THE MAGAZINE FOR SCIENCE AND REASON

May/June 1995 U.S. $4.95 Can. $5.95

THE BELIEF ENGINE JAMES E. ALCOCK IS SKEPTICISM TENABLE? JOHN BELOFF plus SUSAN BLACKMORE, RAY HYMAN, PAUL KURTZ, JAMES ALCOCK, MARTIN GARDNER CROP CIRCLE MANIA WANES JOE NICKELL DOUG HENNING AND TM MARTIN GARDNER A YOUNG GRAND CANYON? TIMOTHY H. HEATON

POSTMODERN UNREASON MIXED-UP MEDIUMSHIP ANCIENT ALUMINUM? George Englebretsen Gordon Stein Gerhard Eggert

PUBLISHED BY THE COMMITTEE FOR THE SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATION OF CLAIMS OF THE PARANORMAL THE COMMITTEE FOR THE SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATION OF CLAIMS OF THE PARANORMAL

AN INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATION

Paul Kurtz, Chairman; professor emeritus of philosophy, State University of New York at Buffalo Barry Karr, Executive Director and Public Relations Director Lee Nisbet, Special Projects Director FELLOWS

James E. Alcock," psychologist, York Univ.. Martin Gardner," author, critic Joe Nickell,* author, technical writing instructor. Univ. of Kentucky Toronto Murray Gell-Mann, professor of physics, Santa Jerry Andrus, magician and inventor, Albany, Fc Institute Lee Nisbet,* philosopher, Medaille College Oregon Thomas Gilovich, psychologist, Cornell Univ. James E. Oberg, science writer Robert A. Baker, psychologist, Univ. of Loren Pankratz, psychologist. Oregon Health Henry Gordon, magician, columnist, Toronto Kentucky Sciences Univ Stephen Jay Gould, Museum of Comparative Stephen Barrett, Mil, psychiatrist, author, con­ John Paulos, mathematician, Temple Univ. Zoology, Harvard Univ. sumer advocate. Allentown, Pa. Mark Plummer, lawyer, Australia C. E. M. Hansel, psychologist. Univ. of Wales Barry Beyerstein,* biopsychologist, Simon Fraser W. V. Quine, philosopher. Harvard Univ. Univ.. Vancouver, B.C., Canada Al Hibbs, scientist, Jet Propulsion Laboratory Douglas Hofstadter, professor of human under­ Milton Rosenberg, psychologist, Univ. of Chicago Irving Biederman, psychologist, Univ. of standing and cognitive science, Indiana Univ. Carl Sagan, astronomer, Cornell Univ. Southern California Gerald Holton, Mallinckrodt Professor of Wallace Sampson, M.D., clinical professor of Susan Blackmore," psychologist, Univ. of :the Physics and Professor of History of Science, medicine, Stanford Univ. West of England, Bristol Harvard Univ. Henri Broch, physicist, Univ. of Nice, France Evry Schatzman, President, French Physics Ray Hyman," psychologist, Univ, of Oregon Association Jan Harold Brunvand, folklorist, professor of Leon |jrolT. sciences editor, Time English, Univ. of Utah Eugenie Scott, physical anthropologist, executive Sergei Kapitza, editor, Russian edition, Scientific director, National Center for Science Vern Bullough, Distinguished Professor, State American Education Univ. of New York Philip J. Klass," aerospace writer, engineer Glenn T. Seaborg, University Professor of Mario Bunge, philosopher, McGill University Marvin Kohl, professor of philosophy, SUNY at Chemistry, Univ. of California. Berkeley John R. Cole, anthropologist, Inst, for the Study Fredonia Thomas A. Sebeok. anthropologist, linguist, of Human Issues Edwin C. Krupp, astronomer, director, Griffith Indiana Univ. E H. C. Crick, biophysicist, Salk Inst, for • Observatory Robert Sheaffer, science writer Biological Studies. La Jolla. Calif. Paul Kurtz,* chairman, CSICOP Dick Smith, film producer, publisher, Terry Hills, N.S.W, Australia Richard Hawkins, zoologist, Oxford Univ. Lawrence Kusche, science writer Robert Steiner, magician, author. El Cerrito, Calif L Sprague dc Camp, author, engineer Elizabeth Loftus, professor of psychology, Univ. Cornelis dc Jager, professor of astrophysics, of Washington Jill Cornell Tarter, SETI Institute Univ. of Utrecht, the Netherlands Paul MacCready, scientist/engineer, Carol Tavris, psychologist and author, Los Bernard Dixon, science writer, London, U.K. AeroVironment, Inc.. Monrovia, Calif. Angeles, Calif. Paul Edwards, philosopher. Editor, Encyclopedia David Marks, psychologist, Middlesex Polytech, Stephen Toulmin, professor of philosophy, of Philosophy England University of Southern California Antony Flew, philosopher, Reading Univ., U.K. David Morrison, space scientist, NASA Ames Steven Weinberg, professor of physics and astronomy, University of Texas at Austin. Andrew Fraknoi, astronomer, Foothill College, Research Center Los Altos H.Ik Calif. Marvin Zelen, statistician, Harvard Univ Richard A. Muller, professor of physics, Univ. of Kendrick Frazicr,* science writer, Editor, Calif. Berkeley Lin Zixin, former editor, Science and Technology SKEPTICAL INQUIRER H. Narasimhaiah, physicist, president. Bangalore Daily (China) Science Forum, India Yves Galifret, Exec. Secretary. I'Union "Member, CSICOP Executive Council Rationalistc Dorothy Nelkin, sociologist New York Univ. (Affiliations given for identification only.)

The SKEPTICAL INQUIRER (ISSN 0194-6730) is published bimonthly publication does not necessarily constitute an endorsement by CSICOP by the Committee for the Scientific Investigation of Claims of the or its members unless so stated. Paranormal, 3965 Rensch Rd., Amherst, NY 14228-2713. Printed Copyright ©1995 by the Committee for the Scientific Investigation in U.S.A. Second-class postage paid at Amherst, New York, and of Claims of the Paranormal. All rights reserved. The SKEPTICAL additional mailing offices. INQUIRER is available on 16mm microfilm, 35mm microfilm, and Inquiries from the media and the public about the work of the 105mm microfiche from University Microfilms Internationa] and is Committee should be made to Paul Kurtz, Chairman. CSICOP Box 703, indexed in the Reader's Guide to Periodical Literature. Amherst, NY 14226-0703. Tel.: (716) 636-1425. FAX: 716-636-1733. Subscriptions, change of address, and advertising should be Manuscripts, letters, books for review, and editorial inquiries addressed to: SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Box 703, Amherst. NY 14226- should be addressed to Kendrick Frazier, Editor, SKEPTICAL INQUIRER. 0703. Old address as well as new are necessary for change of subscribers 944 Deer Drive NE, Albuquerque NM 87122-1306. FAX 505-828- address, with six weeks advance notice. SKEPTICAL INQUIRER subscribers 2080. For Guide for Authors, see this issue, page 63. may not speak on behalf of CSICOP or the SKEPTICAL INQUIRER. Articles, reports, reviews, and letters published in the SKEPTICAL Postmaster: Send changes of address to SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, INQUIRER represent the views and work of individual authors. Their Box 703, Amherst. NY 14226-0703. ARTICLES May/June 1995 ^^V

14 The Belief Engine V0I.19N0.3 JAMES ALCOCK Our brains and nervous systems constitute a belief-generating machine, a system that evolved to assure not truth, logic, and reason, but survival. The belief engine has seven major components.

19 The Skeptical Position: Is It Tenable? JOHN BELOFF If the "skeptical position" regarding parapsychology is to be tenable, says Beloff, it must apply not only to die latest experimental evidence—where repeatability on demand may forever elude investigators—but also to historical cases. Response by Susan Blackmore, Ray Hyman, Paul Kurtz, James Alcock, Martin Gardner.

30 Mediumship: Is It Mixed or Just Mixed Up? GORDON STEIN How should one approach the rationalization that catching a psychic or medium cheating is no reason to believe they always cheat? Here's a suggestion. 33 A Young Grand Canyon? TIMOTHY H. HEATON A university geologist critiques a creationist geologist's arguments that the Grand Canyon in particular and the Earth in general are not as they seem to science. 37 Ancient Aluminum? Looking for the Real Heart of a Legend GERHARD EGGERT The incredible story is still being repeated and amplified even after almost 2,000 years. Is there any real basis for it? What accounts for its longevity? 41 Crop Circle Mania Wanes JOE NICKELL In the field among the (remaining) cerealogists, an afternoon adventure. BOOK REVIEWS Psychic Sleuths edited by Joe Nickell ROBERT BAKER 44 Lysenko and the Tragedy of Soviet Science by Valery N. Soyfer GRAYDON JOHN FORRER 45 Drums Along the Congo by Rory Nugent JOHN H. ACORN 46 NEW BOOKS 48 ARTICLES OF NOTE 49 EDITOR'S NOTE KENDR1CK FRAZIER 2 NEWS AND COMMENT 3 Academy Proposes Science Education Overhaul / The Geller Case Ends / New Eye on Nature / 'X-Files' Error Leaves Viewers Wondering / A Letter to Ann Landers CSICOP NEWS Boulder Critical Thinking Workshop J. p. MCLAUGHLIN 6 NOTES OF A FRINGE-WATCHER Doug Henning and the Giggling Guru MARTIN GARDNER 9 MEDIA WATCH Tales from the TV Talk Shows C EUGENE EMERY. JR. 12 FOLLOW-UP Empirical Evidence for Reincarnation? The Giggling Guru A Reply to Leonard Angel IAN STEVENSON 50 FORUM Postmodernism and New Age Unreason ON THE COVER: GEORGE ENGLEBRETSEN 52 Illustration by Patrick Hubenthal LETTERS TO THE EDITOR 55 Editor's Note iorto« Kendrick Frazicr Why do we believe? •DITOtlAl HO»«D James E. Alcock Barry Beyerstein €€ how can anyone Relieve in (fill in the blank)?" Most of us have Susan J. Blackmore Martin Gardner J. A. undoubtedly uttered a sentence like that more than once. But we Ray Hyman Philip J. Klass must be careful. We all have our beliefs. It's a natural human tendency to Paul Kurtz think our beliefs make sense, even if the other person's don't. How does this Joe Nickell Lee Nisbet happen? Why are belief in all manner of things so strong, so prevalent, so Bc"la Scheiber enduring? CONSULTING IDITCHtS Robert A. Baker Psychologist James £. Alcock examines that profound question in this issue. William Sims Bainbridge In "The Belief Engine, "he shows how the brain and the nervous system con­ John R. Cole Kenneth L. Feder stitute a belief-generating machine. In his useful metaphor, this machine has C.E.M. Hansel seven units—one of them is a learning unit and one is a critical-thinking E.C. Krupp David F. Marks unit. But there's also an emotional-response unit of at least equal importance Andrew Neher James E. Oberg to our survival. This machine generates beliefs to guide our lives and actions. Robert Sheaffer The beliefs may have little relevance to what is true and real and what is not. Steven N. Shore Whether they are correct or erroneous, the belief it produces have value to the MANAGING EDITOR Doris Hawley Doyle person holding them. Truth is not necessarily the most important of these con­ ASSISTANT EDITOR'S siderations. In fact, as Alcock points out, the emotional-response unit has sur­ Marsha Carlin Thomas C. Genoni, Jr. vival value to us that ensures it is passed on through natural selection. (The

CONTINUING EDITOR report on page 6 about a recent critical-thinking workshop makes some of the Lys Ann Shore same points.) production Paul Loynes This analysis helps us better understand ourselves and our fellow human CARTOONIST beings. It helps us understand the great range and diversity of beliefs. I think it Rob Pudim also should lend a measure of humility to all who might wish to think of themselves as systematically rational. We are all human, and we all generate PUBLISHER'SSREPRESENTATIVE arryKar beliefsr with the same basic kind of "belief engine. " BUSINESS MANAGER Mary Rose Hays ASSISTANTBUSINESS MANAGE R Sandra Lesniak

CHIO DATA Of HCW Richard Seymour One subject about which people have strong beliefs is the paranormal. In FULFILLMENT MANAGE! this issue we present a series of exchanges concerning the skeptical viewpoint Michael Cione STAFF about parapsychology. John Beloff, a respected parapsychologist, initiates the Elizabeth Begley discussion with a thoughtful article, "The Skeptical Position: Is It Tenable?" Kevin Iuzzini Diana Picciano We follow his article with responses by five notable critics of parapsychology Alfreda Pidgeon Etienne C. Rios —James Alcock, Susan Blackmore, Ray Hyman, Paul Kurtz, and Martin Ranjit Sandhu Gardner. We may have more on this matter in the future. We have invited Sharon Sikora Vance Vigrass Professor Beloff to respond to his critics, and we've asked several other prominent

COVOtATI COUNSIl investigators for their views as well Brenton N. VerPloeg

The SKEPTICAL INQUIRER is the official journal of the Committee Tor the Scientific Investigation of Claims of the Paranormal, an international organization.

