^-^According to Article h5. The Constitution of India. 1X9 any other consideration be discriminated against in any employment or offices. Thus for the first time all girls became eligible to receive education on the elementary level.

The question of secondary education received the utmost attention as it is considered "to have a vital role to play in any program of education for the community. A number of committees were set up by many states to make recommendations for the qualitative improvement of secondary education. Because of disparities and differences among the states, it was felt that Man all-India survey of the problem was needed if secondary education was to serve effectively the needs of free i ch, I n d i a .M J This resulted in the appointment of a commission under the chairmanship of Dr. Lakshmanswaml Mudliar in 1952. This Commission made a deep and critical review of the problems of secondary education for the whole of India, and the report was submitted in 1953*

Some of the major recommendations made by this commission mark a decisive settling of the one hundred-year-old defents in secondary education as it will be seen by a study of the following recommendationsj

(1) Addition of one extra year to the secondary school course in order to round off secondary edjcation and mark it as a complete stage,

(2) provision of diversified courses by organizing the syllabus around a number of core subjects, (3) establishment of multi-purpose schools,

(4) reforms of examination system.

Kabir, Education in New India (New York: Harper and B rother p . 39* 154 J Ibid.. p. 12.

155Ib±d.t pp. 12-13 120

As far ss university education Is concerned, a const!ssion was appointed In 1948 under Dr, Radha Krlshnan, A very Important point on which emphasis Is laid by this Coaaission Is that universities must provide leadership not only In politics but also In profession, industry and other fields. The Commission recognises the Importance of a broad liberal education as has been the case of Indian higher educa­ tion for the last so many years. At the same time it strongly stresses the need to develop the faculties of science, technology and agriculture in the Indian universities.

The education of women holds an important place in the National

Development Plans and it is considered as the most urgent problem. In the past decade the additional enrollment of boys was 13,2 million, whereas for girls it was 6,8, According to the census report of 1961 the literacy rate of men is 34 per cent and of women about 13 per cent.

This shows that there is still a great disparity between boys1 and girls1 education,

It is reported that under the Plan about Rs 175 crores will be devoted to g irls1 eduoatlon. The National Committee on Women1s Educa- tion-^37 has recommended that a bold and determined effort should be made to face the difficulties in women's education. It is very important

156 The Third Five Year Plan (New Delhi: Government of India, Planning Commission, 19^1), ppT 591-592.

157 This was appointed by the Union government in 1958* 121 under these circumstances that special emphasis be laid on educating publio opinion to the necessity of women's education and that suitable conditions be created by offering special facilities to girls of school

^ ^ International Year Book of Education. Vol. XXII (UNESCO, I960), pp. 211-212. CHAPTER V

THE EMERGING ROLE OF WOMEN IN MODERN INDIAN SOCIETY

Position of Women in Early Hindu Society

During ancient times, as we have said, Hindu women enjoyed freedom and a better social status than their daughters did in later centuries. The chief aim of a girl's life in those days was marriage and homemaking, and women seem to have enjoyed a respectable position.

"Vedic thought conceded to the husband the authority in the home but it allowed to the woman full dignity as a person and as a junior and beloved partnerWomen thus enjoyed an honored status and esteem, but evi­ dently there started a general deterioration in the social structure.

Several codes have been reported as limiting laws. Manu, the oldest

Hindu law-giver (about 200 A.D.), is also reported to have stated in his code that, "for women no sacramental rite is performed, thus the law is settled; women who are destitute of strength and destitute of the knowledge of Vedlc texts are as impure as falsehood Itself; that is a fixed rule,"^ These rules culminated in women being regarded as socially inferior, and their chief duty resulted in slavish obedience,

- George E. Noronha, Backgrounds in the Education of Indian G irls (Washington, D. C,: The Catholic University of America, 1939). P* 60,

^Minna G. Cowan, The Education of Women in India (New Yorkt Fleming H. Revell Company, 1912), p. 31•

122 123 serving the father, husband, and son. Soon after, under the label of protection of the fair sex, several social disabilities, such as sati, enforced widowhood, and child marriage, were Introduced which had a serious effect on the lives of Hindu women for generations to come. As far as their education was concerned, evidence reveals that women of the upper-class families sometimes found opportunities for reading and writing; but as indicated in the foregoing chapters of this study, sacred literature was denied to them,2

Position of Early Mualirn Women in India

Islamic teachings advocated equality of the sexes in the spiritual as well as social aspects of life, A woman as a daughter, wife and mother was held in high esteem and status in Muslim society. Some of the sayings of Mohammed which clearly express the honored status of women are these: llGod, 8 blessings descend on the house in which a daughter is born, • • • fWradise lies under the feet of the mother

Even knowledge and learning were made incumbent upon all faithful women as well as men,^

Thus women in Muslim society of India always held a dignified position, but in the medieval period, for political and cultural reasons,

3 In the ancient carvings and paintings, sometimes women are presented as reading books,for example in the famous Ajanta oaves in India we can see paintings depicting women with books of palm leaves in their hands. This suggests that sometimes opportunities of education were not altogether denied to women in the ancient times, h Mirta Abul Fadl, Savings of the Prophet Mohammad (Allahabad: Reform Society, 1924), pp. 258-259 refer to this aspect, ^Shamsul Huq, Compulsory Education in Pakistan (Paris: UNESCO, 1954), p. 15. 124

the social custom of seclusion or purda, and child marriage came into

the community. In spite of all the disadvantages forced upon women by

social customs, it must be observed that these disabilities were regarded as giving social prestige in the upper-class Muslim families. As far as

the education of Muslim women was concerned, opportunities for free

elementary education were available to all girls. As discussed in

Chapter III of this study, education was regarded as a religious duty

because knowledge and learning were exalted as important requirements of

faith in order that every Muslim man and women should read Qoran. Thus

Qoran became the greatest source of promotion of education with all

sexes and all classes of Indian Muslims.^ This quite often made the

idea of attaining higher knowledge by Muslim women acceptable by the

community. Thus we have considerable literature to prove that several

groups of women, particularly those of the noble and royal families,

usually enjoyed the benefits of education.

By the time Muslim power in India began to decline in the

eighteenth century, a serious cultural degeneration had come upon the

Indian society as a whole and even more had the position of women in all

the communities degenerated. Thus the Indian woman by the eighteenth

century presents a picture of a parasite upon men for her protection,

livelihood and welfare. But a study of the literature of the time

indicates that the concept of the Indian woman as a devoted wife and a

self-sacrificing mother continued throughout the ages.

^Mansoorunnlsa Siddlqi, "Contributions of Islamic Education with Special Referenoe to Pakistan" (inpublished doctoral dissertation. Harvard University, 1959)* pp. 35-36, 125

Impact of tha Wastarn Influanca on the Position of Woman

Contact with tha Westerners and English literature and sciences in the eighteenth century and afterward began indirectly at first, and later more directly, to introduce modern trends of change and progress as far as women of India were conoerned, English education and the

Western liberal ideas broadened the outlook of Indian men and gave rise to several religious and social reform movements for the uplifting of women. One of the particular aims of these movements was to rid the society of prevalent unhappy social situations. With the help of the

British government and legislature several reform acts were passed which n greatly influenced the educational and social status of Indian women,

Thus by the close of the nineteenth century many social prejudices against girls and their education were being circumvented and the Indian woman's outlook on different problems of life underwent a slow trans­ fo rm a tio n .

P ro g re ss

With the growth of the Indian National Movement, women began taking a definite position in society. Under the invigorating leadership

? A detailed acoount of the reforms in Indian coranunities is given in Chapter IV, "Education under British Rule in India," which shows how the socio-religious reforms paved a way for the removal of several social disabilities imposed upon women. In i860 an Age of Consent Lav was passed which was amended in 1892 to raise the age of valid consumma­ tion to twelve. About 1872 a Native Marriage Act allowed intercaste and intercooaunal unions. The passing of Sards Act in 1929 fixed the minimum age of marriage for girls to be fourteen years. The reform leaders sought the help of legislation to implement their proposals and plans for social reforms. 126

of Mrs* Annls Besant, Margaret Cousin and Sarojini Naidu, Woman*s India

Association inaugurated a campaign in 1917 to help Indian woman gain

franchise and thus provide them with a place in the public life of the

country* Indian women began to take an active part in politics which was

further augmented by Gandhi*s call in 1930 to take part in the Freedom

Movement* A year later the All India National Congress issued the

Declaration of Fundamental Rights, making the position of women clear and recognising their equality with men*

All cltisens are equal before the law, irrespective of reli­ gion, caste, creed or sex. * * • No disability attaches to any cltisen, by reason of his or her religion, caste, creed or sex in regard to public employment, offioe of power or honour and in the exercise of any trade or oalling*@

All the above circumstances, together with the impact of the two World

Wars, joined to open a new phase in the lives of Indian women, bringing

them into ever wider circles of comaunity life and public activity. In

the last thirty years, the life pattern of Indian women has changed

almost to a new way of life* Every day they are facing new challenges,

especially in economic, educational and social areas*

Economic Field

The disaster caused by World War II and the nation*s conscious­

ness of the problem of industrialisation considerably affected the

position of women in modern Indian society. The rise in the cost of

living, growing industries and the desire to lead a comfortable life

influenced Indian women to seek employment* The equality of opportunity

Woman*s Role In Planned Economy. National Planning Committee (Bombay: Vora and Co., 19^7)* PP* 27-29, 127

In employment and pay provided by the Constitution Is rigorously observed in governmental appointments, and this equality has further enhanced the position of Indian women.

Another factor which has had economic implications for Indian women is that, as a result of social and religious reforms, women today are marrying and having children at a later age than they did fifty years ago. The further education and broadened opportunities for employ­ ment in the years before marriage have helped to produce a decline in

the sense of social and economic dependence. All these changes have resulted in more and more women being gainfully employed. Several of

them are to be found holding responsible positions in government as well

as private establishments. At present many Indian women are working as

administrators, managers, saleswomen, village social workers, nurses, doctors, and teachers.

The Government of India is opening new avenues through which women can assume important positions In the Community Development

Programs. The M inistry of Community Development proposes to employ a

large number of women as village level workers, teachers and nurses, who

will not only receive employment but also carry a message of better living throughout the country.9

A hundred years ago the idea of women entering public service would have been ridiculed, but today posts from chaprasin (door woman)

to minister and ambassador are being held by women. More and more women

a Personal discussion with Dr. Varkey, Department of Education, Indian ftnbasqy, Washington, D. C. 128 are joining the labor fore#, in both skilled and unskilled work. In son# areas there are more workers than jobs to be filled. Here lies a serious challenge to those who are interested in women's education. Are our schools and colleges imparting the type of education that suits the eoonomic and social needs of the individual woman as well as of the co u n try !

E ducation

In present times more and more Indian girls are receiving the benefits of education. Getting married later and the relinquishing of purda by many enlightened fam ilies have helped a large number of women to receive higher education. "The old attitude towards women's educa­ tion has given place to an appreciation of its urgency and value. . . .

Prospects for women's college education are brighter and the demand for higher education is rapidly increasing.Since there are no marked differences in the curriculums of higher education for men and women, there is an increased demand by the government and private agencies for women to take up technical and professional lines. The spreading industrial economy of the country requires that a larger number of girls be trained for purposes of meeting the growing needs of the country.

^°S. N. Mukerjl, Education in India Today and Tomorrow (Baroda: Acharya Book D epot, 195?T»p . 223• 129

The S o c ial A spects

Socially, the position and status of the women of India has taken a new and better turn. Throughout the years, Muslin, Christian and

Parses wonen of India have enjoyed liberal narriage and property laws.

The social emancipation of Hindu women was introduced by the Hindu Code

Bill which granted "an equal status not only in theory, but also in practice, in every walk of life,"^ - With this measure Indian wonen of almost all communities now enjoy liberal laws governing their social activities. This change, together with education and economic emanci­ pation, has brought greater challenges and numerous responsibilities.

The joint family system which prevailed in thousands of Hindu and several Muslim families is rapidly breaking down. As a result many married couples like to make their own homes and stand on their own feet. This also emphasizes the need of serious thinking on the problem of education of girls and women. A suitable and broad type of education w ill have to be provided which w ill enable women to fu lfill a meaningful citizenship, not only making intelligent judgments and choices, in public matters, but also in purchasing, in investing, and rearing their f a m ilie s .

There are certain other important tendencies which need consid­ ering. For example, a revolutionary attitude has come over the mentality of the modern Indian youth which forces them to break away from the rigid old traditions of the society. The spirit of freedom and

^Padmini Sen Gupta, Women's Education in India (Delhii Ministry of Education, i960), p . 8 . ~ 130 independence which is * general trend ell over the nation lies at the root. Another Important factor enhancing this attitude is that urban industrial centers are attracting the educated youth as well as the village wage earners, causing an exodus to cities. The reasons for this migration from rural areas are many, for example, hope of better and more comfortable living, good education, or search of jobs in industrial plants in order to supplement the meager income which could be earned in the villages.^2 All implications covered in these tendencies plainly require serious consideration in any planning of women's education.

Whereas the economic and social emancipation is making our women more and more independent, bold and self-reliant day by day, there are some undesirable and unhealthy attitudes also gradually creeping into the thinking and behavior of some Indian girls and women. One such tendency is that of getting away farther from the ideal of being gentle wives and devoted mothers. Throughout the ages Indian women, to what­ ever religion or social strata they belonged, have occupied the central position in the household.^ Woman as a mother reoeived the best life and greatest reverence in India. But with the impact of Western education and social and economic opportunities many of them are tending toward a career life which does not fully suit the Indian situation.

Instead of remaining the calm gentlewomen, "perfect creation of beauty

12 S. N. Mukerji, Higher Education and Rural India (Barodat Acharya Book D epot, 19505• PP* ^0-21. 13 Lady Hartog, India in Outline (Cambridge; Cambridge University Press, 1944), p. 16.

14 Ibid.. p. 52. 131 vhioh should tans ths wild slsnsnts Into ths delicacy of tsndsrnssa fit

for ths services of life ," ^ many wonsn of ths city arsae ini tats men,

and svsn considsr thsnsslvsa as men’s competitors. It is an unplsasant

ohangs which is coning over sons sducatsd Indian wonsn who ars bsooning

"female Babooa"^ and carssr girls of ths Wsstsrn type.