SKEPTICAL INQUIRER • MAY/JUNE 1995 News and Comment

Academy Proposes Science stand the "big ideas" of science. used in conjunction with all elements Education Overhaul The draft also proposes broaden­ of the program and the draft warns ing the learning experience of the stu­ that "the standards cannot be used A new direction for science education dent to include what it calls "minds-on effectively if only a subset of these stan­ that places greater emphasis on "under­ experience." This entails a shift from dards is used standing" and less on "facts" has been teachers presenting information to stu­ Around 30,000 copies of the draft proposed by the National Research dents learning science through inquiry- are being circulated as part of an exten­ Council, the operating arm of the oriented investigations, interaction sive consultation process. Recipients National Academy of Sciences (NAS). with peers, and active involvement in are asked to complete a review and In a lengthy draft issued in early group discussions. comment form that rates the docu­ December of last year, the authors pre­ Richard Klausner, a senior cell ment and its individual sections on sent ambitious standards that the docu­ biologist at the National Institutes of clarity, consistency, and appropriate­ ment says arc intended to "guide the Health who chaired the committee ness. According to Angelo Collins, science education system toward its responsible for the draft, said that the director of the science education stan­ goal of a scientifically literate citizenry." proposals are not an attempt to create dards project staff, 1,400 individual Included are comprehensive programs federal standards and establish unifor­ reviews and 120 group reviews had for all students—from kindergarten mity but are meant to be "grass-root been returned as of March 3. through twelfth grade—that call for standards for the people who make the teaching of a broad range of key decisions [on education] at the local —Tom Genoni, Jr. principles and concepts rather than level." just facts and equations. The content standards in the doc­ The Geller Case Ends: Bruce Alberts, president of the ument propose eight categories of study academy, believes the traditional teach­ to be taught to all pupils of all ages. In 'Psychic' Begins Court- ing methods of science are simply inef­ life sciences for example, children in Ordered Payment of Up fective. "We tail to convey what science grades K through 4 should learn the to $120,000 to CSICOP is, and we kill off the curiosity of kids," "characteristics of organisms." Grades 5 said Alberts. through 8 are expected to learn about The four-year legal battle is finally To combat this, the document "reproduction and heredity" and "pop­ over. Self-proclaimed "psychic" Uri calls for greater participation of chil­ ulations and ecosystems." Grades 9 Geller has paid the Committee for the dren in the learning process with less through 12 should be taught about "the Scientific Investigation of Claims of cell" and "biological evolution." emphasis on memorization. Although the Paranormal (CSICOP) the first this will involve a trade-off in the num­ Other areas of study include sci­ $40,000 of up to $120,000 as pan of a ber of scientific "facts" a child can learn, ence as inquiry, science and technolo­ settlement agreement to a court- the authors believe that this teaching gy, and the history and nature of sci­ described "frivolous complaint" made approach will allow students to under­ ence. The standards are intended to be by Geller against CSICOP CSICOP announced the court settlement and totto ncerning Science Educatio first payments by Geller March 6. The settlement ends a lengthy bat- Science should become a core subject like reading, writing, and math in grades de in the Washington, D.C., courts through 12 At all levels the material taught should be interesting to both students and teachers!. that began with Geller filing a $15- Science teaching must become attractive as a profession that is possible to do million suit against CSICOP and without superhuman effort. magician James ("The Amazing") The scientific community must accept responsibility for achieving these three goals. Randi, alleging defamation, invasion of privacy, and tortious interference with —Bruce Alberts, President, National Academy of Sea American Association for the Advancement of Science prospective advantage. Geller filed suit nual meeting. Atlanta. Feb. 19, 1995 because Randi had stated in an April 9, 1991, interview with the International

SKEPTICAL INQUIRER • MAY/JUNE 1995 3 Herald Tribune that Geller had "tricked ed, in part, to investigating claims of Washington, D.C., ruled in favor of even reputable scientists" with tricks psychic phenomena, such as those CSICOP and ordered almost $ 150,000 that "are the kind that used to be on made by Geller, was not charged with in sanctions against Geller. the back of cereal boxes when I was a any specific conduct. CSICOP main­ In efforts to overturn the sanc­ kid. Apparently scientists don't eat tained throughout that the suit was a tions award, Geller then lost two cornflakes anymore." frivolous action brought by Geller to motions for reconsideration in the CSICOP, a not-for-profit scientific harass the organization. On July 27, District Court, followed by a 3-0 loss and educational organization dedicat­ 1993, the U.S. District Court in in the U.S. Court of Appeals on December 9, 1994 (SI, March-April 1995), and most recently another loss in the appeals court when his petition for rehearing was denied on January 25, 1995. The settlement agreement calls for Geller to pay CSICOP $70,000 in cash over three years plus the first $50,000 of any sums recovered by Geller in a new action he is bringing against his former attorneys. In addi­ tion, Geller must also drop another suit against book publisher Prometheus Books and other skeptics filed in London, England. In an earlier suit that Geller had brought against Prometheus Books, Victor Stenger, and Paul Kurtz, in Miami, Florida, Geller was compelled by the court to pay Prometheus Books an additional $20,000 in legal fees. "Although we settled for some­

Kirk Borne (Space Telescope Science Institute) and NASA. what less than the entire $150,000 New Eye on Nature awarded to us as sanctions for the friv­ olous suit," commented Barry Karr, A rare and spectacular head-on collision between two galaxies appears in this CSICOP executive director, "we are NASA Hubble Space Telescope image of the Cartwheel Galaxy, located 500 mil­ very pleased with this victory. Prior to lion light-years away in the constellation Sculptor. The new details of star birth filing suit, Geller, an Israeli citizen liv­ resolved by Hubble provide an opportunity to study how extremely massive stars are born in large fragmented gas clouds. ing in England, placed his assets in The striking ringlike feature is a direct result of a smaller intruder galaxy—pos­ trust, rendering uncertain our ability sibly one of two objects to the right of the ring—that careened through the core to collect. Instead of spending thou­ of the host galaxy. Like a rock tossed into a lake, the collision sent a ripple of ener­ sands more in legal fees to pierce the gy into space, plowing gas and dust in front of it. Expanding at 200,000 miles an trust in London, we decided it was best hour, this cosmic "tsunami" leaves in its wake a firestorm of new star creation. to end it now." Hubble resolves bright knots that are gigantic clusters of newborn stars and Paul Kurtz, CSICOP chairman, immense loops and bubbles blown into space by exploding stars (supernovae) going off like a string of firecrackers. said: "When the principles upon The Cartwheel Galaxy presumably was a normal spiral galaxy like our Milky which CSICOP was founded are at Way before the collision. This spiral structure is beginning to re-emerge, as seen stake, we are prepared to do battle all in the faint arms or "spokes" between the outer ring and bull's-eye shaped nucle­ the way if it should prove necessary. us. The ring contains at least several billion new stars that would not normally We believe deeply in a free press, free­ have been created in such a short time span and is so large (150,000 light-years dom of speech, and scientific inquiry, across) our entire Milky Way Galaxy would fit inside. and the importance of dissent." He Hubble's new view does not solve the mystery as to which of the two small galaxies at the right might have been the intruder. The lower galaxy of the two is characterized the Geller suit as the disrupted and has new star formation, which strongly suggests it is the interloper. "kind of suit being used as a means of However, the smoother-looking companion has no gas, which is consistent with silencing debate on significant scien­ the idea that gas was stripped out of it during passage through the Cartwheel tific issues." Galaxy. This image was taken October 16, 1994, and issued January 10, 1995. —Barry Karr

SKEPTICAL INQUIRER • MAY/JUNE 1995 overpower the Coriolis force, which is If nothing else, the Coriolis refer­ Update caused by the rotation of the earth. ence generated some viewer interest. In the March-April issue we reprinted (The water drains the way a torna­ On the Internet forum alt.rv.x-files.- excerpts of the recent District of Columbia do—and a hurricane—spins, which is creative, a fan in Vancouver, B.C., Court of Appeals decision in Uri Geller vs. counterclockwise north of the Equator asked if Mulder's reference was scientif­ James Randi and CSICOP. and clockwise to the south.) ically accurate. On March 2, 1995. a court order was This wouldn't be the first time the "The reason I ask is that, as expect­ issued notifying alt those involved of changes show's writers have gotten their scien­ ed, out of pure curiosity, I immediate­ in the text: tific facts wrong, especially involving ly checked the two sinks in my apart­ "It is ordered, by tie Court, that the cases of paranormal phenomena. ment, and much to my surprise both opinion filed on December 9.. 1994 is But in this case, were the people drained counterclockwise," the viewer amended, as follows: behind the show intentionally giving wrote. " On page 5, Last line of firstparagraph paragraph, the wrong information in a mischie­ It shows why Fox Mulder deserves Delete the word 'exposing' and substi­ vous attempt to spook plumbing-con­ his nickname of "Spooky." tute therefor 'attempting to expose.' scious viewers into believing that their neighborhoods arc also permeated by —C. Eugene Emery, Jr. 'X-Files' Coriolis Error supernatural forces? Leaves Viewers Wondering Attempts to contact the writers Gene Emery is the science writer for the through the show's publicist were Providence Journal, 75 Fountain St., Was it an honest mistake, or was it a unsuccessful. Providence. RI 02902. deliberate attempt to spook viewers? The January 27 episode of the ever- A Letter from the Editor to Ann Landers ominous series "The X-Files" (see Media Watch review, SI, March-April Ann Landers February 10, 199S P.O. Box 11562 1995) had FBI agents Fox Mulder and Chicago. II 60611-0562 Dana Scully probing a ritual murder in a small New Hampshire town where Dear Ms. Landers: the residents had the eerie feeling that Last month you again published a letter about "eerie similarities" in the lives of assas­ a malevolent presence lurked. sinated Presidents Lincoln and Kennedy. At one point, a thirsty Mulder turns To my chagrin I realized—and one of our mutual readers. R. Thomas Myers of Kent. Ohio, reminded me—we apparently had never sent you the "Spooky Presidential on a water fountain in the local school Coincidences Contest" we ran in our magazine several years ago. I meant to do so and stares at the draining water in because we thought it was both educational and entertaining amazement. Our contest was conceived specifically in response to your reprinting "for the zillionth time," according to our contest originator John Leavy of the University of Texas, th "The water," he says. Lincoln-Kennedy coincidences.

"What's wrong with it?" Scully asks. The SKEPTICAL INQUIRER—now subtitled r«p»cg»iii itiiaM " "It's going down the drain counter­ The Magazine for Science and Reason— promotes science and scientific inquiry, Eerie similarities between £=SS*5££ clockwise," Mulder responds. "The critical thinking, and the use of reason in ! Coriolis force in the Northern examining important issues. We publish Lincoln and Kennedy 7sr5?£U2 Hemisphere dictates that it should go scientific evaluations of a wide variety of "SRVlsKS

SKEPTICAL INQUIRER • MAY/JUNE 1995 5 CSICOP News

On Leaping and Looking d Critical Thinking Boulder Critical Thinking Workshop

J. p. MCLAUGHLIN

here couldn't have been a more University, who is an expert on Munc­ ed to showing us the mental traps many appropriate locale for a meet­ hausen syndrome; and Jerry Andrus, an fall into when trying to solve them. Ting of skeptics last August in illusionist from Oregon who specializes (The simplest and most egregious Boulder, Colorado—a theater of sci­ in "up-close magic" and sage observa­ example: How many animals of each ence where the only stars are the stars. tions on the human condition. Hyman kind did Moses take on the ark? Look About 80 of us gathered in Fiske and Beyerstein serve on CSICOP's twice before you leap.) Planetarium on the University of Executive Council. Our four leaders all touched on the Colorado campus for the CSICOP Those attending the workshop evolutionary aspects of thinking, how Workshop on Critical Thinking, a ranged from a Fermi Lab physicist to a brain evolution, in its pragmatic way, four-day conference that took apart the homemaker, a preschool teacher to causes us to leap before we look. For phenomenon of human thinking from several college professors, a substitute survival, it is indeed better to be safe the standpoints of evolution, psychol­ teacher to a salesman ("We need pro­ than sorry. ogy, and pathology. motion. Where are the TV cameras?), "Evolution leads us to jump to con­ An even simpler theme of the work­ computer specialists to psychologists, clusions—it is functional to survival shop may have been "Look Before You a former fundamentalist preacher but not necessarily the best way," Leap," a warning that echoed and re­ racked by doubts, an antireligion pros- Beyerstein said. "Evolution provided echoed across the black-domed planetar­ elytizer, and a journalist. that 'seeing is believing,' which is usu­ ium many times during the four days. An 18-page syllabus was given to ally good enough to save our skins. If Along the way, our hosts presented workshop participants. Its first few pages we see a tiger appearing to get bigger, a laundry list of perceptual weaknesses brought us up to date on die latest, best we assume it's moving toward us and to which the brain is heir—sessions evidence about thinking: "Thinking, as run like hell," he added. with titles that included: "Illusions and classically conceived, will not by itself Hyman noted that "the brain Distortions of Thinking," "Anomalous result in better conclusions, solutions, evolved before the agricultural revolu­ Thinking and the Brain," "Rationality arguments or ideas. Thinking, to be suc­ tion—the problems in the syllabus and Human Error," and "Coming to cessful, requires good and reliable infor­ aren't the problems of small bands of the Wrong Conclusion for the Right mation"—i.e., garbage in, garbage out, hunter-gatherers." Reasons." no matter how sophisticated and power­ Beyerstein also laid our lack of ful the computer. Workshop leaders in our journey objectivity in thinking at evolution's through die brain were Ray Hyman, a Most of the syllabus was devoted to doorstep: "We always come up short of cognitive psychologist from the more than 40 mind-bending problems, evaluating our lives objectively because University of Oregon; Barry Beyerstein, all illustrating how thinking can go hope is an evolutionary advantage." a physiological psychologist from wrong, how the brain can be fooled. In other words, survival depends on Simon Fraser University in Vancouver, Conferees were asked on die first day to believing that you're right, which most B.C.; Loren Pankratz, a psychologist work the problems that evening. Then, a humans seem to do regardless of evi­ from Oregon Health Sciences day or more of the workshop was devot- dence—a fact addressed by workshop