A significant development is ths consciousness of health and

family planning anong wonsn of both highly sducatsd groups and of rich

families. The irony of ths situation is that thousands of women in ths

low economic group do not take advantage of ths nany facilities provided

by ths health agendas. If our wonsn ars properly sducatsd in this

direction, then perhaps ths national problems of food shortage, ill

health and population explosion could be partially solved.

This review of the position and changing role of wonen in nodern

Indian society indicates that in sane ways and in some places Indian

wonan has almost reached the highest rungs of the sodal laddir, but

there are several conflicting situations at the sane time. A typical

nodern Indian woman of today is far, far different from her counterpart

at the beginning of this century. It has rightly been stated that "if a

person who died a hundred years ago came to life today, the first and

most important change that would strike hin in the revolution is the

position of woman.

^Sen Gupta, 0£. cit.. p. 5* quoting Tagore. ^Baboo—an Indian, invariably a nan with a background of English education, in a white oollar job and trying to adopt the Western way of life was usually termed a baboo—some tines contemptuously! 17 Philip Hartog, Some Aspects of Indian Education Past and Present (London: Oxford University Press, 1939)* P» 53# quoting Natrajan, Indian Social Reformer. Sept. 25, 1937* 132

Generally speaking the modern Indian woman ia a loving mother, a good wife and quita oftan a working woman at tha same time, But har aoopa of knowledge about national and intarnational probiana ia, nora oftan than not, quita 1initad. Thia nay ba trua baoauaa, ganarally,

Indian wonan do not hava nuch intaraat in apharaa outaida tha hona, and, aaoondly, parhapa baoauaa of tha laok of oomnunication and naaa media.

It ia vary oftan trua, aa Dr, Varkay has daaoribad it, that nany tinaa tha Indian woman haa tha aama ldaaa and intaraata aa har huaband regard- ing diffarant lifa situations.^-® Parhapa ona of tha raaaona for thia nay ba that tha typa of lntallactual preparation which aha received was the aane aa that provided for tha nan of har fanily. But it ia Inter­ eating to note that "when har intaraata claah, aha haa a tendency to subnit har lifa to his,n Hare again there lias an inplioation for har education. Should it prepare har for a critid al and resolute judgment?

Tha highly educated woman are "on tha march" as man1a comrades and partners, ftiey are involved in all tha activities of tha nation and they form an important element in the progress of tha nation. As Mrs,

Vijya Lakshmi Pandit stated beautifully to a group of university students, "There is no going back for tha woman of India, We hava dosed tha gate behind us and must continue to walk forward into tha ever-widening areas of freedom and responsibility,"

Tha role of woman in modern Indian sodety ia a unique one. As tha dticen of a democratic state she has duties and respondbilities to

18 In conversation with tha w riter. Sea note 9« 133 herself, to her community and to her state. As a democratic citisen aha must become an lntalligant educated parson and develop an independent

outlook on life. At the sane time, as individuals cannot grow in a vacuum, she has to learn the art of living cooperatively in the community.

Along with this, for the welfare of the community and the state,

she must assume the role of an efficient contributing member. With this

new emerging role for her in the society, the Indian woman just cannot

evade her greatest natural role of being a good wife—a partner in life

and a devoted mother—the good teacher who trains leaders for the nation. CHAPTER VI

ANALYSIS OF THE CONTEMPORARY EDUCATIONAL THOUGHT

The establishment of strong British rule. after ths dsvsstating wars of ths eighteenth century, was considered by many Indians as a blessing. Ths introduction of nsw Usstsrn ideas, and of English sduoa- tion which followed ths politioal power, case to be regarded as modern oivillaation, which it was hoped would bring the Modern Age in India so as to link this country with the West. The aim of producing a synthesis b etween the East and the West and of meeting the challenge of attacks by Christian missionaries led to the socio-religious reform movements of the nineteenth century in almost all Indian communities. Every reformer of the time protested strongly against the social wrongs which seriously affected the position of Indian women. Earlier chapters of this dissertation described in detail how superstition and ignorance, with an attitude of extreme ovar-religiosity, had become a general characteristic of women in those days. This feature was not only harm­ ful to women but was a great drawback to progress in India. The Western education introduced a new outlook on life, and the educated Indian youth under this influence tended to bring new ideas into their social and religious life . But uneducated mothers and wives naturally opposed such encroachments on old traditions. This quite often resulted in conflicts and several writers point out that English education brought a

134 135 line of division within the Indian household. A gulf of differences atom botwoon the Western educated husbands and their uneducated wives.

Chiplunkar takes important notice of this critical situation as he observes*

The present Indian wife is quite ignorant and she is sepsrated fro* her eduoated and patriotic husband by a wide gulf. The present Indian wives and husbands are living in two different spheres and different worlds. Their thinking and ways of life do not arose each other* nor do they run parallel towards an identical goal or ideal. This is all due to the difference in education* training and environment of the wife and husband.1

Therefore the main concern of the educators and reformers of the time came to be the provision of education to women and girls as* according to them* this would be a sure means of enlightenment. The following extract from an eloquent speech of Gokhale, which he delivered in connection with the Jubilee year celebrations of the Queen*s reign* sum­ marises the ideas behind the whole nineteenth century educational movement.

It is obvious that under the circumstances* a wide diffusion of education with all its solvent influences* among the women of India* is the only means of emancipating their minds from this degrading thraldom to ideas inherited through a long past and that such emancipation w ill not only restore our women to the honored position which they at one time occupied in India, but w ill also facilitate* more than anything else* our assimila­ tion of the Western civilisation without which all thoughts of India*s regeneration are made idle dreams and all attempts at it foredoomed to failure.2

^G. M. Chiplunkar, The Scientific Basis of Women*s Education (Poona: Shri Ganesh Printing Works, 1930)• pp. 10^-105."" 2 G. K. Gokhale, "Female Education in India*" in Progress in Women*s Education in the British Bapire. ed. the Countess of Warwick (London; Longman*s* Green A Co., 1698), p. 256. 136

Gokhale was a staunch pioneer of universal, free and oompulsory primary education. According to him "elementary education for the masses of

the people means something more than a mere capacity to read and w rite.

It means for them a keener enjoyment of life and a more refined standard of living. "3 But with all the sympathy he expressed with the cause of women, the b ill which Gokhale proposed to the government on March 16,

1911, "to make better provision for the extension of elementary education,"

ran as follows; "... the provisions are intended to apply in the

first instance to boys only, though later on a local body may extend

them to g irls,T he reason for not giving equal emphasis to compulsory

education for girls and boys alike was that, as yet, there was no strong

public demand for girls' education. Public opinion about girls' educa­

tion might not have been favorable at all,

fy the close of the nineteenth century the political consciousness

of eduoated Indian youth was well awakened. The founding of the First

Indian National Congress in 1885, which later developed into the

strongest political organization against British government, was a

historical event which was Itself a result of education, but which also

•a ^Natessan, G. K. Gokhale*s Speeches (Madras; Natessan & Co,, 1920), pp. 608-6097

**Syed Nurullah and J. P. Naik, A History of Bducation in India. during the BTltiah Period (2nd ed,; Bombay; Macmillan A Co., 1951), p. 535, Aooording to Nurullah and Naik this bill had a great influenoe on the subsequent development of oompulsory education in India. Also T. N. Siqueira, The Bducation of India. History and Problems (hth ed.; Bombay; Oxford University Press, T95fTTp. lib . 137 did considerably influence tha education of tha country.-* As a rasuit of tha growing spirit of nationalist, aduoatad opinion undarwant a changa froai an admiration of tha Wast to that of bittar tansions between tha Wastarnars and Indiana* Tha situation was furthar intansifiad by

Lord Curson's^ im parialist administration and tha failura of Wastarn aduoatlon to fu lfill tha draams of libarty and aquality which it had promlsad to tha aduoatad Indian youth. Thus tha lattar wara bittarly disappointad, and a faaling of ganaral dissatisfaction with tha axistlng systam of aduoatlon pravailad which culminated in tha National Eduoation

Movamant, and as a remedy for tha evils tha educators looked baok to tha past. Tha existing English system of education was declared harmful to tha national growth as it is evident from Gandhi's discussion of this controversial issue:

Tha existing system of education is defective apart from its association with an utterly unjust government, in three most important matters. (1) It ignores tha culture of tha heart and tha hand, and confines itself simply to the head, (2) It is based upon foreign culture to tha almost entire exclusion of indigenous culture, (3) Neal education ia impossible through a foreign medium,7

Aubrey A. Zellner, Eduoation in India. A Survey of tha Lower Ganges Valley in Modern Timas (New York: Bookman Associates, 1951)* p , 9 5 , 6 Lord Curson was tha Viceroy of India from 1898-1905. In spite of his high educational ideals and ability, his im perialistic adminis­ trative policy and his contemptuous treatment of Indian people gave rise to the spirit of nationalism, Curson's partition of Bengal led to the Aredeshi Movement, For a full disoussion of Curson's educational policy and its implications see, Nurullah and Naik, oj>. d t .. chapter on "Lord Curson," pp. 436-497. 7 Nurullah and Naik, oj>, d t .. p. 560, quoting Mahatma Gandhi, Young India. 1919-22. p. 451. 138 Up to this point tho eduoation which Indian girls received was almost almlass since It gave thought neither to the preparation for life nor to psychological and physloal differences between men and women*

Now that education for boys themselves was felt to be defective, Indian educators questioned the suitability of the same type of education for girls. Chiplunkar, a professor of the S.N.D.T., Women's University of

Bombay, was highly c ritid a l of the prevalent system of education, since it gave no thought to the life the majority of girls were destined to live, and several other interested critics shared his view. Girls went to schools and colleges, Chiplunkar wrote, just because the progressive parties of the time wanted them to learn. He regretted the fact that there was no other type of education available for girls; whatever eduoa­ tion was thought good for boys was automatically felt to be good for girls as well.

The appeal for women's betterment, amide by Laia Lajpat Rai, one of the foremost national leaders and an educator himself, reflects the same trend of thought. In the course of his presidential address at the

Hindu Mahaaabha, Calcutta, he said,

I w ill beg my countrymen to save their girls; to give them suitable opportunities for developing healthy bodies and psychologically fit minds. Our girls and women must be freed from all superstitions which breed carelessness in life; indifference to food, distaste for struggle, lack of energy, the habit of "taking things lying down" and a psychology of dependence and fear.8

As mentioned earlier, one of the earliest practical attempts to provide education specially suited to the needs and requirements of women was

^William J. McKee, New Schools for Young India (Chapel H illi The University of North Carolina Press, 19^0), pp. 243-2U4, quoting the Indian 8ocial Reformer. April 23, 1925. 139 mad* by Profasaor Karva through hla S.NJ),T, Woman's Uni varsity foundad in 1916. Karva hald tha view that tha rola of wonan was different from that of man though thay hald an important place in tha national and social ooonomy, It was his conviction that woman's education must ba diffarant from that of man. His speech at an All India Federation of

Teachers Association reveals his ideast

Tha average Indian girl is to b* educated not with a viaw to any professional career, har future destiny is married life. Shall wo not provide something in our educational curriculum which w ill enable a girl to discharge her duties as a mother and citizen with greater ease and efficiency? Is it not neces­ sary for us to emphasise in her education the nobler instincts and sublime virtues that go to make a mother? Shall we not better emphasise the Fine Arts rather than lay stress on obstruse subjects like Mathematics? • • #9

Hence Karve's institution was planned on different lines and emphasized

Indian languages, music, dancing and like subjects of feminine interest.

But it is surprising to note that in spite of the fact that they consid­ ered the academic or intellectual education for girls which was imparted in schools was not useful, educators in the early years of the century did not strongly suggest the inclusion of manual work and vocational training for girls. It was only at a later period that Gandhiji empha­ sized the groat need and importance of this aspect and this occupies the most central position of his scheme of the Basic National Education,

However, the major significant point on which a great majority of educa­ tors agreed was that eduoation should give women wide outlook and deep

9 D, K, Karve, "Secondary and Higher Eduoation of Women," The Proceedings of The All India Federation of Teacher* s Associations. Fourth Session 1928. ed, M, R, Pranjp* (Bombay: Longman^s, Green A Co., L td ., 1929), p . 837 140 culture, without In any way unfitting them mentally and physically for m atern ity *

Examinations and Some Proposed Educational Changes * As far as the general educational approach was concerned we find evidences of great dissatisfaction among educators about the formal,

rigid type of education which blocked the physical and mental growth of

the pupils* In view of this the topic of examinations seriously engaged

the thinking of eduoators*

The examinations in Indian institutes of higher education were

conducted on Oxford and Cambridge patterns* These were introduced in

Indian higher education with the establishment of universities in the mid-nineteenth century. They served as examining bodies and they still

dominate the Indian education.'*'® The dissatisfaction with this situa­

tion which emphasised only intellectual development is expressed by

T agore:

Modern India • • • once provided her children with a culture which was the product of her own ages of thought and creation* But it has been thrust aside, and we are made to tread the mill of passing examinations, not for learning anything, but for

10 The Despatch of 1854 had provided for the establishment of the three universities—at Calcutta, Bombay and Madras—on the model of the London University which was an examining body. Holding examinations and confering degrees was regarded as the main function of the univer­ sities. Later the younger and new universities also followed this pattern and became examining and teaching institutions* For a compre­ hensive report, see S* R. Dongerkerry, Universities and Their Problems (Bombay: Hind Kitab Ltd., 19^8), p. 15&* 141

notifying that we ara qualified for employments under organi­ zations oondueted in English* Our educated oonaunity is not a cultured community, but a community of qualified candidates,H

Although Tagore was thus describing the undesirable situation in the

education of men students, what he said was even more strongly true of

the eduoation of women. The system of external examinations has since

then proved to be a great pressure even at present on Indian wosien.

Since the purpose of the examinations are selective and qualifying, only

the academic attainments of the pupil are tested and intellectual pur­

suits are emphasised to the neglect of the all-round developtMnt of the individual. It is often true that..many pupils struggle hard just to get

through the examinations. In such cases they do not really learn any­

thing worth while from the education they receive. Many times the essay-type examinations lead students to memorise their subjects, thus denying them chances of practicing critid al intelligence, initiative

and understanding. It is also found that the school activity which is

not directly related to examinations does not sufficiently evince the 12 interest of our students. Moreover the examinations direct the con­

tent of eduoation and control the method of teaching, thus leaving practically no room for a free flow of ideas and practices to be

followed. This is a serious defect in the educational system as it

Rabindranath Tagore, Creative Unity (Londoni Macmillan and Co., 1950), p. 180.