SKEPTICAL INQUIRER • MAY/JUNE 1995 leaders as they compared "true believ­ Hyman said that after he walks his Hyman challenges his students withproblem s they must examine with a ers" with skeptics. students through his series of ques­ Socratic tool he has developed. Hyman "Believers arc not interested in tions, they discover how thin the evi­ said he asks his students a series of truth; they are comforted by their dence is supporting the claim for dows­ questions, forcing them not only to beliefs," Hyman said. ing success and what kind of controlled analyze the problem but to organize Beyerstein said, "Skeptics don't feel tests would be required to prove that it their analysis: threatened by the lack of answers to is a real skill. metaphysical questions, but believers • What's the question or issue? Working through problems like fear being pawns of the universe." • What is the claim? (If what, then this in a fixed framework demonstrates Beyerstein also pointed out that in what?) that students can think if pushed, he perceptual breakdowns, "believing is • What arguments and evidence are said. If they are forced to go through seeing"—people sometimes see what offered in support of die claim? the steps, they come to the right con­ they want. "The brain makes up a story • How good is the support? clusion, discovering the unreliability about what you see," he said. • What would constitute adequate of testimony and learning the necessi­ Andrus said those who question support? ty for double blinds and controls to their faith may find reasons to abandon • What alternative reasons might validate tests. it. "That's why faith is largely unexam­ During the conference, workshop ined," he said. Principles of Skepticism leaders were careful to distinguish So, where docs thinking come in? between skepticism and cynicism. Hyman made it clear at the outset that • Extraordinary claims demand Andrus noted that the word skeptic extraordinary proof. he believes critical thinking can be has a bad connotation: "It's often taught. Based on his classes in thinking • The burden of proof lies with equated with 'cynic,' but I call skepti­ and cognition, he has come to two the claimant; it is not the skep­ cism the 'cult of common sense.'" tic's job to prove a claimant conclusions about students and people right or wrong. The workshop's definitions of the in general: terms: skeptic: one who demands rea­ • Claims, in principle, must be • "They can think, but they don't sonable evidence and logical justifica­ testable (which eliminates tion before granting provisional assent want to. It's hard work." metaphysical claims). • "The process is the least important to claims of truth (most important, a • The evidence must be public part. Having good data is most impor­ skeptic will modify beliefs based on and accessible to all competent new evidence); cynic: one who consis­ tant, but finding good data is tough. critics. You need tools to get it." tently attributes base motives to others' Hyman said that in the 1960s "I Testing must include: actions. read all the books on improving think­ The bottom line of the conference ing, wrote down all the ideas I could • Adequate control groups. leaders, laid out in their principles of find, and discovered 695 principles. I • "Blind"rating procedures. skepticism and minimum rules of boiled them down to a small group of • Public methods and data. observation and testing (see box principles, looked for psychological "Principles of Skepticism"), is the sci­ studies backing them, then boiled • Replicability of results buy ananyy entific method of gathering and assess­ competent, well-equipped crit­ them further down to only three." ped crit- ing information. ic (one study, even if welell They are: done, is not enough). As Beyerstein noted, "We need con­ • Look before you leap (know the trolled, quantitative observation to facts before you reach a conclusion). there be for believing such claims, i.e., protect us from the fallibility of the • Break out of the rut into which why do people believe them? human cognitive process." thinking falls. One problem Hyman gives his stu­ The first principle of skepticism was • Always check your answers. dents (and included in the syllabus) is set down in the eighteenth century by To sharpen their thinking skills, an anecdote from a book touting the the English philosopher David Hume "amazing skill" of dowsing. It tells of a and popularized in recent yean by Carl / P. McLaughlin is a veteran newspaper famous dowser who, while on naval Sagan and others: Extraordinary claims and magazine writer and editor who now reserve duty as a young man, was require extraordinary evidence. teaches journalism at Metropolitan State forced by his disbelieving fellow offi­ In that spirit of rationality, we have College of Denver. He wonders why more cers to demonstrate his abilities. Tired the means to overcome our weaknesses journalists don't attend CSICOP work­ of his proselytizing about his dowsing in perception and thinking. If we begin shops, since critical thinking is as vital in skills, they decided to hide his pay­ demanding solid evidence for claims of their field as in science. He intends to check and make him find it with his truth, we can put behind us the often incorporate classes on critical thinking dowsing rod—which, of course, he deadly game of leaping without look­ into his college's journalism curriculum. did, according to the story. ing. D

SKEPTICAL INQUIRER • MAY/JUNE 1995 7 Center for Inquiry Never before in the history of organized skepticism has Grand Opening. been a capital runfunod drive on this scale. The Pi "Defending Reason in an Irrational World" of Reason Campaign has ected the largest single June 9-10, 1995 • Amherst, New York 5 private ources for the defense of Thanks to the extraordinary generosity of our readers and supporters, the MARTIN GARDNER eason through skeptical Price of Reason Campaign is precisely on target. The Center for Inquiry, Phase CSICOP Campaign Co-Chair •y. As a result, C5ICOP II—new joint headquarters of the SKEPTICAL INQUIRER and Free Inquiry—will /ill share in the benefits of a be completed in Spring 1995. By one measure we have already exceeded our permanent headquarters, goal. Thanks to bequest, CONSTRUCTION CASH GAP REMAINS TO BE CLOSED including top-flight library trust, and endowment giv­ and conference facilities that ing, the aggregate campaign will transmit a progressive • total stands at almost mage of our movement for $4,200,000—well above our ears to come. We can all original $3.9 million target. In the pride of this It is still imperative that achievement To all our read- we close an estimated rs and friends, we offer our $150,000 gap in cash giving. most profound thai By raising these funds dur­ ing Spring 1995, CSICOP will avoid the necessity of tapping a costly line of support the PRICE OF Reason.. PAUL KURTZ ON CAMPAIGN or for more credit in order to finance the final stages of construction. Your support can Chair make a crucial difference at this time. If you have not yet participated in Center for Inquiry informationn contact: Ski the Price of Reason Campaign, please make your decision of support Inquirer, PO Box 703. Amherst, Or call toll-free today. If you have already given, please consider expanding your gift. -800-634-1610.

JOIN US FOR A ONCE-IN-A-LIFETIME CELEBRATION The Center for Inquiry, Phase II will be dedicated at a gala weekend event. nhed by the Coir' Join us from Friday, June 9, through Saturday, June 10, 1995, at the Center investigation for Inquiry in Amherst, New York. Famed entertainer and campaign co- snormat (CSICOP). Inc. a S01 (0(31 • rduratloru •-' chairman Steve Allen will dedicate the building and offer a special, intimate performance for attendees. Also on hand will be CSICOP Executive Council members Kendrick Frazier, editor of the Skeptical Inquirer, James Alcock, THE PRICE OF Ray Hyman, Philip Klass, Joe Nickell, and Lee Nisbet; members of the FREE STEVE ALLEN INQUIRY editorial board; and other notable speakers to be announced. Call REASON CODESH 1-800-634-1610 to receive program information. Campaign Co-Chair

FRIDAY, JUNE 9, 1995 SATURDAY, JUNE 10

10:00 AM-NOON: Opening Ceremonies at the Center for Inquiry 9:30 AM-NOON: "Reason and Dissent in a Free Society: Featuring: Paul Kurtz, Chairman of the Committee for the Scientific Investigation The Vital Role of Secular Humanism" of Claims of the Paranormal (CSICOP) and Chairman of the Council for Speakers: FREE INQUIRY editors Robert Alley, Joe Barnhart. Tom Flynn. Gerald Democratic and Secular Humanism (CODESH); Steve Allen, entertainer and Larue, Tim Madigan, Molleen Matsumura, Edythe McGovern, Gordon Stein author, Kendrick Frazier, Editor, die SKEPTICAL INQUIRER and Vern Bullough. Senior Editor. FREE INQUIRY. (Other speakers are being added.) NOON-2:00 PM: Luncheon at Prometheus Books Headquarters Speakers: Prometheus editors Mark Hall, Jonathan Kurtz, Steven Mitchell, NOON-1:30 PM: Luncheon at the Center for Inquiry Lynette Nisbet, Eugene O'Connor 1:30 PM-2:00 PM: Keynote Address (speaker to be announced) 2:00 PM-4:00 PM: Future Goals and Directions: 2:00 PM-4:30 PM: "Skepticism: An Agenda for the Future" A Participatory Workshop Speakers: CSICOP Executive Council members James Alcock. Ray Hyman. 4:30 PM-1 1:00 PM: A Visit to the Shaw Festival in Niagara-on- Barry Kan, Philip Klass, Joe Nickell, and Lee Nisbet the-Loke, Ontario, Canada {optional) 4:30 PM-6:30 PM: Dinner on your own Registration: $125 per person (includes lunches on Friday and Saturday, and the Steve Allen performance Friday night) 6:30 PM-8:00 PM: Reception at the State University of New York at Buffalo's Center for the Arts (directly across from the Shaw Festival visit: S8S (includes bus ride, dinner at the Pillar aid Post Center for Inquiry) Restaurant, and the ploy "You Never Con Tell" by George Bernard Show.) The following hotels ore available. 8:00 PM-9:30 PM: Performance by STEVE ALLEN Hampton Inn (single rate S66/double rote S70) 716-689-4414 at the Center for the Arts Red Roof Inn (single rote S46.99/double rate S49.99) 716-689-7474 Steve Allen, one of America's most beloved enter­ Motel 6 (single/double rote S34.99) 716-834-2231 Super 8 Motel (single/double rate $50.88) 716-688-0811 tainers, will perform an evening of song and comedy. Mention "The Center for Inquiry" to receive these special rotes Rooms should The creator of NBC's "Tonight Show," he is the be reserved no later than May 24. author of 45 books and a pre-eminent intellectual in Use Visa or MC to register for Grand Opening the American media. and call toll free 1-800-634-1610 Notes of a Fringe-Watcher

pug Henning and the Giggling Guru

/ MARTIN GARDNER

ecause magic is my main hobby include the ability to become invisible, disappear at a high state of conscious­ I feel a keener regret than most to see hidden things, to walk through ness because your body just stops Bpeople over the way in which walls, and to fly through the air like reflecting light." the Hindu cult of Transcendental Peter Pan and Wendy. Doug's conjuring Amazingly, TMers are greatly Meditation (TM) has taken over the was fake magic. TM teaches real magic. entranced by lotus hopping. Last life of one of the best of modern magi­ Vedic flying has been the most pub­ October a demonstration was held at cians. In the 1970s, Doug James licized of the sidhis. Photographs dis­ the University of Toronto. Three Vedic Henning's Magic Show ran on tributed by TM officials show devotees "flyers" giggled while they bounced on Broadway for more than four years. in a lotus position and seemingly float­ their bums for five minutes, looking Henning followed with marvelous ing in midair. The photos are mislead­ (said one observer) like legless frogs. I NBC-television spectaculars. Las Vegas ing. No TMer has yet demonstrated was told by Charles Reynolds, who for and Lake Tahoe bookings, and numer­ levitation to an outsider. The best they many years designed Doug's stage illu­ ous talk-show appearances. can show is the ability to flex one's legs sions, that during one of Henning's TV Then something happened to Doug while in a lotus position on a springy rehearsals he periodically halted all on his way to a magic shop. He discov­ mattress and hop upward a short dis­ activity so those present could meditate ered TM and became a pal of its founder. tance. The phony photos were snapped and send him powerful vibes while he His Holiness Maharishi Mahesh Yogi. when the supposed floater was at the tried vainly to float. He actually believed "The moment I saw him," Doug has top of a bounce. One cynic said he he might be able to demonstrate levita­ often said, "I knew that he knew the never believed the woman in a picture tion on his forthcoming show! truth of life." In a few years Henning was actually levitating, that instead she Several disenchanted TMers have became TM's most famous convert since was being held up by an invisible TMer! sued the organization for failing to Mia Farrow and the Beatles. The flying sidhi has four stages. teach them powers that were promised. First, some words about TM. Based First, a twitching of limbs. Second, the In 1987, for instance, Robert on ancient Veda teachings that hop. Third, hovering. Fourth, actual Kropinski, a former TM instructor, Maharishi learned from a Himalayan flying. Only the first and second stages asked for $9 million because he was holy man, it stresses a form of medita­ have been shown to skeptics, although never able to fly. He also charged that tion linked to the recitation of a devout TMers firmly believe that there TM had caused him "headaches, anxi­ Sanskrit word called a mantra. The are Vedic flyers in India and that ety, impulses toward violence, halluci­ technique is said to relieve stress, slow Maharishi can take off whenever he nations, confusion, loss of memory, aging, and promote what TMers call likes even though no one has ever seen screaming fits, lack of focus, paranoia, "pure bliss." Moreover, TM instructors or videotaped him in flight. and social withdrawal." A Philadelphia promise to teach you, after you fork "When you reach your full poten­ jury awarded him $138,000. over thousands of dollars for advanced tial," Henning told a reporter, "and Giggling seems endemic among courses, a variety of awesome supernor­ you think 'I want to levitate," you can TMers—something similar to the mal powers known as sidhis. They levitate." And in a lecture: "You can "holy laughter" currently popular in