^ Report of the Secondary Education Commission. October 1952- Juno 1955 (New Delhi t Ministry of Education, Government of India, 1958)* P . 145. 142 hinders the development of a responsible and self-sufficient typo of

individual* Tho examinations should tako the social adjustment, physical and nontal development, and emotional aspocts of tho individual into

consideration if they are to bo of real value*'1"'

Another serious offoot of the essay type of external examinations on the failed candidates in Indian colleges and universities is the

utter frustration in their hopes for the future that sonetleea follows*

Thus exaalnations are a serious threat to Indian women’s educa­

tion* They are a great strain and burden on the bulk of secondary-

sohool girls and college wonen* Indian girls are expected to do all the

household duties in addition to their school work. Competitive examina­

tions therefore become a greater physical and mental burden for wonen

than for men* Writing early in the twentieth century, Chiplunkar quoted

Wadia on the undesirable effects of such competitive exaninationa and

the hara they did to girls* "The path of modern education," writes

Wadia, "is strewn with the dead, mutilated or devitalised bodies of women whose physical well-being has been sacrificed before the Moloch

of competitive examinations*

Dissatisfaction with the existing educational system brought a

revolutionary change in the educational thought of the twentieth century

and resulted in the formulation of certain broad aims of eduoation in

general* The great national poet and educator Tagore was a pioneer in

13IMd*. pp. 145-146* 14 Chiplunkar, 0£. d t .* p* 91, quoting from Wadia, Ethics of Feminism, p. 59* 143 this direction. He presented oertain important educational principles and startad experiments In education aueh as taaehlng through oraft and rural raoonstruetion In his school at Shantiniketan.^ Thasa vara adopted by othar thinkers of tha country and axardsad great lnfluanoa in shaping

Indian women's adueation. A speolal contribution of Tagora to nodarn educational thought was that all different aspaots of tha child's personality should develop harmoniously in tha context of nature. Tha external imposition of textbooks and subjects, aocording to tha poet,

■aka adueation a joyless thing for children. NGod intended children,H ha writes, "to be educated in tha freedom of nature, and we defeat our­ selves by defeating his intention. So for pity's sake let us break down the prison walls. Let children be no longer sentenoed to iaprisonaent with hard labor because they did not be cone pundits^ before being b o r n ."^7

Another interesting educational idea presented by Tagore, prob­ ably under the pressure of the National Sducation Movement, was that the best education can be received on the basis of the ancient Indian prin­ ciples by which students and teachers should live together and in natural surroundings. This represents a simple and beautiful idea in theory.

As it has been described in Chapters II and III, the practice of the teacher and pupils being together in the educational institutions was n o t uncommon in m edieval I n d ia . As Hindu p u p ils a re re p o rte d to have

1 ^Krishna R. Kriplani, "Rabindranath Tagore—Poet and Humanist," Indo Asian Culture. October, 1959# Vol. VIII, No.2, pp. 145-56.

^Sanskrit term, meaning a learned scholar. ^Rabindranath Tagore, Toward Universal Man (New York j A sia Pub­ lishing House, 1961), p. 74. 141* lived in the ancient forest ashrams with the guru (tsaohsr) and prao- tlosd brahmaohar7a (discipline), so also did the khanqhas (monasteries) in Muslim India offer opportunities to Muslim pupils of praotieing the knowledge and learning whioh the pupils reoeived under the guidance of the sufls and maulvis (teachers)* But in the present day context* the ideal of going back to nature, however attractive it might appear* is in praetioe rather complicated* As the chapter dealing with the emerging role of women describes, the Indian society has changed from an agrarian to an industrial one and is becoming more and more urban centered* not to mention the tremendous technological changes which are being faced every day* Under such circumstances it may be possible only for some selected or particular person or group of persona to go back to nature, but it w ill be extremely hard for the society as a whole to follow this principle*

Yet* from the point of view of women1 s education, this suggestion with some modernised modifications would be very helpful* If residen­ tial schools are provided both in cities and rural areas, hundreds of girls would have the opportunity of receiving an eduoatlon and in some oases even better education* But again, there is the problem of high fees of residential schools* Many girls and their parents may not be able to pay these fees* Therefore, if some modifications were incor­ porated and if facilities were provided by the state for free boarding and lodging in such schools, this would help to solve the problem of th e la c k o f women1s eduoatlon*

It is an essential duty of the school to prepare pupils for meeting life situations successfully* This means that enough opportunities 145 of creative activity and community living should bs provldsd along with abstract learning. The English system of education neglected this aspect. Some of the great Indian educators were seriously conoerned*

Tagore gave importance to this aspect of education when he said, "It

(education) must be in touch with the complete life of the people as in the hermitage the teachers and pupils were engaged in all intellectual and physical activities."*®

Another modern Indian thinker and philosopher, Dr. Iqbal, strongly upheld the cultivation of individuality as the most important goal of true education. Like Tagore, Iqbal's educational Ideals were alike for men and women. He does not make any distinction between the two sexes for the development of individuality, creative activity and freedom which he considered as essential for education. The "community" is the nucleus of the Individual's activity. Discussing Iqbal's educational th o u g h t, Humayun K abir w r ite s ,

Freedom does not mean, however, denial of the community. In fact for Iqbal the Individual isolated from the community is an abstraction. He Is real only so far as he absorbs the purposes of the community and creatively expresses them through his own personality, . . . For Iqbid education is thus a process which ensures the possibility of eternal progress. It sums up all that has gone before and makes the individual the inheritor of all ages and all peoples. Simul­ taneously it offers the individual an opportunity to make his unique contribution to the further development of the world p ro c e ss.1 9

^Tagore, Creative Unity, p. 241.

^Humayun Kabir, "Continuity of Tradition in Indian Educational Thought,” Indo Asian Culture. Vo^. Ill, No. 3* January, 1958. PP« 251-252. Ih6

In Iqbal*s thinking, "the individual axLata because of tha bonds that link him up with tha community—alona ha is naught; avan as tha wava has an antity as part of tha river—outaida it, it is naught, "20

Women* s aduoation was mors claarly dafinad by tha graat national laadar GandhljL Tha suggastions and oriticisns on woman*s aduoation by tha aarliar thinkars wara rathar indirect and remote, though thay did surely pave tha way for a batter philosophy of education* Tha Gandhian ideal of woman* s adueation reflects an organised, dear, and wall dafinad combination of Gandhiji*s own philosophy and tha bast thinking of soma of tha graat leaders in education, for example, Swand Vivekananda,

Tagore, Iqbal and Lajpat Rai. Lika Tagore, Gandhiji severely opposed tha oonventional type of education which placed tha greatest emphasis on tha intellectual attainment of tha pupil, Ha sought to help tha common man gat more out of life and make him responsible for his own destiny by raising tha struoture of tha oommon man,2! Ha dafinad tha new education as an all-round drawing-out of tha bast in child and man—body, mind and spirit,22 To this thinker, literacy is not tha and of education, nor avan tha beginning but only one of tha means whereby man and woman can be educated.^3

Ibid,, quoting from Problame of Educational Reconstruction, p. U6. 21 R, S, Subrahmanyan, "Gandhiji*a Philosophy of Education," Indo Asian Culture. July, 1959, p. 75*

22M, K. Gandhi, Eduoatlonal Reconstruction (5th ad.; Wardha: Hindusthani Talimi Sengh, Savagram, 1950), p. h,

23lb id . This was the foundation for ths Basic National Education schema proposed by Gandhiji for the regeneration of the Indian nation, which was aooepted by the constitution after India became a Republic. "True education," the great leader observed, "develops the character, trains the faculties and teaches the individual to control his passions."

Gandhiji was a champion of womens cause as well. As far as their education was concerned, he dealt with this subject in more detail than did any other educator. As already explained in the earlier chapters, he had a large part in the social and educational emancipation of women.

His keen awareness of the social wrongs done to Hindu women made him feel that the independence of India would be meaningless unless they got their emancipation.^

The conviction that education should be deeply rooted in one's cultural background is evidently Gandhiji*s reason for looking back to the Vedic society as a source of inspiration for Indian women, as "he does not want the enlightened daughters of Bharat Mata to ape the manners of the West, which might be suited to its environment." On the other hand he recommended that

they must apply methods suited to the Indian genius and Indian environment. Theirs must be the strong, controlling, purifying, steadying hand, conserving what is best in our

Herbert G. Schaefer, "Basic National Education in India from 1937 to 1957" (unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Ohio State University, 1962), Schaefer discusses Gandhi's scheme of Basic Education in great detail in this dissertation.

2^M. S. Patel, The Educational Philosophy of Mahatma Gandhi (1st e d . j Ahmedabadt N avajivan P u b lish in g House, 195&TT PP* 23^ ^ 36. 148

culture and unhesitatingly rejecting what is base and degrad­ ing. This is the work of Sitas, Darupadis, Savltris and Damayantis, not of amacons and prudes.2?

The model of womanhood as set forth in the above paragraph, with all due recognition to the love, sacrifice and purity whioh is held to have been represented by the above group of renowned women s till strongly tends to be more of a traditional Hindu idea of womanhood than an all-Indian cultural ooncept. It is therefore surprising that such a broad-minded leader like Gandhiji, who had an extremely liberal outlook in his plan for solving the perplexing political and communal problems of the country, should in the area of education have looked to the ideal of only one particular group. A democracy requires that different idologies held by the citlsens within its folds should be respected.

The most important feature of the open society is its toleration of many different ideologies and points of view.^® For the Indian nation with a population consisting of several ethnic groups, it is rather confusing to think how a one-sided picture of womanhood, represented by the celebrities of only one particular group of people, can be made the ideal model for the whole nation consisting of several different ethnic groups.

27 Sita, Darupadi, Savitri and Damayarti are supposed to be Hindu heroines famous for purity, bravery and love. It is said that they belonged to the Vedic times. They are regarded as very sacred figures in ancient Hindu mythology. 2ft Robert E. Mason, Educational Ideals in American Society (Boston; Allyn and Beoon, Inc., i 960) , p . 252. l**9

Moreover, although it la true that our country has an old established civilization which has its roots deep in the past, and it cannot be pulled out without causing a serious disruption, yet the question which arises here is the advisability of looking back to a tradition 2,000 years old in the light of all the changing ideas, emotions and new challenges of present-day life . National progress and the changing conditions of the world demand that we be open to assim ilate new ideas and elements of real truth and value from other cultures also, in order to enrich our own treasures of national culture and experience by amalgamating them. This then would perhaps add more to the freedom and all-round development of the individual which is so ardently advo­ cated by the philosopher-educators of our country.

It is the duty of educated women to make their contributions to the nation's welfare, and what else can be more worth while than work for social reform? Gandhiji earnestly appeals to the educated women to take up the noble responsibility of emancipating their sisters from social disabilities, ignorance and superstitions.^9 To him the idea of

English education for Indian women had no fascination because, as he writes, it turned women into dolls for show instead of creating in them a sense of service to the c o m m u n i t y . True education as the Gandhian educational philosophy implies, should produce socially conscious women in the country,

^ P a t e l , 0£, c it.. pp. 236-237*

30 Ib id . 150

The present condition of education among Indian women convinces us of the truth and importance as well as the necessity of these lofty ideals* Today scores of Indian women having received the benefits of higher education are enjoying high-ranking positions and responsibilities on the national and international level* At the same time official records and reports reveal that there are millions of women at the lowest rung of the social and economic ladder who are extremely poor and incredibly illiterate.31 Thus a very wide gap has been created between the educated few and the ignorant many, which is indeed very dangerous for the progress and welfare of the individual as well as for the whole n atio n *

This critical situation requires a whole army of dedioated women, not necessarily highly educated or well versed in Western tradi­ tions, but rather well grounded in an education based on all-Indian cultural and traditional values of life; also well versed in the culture of hand and heart, so that they may act as the much needed iiwbetweena for the above-mentioned two socially extreme groups of women* The duty of those devoted to this cause w ill not be a small or simple matter; they will have to be prepared for self-sacrifice for the sake of uplifting their backward sisters* The dedioated women w ill have to approach the baokward millions with sympathy and insight, love and

Information released by the Census Commissioner for India, A. K, Mitra, about the final total of 1961 head-count, reveals that out of a population of ^39*235*^2 persons, women number 212,9*Ht**62 in India* Regarding their educational conditions we are informed that only 27*505*118 Indian women are literate as against 77,828,162 literate men* Columbus Evening Dispatch. November 15, 1962, Vol* 92, No* 138* 151 understanding. It is the responsibility of a true eduoation therefore to prepare then to work hard and long to bring about a silent change in the body, soul and mind of the women and children and the large numbers of ignorant.* and illiterates of the cities and villages. No projects or government plans for social uplift and eonmunity development oan be successful unless the educated women themselves shoulder the burden of emancipating other women. Problems of education and emancipation of women oould best be handled by women themselves as the Gandhian educa­ tional thought emphasises the importance of this problem.

The E d u ca tio n a l C hallenge o f th e P re se n t Day

With the goal of the country1s political freedom in sight, con­ temporary educators re-evaluated their ideals and aims. In the light of the new changes and challenges, the aims of eduoation took a new turn.

It was the right opportunity and high time that the individual should know his own rights and privileges as well as his duties and obligations to the state. Hence the new educational ideal set forth by the educators for Free India came to be the welfare of the individual and the welfare of the state. This was an altogether new approach toward the functions of education which naturally promised new dimensions in Indian women's education as it meant the extension of educational opportunities to every individual woman as well as the provision of education according to her needs and requirements. This situation, together with the exacting conditions of the postwar period in the country, set educated

Indian women to think about and specifically define the aims and ideals of modern women's education. The most urgent problem to them was that 152 of providing eduoational opportunities for all. According to then, every average woman natters in the making of a nation.