SKEPTICAL INQUIRER • MAY/JUNE 1995 9 approach of the East with the objective approach of Western science and to usher in what the Maharishi calls the "full sunshine of the dawning of the age of Enlightenment." According to His Holiness, the universe is perme­ ated by a "field of consciousness" underlying the laws of quantum mechanics. The Maharishi, who once studied physics, is keen on the latest results in particle theory. Expensive double-spread ads in the New York Times, the Washington Post, the Toronto Globe and Mail, Time, Newsweek, and who knows where else, periodically promote the Maharishi's unified field theory. Physicist John S. Hagelin is the movement's top quan­ tum-mechanics maven. He has pre­ dicted that Maharishi's influence on history "will be far greater than that of Einstein or Gandhi." Hagelin and other scientists at TM universities have written hundreds of technical papers, most of them published by TM uni­ versity presses, although a few have sneaked into mainstream science and medical journals unaware of the authors' TM affiliation. In his paper "Is Consciousness the Unified Field?" Hagelin (who has a Harvard doctorate in physics) conjec­ The Maharishi Mahesh Yogi, founder of the Transcendental Meditation movement. tures that the sidhis operate by upset­ ting "the balance of statistical averag­ Pentecostal churches. The tiny, white- be surprised to know that he is a TM ing" in quantum-mechanical laws: bearded, Deflowered Maharishi giggled booster with close ties to MAPI, presi­ constantly during two appearances on dent of a Maharishi Vedic University in Indeed, the phenomenon of levita- the Merv Griffin show. Physicists tend Cambridge, Massachusetts, and owner tion, with its implied control over the local curvature of space-time to break into unholy laughter when of an Ayur-Vedic clinic in Boston. In geometry, would appear to require they hear about Vedic flying. 1989 His Holiness awarded Chopra the ability to function coherently at Since he started TM, the giggling the title of "Lord of Immortality of the scale of quantum gravity, which guru has raked in an estimated S3 bil­ Heaven and Earth." is the assumed scale of super-unifi­ cation and the proposed domain of lion from his millions of gullible follow­ Maharishi Research universities are pure consciousness. In this way ers. He now controls a vast empire that all over die globe. There is one in Lake some of the sidhis, if demonstrated includes a conglomeration of Heaven Lucerne, Switzerland, others in Fairfield, under laboratory conditions, would on Earth Hotels around the world, a Iowa (the movement's U.S. headquar­ provide striking evidence for the proposed identity between pure consulting corporation, numerous trad­ ters), in Buckinghamshire, England, in consciousness and the unified field. ing companies, medical clinics, and other Asburfirms yher Parke an,d thereNew . Jersey, and in Vlodrop, Netherlands. Vlodrop is die Maharishi Ayur-Veda Products movement's world headquarters, where TMers have no doubts about the International (MAPI) sells a raft of Maharishi now lives. The colleges seem "Maharishi effect." This refers to herbs, teas, oils, incense, and natural to spring up and die like mushrooms. incredible changes produced by mass food substances said to cure diseases The word "research" in die names of meditations. The movement claims and reverse aging. Admirers of the these universities refers to investiga­ that their efforts helped bring down the best-selling books on "quantum heal­ tions of what is called Vedic science. It Berlin wall, resolve the Gulf War, cause ing" by Boston's Deepak Chopra may is said to combine the subjective stock-market rises, collapse die Soviet

10 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER • MAY/JUNE 1995 Union, decrease traffic accidents, and For the past decade Henning's etarian and health meals, and there will cut the crime rate in Washington, obsession has been to build a mam­ be a Heaven on Earth housing project. D.C., and other cities. Such wonders moth theme park he calls Veda Land. "Heaven on Earth" is Maharishi's are supported, of course, by highly Plans to locate the park in India, then favorite phrase for die world Utopia dubious statistics. in Orlando, Florida, adjacent to that TM will eventually bring about. A few years ago, longing for politi­ Disney World, went down the tube. In As he stirringly put it in the Maharishi cal influence. His Holiness founded 1987, with funds from Maharishi, International University News (Winter die Natural Law Party (NLP) in coun­ Doug decided to build Veda Land in 1988), there will be "all good every­ tries that include England and Canada. Niagara Falls, Ontario. Why there? where and nongood nowhere." Henning is senior vice-president of the Because, Henning told Gillmor, the In keeping with the Hindu belief Canadian party. In 1992 he was the falls are "the greatest natural wonder that all is maya, or illusion, Veda Land NLP candidate in England's general on Earth. . . . Our purpose is to create will abound with magical special election, representing a residential sec­ wonder for nature." effects designed by Roy Field, who tion of Lancashire. He finished last Unusual rides and exhibits will dra­ once worked on the Superman movies. among four candidates. In a 1994 matize Veda Land's central theme—the A large building will appear to float 15 Canadian election he was the party's mystery and beauty of nature. There feet above an artificial pond. Doug candidate from Rosedale, where he and won't reveal how this great illusion will Debbie, his wife, live. Of 55.928 votes be accomplished, although presumably cast, he received 839. Physicist Hagelin not by real magic. On the opening day was a candidate of the NLP for U.S. a helicopter is expected to move a president in 1992. The party claimed it gigantic hoop over the levitated build­ had 40 candidates running for ing the way Doug used to pass a Congress. The Canadian NLP plat­ hoop over floating ladies. form maintains that once the party takes over the government, i Canada's crime, unemployment, \ Asked if Veda Land will resem­ and deficit will disappear like the ble Jim Bakker's fallen Christian elephant that Doug vanished so theme park, Heritage USA, Doug many times on stage. replied: "It's more like, Wow! Isn't enlightenment great!" TM recruits are given a mantra so I found the elephant simile in secret that they are forbidden to dis­ Don Gillmor's "Like Magic," a lively . close it to anyone, not even a spouse. article in Toronto Life (April 1994), to ' The mantra is to be repeated silently which this column is heavily indebted. while they meditate for 20 minutes Gillmor quotes Henning as saying, in each morning and late afternoon or reference to his party's promises: "We evening. In die 1970s they were assured never see the stars going into debt and thatr their mantra was carefully selected having to borrow light from the sun. from thousands to fit their personality. We don't see robins having criminal ten­ A skeptical investigator was puzzled dencies and stealing from each other." when he joined the movement in three cities under three different names and Although pushing 50, Henning still was always given the same mantra. It looks like a youth, small, slim, with long turned out that there were just 16 dark hair, droopy mustache, a mild, soft- mantras. The one given was determined spoken manner, and bucktooth grin. will be a convention center, a universi­ solely by a person's age. Today's mantras Born in Winnipeg, and a graduate of ty, and a Tower of Peace, where world may be different, but in 1977 if you McMaster University, he began his leaders can meet to settle disputes. A were 26 to 29 your mantra was shivim. magic career working parties and night­ Magic Flying Carpet will carry 120 If over 60 it was shama. And so on. clubs around Canada. Such skilled magi­ passengers onto a rose petal, plunge cians as Dai Vernon and Tony Slydini into its molecular and atomic struc­ Magicians who perform what the gave him lessons. Henning met the ture, then finally come to rest in the trade calls mental acts were quick to Marharishi in 1975, and for the next ten flower's "pure consciousness." A take advantage of the secret list of yean he studied TM while still perform­ Corridor of Time will display the his­ Sanskrit words before their linkage ing on stage. By 1986, convinced that tory of the universe from the Big Bang with ages became widely known. They his life mission was to promote TM, he to the far distant day when Shiva will would ask TMers in the audience to gave up show business and sold his illu­ dance the universe into oblivion. A state their birthdate, then pretend to sions to David Copperfield and other preventive-medicine center will sell top stage performers. herbal remedies. Hotels will serve veg­ Guru continued on page 54

SKEPTICAL INQUIRE* • MAY/JUNE 1995 11 Media Watch

Tales from the Talk Shows

C. EUGENE EMERY, JR.

oad the tape, grab the remote, functional relationships) are the bread Enquirer forecasts, 1992 was to be the press PLAY, and let's step back in and butter of these shows. But when year the Castro regime toppled, entire Ltime. it's time to get away from such topics as pro teams developed AIDS ("threaten­ It's December 8, 1994, and Sally children from violent homes, overbear­ ing to end professional sports"), and Jessy Raphael is poised to give the ing parents, rich abused women, and David Letterman and Jay Leno caused viewers of her TV talk show the inside women who have poor personal a sensation by swapping jobs at NBC. scoop on the still-simmering O. J. hygiene (all topics on Oprah Winfrey For 1993, according to Monti, Fergie Simpson case. Among her experts: the week that Monti appeared on the would pose naked for Playboy and "a "criminal psychic" John Monti. Raphael show), talk shows often serve cure for AIDS will be discovered in a Monti proceeds to weave a spell­ up an unabashedly supportive look at little-known chemical found in ordi­ binding tale, based on his psychic things supernatural. nary crabgrass." Whoopi Goldberg was supposed to give up acting and enter a vibrations, of how Nicole Simpson and The hosts of these shows sometimes convent in 1994, according to Monti. Ronald Goldman were murdered in "a argue that they're doing a public ser­ drug deal that went bad" because vice by publicizing important issues Viewers gor none of this back­ "Nicole owed huge amounts" to her swept under the rug by polite society. ground information. But during his murderers. But when the topic is psychics, UFOs, Raphael appearance, folks with a criti­ Then, Monti says he has uncovered or other aspects of the paranormal, it's cal eye got a revealing look into the new evidence in the Simpson case. At real science that gets swept under the behavior of a psychic who claims to the boisterous urging of the audience, rug. The informed skeptic—if there is help police solve crimes. and at the risk of being arrested at the one—may get two minutes of on-air PLAY. conclusion of the show, he agrees to time to battle wave upon wave of asser­ Before he reveals his startling piece tions and anecdotes. And the hosts and unveil his dramatic discovery on of evidence, Monti tells Raphael's sym­ producers, in their endless search for national television. pathetic audience that he knows where compelling stories, either don't know, STOP. one of the two murder weapons in the or don't want to know, that some of the It is a scene that plays itself out—in Simpson case is buried—it's in O.J.'s tales spun by their guests are of ques­ one form or another, using one theme backyard. He says he's told prosecutor tionable quality. or another—regularly on America's Marcia Clark where to find it, but she's television sets. From my home base in Consider the Monti appearance on ignored him. "1 don't know what her Southern New England, I am privy to the Sally Jessy Raphael show. If problem is," Monti says. "I think she is more than 15 network and syndicated Raphael or her staff had done their being bothered by DNA research too television talk shows featuring guests research, they would have discovered much, and she's not even from anxious to discuss everything from bat­ that Monti has been consistently Harvard." tered men to women who say their wrong when he has tried to predict Then he explains how he scaled an beauty is ruining their love life. unexpected events in the National eight-foot fence to get past a police Personal relationships (actually, dys- Enquirer. According to Monti's guard, stood on Nicole Simpson's