Average women have to give their attention to national work. The standard of a nation's progress is not gauged by the Lokhnanya Tilaks, the Mahatna Gandhis, but by every wonan in the hone lighting her hearth fire and linking it to the beaoon fire of the Nation, These wonen whether found in oity or field, at the desk or at the cradle are the executive of the Nation, Their progress denotes the authentlo progress of the Nation, while the Tilaks, the Gandhis are the incarnate genius of the race. But these incarnate geniuses—these dreamers of dreams—are paralysed in their work for their beloved country until the women oan speak with knowledge, with wisdon, courage and truth,32

Illiteracy or ignorance, according to the contemporary women thinkers, is the reason for all the backwardness and social disabilities of women—and the root of all evil,

Alasl The traglo irony of facts—the vast legion of Indian women whether of lowly or lofty rank are Immersed in a labyrinth of ignoranoe and prejudioe, oppre ssed by the three-fold misery of social injustioe, legal disabilities and economic dependence from which adequate redress has long been over-due,33

On the eve of the country's independence there was hope and faith in the power of eduoation to solve women's problems, A new order was about to set in and at this juncture reconstruction of education was considered most important for ensuring peace and prosperity, happiness and well being for all, A bright and hopeful future of the nation would be at stake with the improper training of women for the important duties and

SarojimlNaidu, Report of the All todia Women*s Conference on Eduoational Reform. Poona. January £-8, 1927 (Poona; Scottish Mission Industries Co,, Ltd,, 192?), PP• **6-^*7•

33Sarojlni.Naidu, "New India," Foreword to Education of Women in Modern India, All India Women's Conference.Cultural Section TXundht Aundh Publishing Trust Fund, 19**6)« 153 responsibilities. "In this total reconstruction women1s education is of first rate importance as the family is the cradle of future citizens— citisens physically fit, mentally alert and social-minded*

Throughout the past years backwardness in women's education was due to many reasons* As the survey of the history of education shows, social and economic conditions were not favorable and at the same time there was no dear conception of the aims and ideals of women1 s education*

The eduoational history of the nineteenth and the twentieth centuries indicates that educators do not seem to have set down a clear program of

Indian women's education* It has been pointed out earlier that the All

India Women's Conference—the organization which is ever active for the social* economic and educational enhancement of women's statu s- attempted a clear objective for the educational programs* The thinking of the best minds from the country's womanhood as represented by the

All India Women's Conference on Educational Reform (19^6) implied that in the democratic society of the near future, education should prepare every woman to become important contributors to the social, economic and cultural developments of the country. "Our aim is to make woman a healthy and useful member of society, a good mother, self-reliant and a responsible citizen, conscious of her rights and responsibilities,"

It is not only surprising but also discouraging to note that even after Independence, Indian women's education, which has generally

Mrs. J* M. Kumarappa, Introduction to Education of Women in Modern India.

^Hansa Mehta, "Aims and Ideals of Women's Education," Education of Women In Modern India. 15*

•uffarad lack of attention and support (as the previous chapters indicate), both financially and morally throughout Its historical development, still has failed to strongly attract much of the attention of the country's leading educators. Though it cannot be denied that some of the prominent educational and political leaders of the present day often refer to this subject, they seem to speak more in general terms rather than a detailed analysis which it bitterly requires.

It may also be possible that with the new ideology of democracy, women are regarded as citizens on an equal basis with men, and thus the necessity of treating their education's problem as a special one is automatically eliminated, "We want in the India of the future," says

Azad, "men and women o f v is io n , courage and h o nesty o f purpose who will be able to play their part worthily in every field of national activity."^ To be sure that the younger generations of Indian women develop the necessary ability, character, and leadership which is strongly required for the country's progress and the national leaders also wish them to achieve, the present situation of women's eduoatlon needs more particular attention and support, particularly moral and intellectual, from leaders in education. The reasons for the apparent lack of sufficient attention to the serious problem under consideration are presumed to be many. Perhaps the contemporary eduoators are presently concerned with the broader and most pressing and immediate problems of our country's education; for example, starting schools for

36 Speeches of Maulana Azad, 19*7-1955 (New Delhi: Ministry of Information and Broadoasting, Government of India, 1956), p. 209, 155 the Billions of childrsn who under the new constitution have for the first time in the nation's history earned the right to be educated. It is also quite probable that the eduoators feel justified in treating women's education not as separate from men's but on a common basis with it, as is evident by the statement of the Secondary Eduoation Commisdon:

In this report no particular chapter has been devoted to the education of women. The Commission feels that at the present stage of our soaial evolution, there is no special justifica­ tion to deal with women's eduoation separately. Every type of eduoation open to men should also be open towomen. 37

Yet in view of present conditions the educators of the country are advocating certain broad essential reforms as far as women's education is concerned. For example, we find that the oonoepts of social and adult eduoation with particular reference to modern Indian women's education have attracted the attention of such prominent educators as

Asad and Humayun Kabir. In fact the national reconstruction of our country needs an urgent abolition of the widespread adult illiteracy.

The census reports of the country show that still 75 per cent of our country people are illite rate and as many as 185,000,000 women are illiterate.3 8 Mo education of children can progress unless the parents

•^Report of the Secondary Education Commission (1st ed .; Delhi t Ministry of Eduoation and Sclentifio Research, Government of India, 1953), publication No. 165, p . 53* 3®The problem of adult literacy attracted the attention of the Eduoation Gonad ssion of 1882-83 as they recommended that night-schools should be encouraged wherever practicable. But before 1917 there seems to be no particular attention paid towards the liquidation of adult illiteracy. Greater interest and hence considerable progress started after the transfer of education to the Indian Ministers in 1921. With the country's Independence the cause of adult education received a great momentw. Yet the problem of educating the adults of our vast country is vast itself. For a full report see chapter on adult education in Mukerji, History of Education, pp. 302-307. 156 support it. Adult eduoation Is ths sduostion of the parents. One of its aims is to oreate an educated mind among the adult illiterates* and this has oooupled the attention of our educators today. At the same time the latter feel that the education of adults should have a wider scope. It should include citizenship training as well as the imparting of literacy.39 With the introduction of adult franchise, the necessity of soolal education has become more apparent.^ Social education which is synonymous with adult education has a greater implication for the education of Indian women in the present day Indian society!

If women of leisure and means take up the work of social eduoation among adult illiterate women, the results are bound to be striking. Once literacy and education spread among women, the problem of education of the future generation becomes very much simpler. To teach a boy is to educate the boy but to teaoh a girl is to educate a family. 1

In view of the fact that millions of Indian women are illiterate and poor and face serious problems of ill-health and communal conflicts, every opportunity should be provided to the masses to lead a good and happy life through education. It is very difficult to achieve progress in a country without educating its people, as it is Invariably found that the success or failure of any movement depends upon the quality of th e p a r tic ip a tin g men and women.

Illiteracy among women is all the more responsible for the retardation of national progress since usually an Indian mother has a

Mukerjl, History of Education, p. 30*+. 40 I b id .

^Kabir, Education in New India. pp. 88- 89. 157 greater ahara in shaping the children's social, economic and other activities than does the father. In many Indian homes the neglect of education has extremely disadvantageous results* In countless instances the child spends a greater part of his day in school activities and studies* On his return home he finds himself surrounded by an atmos­ phere of indulgence and apathy* Since the uneducated mother is incap­ able of providing a home atmosphere conducive to the child's learning,

I12 he is forced to lead a sort of dual life* Hence the need for adult or social education which aims at "a consciousness of citizenship among the people and the promotion of social solidarity among them is felt all the more vigorously for women.

The success of social education in adult women would very much depend upon its relatedness to practical life and the time of the class meetings. It is also important that this education be provided on different lines, taking into consideration the rural and urban popula­ tion of the oountry* Depending upon age groups and locality, suitable programs of intellectual, economic, social and political adjustments should be offered. Courses of study and training should center around

It is true that India has progressed considerably in the last fifteen years after Independence but the educational conditions of many homes of both urban and rural areas are still in the same backward position as they were about twenty-three years ago* A chapter on edu­ oation in India was written in 1939 in the Year Book of Education. 1939* under the supervision of the then Educational Commissioner, SirG, Anderson* The findings as presented by several writers in those essays are still true with regard to the bad results of lack of women's education at present* 43 Asad, 0£. cit., p. 38* 158 raiding, writing, child-and mother-craft, villaga handicrafts, family planning, health and important but simple civics courses,

Social education would be a sure means of breaking down preju­ dices about caste, superstition and many other unfounded beliefs which are particularly prevalent among women. Educational thinkers like

Humayun Kabir and Hansa Mehta emphasise the need of measures to create those conditions whioh would enhance women's education, and thereby produce a concern among mothers for their daughters' education. Short- duration camps and institutions on the models of Denmark and Sweden's folk schools could serve as good olubs and practical training institutes for rural women, thus making them more interested in participating in the programs set by the schools. Physical education or rather physical exercise that would be pleasurable should be given an essential place in the social eduoation programs. This would give women a chance to gain both good health and poise. It may also be added that what

Slqueria writes about the immediate need of educating the adults for hygiene and sanitation holds more true for adult Indian women. It does have a truth behind when it is observed by him that "three-fourths of

India's annual deaths could be prevented by the spread among the masses of an elementary knowledge of science. And those who survive would have twioe as much energy and vitality if they knew how to live reasonably.

44 T. N, Siqueira, The Education of India. History and Problems (4th ed.; Bombayt Oxford University Press, 1952), pp. 18&-189. 159

That it la tha right of avary Indian girl to racaiva adueation haa baan decided, but tha quaationa of adueation for how long and to what and atill naad to bo aatiafaetorily anawarad. As mantionad in Chapter IV undar tha Conatitution of tha Govarnmant of India, compulsory alanantary aduoation ia aaaurad to all girla, and compulsion ia baing gradually introduead in all part a of tha country. Tha country naada thouaanda of young women to work aa intelligent aoeial workera, teachera, teehniciana and in many other capacitiea in order to provide tha connecting link between tha higher leaderahip and tha vaat community. Vb ahould atart thinking aerioualy of introducing tha American ideal of "secondary education for all"—meaning thereby compulaory education to continue up to fourteen years; than blending it into aacondary education opportuni- tiaa for all woman.

With tha prograaa of education, we muat be careful that there ia qualitative improvement along with quantitative expansion; otherwiee education w ill deteriorate. Moreover, up bo whatever level eduoation ia made oompulaory, a clear aet of objectivea muat guide the direction of e d u c a tio n .

Objectivea of Indian women*a education are clearly linked with women*a abilitiea. The country*a educational thought aeema to tend toward admitting that women are capable of attaining an education equal to that of men. In fact thia ia an old, controveraial and at the aame time a very unaatiafaetorily anawered question in the field of education.

The iaa u e o f "what ty p e o f e d u c a tio n fo r women" haa been p re s e n t th ro ugh­ out the nineteenth and twentieth centuries* In the chapter on £duoation under British Rule we noted that the schools under the influence of socio-religious movements and educational thought under Hall, Naseer

Ahmed, Chiplunkar, Karve and many othara almad at praparlng girla for family and homa life, aa againat tha govarnnant aduoational idaal of praparatlon for employment. For tha lattar aim, woman*a aduoation in tha twantiath oantury baoama a raplica of man*a aduoation. Evan at present, aaeondary and highar aduoation of woman in India ia almoat no diffarant from that of man, and thara ia a growing diaoontant for tha raaeon that many adueatad woman ara now moving away from fam ininity and bacoming mora maaoulina in attituda and bearing* "Vary littla thought haa baan givan to tha aduoation of woman in our country* Our aohoola and oollagaa ara mora or laaa tha plaoaa of praparation for a man* a w o rld ,

Ona of tha chiaf raaaona for tha public*a apathy to woman*a aduoation waa analysed by Saiyidain in ona of hia articlea on tha educa­ tion of Indian woman which waa

being too book!ah, too aeademio, too remote from tha environ­ ment and cultural needa of tha people; it alao lays tha aama undue atraaa on tha atudy of Engliah at tha ooat of other uaeful subjects and akllla, and it sacrificea, in tha intereet of pseudo-literary culture, tha real objectivea of a harmonious, oomprahanaiva and psychologically suitable education,*1®

It ia probably no exaggeration to say that as a result of this education wa meat tha prototype of tha aduoatad woman described in this article on

1*5 S* N* Mukerji, India. Today and Tomorrow (Baroda: Acharya Book Depot, 1957). p, 31*, U6 K* 0, Saiyidain, "A Critical Examination of tha Eduoation of Woman," The Tear Book of Eduoation. ad. Harley V, Usill and Othara (London1 Evans Brothers Ltd,, 19^9), p* *03. 161 the street corner or even in two out of three educated families we v i s i t .

In rural areas, in particular, parents are generally of the opinion that the eduoation of girls w ill not do them much good, largely because there is no outlet in the life of the average villager for the kind of book knowledge now acquired by the girls* • • • In larger towns and cities however, there is an increasing demand for the education of g irls which gives them a better social status snd value in the marriage market. But here too the results have been generally disappointing in that higher and seoondary education has tended to produce what some people slightingly oall "society butterflies* whose values are marred by their eduoation, • • , They are unable and often unwilling to do the ordinary work of the household. Many of them regard such work as derogatory and develop, instead, extravagant habits and interests, • • • ?

Under such circumstances it is not surprising that many parents become prejudiced against that education which does not help their daughters to deal with domestio life and related problems. Hence the major problem as seen here is that of unsuitable education. Taking into consideration

the structure of the Indian society, where the majority of women are destined to marry and have a home and family of their own, the same

cu rricu lu m both fo r men and women, a s i t p r e v a ils in most In d ia n c o lle g e s

and high schools, cannot be suitable for women. Some educators also

reject the idea of identical curricula. For example, Gandhiji argues

this question in the context of Indian society,

Man and woman are of equal rank but they are not identioal. They are a peerless pair being supplementary to one another. • • • In framing any scheme of women*s education this cardinal truth must be constantly kept in mind. Man is supreme in the outward activities of a married pair and therefore it is in the fitness of things that he should have a greater knowledge

47Ibid. 162

thereof. On the other hand, hone life Is entirely the aphere of woman and therefore In domestic affairs. In the upbring­ ing and eduoatlon of children, women ought to have more knowledge

Tagore Is also of the same opinion and emphasizes the idea that man and woman complement one another. As it follows from his writings on the subject, a happy and successful life is ensured when a woman becomes a support and friend to her mate rather than his competitor in life ,^

Having the same curriculum for girls as for boys therefore is not desirable, but a special curriculum is needed. Though this need is not felt at the primary stage, it is very important that due consideration be given to the special needs of girls when selection for content is made. This question becomes more serious on the higher education level.

At the secondary stage those subjects should be included which take into consideration the special needs of girls. Almost all the important reports on eduoation, for example, the Sargent Report, the Mudliar

Report and the Second Kher (Basic) Committee, emphasize the need of domestic science and home craft for girls1 high schools. The teaching of domestic science as a compulsory subject in high school, suggested by the Sargent Report of 19^, is a very useful idea in view of the fact that many girls do not continue their studies after the high-school stage. Therefore a general compulsory course in this field is appropri­ ate, for it would serve as preparation for life. But at the same time

M. K. Gandhi, Towards New Education, ed, Biaratan Kumarappa (Ahmedabad: Navajivan Publishing House, 1953), p, 19,

Tagore, Creative Unity, pp. 158-166. 163 opportunities of higher education must be wide open to glrle eo that they aey choose to go to any higher field of their liking, such as medicine, education, engineering or any other branch on the college level in which today our country needs many women leaders, Moreover a true eduoation for women should not only develop Indian women*s intellect but also take into consideration women*a varied roles in the society, such as citizen, homemaker and breadwinner, whioh though similar to a certain extent, yet somewhat differ from the role of men.

Developing Ideals for Women*s Education

Summarising briefly, the educational thought in the nineteenth century centered chiefly around providing education to girls and women in order to bring about religious and social reforms. There was no particular question of the type of eduoation to be imparted until the leaders of the National Education Movement began to think of this prob­ lem, A set of particular aims and objectives for guiding women*s education was formed in the early years of the twentieth century, and the founding of the S,N«D,T, University of Women at Bombay In 1917 fairly represents these ideals,

Chiplunkar, a professor of this university, was keenly interested in women*s eduoation. His writings on this subject reflect the eduoa­ tional thinking of the period. Through them we learn that eduoation for women for home, marriage and a successful family life was the main objective. In fact this was not a new thought altogetherj the sectarian schools under Hindu and Muslim auspices also aimed at this very goal. 164

However, Chiplunkar indicate* a strong opposition to the Western system of eduoatlon which prepared girls for a Westernised type of life, leading then farther away from their own cultural background, Sinoe the psychological and physical aspects of girls1 lives were not taken Into consideration by the existing educational systea, eduoators protested against the official English education for the difficulties and pressures it wrought on girls through rigid form alities, type of curriculum and strenuous examinations, Indian educators felt that eduoatlon should make girls physically, mentally and culturally fit for shouldering the responsibilities of home and family, Chiplunkar represented the thinking of many Indian thinkers when he observed,

I consider the education of women as vital to the progress of aqy nation. Boys' eduoation in case it is not conducted on proper lines results in unemployment and m isfits. Girls* edu» cation if not properly organised on sound lines, unfits them psychologically and physiologically for maternity and for the oontinuanoe of the veryraoe,50

In Gandhian educational thought, which represented the nationalist view of education, women's eduoation was acoorded an Important place, and it indicates three main ooneerns and distinct features as follows *

1, Eduoation was very necessary and Important for women,

2, It should be based on Indian cultural background,

3, To look to the ancient educational ideals rather than accept

the Western eduoational tendencies.

At the same time strong emphasis was placed on learning through manual

skill as against the prevailing system which emphasised intellectual accomplishments. In spite of this new tendency in education, avoidance

^Chiplunkar, o£. cit., p, xiv. 165 of English *nd emphasis on spinning as advocatad strongly by Gandhiji, alas at an anilghtanad but traditional typa of womanhood, Moreover, tha strong aaphasis laid on tha taaohlng of spinning ort in broad terms, tha villaga crafts in schools (for girls as wall as for boys), shows a bias favoring tha agricultural set-up for tha soeiaty ooaparad to tha industrial idaology. In othar words tha cultural and spiritual aspaets of humanity ara axaltad far abova tha m aterialistic and tha subordina­ tion of parsonality and expression is not tolaratad to machinery and production,

Tha naw educational thought of Indian wonen thinkers implies that they strongly uphold social progress and provision of educational oppor­ tunities to all woman. Apart from aspiring to make woman "a whole woman" and a "useful member of society, a goad mother and a self-reliant and responsible citisen,"-^ their observations suggest that they prefer education to prepare women for successfully meeting all the challenges of the modern society. Speaking of the restoration of pride in ancient culture, Amrit Kaur observed.

There are many qualities in Ehglish people such as discipline, punctuality, hygiene • • • sinking of personal differences in the faoe of national need, a passionate love of and pride in their country, their art, their language, their literature that we might well emulate. But blind imitation of what is unnecessary to our way of life or what is even harmful to us must be shunned if we are to evolve a new India whose moral and cultural values shall lie deep in our own so il,*2

^M ehta, "Aims and Ideals of Women1 s Education," Education of Women in Modern India, p. 4,

^A arit Kaur, To Women (Ahmedabad: Navajlvan Publishing House, 19^5), P. 18, 166

But In order "to evolve * new IndieN women of Indie should be emend- peted first,

In our womenhood we heve e tremendous reservoir of power, but todey it lies buried under the incubus of ignorenee, supersti­ tion end domestic slevery. To free it from thet incubus end meke it eveileble for the netionel struggle must therefore be the oonoern of every worker in the netionel oeuse.33

Thet such e womenhood is espired which could combine the domestic ceres with ell the glories of public life is evident from en eloquent speech of

Hedeme P e n d it,

The women of Indie heve outstripped their Western sisters in e very reel sense • • • they ere involved in ell the ectivities of the notion, they heve the enoouregement of society end of the government end e ll this hes come ebout without entegonizing men or erousing resentment. They heve es it were, welked out of the hone end into the world, I think it is feirly sefe to sey thet whetevor the future mey hold for Indie, for us women there is no going beck, • , • We heve closed the gete firmly behind us end must continue to welk forwerd into ever-widening erees of freedom end responsibility,5^

It follows from the trend of thinking of educeted women thet they ere in fevor of modernlzetion, sometimes even verging towerd Western!ze- tion, es the higher educetion end sociel end politicel opportunities tend to leed. It is evident thet this group of thinkers believes en industrlel end modern society, es egeinst the egrerien concept described eerlier, is the solution to Indlen women's problems.

-^Keur, op, oit,, pp, 1-2,

^V ijye Lekshmi Pendit, "Indien Women on the Kerch," Indie News, June 11, 1962, 167

Though it it ntvor too wit* to look back only to tho past for guidance, it la navarthalaaa neoessary to remember in planning adueation for women that tha nature of Indian womanhood ia an aaaantial part of tbalr outlook on lifa and ouatoma and that adueation ahould to a certain extant be baaed on thla outlook* • • • At the aama time it la realised that we mutt learn to move mere rapidly than in bullock oarta and a woman must realise that the vaouua eleaner and washing machine and smokeless even nay make her get on more rapidly and cleanly with her housework and give her more time for outside duties than her grandmother who pee aeseed no labor-saving devicea* The idea of service to one*a neighbor* of being a good oltisen and of keeping up with modern ideas and thought must be given priority in eduoation*55

It is not only the women educator a and leaders but even prominent politi­

cal leaders of the country like Nehru who also feel strongly that

education should prepare women for something more than it does at present.

I do not agree with this ideal of women's life or education* that does it signify! It means that woman has one profession that is the profession of marriage • • • even in this profes­ sion she is always to be the devoted helpmate, the follower and the obedient slave of her husband and others* • • • The future of India cannot oonslst of dolls and playthings and if you made half the population mf the country mere playthings of the other half, and enoumberanoe on others* how w ill you ever make progress*5°

As the goal of independence and democracy was being reached* some

Indian eduoators examined the reasons for the slow development of women's education. As a result the question of curriculum engaged the

attention of eduoators. As Salyldain's critical survey of women's

eduoation suggests*the general public was opposed to women's eduoation.

^Padmini Sen Gupta* Women's Bduoation in India (New Delhi: M inistry of Education, Government of India* 19^0)» PP* **-5.

^Selected Writings of Jawaharlal Nehru. 1916-1958. ed. J. S. Bright (New Delhi: Indian Printing Works), pp. 72-73.

^Refer to page 161. 168

The sohools were still a replioa of boys' sohools. Rural parants war* of tha opinion that tha aduoation thalr daughters raoalvad was not halpful to thaw in thair futura lifa. Education with its emphasis on

English language at tha cost of othar useful subjects was unsuitable for

■any Indian families* Thus aduoation beoame divorced from tha currants and oonoerns of national life and therefore baooaias superficial rather than life-giving. So ha strongly suggests that courses should be radically altered in girls1 schools*

At tha earn tine tha new educational ideals under tha influenoe of independence have brought equal educational opportunities for men and wonen, and such leading educators as Maulana Acad. Humayun Kabir.

Saiyidain, and Dr. Zakir Hussain strongly speak and write of aduoation for a ll. The general indication appears to be that whatever aduoation is good for nan is equally good for women. This is felt so because most writings of the present day educators indicate that they do not speak of the education of girls and boys as separate but rather as common. They speak of providing educational experiences which can bring desirable effects among boys and girls as far as inter-cultural and inter-communal understanding are necessary and a peaceful cooperative friendly social order is the aim.

This trend of thought does not necessarily come into conflict with the point of view held by some of the educators who propose that special courses should be introduced in schools or ourriculum should be modified and adjusted in respect to girls* lives and requirements. This is so because within a wider framework of education there is a 169

considerable area over which there Is Identity of interest between girls

and boys. For example, while forming the curriculum, the choice can be made in types of crafts and handwork and thus curriculum can be adjusted

to girls' special needs as well. Moreover, though educators are

advocating for equal educational opportunities, yet they are equally

aware that as democracy has brought new challenges for women as well as

for men, and as new and varied avenues have been opened for women,

education should prepare them for the general challenges as well as for

the particular ones according to the differences of sex and their

positions in life.

A significantly new trend of thought introduced by the contem­

porary educators is their strong emphasis on the responsibility of

education to prepare the pupils for inter-communal understanding and

cooperation. The present-day leaders in education sincerely believe

that education should stress this field of common interests and should

further peace and understanding both on the national and the inter­

national level; for example Saiyidain remarks that all communities

should study one another's distinctive cultural achievements and contri­

butions with reverence and sympathy, and it is his ardent wish that all

classes of youth render social servioe in times of peace to all classes

and communities Irrespective of religious differences and, in times of

communal clashes and conflict, strive for peace and understanding.

If we review the trend of thinking of contemporary Indian

educators, it is clearly evident that they have very sincerely

thought about making women's education more meaningful and suit­

able to the individual and to the community. This leads the 170

student of eduoational thought to ths Impression that thslr oonoorn night have accomplished a remarkable progress in the field under contem­

plation* But a critical examination of the real situation reveals the

truth that all the sincere thinking and saying of our eduoators has not

gone far toward the desired end* The government reports indicate that

education of girls and women still lags far behind* The serious prob­

lem of wastage and disparity between men's and women's education s till

dominates the scene as it did years ago* The result is that both

primary and secondary education of girls is still in a very backward and

unsatisfactory position.

We feel that out of the numerous factors which tend toward such

a sad position of education of Indian women* perhaps the following may

be major reasons* given in order of increasing importance:

1* Inadequate financial resources

2* Shortage o f women te a c h e rs

3* Lack of public oooperetion

It is not an exaggeration to suppose that the nucleus of the slow

progress of women's edueation is the lack of public cooperation in this

respect* The National Council for Women's Education in its Annual

Report lamented that public opinion still lags far behind and it is

extremely important that situations should be created to enlighten the

public mind in favor of eduoatlng g irla.58 The surveys made in ooiw

nection with the government's Five-year Flan also indicate the same

eg Durgabei Deshmukh* "Expansion of Women's Eduoation under Third Plan*" First Annual Report of the National Council for Women's Education* The Eduoation Quarterly. Winter* I960* 171 problem. To outward appoaranoos therefore it is olaar that tha par ants of girls ara not yat fully convinoad of tha importance and dasirability of thair daughters' aduoation and publio opinion is not squally alivs to this problem in *11 parts of tha oountry. Hanoa it is high tine that afforts should bs made to randar aduoation more appaaling and aaaningful to tha community.

With this visw and in tha light of tha analysis of oontaaporary aduoational thought ragarding women’s aduoation, as wall as tha naads of tha tiaas, tha following paragraphs prassnt a formulation and disoussion of soma dssirabls goals in woaan*s aduoation. If thasa objectives ara kapt upparaost in tha minds of Indian sdueators, it is sarnsstly hopad that as aora and aors cititans ooaa to undarstand than, thay will sand thair daughtars to sohools in ever-increasing nuabars.

Soaa Desirable Goals for Woman's Education

Tha aost important aim of Indian woman's aduoation should bs to prspara tham for a suocassful homa lifa and ansura happy family living.

It is not an axaggaration to say that tha homa is tha bsdrook of Indian socisty and tha Indian mothar is tha pivot of har household.^ As rsmarksd by Chiplunkar, "a nation is kapt aliva by its good mothars and a nation without a high proportion of good mothsrs is a dying nation.

Our nation is still in tha making and at this critical tims our country

59 Sir ftiilip Hartog, Soaa Aspects of Indian Eduoation Past and Present (Londont Oxford University Press, 1939)» P» 52* 60 Chiplunkar, 0£. cit., p. 101. 172 needs that womanhood which can produce healthy bodies and healthy souls or healthy, brave and intalligant children to build a strong nation.

But tha raal situation is that thousands of Indian aothars ara ignorant of thair own power, dutlas and rasponsibilitias. It is most appropriata tharafora that training for wifehood and motherhood should eonstituta tha assantlal aim of a modern aduoational program for girls and woaan.

In fact this is an old oonoapt which has boon prasant in Indian thought for agos. Whether aduoational opportunities wara providad to har or not, sha as a aothar aarnad tha leva and ravaranoa of tha family.

Alsost all oontemporary Indian aduoatora uniformly agraa with this important idaal of woman's aduoation.

For example, in his writings about woman and thair plaoe, position and rasponsibilitias in society, Tagora emphasises tha complamantary position of man and woman and tha vanaration of motharhood. In spita of tha faalings of raspaet and tandarnaas for womanhood, ha lndioatas tha un- idantieal positions of tha two sexes. This implias that according to his way of thinking thara must have been a definite plaee for woman and that aduoation should prepare for hone and family life.

Karve and Chiplunkar also wara staunch supporters of this view.