12 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER • MAY/JUNE 1995 blood stains and began poking around and exciting method of marriage ther­ they have been abducted. I guess there's the grounds. Under some bushes, he apy" in which couples are hypnotized something going on here." says, he found something extraordi­ and taken back to past lives in an But Povich has it wrong. nary. attempt to fully understand the prob­ The 3-million figure comes from "Do you think you should have lems in their current relationships. UFO promoters who believe that if turned it in to the With hypnotist you have had four of five experiences police?" Raphael asks. Hazel Denning claim­ —waking up paralyzed and sensing a "What were they ing that die technique presence in the room, discovering an going to do?" Monti "resolves possibly any hour or more of unaccounted time, retorts, sparking problems you have," experiencing a feeling of flying, seeing unusual lights in a room and finding applause from the Oprah acknowledges unexplained scars on your body—you audience. that the concept may have probably been abducted by As he reaches into seem strange, but "all extraterrestrials. About 2 percent of the his briefcase to I'm asking is that you nearly 6,000 adults polled fell into that remove a paper bag, be open-minded." category, which translates into 3.7 mil­ Monti remarks, "I One volunteer, lion Americans. don't know what's Michael Gilbert, says going to happen to that when he's been If Povich or his staff had bothered me after this," an hypnotically regressed, to check, they would have discovered interesting statement he's seen dinosaurs. that none of the people surveyed were coming from a psy- Sally Jessy Raphael Oprah, apparently even asked if they had been abducted. chic. pan of the 35 percent Povichs guests include Harvard psy­ From the bag, Monti removes a of the population whose Flintstones chiatry professor John Mack—who kitchen knife. Someone in the audi­ view of history makes them believe argues that UFO-abduction tales are so ence yells, "Oh my God!" humans and dinosaurs lived in die similar they must be real—and Jone Monti, who claims to help police, is same era, sees nothing wrong with this. Victoria, a marketing director kid­ handling the knife without gloves. "I'd want to come napped by "very dark, When "world-renowned psychic" back (to the present) very short" space Dayle Schear asks to hold it, Raphael too if I was you," she aliens. Victoria says says: "Oh, surely. That's a good idea." jokes. she realized she had been abducted after Monti hands the knife to Schear Oprah then shows she underwent hyp­ and she begins rubbing her hands on a hypnotized Karl notic regression thera­ it, obliterating any hope of finding fin­ Homann being asked py and Mack asked gerprints on the would-be weapon. if his current wife, her if the five black Karen, is present in "Do you think we should have han­ dogs she remembers the past life he is dled it with gloves or something?" as coming to attack recalling. Homann Raphael asks as Schear returns the her at the age of six announces: "I'm knife to Monti. were actually dogs. Responds Schear: "It's a little late Karen." Denning ex- Suddenly, Victoria now." plains that husband says, she realized that The only dose of reality comes at and wife were once "they weren't dogs at the end of the program when "Dana," one soul "and then Oprah Winfrey all!" a fan of O.J.'s, can't take it anymore. they split." There are no questions raised "These people are so fake," she And when Denning talks Homann about whether Mack was subtly asserts. "If you're so psychic, could you into the future, a technique known as encouraging Victoria to see the dogs please tell me what kind of matching "progression," Homann sees himself as space aliens, or whether she went to bra set I have on?" meeting a space alien. "It's going to Mack in the first place because she We're not to know. The "Sally" happen. I'm going to meet them," knew of Mack's interest in extraterres­ show quickly goes to commercial. Homann says while in a trance. "He's trials. STOP. REWIND. PLAY. ugly. But he's not mean." It's July 19 and Oprah Winfrey's on STOP. FAST FORWARD. PLAY. Then there's "Dianne," a computer the tube to talk about "an incredible It's Tuesday, December 20, and executive from Massachusetts, who Maury Povich is explaining that he's claims she is abducted every couple of Gene Emery is the science writer for the about to do his first show on UFO weeks. Has Povichs team planted a Providence Journal, 75 Fountain St., abductions because a recent poll says Providence, Rl 02902. "three million Americans believe that Tales continued on page 54

SKEPTICAL INQUIRER • MAY/JUNE 1995 13 The Belief En

JAMES E. ALCOCK

he following beliefs are strongly held by

large numbers of people. Each of them has T been hotly disputed by others: • Through hypnosis, one can access past lives.

• Horoscopes provide useful information about the Our brains ana nervous future. systems constitute a • Spiritual healing sometimes succeeds where conven­ belief-generating tional medicine fails.

machine, a system that • A widespread, transgenerational Satanic conspiracy evolved to assure not is afoot in society.

truth, logic, and reason, • Certain girted people have been able to use their but survival. The belief psychic powers to help police solve crimes.

engine has seven major • We can sometimes communicate with others via components. mental telepathy. • Some people have been abducted by UFOs and then returned to earth.

• Elvis lives.

• Vitamin C can ward off or cure the common cold.

• Immigrants are stealing our jobs.

• Certain racial groups are intellectually inferior.

14 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER • MAY/JUNE 1995 11

• Certain racial groups are athleti­ nomena. Why should this be so? Why have been taught this, it makes some cally superior, at least in some spe­ is it that in this highly scientific and sense, and you have never been led to cific sports. technological age superstition and irra­ question it. tionality abound? If we were to conceptualize the • Crime and violence arc linked to It is because our brains and nervous brain and nervous system as a belief the breakdown of the traditional systems constitute a belief-generating engine, it would need to comprise sev­ family. machine, an engine that produces eral components, each reflecting some beliefs without any particular respect basic aspect of belief generation. • North Korea's developing nuclear for what is real or true and what is not. Among the components, the following capability poses a threat to world This belief engine selects information units figure importantly: peace. from the environment, shapes it, com­ bines it with information from memo­ 1. The learning unit Despite high confidence on the part ry, and produces beliefs that are gener­ 2. The critical thinking unit of both believers and disbelievers, in ally consistent with beliefs already 3. The yearning unit most instances, neither side has held. This system is as capable of gen­ 4. The input unit much—if any—objective evidence to erating fallacious beliefs as it is of gen­ 5. The emotional response unit back its position. Some of these beliefs, erating beliefs that are in line with 6. The memory unit such as telepathy and astrology, stand truth. These beliefs guide future 7. The environmental feedback unit. in contradiction to the current scientif­ actions and, whether correct or erro­ ic worldview and are therefore consid­ neous, they may prove functional for The Learning Unit ered by many scientists to be "irra­ the individual who holds them. tional." Others are not at all inconsis­ Whether or not there is really a Heaven The learning unit is the key to under­ tent with science, and whether or not for worthy souls does nothing to standing the belief engine. It is tied to they are based in fact, no one would detract from the usefulness of such a the physical architecture of the brain consider them to be irrational. belief for people who are searching for and nervous system; and by its very Nineteenth-century rationalists pre­ meaning in life. nature, we are condemned to a virtu­ dicted that superstition and irrational­ Nothing is fundamentally different ally automatic process of magical ity would be defeated by universal edu­ about what we might think of as "irra­ thinking. "Magical thinking" is the cation. However, this has not hap­ tional" beliefs—they are generated in interpreting of two closely occurring pened. High literacy rates and univer­ the same manner as are other beliefs. events as though one caused the other, sal education have done little to We may not have an evidential basis without any concern for the causal decrease such belief, and poll after poll for belief in irrational concepts, but link. For example, if you believe that indicates that a large majority of the neither do we have such a basis for crossing your fingers brought you good public believe in the reality of "occult" most of our beliefs. For example, you fortune, you have associated the act of or "paranormal" or "supernatural" phe- probably believe that brushing your finger-crossing with the subsequent teeth is good for you, but it is unlikely welcome event and imputed a causal James E. Alcock is professor of psychology, that you have any evidence to back up link between the two. Glendon College, York University, Toronto. this belief, unless you are a dentist. You Our brain and nervous system have

SKEPTICAL INQUIRER • MAY/JUNE 1995 15 evolved over millions of years. It is underlies much of the error that colors The Critical-Thinking Unit important to recognize that natural our thinking about events that occur selection does not select directly on together from time to time. Humans The critical-thinking unit is the second the basis of reason or truth; it selects are very poor at accurately judging the component of the belief engine, and it for reproductive success. Nothing in relationship between events that only is acquired—acquired through experi­ our cerebral apparatus gives any par­ sometimes co-occur. For example, if we ence and explicit education. Because of ticular status to truth. Consider a rab­ think of Uncle Harry, and then he tele­ the nervous-system architecture that I bit in the tall grass, and grant for a phones us a few minutes later, this have described, we are born to magical moment a modicum of conscious and might seem to demand some explana­ thinking. The infant who smiles just logical intellect to it. It detects a tion in terms of telepathy or precogni­ before a breeze causes a mobile above rustling in the tall grass, and having in tion. However, we can only properly her head to move will smile again and the past learned that this occasionally evaluate die co-occurrence of these two again, as though the smile had magi­ signals the presence of a hungry fox, events if we also consider the number cally caused the desired motion of the the rabbit wonders if there really is a of times that we thought of Harry and mobile. We have to labor to overcome fox this time or if a gust of wind he did not call, or we did not think of such magical predisposition, and we caused the grass to rustle. It awaits him but he called anyway. These latter never do so entirely. It is through expe­ more conclusive evidence. Although circumstances—these nonpairings— rience and direct teaching that we motivated by a search for truth, that have little impact on our learning sys­ come to understand the limits of our rabbit does not live long. Compare the tem. Because we are overly influenced immediate magical intuitive interpreta­ late rabbit to the rabbit that responds by pairings of significant events, we tions. We are taught common logic by to the rustle with a strong autonomic can come to infer an association, and parents and teachers, and since it often nervous-system reaction and runs even a causal one, between two events serves us well, we use it where it seems away as fast as it can. It is more likely even if there is none. Thus, dreams appropriate. Indeed, the cultural paral­ to live and reproduce. So, seeking may correspond with subsequent lel of this developmental process is the truth does not always promote sur­ events only every so often by chance, development of the formal method of vival, and fleeing on the basis of erro­ and yet this pairing may have a dra­ logic and scientific inquiry. We come neous belief is not always such a bad matic effect on belief. Or we feel a cold to realize that we cannot trust our thing to do. However, while this coming on, take vitamin C, and then automatic inferences about co-occur­ rence and causality. "We are not always able to distinguish We learn to use simple tests of rea­ son to evaluate events around us, but material originating In the brain from we also learn that certain classes of material from the outside world, . • •" events are not to be subjected to reason but should be accepted on faith. Every avoidance strategy may succeed in the when die cold does not get to be too society teaches about transcendental forest, it may be quite dangerous to bad we infer a causal link. The world things—ghosts, gods, bogeymen, and pursue in the nuclear age. around us abounds with coincidental so on; and here we are often explicitly The learning unit is set up in such a occurrences, some of which are mean­ taught to ignore logic and accept such way as to learn very quickly from the ingful but the vast majority of which things on faith or on the basis of other association of two significant events— are not. This provides a fertile ground people's experiences. By the time we such as touching a hot stove and feel­ for the growth of fallacious beliefs. We are adults, we can respond to an event ing pain. It is set up so that significant readily learn that associations exist in either a logical, critical mode or in pairings produce a lasting effect, while between events, even when they do an experiential, intuitive mode. The nonpairings of the same two events are not. We are often led by co-occurring events themselves often determine not nearly so influential. If a child were events to infer that the one that which way we will respond. If I were to to touch a stove once and be burned, occurred first somehow caused the one tell you that I went home last night then if the child were to touch it again that succeeded it. and found a cow in my living room, without being burned, the association We are all even more prone to error you would be more likely to laugh than between pain and stove would not when rare or emotionally laden events to believe me, even though there is cer­ automatically be unlearned. This basic are involved. We are always looking for tainly nothing impossible about such asymmetry—pairing of two stimuli has causal explanations, and we tend to an event. If, on the other hand, 1 were an important effect, while presenting infer causality even when none exists. to tell you that I went into my living the stimuli unpaired (that is, individu­ ally) has a much lesser effect—is You might be puzzled or even dis­ room and was startled by an eerie glow important for survival. tressed if you heard a loud noise in over my late grandfather's armchair, your living room but could find no and that the room went cold, you may This asymmetry in learning also source for it. be less likely to disbelieve and more