Karve strongly suggests that "the average Indian girl is to be educated not with a view to any professional oaraar; har future destiny is married life #N^ and Chiplunkar is almost of tha same opinion as Rani of

Sangli's Foreword to his book suggests that "by har tradition, culture

^ All India Federation Tea chars Association, p. 88. 173 and bringing up, Indian woaan ia bast flttad to play tha rola * • • (of

a good wife* guida . , , in har lifa) • • • and it would ba a graat mis-

taka to ohanga har idaal and graft in its plaoa ona, alian to har natura and tradition* Tha social and cultural Ufa of India has acknowledged

hone naklng as a cherished and universal objaotiva of tha country*s woman* and an account of cultural, so d a l and aconoaic reasons a graat majority of girls ara destined for married life* This has made our writers taka pride in introducing India as tha "Land of universal

Marriages** But this is no simple responsibility* To adequately super­

vise all domestic duties, to bear and rear children and to shoulder tha

rasponsibilitias of a wife, mothar and citiseiw -all require understand­

ing* adjustment* efficiency, forbearance* sacrifice and many other

qualities and experiences* Under such drcumstances, it is evident that

women*s education should be something more real and meaningful than mere

formal instruction* This is all the more important because most Indian

parental homes do not afford their daughters the opportunity for learning

and practicing the homemaking skills before they actually start their own

family life* This often leads to undesirable situations in family rela­

tions, many times resulting in broken homes* In view of the above* it

is highly desirable that women*s education should aim to make our women

and girls understand duties and responsibilities centering around this

theme*

To make women capable of bringing happiness into domestic life

should be one of the chief objectives of women*s education* It is an

62 „ Chiplunkar, o£* cit,. p. ill* 17* important duty of education to Instil tho lofty idsals of love, patlenoe and self-sacrifice in women and at tha same time to anabla them to beoame intalligant and raasonabla individuals who can tactfully solva domestic and social problems,^3 From the m aterialistic point of view also training of woaan for a successful hoaa lifs would bs of iaasnsa valua in visw of tha poor aoonoaio sat up of thousands of Indian fami- lisa. This aspaot of tha problaa was discussed as early as 1928 by

H. H. tha Begua Mothar of Bhopal—har self a ruler—in har Presidential

Address of tha All India Woaan1 s Conference on Educational Reform•

Tha raaady for poverty lias mostly in tha hands of aan but woaan too have thair responsibility in this respect; the division of work in the society being that aan produces wealth and woaan spends it. If woaan know how to run a household properly they would keep their expenditure evenly balanoed . . . would be able to distinguish between neces­ sary and unneoessary expenditure. . . . If they knew soae useful handicraft, they oould supplement their inooae, if they oould realise the national needs and saarlfioe a little of their pleasures and luxuries to the adoption of the plain living of olden times, poverty would to a great extent disappear from the country.**

A good educational program should clearly define women*s rightful plaoe in hoae life and make her realise that she should neither be a tool in the hands of the family, nor oocupy sueh a superfluous position as an ornament but the true mission of her life is to be a friend, oom- fort and support of man rather than his competitor in the race of life .^

A meaningful education should make a woaan realise the significance and

■caning of the truism that the family is humanity in miniature and she,

^flwami N irvedananda, Our E duoation (B engali Vidyam andira Dhakuria, 19*5)* P* 116• Raport thft A ll India H ou nConference 'l Educational Reform. Delhi, February 7-10. 1928 (Mangalorei Kanara Printing Works, 1928), p, 27. ''Chiplunkar, j also Rabindranath Tagore, Personality (Londont Macmillan A 175 the inspiring fsotor, ss nothsrhood is ths highsst ideal of womanhood.

Another consideration of the problem arises out of the fact that

Indian husbands usually do not add domestic duties to their roles as do

American husbands, and Indian women do not enjoy the facilities and modern appliances that an average American wife enjoys. Such being the case, home management remains the primary responsibility of the Indian woaan. Hence this implies that woman's education faoes another challenge, that is, it not only should make her a competent manager but also a good organiser of her time so that she may devote enough time to the best interests of herself as well as her family. Daily we come across several cases where the lack of training in basic homemaklng skills oauses frustrations and aggravations to many hundreds of our women apart from their serious neglect of important duties and responsibilities to their families. This again vehemently suggests the need of the type of education that provides an understanding of the basic principles of family relationships, child development, home management and several other Important problems in a woman's life . Whether all women will become mothers or not, knowledge of these basic facte is extremely essential.^

Schools should train women not only for homemaking and worthy home membership, but also should enable them to create intelligent types of leisure and make worthy use of it. This naturally leads to the

66 Mehta, "Aims and Ideals of Women* s Education," Education of Women in Modern India, pp. 3-^. 176 question of curriculum and courses which oan givs a dssp insight into the matter. It is fslt that ooursss in nutrition, food preparation, clothing, home management, budgeting, mother craft, family relatione, child development, child psychology can be the most effeotive. Inten­ sive and more specific courses should be offered on higher educational levels. But as all women may not be able to receive college and high- school eduoation, even on the elementary level, opportunities should be available for young girls to acquaint themselves with the general and b asic facts of home and family life. For example, little girls oan be given an understanding of the importance of good food; interest in sew­ ing also can be inculcated; attitudes of cooperation and thrift can be d ev elo p ed .

At the same time girls1 minds should be trained in the skills of creativity, initiative and self-sufficiency so that they may be able to circumvent successfully any complicated situations facing them in life .

For social and cultural reasons, during many centuries Indian women were protected from all hardships by their male relatives. This has resulted in indirectly helping a great majority of women of India to become helpless and dependent upon their men. It is high time now that this crippling situation be rectified. Nothing can do it more effectively than education directed toward building the character of our young women by awakening their faith in themselves and in the power of God,

The eduoation of women, for whatever purpose it stands, should be given a more practical turn. Knowledge gained through experience is far different from knowledge received by description. Many a time classroom generalisations prove meaningless to students because they are not 177 intelligently end meaningfully related to life* Thus they do not appeal to the party for whose benefit they were intended* Hence it is extremely important that schools and colleges provide their students practical experiences through workshops, field work and other appropri­ a te means*

Eduoation for Citizenship

The second ma.lor goal of Indian women1 s education, which ought never to be completely separate from the first, should be to prepare them for their role as informed and responsible citizens and voters in a free and united democratic India. This is a very hroad purpose, of course, which involves not only preparation for democratic living, as it would in any modern nation, but in the special nature of India1s situation and problems, it Involves great emphasis on the intellectual and emotional qualities of broadmindedness, tolerance, and patriotism. Nor can we neglect the social and civic importance of educating our girls to under­

stand and cope with the health problems of our country*

It is a discouraging fact that many Indian women do not seem to possess sufficient knowledge of their rights and duties as free citizens of a republic*^7 The democracy of a state can flourish only if its interests are safeguarded by an informed citizenry and able community leaders. Therefore, if we wish to preserve our national freedom and democracy which was gained at the cost of thousands of human lives, not to speak of the great loss incurred to property worth lakhs of rupees, the first duty of the schools is to inculcate the most cherished

67 Ibid.. p. 3* democratic goal of raspact and worth of tha individual. Along with this, it ia fa it axtramaly important that both man and woman ahould become aware of thair rights and dutiaa aa oiticana of a democratic atata. Hie gaining of Independence And univeraal franehiaa all tha more enhancea tha need for schoola to taka up tha responsibility of preparing intelligent and useful oitisane. Hansa Mehta, as the President of All India Women1s

Conference, speaks for all women educators when aha says that "our aim is to make woman a healthy and useful member of society, a good mother, self-reliant and a responsible citizen conscious of her righta and responsibilities."^ Thia, it ia hoped, will ultimately infuse the minds and hearts of Indian women with tolerance of cultural differences in our land of many ideologies and different mores. A properly organised education for democratic citizenship could equip our women with the sense of social justice—so very badly required by our women folk. A critical look at the behavior pattern of our society reveals that several disgraceful practices in the everyday life situations are oommon among several groups of Indian women. This is very harmful for a healthy and peaceful national development. It is very discouraging, as such prac­ tices are not uncommon to find in women*s colleges and girls* schools.

An example of this is the discrimination practiced by many members of higher soeioeoonomio groups against individuals belonging to lower strata of society. The decrying of members of castes and creeds other than their own is also a disgraceful attitude frequently witnessed among women. This unfortunate state of affairs warrants serious consideration 179 by educators, It was perhaps such conditions which the ideal of social justice as advoeated by Gandhi sought to modify. He hoped by educating the masses to produce a more just social order in which there is no unnatural division between the "haves" and the "have-nots" and everybody

Is assured of a living wage and the right to freedom

The history of education in the past centuries, as described in the previous chapters, indicates that the chief aim of women's education was to fam iliarise them with religion and its subsequent duties to the neglect of cultivation of the social and psychological aspects. Perhaps it is partly because of this and partly because of seclusion, dietary restrictions and several other social customs which barred women of different ethnic groups from mixing freely with each other that several orthodox practices are still found prevalent among Indian women. This often creates very embarrasing problematic situations. Instances are not wanting to see that many women show quite hostile and Intolerant attitudes toward members of different groups in everyday life. It is both surprising and gratifying to note that such narrow mindedness is not so very generally common among our men. One of the reasons for this may be that men belong to varied groups of society in spite of their religious, social and intellectual differences, and thereby have wider contacts, which provide opportunities for them to exchange ideas and understandings with other persons and groups—in such public places as markets, offices, and clubs. Hence, true education for women in modern

M, K, Gandhi, Basic National Education (Wardha: Hindusthani Talimi Sangh, 1938). p. 6. 180

Indian society demands preparation for broadmindedness. It is earn* estly hoped that education for citizenship would then produce men and women who would not blindly follow unfounded prejudices and narrow loyalties. The eduoators of the country believe that the sense of social justice and the quickening of social conscience will produce men and women of lofty ideals whose judgment would not be swayed by the narrow sentiments of caste or creed* race or nation when occasion for common good arises. "The heart of a truly educated man must respond to the sorrows and joys of all his fellowmen; his sympathy and sensitive­ ness must not be circumscribed by prejudices or narrow loyalties."?0

Broadmindedness and Tolerance

Education for citizenship should not be restricted to the idea of the citizenship of a particular country, but should be related to the broader concept of world citizenship as well. If we actually believe that without peace and understanding between nations, the future of mankind w ill be dark and uncertain, we must make sincere efforts to educate our girls of today, who w ill become the mothers of the future generations, for world citizenship. Moreover, while planning educational programs for women, we must allow ourselves to be guided by the significant sp irit embodied in the beautiful UNESCO slogan, "Since war begins in the minds of men, it is in the minds of men that the defenses of peace must be created." It is therefore necessary that women's

70 K. 0. Saiyidain, Education. Culture and Social Order (2d ed.t Bombay: Asia Publishing House, 1958 J^p^- 217* 181 eduoation should aim to produca a llbaral and tolarant outlook In girls not only whan national loyaltias ara ooncarnad but with ragard to international problems also; as otharwisa salfish narrow-mindedness would ruin all chancas of a paacaful co-existence of all paopla and n a tio n s*

Changas dua to taahnological developments and prograss of industry and aduoation hava raduoad tha world* as it wara* to a parish, and intsrdapandanos of raoas has bacons vary intinats* This maans that wa ara in a situation whara tha caraful training of individuals for a mors sffieisnt oooparation in tha collsctiva antarprisa of sooiaty— local* state and national—is axtramaly important,As Azad reflected during one of his spaachas* in tha advancanant of nations there is no greater hindrance than narrow-mindedness and we shall find a secure plaoe in tha conity of nations only if we ara international minded and to le ra n t*

Tha greatest contribution that citizenship training can make to our young woman is tha development in them of a sense of consideration for tha peace and happiness of thair fellow beings* It is too distress ing that for tha last few years our country has bean facing frequent social disruptions and communal outbursts* On account of this a graat many innocent individuals and groups suffer badly for no fault of theirs, and it would not be wrong to say that in tha long run tha whole national progress would be seriously affected by tha consequences of such

71 John C* Almack, Education for Citizenship (Cambridge: Houghton M ifflin Company, 1924), pp. 1-6* 182 undesirable situations. Here 11s• ths grsstsst challsngs for ths women well vsrssd in citizenship training and wall prepared for democratic living to exert their influence in the oomaunities, with all their tradi­ tional sim plicity, sincerity, understanding, honor and oourage to combat the bitter fratricidal conflicts. If education has made them competent enough to train their children to think of each other in terms of unity and brotherhood, they would surely develop as Azad remarks, "An attitude of mind in which the present conflicts w ill become unnecessary and unreal."?2 Educators who strongly uphold inter-communal and inter­ national peace and understanding feel that here is the opportunity for the school to inculcate the spirit of tolerance among the younger generations.

In view of the closely knit economic and technical unity of the present world, education cannot be oontent merely with the cultivation of a passive goodwill towards all the peoples; it must strive more consciously and systematically to create an active appreciation of ways of life and thought different from their own. In fact it should be India's special privilege, now that she is free to play her destined role in the comity of nations, to lead the way towards a more active, a more generous and more spontaneous appreciation of other forms of culture and other social systems.

Proper education in community living under citizenship training programs would enable our younger generation to recognize and tolerate differ­ ences among people and thus promote an atmosphere of congenial under­ standing and sincere friendship.

72 Speeches of Maulana Azad. p. 150, 73 r

Women's education should be so planned that it produces a well justified love, pride and regard for the country and its people in the hearts and minds of the rising generations. The educators should be careful to train the intellect of the young women in such a manner that they neither close their eyes to every aspect alien to their tradition, however lovable it may be, nor blindly admire each local phase though it may be full of faults. Citizenship training for women should teach such

"patriotism which should be enlightened, not blind love; appreciative of what is truly good and noble, criticial of what may be false or unworthy or unfair."7^

The concept of patriotism in Indian education reached its zenith in the nineteenth century. Partly moved by the socio-religious reforms and partly guided by the extreme nationalist attitudes, several educators of the time presented only one-sided pictures of our national glory in their writings. For example the ideal of womanhood set forth for the modern Indian society was that of the ancient Hindu woman.

Ideal characters must always be presented before the view of the girls to imbue them with a devotion for lofty ideals of selflessness. The noble examples of Sita, Savitri, Damayanti, Lilavati, Khana and Mira should be brought home to their minds and they should be inspired to mould their lives after them."*

^Saiyidain, Education. Culture and Social Order, p. 219.

^Swami Nirvedananda, o£. cit,, p. 117. 184

With due recognition of the noble qualities represented by the above group of national heroines, it is desirable that our educators should fam iliarise Indian girls and women with the characters and contributions of individuals and groups of other cultural backgrounds also who have equally contributed to our country*s glorious heritage. It is the

greatest responsibility of the school to foster and develop critical intelligence in the pupils,?^ So teachers in our democratic set up

should produce ample opportunity to the young women and girls of becoming

aware of the important traditions, folkways, mores and religious

doctrines of the society. If we want to develop oomplete men and women we are not justified in limiting our youth's horizon to a blind and

narrow national or religious outlook. On the other hand we are bound

to offer such educational experiences which widen their scope of under­

standing of the proud and worthy accomplishments of the forefathers of

these whom they meet across the street.

No scheme of national education can be complete without including

the teaching of patriotism. But this needs very cautious handling

beoause it may also happen that aggressive nationalist feelings can,

without our knowing it, mask strong communal feelings which would

create hatred of others and cause serious national situations. To be

worthy and true Indians, in all aspects of life and at all times, should

be the goal of our young women. The teaching of patriotism can create

wonders in the strained relations of different conuunal groups in India,

and schools can play the most important part in this respect. This

^Mason, oj>. c it.. p. 254, 185 point w*o strongly emphasized by Lala Lajpat Rai* a great national leader and educator*

The teaching of Hindu-Mohammedan unity oan be greatly facili­ tated by the writing of special and carefully worded theses on the lives of our national heroes* • • . Hindus should learn to take pride in the achievements of Mohammedan heroes* saints and w rite rs * and Mohammedans i n th o se o f th e Hindus* I f Mother India is proud of a Nanak, she is also proud of a Chistl* * • • Even we modern Indians oan be as well proud of a Hall* an Iqbal* a Mohani as of Tagore, Roy and Harlrii Chandra. We are as proud o f Syed Ahmed Khan a s o f Ram Mohan Roy and Dayanandatf7

Since India is a secular and democratic state and the home of people of different faiths and raoes* it is essential that every Indian girl be taught that "every human being who is born in India, or of Indian parents* or who has made India his or her home* is a compatriot, a

ryQ brother or a sister* regardless of colour* creed* caste or vocation*"'

Resides the above-mentioned essential reasons for citizenship training, the most basic is that all Indian women as citizens of a democracy need to be able to know and judge the society and the country in whioh they live* Women's schools and colleges therefore should pro­ vide them with ample opportunities of realizing the rights and privileges of others through participation in activities based on group action* interaction and individual and cooperative efforts. This can be done as Saiyidain suggests by transforming the schools into miniature com­ munities where the pupil learns through direct living*

77 Lala Lajpat Rai, Problem of National Education in India (London: Allen and Unwin Ltd*, 1920), pp. lhh-1^5.

76Ibid*. pp. 137-138. 186

Community Living and Leadership

John Dewey, the renowned American educator, strongly advocates the cause of organising schools as a cooperative community. According to him the narrow individualism of a person originates with the use of

competitive methods and appeals in schools, Dewey observes that "mere instruction that is not accompanied by direct participation with school 79 affairs upon a genuine community basis will not go far," Since

Dewey*s observations have universal significance, their truth applies to our schools and pupils as well as to those in the United States,

Another significant aspect of education to be considered by

educators under citizenship training through women's education would be

to develop leadership qualities in our young women. The prevailing

attitude of too much followership in most Indian women is very unhealthy

for our social and national progress. This phase of the problem is

quite apparent in the Gandhian writings wherein the author appeals to

the educated women to stand on their own feet and take active part in

the social emancipation of the country's backward women.

It is a very favorable and auspicious situation that our sooiety

has discovered and recognized the leadership power of women. Some of

the highly educated social, educational and political women leaders have

already shown that no longer is ancestoral glory or boundless wealth

required for leadership. Rather it is creative intelligence, hard

thinking and selfless devotion and service to the community that

John Dewey, Education and Social Order (New York: League for Industrial Democracy, 193*0# pp. 11-12. 187 guarantees a true leader. Yet the nunber of women leaders needed In the country's present circumstances to work for the uplift of the millions of our women is too scanty. It may be rightly said of this situation, as it has been said of the American society, that "despite the effec­ tiveness, of the number of women 'doing* is far less than the number

'watohing,'though we may perhaps safely make an addition to this statement that it is not wholly untrue that thousands of our women are not even capable of watching.

Under these circumstances our education faces a double task:

(1) educating for able leadership and (2) educating for intelligent followership,

"The real issue in a democracy is not who should be a leader and who a follower but when to be a leader and when to be a follower,"81

Good followership also needs organised education and training and the nation should be made aware of that, "A nation that wishes to lead and to have leaders muat aleo teach its youth how to obey. • • • Good followership • • • requires loyalty, reverence and respect for law and order^et education should in stil an awareness in women that even if they do not take part in political and civic activities, they have social duties to perform. It is their earnest duty to produce social

80 L, C, Mueller and 0, C, Mueller, "Prospect for Tomorrow," in their Mew Horisone for College Women (Washington, D. C,: Public Affairs Press, I960), pp. 119-120.

Bienstock, "Democracy and Leadership," Journal of Educational Sociology. Vol. XXVII, No. 1, p. 401.

®^3iddiqi, op. c it.. pp. 193-194, quoting Ulich, Educational Forw, Vol. XIX, Mo. 3, p. 266. 188

awareness and qualities of leadership In their children* Being a leader is said to be not so challenging as preparing others for leadership and

therefore "a woman who exercises her education in instilling leadership

can be a leader too,"

The aim of training for leadership can be achieved through

several praetical and creative group activities in the school, e.g.,

student unions, literary and fine arts clubs, dramatics seminars and

discussion groups wherein group activity, planning, social and emotional

adjustments and intellectual and academic performances are involved. It would be highly profitable to gain firsthand experience in leadership

training if our institutions for women's eduoation would adopt, with any modifications necessary, the student government system which is practiced

in American schools,

Eduoation for training in citizenship falls in the general area

of social sciences. Courses in economics, sociology, government,

history, social psychology and group dynamics can be made part of curricu­

lum offerings for college women. A prominent woman sociologist and

educator, Komarovsky, particularly recommends a course which should

beoome a part of the standard offering in the social sciences. Accord­

ing to her, "this is a course which would seek to lay open the process

of social adjustment in a local community,

83 Mirra Komarovsky, Women in the Modern World (Boston: L ittle, Brown and Company, 1953), p. 27&. 189

Clvlos, history, labor relations and ganaral social studies programs on tha high-school laval would comprise tha aduoation for citisenship,

Eduoation for Haalth

Though occasionally soma aduoators did amphasi&a tha causa of haalth, yat our nation's failura to apprsciats this problem has oftan rasultad in sarious oonsaquaneas, Ona of tha most important and, unfortunately, tha most neglected aspect of woaan1s education in our country is health. Tha ganaral lack of knowledge of haalth science is ona reason for tha presence of countless diseases, especially in many

Indian cities and villages. Among the villagers, particularly, infant mortality is of grave concern.

It may not be wholly incorrect to say that in no area has our eduoation failed more completely than in the field of health in women's education. Woman's education should inculcate a haalth consciousness among women. It is a harmful habit prevalent among most Indian women to neglect precautions before the break up of a disease, A serious concern for ill health is generally lacking among women of several social groups,

Sohools can be the most useful agencies of a health program, A healthy and sound body is an essential requirement for a well-balanced mind, and for a strong, healthy nation. This need was felt by educators of the reform movements, and 9wami Vivekananda advocated the cultivation of the strength of body and mind: "One w ill be neared to Heaven through football than through the study of Glta."®^

^K abir, "Continuity of Tradition," Indo Asian Culture, p, 250, quoting from Complete Works, Vol. Ill, p,z k z t 190

It is true with most Indian girls and women that thsir homes do not provide enough facilitias for all-round development* Tha saelusion and social segregation of woman denies them sufficient opportunities for their physical culture education* Education for health should fam iliar­ ise our women with the necessary requirements for the development of a sound body* Physical culture education should include what is known as the feur B's program—Beauty, Body, Balance and Babies* The members of the All Indian Women's Conference realised and emphasized the importance of this aspect*

The woman, the architect of the race and the nation must be strongly, powerfully and systematically built, but the woman the architect cannot possibly aspire to create something beautiful and great (future citizens) until and unless she herself is a worshipper at the shrine of beauty*&5

Eduoation of Indian women for health is greatly desirable in view of the fact that our country is beset with a number of problems centered around health and sex. A lack of knowledge of the fundamental, basic facts results in bitter consequences* Some of the challenging factors which warrant an urgent formulation of women's education are (l) the problem of prostitution in several large cities of India, which is a permanent threat to the health and homes of many fam ilies, and (2) false shame about matters of sex* Usually unmarried Indian girls and newly married women are neither imparted any information nor do they dare seek any knowledge about the biological and physiological aspects of a woman's life* Thus they are utterly unprepared even psychologically

Oe Mi than J• Murthan, "Physical Education," Education of Women in Modern India, p. 23* 191

for smoothly accepting ths ehangss and rssponslfailitiss brought in ths wake of motherhood and wifehood. It is dssirabls thsrsfors that ths

gsnsral program of woman1s sdueation ineluds gsnsral and basic facts

rslatsd to health, sax, nutrition, and so on. Opportunities must also

bs open on ths secondary level of education for women to receive techni­

cal training in nursing and mid-wifery. Higher education should provide

opportunities for the study of medicine, surgery, and kindred fields.

In India the need for lady doctors and surgeons and women nurses is felt very greatly, since it is characteristic of Indian women, whether

ignorant or educated, to prefer the services of women doctors.

General courses for high-school students in health education would be comprised of nutrition, dietetics, physical education, informa­

tion on sex and prevention of diseases. As health is a burning problem

in India, we cannot afford to wait to instruct the children on this

subject until they reach the high sohools. Instruction should begin at

the lowest level of education. Hence girls' schools should provide in

elementary classes a basic knowledge of health rules, the right and wrong of nutrition, fundamentals of food, prevention of diseases,

knowledge of first aid and the importance of physical education.

It is essential that such education be made lively and meaningful,

and be related to the actual life needs of the children. The idea of

the value of health and the bitter oonsequences of its neglect should be

conveyed to them—not theoretically but practically. Interesting charts

and photographs, colorful stories and slides w ill immensely help 192 communicate this ldaa to the children. Son* time 8 snail dr ana a or short plays with the central theme around health education oould be arranged.

Fine a r t s

Not all of life Is work and not all hone life is work. There is also the appreciation and creation of things of beauty. Teaching the fine arts was a significant feature of the education of Indian women before the influence of Western education* A survey of the history of education shows that Hindu girls learned dancing, music and singing and Muslim girls had the opportunity to study painting, drawing, sewing with gold threads and beads* The composition and recitation of poetry by girls was considered as a mark of great distinction by highly cultured

Muslim families in Muslim India. Later as women1s eduoation cane to be modeled more and more after menfs education under the English education system, it was dominated by a purely intellectual influence to the neglect of aesthetic arts and a cultivation of the creative spirit. The social, political and economic conditions also seem to have curbed the creative capacity of people.

The present day Indian high school and college courses afford very little opportunity for developing fine arts and they are left more for private accomplishments. Women1s education should emphasise the educative value of fine arts. With proper guidance and training fine arts would help stimulate appreciation of beauty, observation, concen­ tration and critical judgment. The celebrated artist Tagore believed 193 or that fullness of expression la fullness of life* Aooordlng to him people express themselves better In the language of color, sound and movement.®'’

Other great educators like Gandhi, Iqbal and Asad have greatly favored the value of creative happiness. Harmony, beauty and self- expression through creativity should be fostered through schools so as to enrich the individual's life by making him strive for true creative happiness. Many, many women students do not have a sense of appreciation of beauty. It is the duty of schools to arouse an interest in learning the fine arts.

Vocational Preparation

The third ma.lor goal of women1 s education should be to train women along suitable professional lines so that they may be economically independent and at the same time be productive and contribute toward the national economy.

The social, economic and technological developments faced by our country within the recent years demand that women should move out of their homes to take part in national affairs as well. This means that they should not merely be confined to the limited duties of the home and hearth but participate in outside activities.

Reference has often been made in this study to the fact that a group of Indian thinkers believed that woman's only world was her home,

86 Srinivasa Iyengar, Our Education and Educationists11 (Coimbatore: Kalaivani Press Ltd., 1957), pp. lS&-18?. 19** and therefore her only profaaslon would ba maternity. Thoaa who advo- catad such idaas strongly oppoaad tha teaching of foreign languages and rigorous examination systems in girls schools* In tha same way till recently many Indian families kept their daughters away from schools of the English system of education as the latter had come to be identified with the holding of white-collar jobs; whereas the society thought it far below its dignity to allow women to earn their livelihood.

Mow this state of affairs has changed to a great extent. As related in Chapter V, The Emerging Role of Women in Modern Indian

Society, today many Indian women hold highly competitive and responsible executive positions to which formerly only men could aspire. For example, we find women as m inisters in the Central Government, governors or ministers of states and in many other responsible positions. This is a clear proof that the ice of a traditional negativiatic attitude is broken and an important section of the Indian society has accepted the idea of its women sharing civic, national and international duties and responsibilities. This is also evidence of the fact that women leaders may be preferred over men for responsible positions in our democratic setup if the women are truly able and capable.

An analysis of the social backwardness of Indian women suggests the idea that economic dependence of women was one of the chief reasons.

This bitter truth all the more justifies the need of education for vocational preparation. If our women are to be truly considered as the better half of our nation, they should be able to prove that they can ably and successfully participate in contributing to the social, political, and economic uplift of the country. Our country stands today *0 the greatest democracy in the world, but still is in s helpless position—badly needing vast resources of every kind to satisfy the needs and wants of her own millions who are looking to her for a healthy and happy life of abundance and peace. In these moments of stress and tension our young women who have received a proper education for voca­ tional preparation can come to the relief, ftiey can make solid returns to the society in the shape of skilled and constructive work for building up the nation. What other resource can be more useful and envigorating at this juncture than human resources! If Indian girls were trained for many important professions—teaching, medicine, nursing, and others—then not only many a serious national problem would be solved, but also the skills of a large group of educated women, who under the present educational setup live largely in a condition of social fig parasitism, would no more be a loss to the society.