16 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER • MAY/JUNE 1995 likely to perk up your ears and listen to more vulnerable to fallacious beliefs emotional responses may be triggered the details, possibly suspending the that can serve to satisfy those yearnings. by information from the outside world critical acumen that you would bring even before we are consciously aware to the cow story. Sometimes strong that something has happened. Take The Input Unit emotion interferes with the application this example, provided by LeDoux of critical thought. Other times we are Information enters the belief engine (1994) in his recent article in Scientific cleverly gulled. sometimes in the form of raw sensory American (1994, 270, pp. 50-57): Rationality is often at a disadvantage experience and other times in the form An individual is walking through to intuitive thought. The late psycholo­ of organized, codified information pre­ the woods when she picks up infor­ gist Graham Reed spoke of the example sented through word of mouth, books, mation—either auditory, such as of the gambler's fallacy: Suppose you or films. We are wonderful pattern rustling leaves, or visual, such as the sight of a slender curved object on are observing a roulette wheel. It has detectors, but not all the patterns we the ground—which triggers a fear come up black ten times in a row, and detect are meaningful ones. Our per­ response. This information, even a powerful intuitive feeling is growing ceptual processes work in such a way as before it reaches the cortex, is in you that it must soon come up red. to make sense of the environment processed in the amygdala, which arouses the body to an alarm foot­ It cannot keep coming up black forev­ around us, but they do make sense— ing. Somewhat later, when the cor­ er. Yet your rational mind tells you that perception is not a passive gathering of tex has had enough time to decide the wheel has no memory, that each information but, rather, an active con­ whether or not the object really is a outcome is independent of those that struction of a representation of what is snake, this cognitive information processing will either augment the preceded. In such a case, the struggle going on in our sensory world. Our fear response and corresponding between intuition and rationality is not perceptual apparatus selects and orga­ evasive behaviour, or will serve to always won by rationality. nizes information from the environ­ bring that response to a halt. Note that we can switch this critical ment, and this process is subject to thinking unit on or off. As I noted earli­ many well-known biases that can lead er, we may switch it off entirely if dealing to distorted beliefs. Indeed, we are less This is relevant to our understanding with religious or other transcendental likely to be influenced by incoming of paranormal experience, for very matters. Sometimes, we deliberately information if it does not already cor­ often an emotional experience accom­ switch it on: "Hold it a minute, let me respond to deeply held beliefs. Thus, panies the putatively paranormal. A think this out," we might say to ourselves the very spiritual Christian may be strong coincidence may produce an when someone tries to extract money quite prepared to see the Virgin Mary; emotional "zing" that points us toward from us for an apparently worthy cause. information or perceptual experience a paranormal explanation, because that suggests that she has appeared may normal events would not be expected be more easily accepted without critical to produce such emotion. The Yearning Unit scrutiny than it would be by someone Our brains are also capable of gener­ Learning does not occur in a vacuum. who is an atheist. It is similar with ating wonderful and fantastic perceptual We are not passive receivers of informa­ regard to experiences that might be experiences for which we are rarely pre­ tion. We actively seek out information to considered paranormal in nature. pared. Out-of-body experiences (OBEs), satisfy our many needs. We may yearn to hallucinations, near-death experiences find meaning in life. We may yearn for a (NDEs), peak experiences—these are all The Emotional Response Unit sense of identity. We may yearn for likely to be based, not in some external recovery from disease. We may yearn to Experiences accompanied by strong transcendental reality, but rather in the be in touch with deceased loved ones. emotion may leave an unshakable belief brain itself. We are not always able to In general we yearn to reduce anxi­ in whatever explanation appealed to the distinguish material originating in the ety. Beliefs, be they correct or false, can individual at the time. If one is over­ brain from material from the outside assuage these yearnings. Often beliefs whelmed by an apparent case of telepa­ world, and thus we can falsely attribute that might be categorized as irrational thy, or an ostensible UFO, then later to the external world perceptions and by scientists are the most efficient at thinking may well be dominated by the experiences that are created within the reducing these yearnings. Rationality awareness that the emotional reaction brain. We have little training with regard and scientific truth have little to offer was intense, leading to the conclusion to such experience. As children, we do for most people as remedies for exis­ that something unusual really did hap­ learn to distrust, for the most part, tential anxiety. However, belief in rein­ pen. And emotion in turn may directly dreams and nightmares. Our parents carnation, supernatural intervention, influence both perception and learning. and our culture tell us that they arc and everlasting life can overcome such Something may be interpreted as products of our own brains. We are not anxiety to some extent. bizarre or unusual because of the emo­ prepared for more arcane experiences, When we are yearning most, when tional responses triggered. such as OBEs or hallucinations or we are in the greatest need, we are even Evidence is accumulating that our NDEs or peak experiences, and may be

SKEPTICAL INQUIRER • MAY/JUNE 1995 17 so unprepared that we are overwhelmed anxieties. If we operate on the basis of In Conclusion by me emotion and come to see such a belief, and if it "works" for us, even experience as deeply significant and though faulty, why would we be Beliefs are generated by the belief engine "real" whether or not it is. inclined to change it? Feedback from without any automatic concern for Ray Hyman has always cautioned the external world reinforces or weak­ truth. Concern for truth is a higher skeptics not to be surprised should ens our beliefs, but since the beliefs order acquired cognitive orientation that they one day have a very strong emo­ themselves influence how that feed­ reflects an underlying philosophy which tional experience that seems to cry out back is perceived, beliefs can become presupposes an objective reality that is for paranormal explanation. Given the very resistant to contrary information not always perceived by our senses. ways our brains work, we would and experience. If you really believe The belief engine chugs away, expect such experiences from time to that alien abductions occur, then any strengthening old beliefs, spewing out time. Unprepared for them, they evidence against that belief can be new ones, rarely discarding any. We can could become conversion experiences rationalized away—in terms of con­ sometimes see the error or foolishness in that lead to strong belief. When I was spiracy theories, other peoples igno­ other people's beliefs. It is very difficult a graduate student, another graduate rance, or whatever. to see the same in our own. We believe student who shared my office, and As mentioned earlier, fallacious in all sorts of things, abstract and con­ who was equally as skeptical as I was beliefs can often be even more func­ crete—in the existence of the solar sys­ about the paranormal, came to school tional than those based in truth. For tem, atoms, pizza, and five-star restau­ one day overwhelmed by the realism example, Shelley Taylor, in her book rants in Paris. Such beliefs are no differ­ and clarity of a dream he had had the Positive Illusions, reports research ent in principle from beliefs in fairies at night before. In it, his uncle in showing that mildly depressed people the end of the garden, in ghosts in some Connecticut had died. It had been a are often more realistic about the deserted abbey, in werewolves, in satanic very emotional dream, and was so world than are happy people. conspiracies, in miraculous cures, and so striking that Jack told me that if his Emotionally healthy people live to on. Such beliefs are all similar in form, uncle died anytime soon, he would no some extent by erecting false beliefs— all products of the same process, even longer be able to maintain his skepti­ illusions—that reduce anxiety and aid though they vary widely in content. cism about precognition—the dream well-being, whereas depressed individ­ They may, however, involve greater or experience was that powerful. Ten uals to some degree see the world more lesser involvement of the critical-think­ years later, his uncle was still alive, and accurately. Happy people may under­ ing and emotional-response units. Jack's skepticism had survived intact. estimate the likelihood of getting can­ Critical thinking, logic, reason, sci­ cer or being killed, and may avoid ence—these arc all terms that apply in thinking about the ultimate reality of one way or another to the deliberate The Memory Unit death, while depressed people may be attempt to ferret out truth from the Through our own experience, we come much more accurate with regard to tangle of intuition, distorted percep­ to believe in the reliability of our mem­ such concerns. tion, and fallible memory. The true ories and in our ability to judge An important way in which to run critical thinker accepts what few people whether a given memory is reliable or reality checks on our perceptions and ever accept—that one cannot routinely not. However, memory is a construc­ beliefs is to compare them with those trust perceptions and memories. tive process rather than a literal render­ of others. If I am the only one who Figments of our imagination and ing of past experience, and memories interpreted a strange glow as an appari­ reflections of our emotional needs can are subject to serious biases and distor­ tion, I am more likely to reconsider often interfere with or supplant the tions. this interpretation than if several others perception of truth and reality. Not only does memory involve share the same view. We often seek out Through teaching and encouraging itself in the processing of incoming people who agree with us, or selective­ critical thought our society will move information and the shaping of beliefs; ly choose literature supporting our away from irrationality, but we will it is itself influenced strongly by cur­ belief. If the majority doubts us, then never succeed in completely abandon­ rent perceptions and beliefs. Yet it is even if only part of a minority we can ing irrational tendencies, again because very difficult for an individual to reject collectively work to dispel doubt and of the basic nature of the belief engine. the products of his or her own memo­ find certainty. We can invoke conspir­ Experience is often a poor guide to ry process, for memory can seem to be acies and coverups to explain an reality. Skepticism helps us to question so "real." absence of confirmatory evidence. We our experience and to avoid being too may work to inculcate our beliefs in readily led to believe what is not so. We others, especially children. Shared should try to remember the words of The Environmental Feedback Unit beliefs can promote social solidarity the late P. J. Bailey (in Festus: A Beliefs help us to function. They guide and even a sense of importance for the Country Town): "Where doubt, there our actions and increase or reduce our individual and group. truth is—'tis her shadow."

18 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER • MAY/JUNE 1995 The Skeptical Position: Is It Tenable?

JOHN BELOFF

John Beloff, a psychologist at the University of Edinburgh, has for several decades been one of the most prominent lead­ ers in the field of parapsychology While it might seem unusual for us to publish an article by a parapsychologist. we think this one is appropriate and may stimulate some useful interaction. We follow it with short responses by sev­ eral well-regarded critics of parapsychology —The Editor

If the 'skeptical position' y the "skeptical position" I shall here mean regarding parapsychology the view that there is no evidence, as yet, is to be tenable, says Bthat would justify acknowledging any phe­ Beloff, It must apply not nomenon as "paranormal." On this view parapsychology nly to the latest ontal evidence— is, at best, a potential science, concerned as it is with where repeatability on claims that still await authentication. Moreover, given

demand may forever elude the fact that attempts to clinch such claims have now investigators—but also to been going on for at least a century, the prospect that any historical cases. phenomenon will in due course be universally recog­

nized as paranormal must be considered increasingly

unlikely. The "skeptical position," so defined, is today

widely held among the scientific community with,

inevitably, unfortunate practical consequences for para-

SKEPTICAL INQUIRER • MAY/JUNE 1995 19 psychology, especially when it comes to make no difference what evidence the more rational to doubt the testimony funding. It is the aim of this paper to parapsychologist might adduce; an of the witnesses than to accept the mir­ consider whether or not this position absolute skeptic could always nullify it acle as a (act. We must note, however, is, philosophically, defensible. by invoking some general principle, that there is a subtle difference between The skeptical position, as I have stat­ such as consistency with known physi­ a miracle, as Hume understood the ed it, represents what 1 shall call de facto cal laws, as in Kurtz's example, or some term, and what we now call a "para­ skepticism. A "de facto skeptic" is an other cherished criterion. There are not normal event." A miracle contradicts empiricist who is willing, in principle, to many among our critics, I may say, only certain universal expectations as abide by die evidence but is not satisfied who profess absolute skepticism in this to what can or cannot happen. A para­ that the evidence in this case is coercive. sense; yet, in practice, it provides a fall­ normal event, on the other hand, is Paul Kurtz voices die attitude of die de back position when de facto skepticism anomalous with respect to the entire facto skeptic when he writes: begins to look shaky. Although conceptual framework of science as we "Philosophers have analyzed die coher­ absolute skepticism could be described know it. Hence, to call something ence between physical theories and as a form of dogmatism, we must not paranormal is, as Kurtz highly insists, alleged extrasensory functions in order dismiss it as irrational. All of us, after to call into question the universality of to determine whether die latter are con­ all, are absolute skeptics about certain the prevailing scientific worldview. sistent with physical laws. I submit that claims that overstrain our credulity. Hume conceded that, if a miracle one should be dubious about purely a Speaking for myself, I would have to could be regularly repeated, we would priori formal methods of evaluation, confess to being an absolute skeptic be forced to believe in it, but then it because if the phenomenon is found to when it comes to claims that extrater­ would ipso facto cease to be a miracle! be genuine it is the antecedent conceptu­ restrial aliens have visited the earth. No A paranormal phenomenon, on the al system that will have to be modified. matter how many eyewitness reports other hand, would still be paranormal The data must not be sacrificed at die might be pushed under my nose, I even after the umpteenth repetition so altar of preconceived notions of logical would still decline to credit them. For long as no scientific explanation was coherence" [my emphasis] (Kurtz it would always strike me as more like­ forthcoming. Repetition is, of course, a 1992:145). His subsequent remarks, ly that the reports were misleading key issue for the skeptical position, and however, reveal that what he is, in fact, than that the claims were valid. Of we shall be returning to it later. Antony open-minded about are "anomalies." course, even absolute skepticism is Flew (1978) endorses Hume with Parapsychological findings may, Kurtz never absolute in the logical sense, respect to all past claims of a paranor­ concedes, in due course be taken at face inasmuch as we could always envisage mal kind and so could be classed as an value but always with the tacit under­ some hypothetical example that would absolute skeptic with respect to the his­ standing that they can eventually be rec­ force us to change our mind. No doubt torical record, but even he concedes onciled with a physicalist worldview. if I myself were to have a close that, if parapsychologists were able to Hence he specifically rejects the term encounter with an extraterrestrial alien, satisfy repeatability on demand, we paranormal if this is taken to imply any I presumably would have no option would then, indeed, have to revise our kind of "spiritual, mental, or idealistic but to change my mind. So long, how­ assumptions. dimensions" (p. 149). Kurtz, we might ever, as I regard such a hypothesis as an Some critics, who may be de facto say, is a "de facto" skeptic about the para­ academic exercise, I would still count skeptics with respect to parapsychology normal in the weak sense of an anomaly as an absolute skeptic with respect to as a whole, may be absolute skeptics but an "absolute" skeptic about the para­ claims of this sort. Likewise, even the with respect to certain classes of psi normal in the strong sense in which it most dismissive of skeptics would pre­ phenomena. For example, some who has inspired so many parapsychologists. sumably change their tune in the face are open-minded about extrasensory His position, I may add, is by no means of some overwhelming manifestation perception (ESP) may take exception idiosyncratic; it is, on the contrary, wide­ of the paranormal, but, pending such to psychokinesis (PK). Others, who are ly shared by members of the scientific an eventuality, they would qualify as prepared to accept micro-PK, may and academic communities. absolute skeptics with respect to the draw the line at macro-PK. Flew has, parapsychological evidence. throughout his long career as a skeptic, The pioneer of absolute skepticism consistently rejected precognition as Absolute Skepticism with respect to what he called "mira­ nonsensical (cf. Flew 1987). He does For an "absolute" or "a priori" skeptic, cles" was, of course, David Hume so on the grounds that it implies that a evidence is simply irrelevant. It would (Hume 1777). His argument was sim­ cause may occur after its effect. And he ple. A miracle, by definition, contra­ is perfectly correct, of course, in saying John Beloff is in the Department of venes our past experiences. At the same that precognition implies backward Psychology at the University of time, we all know to our cost that liars causation. Where he goes astray is in Edinburgh, George Square, Edinburgh and deceivers abound. Hence, even if thinking that backward causation is EH8 9JZ, Scotland, U.K. miracles did occur, it would always be somehow logically objectionable—

20 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER • MAY/JUNE 1995 however offensive it may be to our required to produce this result may be between the subject and the target sys­ common sense. If one were to follow highly complex. Thus one is confront­ tem and so it cannot be subsumed Flew, one would have to dismiss all tra­ ed with the paradox of an input con­ under an epiphenomenalist view of ditional beliefs in prophecy and fore­ taining minimal information issuing mind. In other words, it is the concept knowledge as not just false but literally an output that is informationally rich. of the paranormal as such that really meaningless—which seems odd to say Or, as Humphrey puts it, the problem bothers Humphrey, as it bothered the least! Even odder is the fact that, is "how the supposed psychic powers Kurtz. To a dualist-interactionist like faced with one such instance—let us can have the 'targeting' and 'indexical' myself, on the other hand, this analogy suppose Flew were to dream consis­ properties they must have if they are to between what goes on in normal vol­ tently of the winner of tomorrow's do their job" (Humphrey 1993). untary behavior and in a successful test for PK is profoundly suggestive and horse-race—he could not call his This feature of the psi process, to illuminating. In both instances, as we dreams "precognitive"; at most he which Humphrey rightly draws our see it, physical processes are brought could express surprise at his astonish­ attention, is familiar to parapsycholo- into play in order to fulfill a specific ing run of luck. Coincidence has, of gists as the "goal oriented" aspect of wish or intention. If that is "magical course, always been a logical option psi. The concept of goal orientation, however, is by no means confined to thinking," then so be it; the evidence where any psi phenomenon is con­ from parapsychology demands no less. cerned, but the science of statistics has psi phenomena. When I write some­ thing down, for example, I think and So much for absolute skepticism. enabled us to put a value on the degree The attempt to show that psi phenom­ of coincidence we would need to posit intend only the words that I wish to write, or, more likely, just the meaning ena involve some kind of logical fallacy once we reject a causal explanation. An I wish to convey, confident that my has not succeeded and cannot do so. absolute skeptic has to be prepared to hands will automatically execute the Alternatively, to dismiss such phenom­ accept as a mere coincidence what oth­ relevant movements of my fingers on ena out of hand as too absurd or fan­ ers would see as paranormal no matter the page or keyboard as the case may tastic to warrant serious consideration what level of probability was attained. be. What makes writing a normal, (as I myself wanted to do with respect Perhaps the most audacious abso­ lute skeptic of recent times is Nicholas Humphrey, current holder of the "The skeptical position, as I have defined It, Perron-Warrick Research Fellowship at Darwin College, Cambridge. He represents what I shall tall de facto skepticism," alone, to my knowledge, has pro­ nounced psi phenomena to be logically rather than a paranormal, activity is, of to extraterrestrial visitations), although impossible. This is indeed startling course, that there is a physical connec­ still an option, becomes increasingly because, in the ordinary way, nothing tion between my brain and my hand. threadbare when one examines the best whatsoever, no matter how extraordi­ Now, to an epiphenomenalist, my experimental evidence of recent years, nary or incredible, can be said to be intention to write is of no consequence. to which we must now turn. logically impossible—unless, of course, Provided mat my brain is in die appro­ priate physical state, the relevant move­ it involves a contradiction. Then, even De Facto Skepticism God, who was thought to be omnipo­ ments of my hand and finger will duly tent, could not, theologians agreed, do follow, just as when the computer is in Let us now consider the more serious what was logically impossible! What, the appropriate state it will trigger die challenge from those I have called the then, could have induced Humphrey appropriate display on the screen. My "de facto skeptics," who claim to have to dismiss psi phenomena as "logically conscious intention is no more than a open minds but who demand stronger impossible"? Until he publishes his passive reflection of what my brain is evidence than anything that has so far definitive treatise, all I can go by is doing and would, indeed, be doing been produced. Ray Hyman, James some personal correspondence and were I never to be conscious at all! Alcock, Persi Diaconis, and other dis­ some miscellaneous pronouncements. Hence, the fact that I, the agent, tinguished associates of CSICOP But the gist of it seems to be that, remain entirely ignorant as to what exemplify this category. The report of notably in the case of PK but, by goes on in my brain and nervous sys­ the National Research Council, extension, to psi in general, the out­ tem when engaged in voluntary activi­ Enhancing Human Performance come appears to be more complex than ty is irrelevant. 1 suspect that what (Druckman and Swets 1988), is an the input. Thus, in a typical micro-PK actually disturbs Humphrey is not this expression of this outlook, while the experiment, the intention on the pan goal-oriented aspect of psi phenomena, critique of it by Palmer, Honorton, and of the subject may be simply to which, as I say, is common to all nor­ Utts (1989) shows why it fails to con­ enhance the score, by shifting a point­ mal voluntary activity, but rather the vince parapsychologists. er, producing a click, or whatever. At fact that in the psi case, there is, ex Perhaps nothing has done more to die same time, the physical processes hypothesi, no mechanical connection bring die skeptical position into focus

SKEPTICAL INQUIRE* • MAY/JUNE 1995 21 than the advent of meta-analysis. dedication necessary to carry out a the appropriate response to any chal­ Comprehensive and painstaking meta­ decent ganzfeld experiment, where it lenging new claim. Recently, when two analyses have now been carried out on may take an hour in all to run just one scientists claimed to have produced all the major phenomena of experi­ trial, we can see that such a technique cold nuclear fusion, they created a mental parapsychology. Each has yield­ is still a long way from meeting the cri­ furor, not just because this would be ed a combined z-score representing terion of "repeatability on demand." theoretically so upsetting, but, ulti­ astronomical odds against chance. In We might suppose that micro-PK mately, because others who tried their no case, moreover, is there the sugges­ would afford a more promising ap­ method failed (although, I gather, we tion that the weaker studies con­ proach than free-response ESP given may not yet have heard the last of this tributed unduly to this overall signifi­ the enormous number of trials that can particular controversy). cance. It was Honorton's own meta­ be run, using a random-event genera­ The answer to our question, then, is analysis of the ganzfeld studies tor, in just one short session; but any that, by the standards of conventional (Honorton 1985) that sparked off the illusions we may have on that score science, the skeptical position is rea­ memorable ganzfeld debate in the would soon be dispelled by an exami­ sonable. Meta-analyses are important pages of the Journal of Parapsychology nation of die data that Robert Jahn and as guidelines for the future, but they between Honorton and Hyman, cul­ his associates at the PEAR (Princeton cannot serve as a substitute for repeata­ minating in their "joint communique" Engineering Anomalies Research) lab­ bility on demand. At this point, a fur­ (Hyman and Honorton 1986) and oratory at Princeton have amassed ther question arises. Is proof, by the eliciting further contributions from since 1979 (Jahn and Dunne 1987). conventional scientific method, the assorted parapsychosists and their There the practice has been to use as sole valid test of truth? We have only to critics. Another attempt to play up the subjects anyone willing to put in time ask this question to realize that this meta-analytic evidence was the paper at the laboratory. Unfortunately very cannot be so. No sane person would by the statistician Jessica Utts in few such subjects attain even a mini­ deny that there is such a thing as his­ Statistical Science (Utts 1991). Yet it mal level of significance at the termina­ torical truth. Yet, in the nature of the was clear from the invited comments tion of their sessions. case, every past event is unique and so on the Utts paper that the skeptics In asking, as I do in this paper, unavailable for inspection. But we have remained skeptics. Since it is now obvi­ whether the skeptical position is ten­ no problem authenticating historical ous that meta-analysis has not turned able, one is, in effect, asking whether claims on the basis of documents, arti­ the tide, we must ask why? What is still the criterion of "repeatability on facts, or other relevant evidence. lacking? demand" is reasonable. If it is, then not Science, it has been said, deals with The answer, in a phrase, is "repeata­ only must we forfeit psi but, equally, what happens; history (and, we may bility on demand." The database for we must discard any psychological add, the Law) are concerned with what the meta-analytic studies shows that by phenomenon that is not robust enough has happened. Experimental parapsy­ no means every experiment that uses a to pass this test. One can never know, chology purports to be a science, inas­ particular procedure produces a signif- of course, what discoveries may yet much as it deals with ongoing claims or hypotheses, but parapsychology as "k 'A 'de facto skeptic' is an empiricist who is such—what used to be called "psychi­ willing, in principle, to abide by the evidence cal research"—covers the entire gamut of human encounters with the para­ but is not satisfied that the evidence in this normal. This includes innumerable case is coercive." spontaneous personal experiences, for which there is a rich store of well-doc­ icant outcome. Indeed, in die case of alter the situation; but, if history has umented cases going back to the late the ganzfeld studies, which now may anything to teach us, it is, surely, that nineteenth century, as well as unique be said to represent state-of-the-art psi is inherently elusive and evasive. investigations of mediums or gifted parapsychology, only 12 of the 28 Given the notorious decline effect, subjects by experienced investigators. It studies considered by Honorton in his given the experimenter effect and the would be fair to say, therefore, that 1985 analysis (i.e., 43 percent) critical importance of situation and parapsychology is to be considered one (Honorton 1985) were significant at atmosphere, any prospect of arriving at of the humanities as much as one of the 5 percent level of confidence. a formula for routinely producing psi the sciences. Although much will depend on the effects must seem hopelessly quixotic. number of trials attempted, this sug­ On die other hand, there can be no Assessing the Historical Evidence gests that even for the keen parapsy- question that, in the exact sciences— chologists who provided these data, biology, chemistry, physics, etc.— The position of the skeptic with regard there was less than a one-in-two chance repeatability on demand by qualified to historical and anecdotal evidence of a successful outcome. Given die experimenters is, highly, accepted as fluctuates between ignoring it as irrele-