Vocational training through their education would not only make our girls self-reliant but it would also control the acute problem of poverty which looms large on our country's horizon. Now our country has launched the noble program of universal education. This means that

"education of all sorts of people for all sorts of purposes is to be provided. Henoe education is to cater to the needs of the exceptional few as well as the oommon many. If it does not prepare pupils for common things but only trains them for the learned professions, it is

68 W illystine Goodsell. The Education of Women. Its Social Back­ grounds and Its Problems (New York: Macmillan and Co., I 923T, "pp. 151- 157. 89 E. Davenport, Eduoation for Efficiency (Boston: D. C. Heath and Co., 1910), pp. 1-2. not truly universal.^0 Moreover, with the provision for equal educa­ tional opportunity, people of all classes are looking upon education as a miracle that will better their conditions.

In view of all these facts women's education should provide sound opportunity for vocational training. At present the products of our high schools and colleges, because of the too narrow academic training they receive in the educational institutions, are ill prepared for any skilled vocation. Hundreds of graduates of women's colleges are unable to get into any skilled vocation, and as a result they enter the teaching profession. It is most reasonable that they resort to teaching since it is the profession requiring, in our country, the least training. Because of the teacher shortage, several government schools and many private schools, particularly, hire such untrained young women, though there is another consideration. In the private schools, untrained teachers are usually paid a lesser salary. Now the sad results fall upon the children who have the misfortune to be "educated" by such "unprepared" teachers; though again these young teachers are not to be blamed. It is in fact the fault of the education they received which was limited in scope and did not prove to be an open sesame to them for entering into the skilled field of their ohoice.

Thus vocational training through education would be very useful for the whole oommunity. Consider the training for doctors and nurses: we are told that maternal mortality of a thousand births in several

Western countries is between 2.h and 5*5* whereas India sacrifices 197 between 16 and 25. At the same tin* most of the Indian woman do not go to man doctors In tha absanoa of woman doctors* This particular axampla suggests that thara Is a great need that woman's education should provide training for suitable professions beyond that of preparation for home and married life which should be treated as a compulsory vocational training for every Indian girl.

Though it is a very complex situation for a woman to shoulder two such divergent duties as a successful homemaker and economic contributor or wage-earner at the same time, some thinkers favoring vocational preparation argue that women should acquire the capacity to earn, even though they might not need to earn at all.

The scheme of Basio National Education also emphasises the need and importance of productive activity, which is made the central theme of the educational scheme. Its importance is described by the author of the program in these words:

I would begin the child1s education by teaching it a useful handl-craft and enabling it to produce from the moment it begins its training. • • • I hold the highest development of the mind and soul is possible under such a system of education.91

With Independence, the position of Indian women is completely trans­ formed from what it was fifty years ago. With the opening of newer and brighter horitons in the social, educational and political skies for the women of India, the plea is not for a restriction of their function but

Schaefer, o£. c it,, p. 163, quoting from Harl.lan. July 31,1937 198 for * broadening cf the highway of education to include new pathways

The choice, far from being limited, is to be widened to make room for new studies and new careers. To the old avocations are to be added the new, to meet the needs of the individual, the state and the country.

It may surely seem to be too much to expect of Indian eduoation that it should provide not alone all the sorts of educated men we so desperately need for the development of our economy and of our national strength, but that it must at the same time greatly broaden the oppor­ tunities and even the purposes of education for women. It is truly a great deal to demand of our educators that they think so broadly. But nothing less will suffice. We must, in our schools, seek to prepare our girls to be the women modern India needs, able to develop a happy and successful home life , concerned with the problems of society and able to help achieve solutions to these problems, and able even to con­ tribute in many fields of work to our economic development. If we do not, we in education shall fail India in her time of great need.

Hanna Sen, "Home Science," Eduoation of Women in Modern India (Aundh: Aundh Publishing Trust, 19**6), pp. 30-32. APPENDIX

A NOTE ON THE CONTRIBUTIONS OF MOGHUL RULERS

TO THE PROMOTION OF LEARNING

The Moghul emperors were not only well road, well educated persona, but they also patronlaed the learned, the scholars and the artists of the time without discrimination of caste or creed. Each

Moghul flnperor has personally contributed much toward the spread of knowledge and education In India which Is clear from the following brief review of the educational interests and contribution of some great

Moghuls.

Babur, founder of the Moghul Empire, about whom Holden has rightly stated,

If we can make the needed allowances for the difference of time and circumstances (between Oriental and Western Life) Babur w ill appear not unworthy to be classed with the Great Caesar as a general, as an administrator, as a man of letter. . . . His character is more lovable than Caesar's and reminds us of Henry IV of France and Naverre,1 was well versed in Persian, Arabic and Turki and wrote his Memoirs with his own hand. Not much is known about his contributions for promotion of learning in India. Perhaps his death shortly after the conquest of the country did not allow him enough opportunity.

^Edward S. Holden, The Mogul Emperors of Hindustan (Westminster: Archibald Constable & Co., 1895)»pp. 95*96.

199 200

Humayun. Babur*a son and successor, vas an accomplished scholar.

In the sciences of astrology and maths he was unrivalled. He made good verses and all the learned and the great and good of the time were admitted to his society and passed the night in his company. The light of favor shone on men of ability and worth during his reign.2

Humayun g o t a c o lle g e c o n stru c te d a t D elhi over h is own tomb^ and it is not surprising that he might have had a very good library. His death was caused by a fall from the balcony of his library.

Humayun1s son Akbar, the contemporary of Queen Elisabeth of

England, organized Indian education on a systematic basis. He had a great library and founded a number of colleges in several places particu- larly in Fatehpur Sikri and Agra.^ Being a lover of arts, Akbar encour­ aged the fine arts, more especially music, painting and calligraphy.^

Akbar took a deep interest in the discussions of Qoran and Hadlth.

Because of his nature of accommodation and tolerance he Invited repre­ sentatives of different faiths for discussions on religion, philosophy, science, education and so forth in his famous hall—Ibadat Khana ^Tall of PrayerT—at Fatehpur Sikri, Akbar was the patron of both Mohammedan and Hindu learning and had a large number of Sanskrit and other books translated into Persian.

2Ibld.. pp. 123-124. 3 T. N, Siqueira, The Eduoation of India. Hi story and Problems (Bombay! Oxford University Press, 195277 P»

A. H* Nadvip Hlndusthan Ki Kadlm Isiami Darsgahen (Azamgarhj M atba-e-M aarif, 1936), p . 31*

^F. E. Keay, Indian Education in Ancient and Later Times (Calcutta: Oxford University Press, 195^)* P» 119. 201

During Akbar*s reign Hindus and Muslims studied in the same schools and colleges and vent through the same curriculum. While Muslim students learned Qoran, for Hindus on Akbar*s orders

their national books were prescribed and they read the fol­ lowing books . . . via,, Vyakarama, Vedanta and Patanjali, every one being educated according to his particular views of life and his own circumstances.6

With regard to the curriculum of Madrassahs (colleges) the

Emperor gave preference to those of practical utility. The following passage from Ain-i-Akbarl is an interesting account of Akbar*s sug­ gestions about the curriculum.

Every boy ought to read books on morals, arithmetic, agri­ culture. mensuration, geometry, astronomy, physiognomy, household matters, the rules of government, medicine, logic, the Tabii, Riyazi and Ilahi sciences and history; all of which may be gradually acquired. In studying Sanskrit, students ought to learn the Bayakamir, Niyai, Bedanta and Patanjal. No one should be allowed to neglect those things which the present time requires. These regulations shed a new light on schools and cast a bright luster over Madrasahs.?

Akbar*s son Jahangir loved books and paintings and patronized artists. He wrote his own memoirs which give a thorough and interest­ ing account of personal, political, social problems and events of his tim e ,

Jahangir not only built several colleges but repaired those which had long been forsaken and took measures to provide them with teachers and pupils. He went so far as to require by law that the

Muhammad Shamsul Huq, Compulsory Education in Pakistan (Paris: UNESCX), 1956), p . 18.

^Keay, ojg. cit., pp. 122-123, 202 property of his subjects who died without heirs should be used for the repair of colleges! monasteries and religious buildings.®

Shah Jahan. Jahangir's son, the renowned builder of Taj Mahal and several beautiful palaces and mosques, was a patron of music, painting and fine arts. Shah Jahan founded the Imperial C ollege^ in

I 65O in Delhi near the Jamia Masjed. He repaired and reestablished a few other colleges.

Shah Jahan1s sons Dara Shukoh and Aurangzeb were both great scholars, the former with a keen interest in Hindu and the latter toward

Islamic philosophies.

Aurangzeb (1658-1707), the last Great Moghul Emperor, was an eminent scholar in Arabic, Persian, Turkl and was very well acquainted with the Commentaries on Qoran and Islamic Tradition and Law. He had learned the whole Qoran by heart and made two copies of it with his own hand which he sent to Mecca and Medina, the two holy cities.

Being very religious minded, he did not favor esthetic arts like music, painting, sculpture as his forefathers did. On the other hand

Aurangzeb took elaborate and practical measures to promote education and encourage learning. According to Keay large endowments, pensions and allowances were given to learned men, professors and institutions in all the cities and towns.Several scholars received stipends. The largest number of schools and colleges were founded by Aurangzeb.

^Ibld.. p. 126. 9 This college was destroyed after 1857* Siqueira, op. cit., p. 1^.

10Keay, oj>. cit.. p. 1 2 9 , 203

Slalkot became a very prominent educational center* Several volumes and works on theology were added to the Imperial library by the Eknperor.

Emperor Aurangzeb held very practical and enlightened views about

education. He made excellent arrangements for the education of Boharas

of Gujrat,^-1

It is interesting to note that nearly 150 years later, when an

inquiry into the indigenous education in the Province of Bombay was made

by Governor Mount Stuart Elphinstone (in 1823-25), the reports revealed

th a t

one remarkable Muslim institution for higher learning existed at Surat. It was a college for Boharas and was maintained from private funds at an annual cost of Rs 32,000. Arabic was the language taught and the number of Bohara scholars "among whom are several growiwup persons numbered 125." The scholars came from all parts of India. It was no doubt an object of pride not only for the Boharas but for all the people of Western India.^

If this was the same instltutiorw-Bohara College—which was founded by

Aurangzeb and was run under his personal orders, guidance and discipline,

it is no exaggeration to say that this institution bravely faced all the

hardships of general decay and degeneration of education during the

eighteenth century.

Compared to the educational policy of Akbar, Aurangzeb mostly

favored Mohammedan learning. It is reported that during his reign he

ordered the destruction of some Hindu temples and schools. The

^ N a d v i, £2. cit.. p. 78.

^Nurullah and Naik, History of Education in India.pp. 1^-15. 204

historian Lana Pools deacrlbas tha unfortunate events which resulted in

this sad Incident:

So far there had been no persecution, no religious disabili­ ties (on the part of the Emperor), • • • It seems to have been in 1669 that the storm began to gather* In April of that year, Aurangzeb was informed that the Brahmans of Benares and other Hindu centers were in the habit of teaching their wicked sciences not only to their own people but to Muslims, This was more than the orthodox emperor could tolerate,13

The result was that he "ordered to put an entire stop to the teaching and

practicing of idolatrous forms of worship,

The extent of this suppression of the Hindu learning can be judged

from the following:

It is not for a moment to be supposed that these orders were literally carried out, • • • All that was done was to make a few signal examples and thus to warn the Brahmans from attempting to make proselytes among the true bellever6,^5

The successors of Aurangzeb were too hard pressed by unfavorable poli­

tical situations to devote enough attention to learning, yet they

founded colleges and patronized the learned and the artists as the

opportunity arose. The last of the Mughal rulers, Bahadur Shah Zafar,

who was a philosopher and poet, was a great patron of scholars and

artists and his court at the time of his doom was full of selected

scholars and artists from all over the country,^

13 S. Lane-Poole, Rulers of India: Aurangzlb (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1924), pp. 135-13^1

l 4I b ld .

15I b id .

^P erdval Spear, Twilight of the Mughal■ (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1951)t PP* ob-68. 205

Almost a ll the Mughal Emperors, from Babur (1526) to Bahadur Shah

Zafar (1857) were highly cultured, well read and well educated person­ alities* This aspect of their personality proved to be a great incentive in devoting time and attention for literary pursuits and educational activities* A study of the lives of the Great Mughals clearly indicates that every one of them considered it one of his important duties to support scholars and to establish schools and colleges for the promotion of learning in the country. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Book 8

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Young India. 1919-1922. E£y Mahatma Gandhi. AUTOBIOGRAPHY

I, Syeda Afsalunnisa Rahman, daughter of Mr. Syed Abdul Raheem and Mehrunnlaa Begum waa born in Mysore City, Mysore, India, on July 31*

1924. Having received my elementary and secondary education in schools

under the Department of Public Instruction, Mysore, I graduated from the high school in 19^1# After studying Urdu (major) and Persian, Arabic,

Hindi and History of Muslim Rule in India (minors) in the Maharaja's

College Mysore, in addition to the usual courses of study for the degree Bachelor of Arts, I received my B. A. degree from the University

of Mysore in 19^*6. I was awarded the H. H. The Yuraja's Gold Medal for

having passed the examination in First Class with First Rank.

My post-graduate work was under the able guidance of Professor

Abdul Qadir Sarvari. The topic for my Master's thesis was "The Life

and Literary Works of Pandit Ratan Nath Sarshar," a Hindu gentleman who

was a great Urdu novelist and poet. I received my Master's degree in

First Class with Distinction in 19^7*

From September, to March, 19**9 I was appointed a lecturer in

Arabic and Persian in the Maharani's College for Women, Mysore. Since

September, 19^9 1 have been on the staff of the University of Mysore as

a lecturer in Urdu and Persian at the Maharani's College for Women,

Bangalore, a first-grade college for women. In this capacity I have

worked as a member of the College Council, Acting Head of the Department

of Urdu and Persian, President, College Students Urdu-Persian Literary

215 216

Society, and Advisory member, Islami Madrasae Hiswan, High School

Bangalore for thrss years,

Tha Institute of International Education awarded me a Fulbright

Travel Grant in 1959 for higher studies in the United States, From

September, 1959 to 19&3 * was engaged in advanced studies and research work in the College of Eduoation, Ohio State University, under the

scholarly guidance of Professor Robert B, Sutton, For the academic

years 1960-62 I was an International Peace Scholar and was designated a

Soroptimist Fellow during 1961-62.

In 19*+5 I was married to Syed Abdul Rahman Wi o was also a

Fill bright Scholar and received his degree Doctor of Philosophy in

Animal Scienoe in August, 1962 from Ohio State University. We have two

children, Hr. Syed Mansoor Ahmed and Miss Syeda Noor Afza.