22 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER • MAY/JUNE 1995 vant and debunking it as flawed. The ing of the historical evidence is to pro­ blackmail that this would open up. singularity of so much of die past evi­ vide a possible normal counter-expla­ More still to the point, having thus dence and die fact that it surpasses any­ nation, and some episodes from the implicated Showers, why would he thing that we can lay our hands on past that had long stood the test of then have accused her of just the sort of today inevitably fuels suspicion. time have indeed succumbed to such impersonation for which Hall now Furthermore, the fact that cheating of treatment. The late Trevor Hall was, accuses Cook? How, moreover, would varying degrees has been a recurrent perhaps, the best-known exponent in he have dared to threaten her with feature of parapsychological history recent times of this line of attack. exposure? It is she who would have further encourages the belief that, However, for all his pertinacity and threatened him. given time and patience, all such evi­ ingenuity, he sometimes failed to see We shall never know the truth of that his conclusions ran up against cer­ dence will eventually yield to the this extraordinary episode and we do tain fatal objections. He contended, for charge of trickery or deceit. Some crit­ not have to accept the paranormality of example, that the reason for Edmund ics even jump to the conclusion that, if "Katie King"; but, if only for the rea­ Gurney's suicide was the discovery that a psychic is once caught cheating, all son given, we can be certain that it was the evidence from that source is taint­ ed and can be summarily dismissed. "It would be fair to say. • • that parapsychology But, however beguiling, such an infer­ ence is logically unsound. If an experi­ is to be considered one of the humanities as menter is caught cheating then, indeed, much as one of the sciences*" all the evidence for which that experi­ menter was responsible must be treated his collaborator, G. A. Smith, had been not a case of collusion. And yet, on the as suspect—as J. B. Rhine highly treat­ deceiving him in their joint experi­ basis of Hall's far-fetched speculations, ed the work of his protege, W. J. Levy, ments, in which Smith had acted as skeptics like Antony Flew feel fully after the latter's exposure. But, where hypnotist with subjects whom he had entitled, whenever the occasion pre­ the subject is concerned, the evidence himself introduced (Hall 1964). This sents, to declare: Crookes was a crook! can only be as good as the test condi­ contention falls down not so much Having disposed of Crookes and of tions allow. If, when conditions are lax, because there is every reason to think the early work of the Society for the subject cheats, as Palladino used to that Gurney's death was accidental Psychical Research associated with cheat when she could get away with it, (Coleman 1992) but because it is Gurney, Hall, in the last book he pub­ that may tell us something about the inconceivable that someone as consci­ lished before his death, took on per­ morals of the subject in question but it entious as Gurney would not first have haps the most formidable challenge tells us nothing whatever about the alerted Myers and the others at the that confronts the historical debunker: authenticity or otherwise of evidence SPR of Smith's deception, since they the case of D. D. Home. Although his obtained when conditions were rigor­ were still using him. book The Enigma of Daniel Home: ous. Just as it would be manifest non­ Trevor Hall's most celebrated feat of Medium or Fraud? (Hall 1984) pur­ sense to authenticate paranormal debunking, however, is to be found in ports to solve die mystery by demon­ claims simply because the subject in his earlier work, The Spiritualists (Hall strating that Home was no more than question had an impeccable reputa­ 1962, 1984), in which he argues that an artful trickster, he nowhere gets to tion, so it is equally ludicrous to reject William Crookes colluded with the grips with any of the more impressive diem because the subject is found to be medium Florence Cook, who in 1873 and intractable evidence. He has much untrustworthy. With respect to die was purporting to materialize the to say, for example, about the Ashley experimenter, on die other hand, the phantom "Katie King" as a quid pro House episode; but, as Dingwall position is quite different. In science quo for her sexual favors. He bases this (1987) points out in his review: "Hall we have to rely, pro tern, on die verac­ on an alleged confession Cook is has made no attempt to quote or ana­ ity of the experimenter, and so to reported to have made to a lover of lyze any of the more striking examples invent or to falsify data is highly con­ hers many years after die event (the so- of Home's mediumship, such as his sidered the ultimate sin for a scientist. called Anderson testimony). Now, experiments with Crookes, die sittings It is doubly so in parapsychology, whatever one may think of this sce­ in Holland in 1858, and above all the where replication is such a problem. nario, it ignores the fact that a second accounts related by very many sitters as Actually, evidence emanating from a medium, Mary Showers, was invited to to the lighting conditions which in subject known to be a cheat should, if participate in some of these sessions. many cases but not all make many of anything, cany more weight with us But, if the sessions were just a cover-up Dr. Hall's speculations untenable." inasmuch as the experimenters for his affair with Cook, die last thing Dingwall (to whom Hall pays fulsome involved could be presumed to have in the world he would have wanted was tribute in his preface) concludes his been that much more vigilant. die involvement of a second medi­ review with the words: "The chief les­ The only acceptable way of dispos­ um—with all the possibilities for son to be learnt from this book is that

SKEPTICAL INQUIRER • MAY/JUNE 1995 23 the enigma of D. D. Home remains an I salute Wiseman's skill and ingenuity References enigma, and there is no sign of it being both in rising to my challenge and in resolved." facing up to his critics. Even if he could Beloff, John. 1985. "What Is Your Counter- Explanation?" In A Skeptic's Handbook of The hard fact, against which would- not quite nullify Palladino, he did at Parapsychology, ed. by Paul Kurtz. Buffalo, be debunkers can only bang their least draw attention to some serious N.Y.: Prometheus. heads, is that for more than 20 years omissions in the Feilding Report, hith­ Brandon, Ruth. 1983. The Spiritualists. London: Home gave regular sittings, sometimes erto regarded as a model of its kind. Weidenfeld & Nicholson. more than one a week, at which in Coleman. Michael H. 1992. The death of Edmund Gurney. Journal of the Society for good illumination (usually gaslight) a Conclusion Psychical Research, 58: 194-200. table would be levitated to shoul­ Dingwall, Eric J. 1987. Review of Hall (1984). der height or higher and that in no case We have seen that if what I have called Zetetic Scholar, nos. 12 and 13: 154-159. was he ever detected, by any of the hun­ the "skeptical position" is to be tenable Druckman. D., and J. A. Swets, eds. 1988. Enhancing Human Performance: Issues, dreds of sitters who attended these it must apply not only to die latest Theories and Techniques. Washington. D.C.: stances, using sleight-of-hand. Even experimental evidence but also to his­ National Academy Press. Robert Browning, who loathed Home torical cases, some of which may Flew. Antony. 1978. "Parapsychology Revisited: and whose satirical poem is still tire- indeed tax the credulity of those who Laws. Miracles and Repeatability." In Philosophy and Parapsychology, ed. by J. somely cited when die name of Home would defend the former. In asking if Ludwig. Buffalo. N.Y.: Prometheus Books. crops up, confessed that he had no idea the skeptical position is tenable, there­ . 1987. "Analyzing the Concepts of how it was done. Yet, unless all these fore, we must consider both sorts of Parapsychology" (Chap. 8) and "What Has witnesses, including the hostile ones, evidence. We have already pointed out Brier Proved?" (Chap. 16). In Readings in the Philosophical Problems of Parapsychology, ed. were concealing certain facts, the ques­ that if repeatability on demand is taken by Antony Flew. Buffalo, N.Y.: Prometheus tion still remains: How did he do it? as die only safe assurance that we are Boob. The art of conjuring has made consid­ dealing with a genuine scientific phe­ Hall, Trevor H. 1962. The Spiritualists. London: erable strides since those days. Why has nomenon, parapsychology cannot and Duckworth. (Reprinted as The Medium and no contemporary conjuror recreated may never be in a position to meet that the Scientist. Buffalo, N.Y.: Prometheus Books. 1984.) such a sitting for our entertainment goal, and hence skepticism with respect . 1964. The Strange Case of Edmund and edification? I have indeed watched to die ongoing experimental evidence Gurney. London: Duckworth. table levitations in television studios will always be an option. When we . 1984. The Enigma of Daniel Home. that I cannot explain, but Home, let us turn to the historical evidence, on die Buffalo. N.Y.: Prometheus Books. Honorton, Charles. 1985. Meta-analysis of the not forget, operated in private or hotel other hand, the mere failure of ganzfeld research: A response to Hyman. sitting rooms and usually at short attempts at debunking does not consti­ Journal of Parapsychology 49: 51-92. notice. tute a guarantee that the phenomena in Hume, David. 1777. "On Miracles." Section 10 Historical skepticism still has its question were genuine; at most they of Enquiry Concerning Human Under­ standing. devotees. Ruth Brandon's The Spiritu­ imply a failure on die part of the histo­ Humphrey, Nicholas. 1993. Is there anybody alists, subtitled "The Passion for the rian to hit upon a tenable normal here? Psi Researcher, No. 10: 3-5, Summer. Occult in the 19th and 20th Centuries" explanation. It is worth pondering that (Reprinted from Darwin College Magazine, (Brandon 1983), is a fair example. I the late Eric Dingwall, who knew vol. 8, 1993.) Hyman, R., and C. Honorton. 1986. A joint myself was once foolhardy enough to more, perhaps, than anyone about the communique: The psi ganzfeld controversy. challenge skeptics to upset the Feilding history of this field, died an embittered Journal of Parapsychology, 50: 351-364. Report of 1908 on Palladino (Beloff individual, never able to make up his Jahn, R. G.. and B. J. Dunne. 1987. Margins of 1985). Sure enough, my challenge was, mind whether he was a believer or a Reality: The Role of Consciousness in the Physical World New York: Harcourt Brace in due course, accepted, and we now skeptic. For, when all is said and done, Jovanovich. have Richard Wiseman's account of one can never prove a negative. The Kurtz. P., ed. 1985. A Skeptics Handbook of how her phenomena might have been fact that we cannot explain some puz­ Parapsychology Buffalo, N.Y.: Prometheus faked if she had arranged for a remov­ zle can never be taken as proof that Books. . 1992. The New Skepticism: Inquiry and there is no normal explanation; it able panel to be fitted to the door of Reliable Knowledge. Buffalo, N.Y.: Pro­ the seance room at die Hotel Victoria could just be that we have not yet hit metheus Books. in Naples through which an accom­ upon die solution. In the end we must Palmer, J. P., C. Honorton, and J. Utts. 1989. plice could enter and exit (Wiseman each decide for ourselves and then try Reply to the National Research Council to exercise tolerance. To conclude, the study on parapsychology. Journal of the 1992). His ingenious hypothesis failed American Society for Psychical Research, 83: to convince those who were persuaded, skeptical position is indeed tenable, 31-49. on the strength of the general body of but it is certainly not mandatory for all Utts, Jessica. 1991. Replication and meta-analy­ evidence, that Palladino was genuine. who regard themselves as rationalists. sis in parapsychology. Statistical Science, 6: 363-378. Nevertheless, in principle, this is die At all events, the opposition of skeptic Wiseman, Richard. 1992. The Feilding Report: sort of thing that we need if historical versus believer is likely to persist into A reconsideration. Journal of the Society for skepticism is to be taken seriously, and the foreseeable future. Psychical Research, 58: 129-152. D

24 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER • MAY/JUNE 1995 RESPONSES TO Beloff Why Faith in Anecdotal Reports?

JAMES ALCOCK

John Beloff's paper is thought- vation in uncontrolled circum­ ble, since I have no access to the I provoking. I find that I easily stances. Furthermore, historical evi­ actual phenomenon, but only to the I agree with a good deal of what dence reflects very much the accounts of other people, long he says, but find it very difficult to Zeitgeist of the period and the cor­ dead. These witnesses may well agree with some of the rest. He responding mindsets of the have missed key bits of information accepts, as I do, that the skeptical observers. necessary to understand how Home position vis-a-vis parapsychology is Just because the historical did what he did even while working a reasonable one by the standards of accounts provide all sorts of evi­ within die laws of nature as we conventional science. He accepts dence that people in the Middle know them. that the criterion of what he calls Ages (who were culturally disposed 1 also demur when Beloff sug­ "repeatability on demand" has not to believe in witches) believed that gests that just because a psychic is been met. (Incidentally, that term they had observed witches flying caught cheating, this should not of his could mislead: What is need­ through die air does not, for me at invalidate the observations made ed is a demonstration of psi that least, provide any compelling rea­ when he or she was not caught researchers in general can reproduce son to accept that such beliefs cor­ cheating—or worse, that evidence by setting up the specified condi­ responded to reality, or that such that he or she was caught cheating tions and following a specific proce­ observations were accurate. And if should perhaps increase our confi­ dure.) He sagely points out that people of impeccable reputation (in dence in the results gathered during while meta-analyses may serve as an era when spiritualistic belief was those times when no cheating was observed, on the basis that given guides for future research and the­ very widespread) were stymied by that the researchers were aware of orizing, they cannot serve as a sub­ D. D. Home's demonstrations, this the tendency to cheat, they took stitute for repeatability. This flies in gives no indication as to whether precautions against it. A clear indi­ the face of what some other para- the observers were deceived or cation of a willingness to cheat tells psychologists would have us believe. Home's feats really were miracles. me that the psychic is likely to try to However, Beloff obviously Unless our a-priori beliefs admit fool the researcher in various ways, assumes that psi exists. (Were it not miraculous events, there is no rea­ and that he or she may succeed in so, he would not come to the con­ son to take a leap of faith (no doing so, despite whatever precau­ clusion that psi is inherently elusive obscure pun intended) to the posi­ tions are taken. It is difficult 10 fore­ and evasive.) If one can accept this tion that paranormal powers are see all possible methods of cheating, assumption, then of course there real, simply on the basis of such and to claim that one has been able are all sorts of historical examples anecdotal accounts. to rule out such cheating is pre­ that can be given a paranormal I thoroughly disagree with the sumptuous. The fact that someone explanation. It is such history that further contention that the skeptic, was caught cheating should warn us he argues provides a good reason for before dismissing historical evi­ to be very hesistant to accept any rejecting the skeptical position. I dence, must be able to explain how demonstrations by that individual. I have great difficulty with this view, apparent miracles were perpetrated have more faith in the ingenuity of for I do not accept that "historical back in history. It is not my duty to clever tricksters than I do in the abil­ evidence" can substitute for scien­ explain what people really saw ity of well-meaning researchers to tific evidence when one is dealing when they thought they saw flying prevent all cheating. with scientific claims (e.g., the exis­ witches, nor can I be charged with tence of psychic phenomena), for the responsibility of explaining I am surprised at Beloff's cer­ such evidence is based generally on what Home did. For me to explain tainty that collusion can be ruled anecdotal (and often uncorroborat­ accurately how Home did what he out in the case of Katie King. ed) accounts of unsystematic obser­ was said to have done is not possi­ Again, all we have to go on is his-

SKEPTICAL INQUIRER • MAY/JUNE 1995 25 RESPONSES 10 BELOFF

torical anecdote, and such anec­ demand") in parapsychology is a of solid experimental evidence, per­ dote, it would seem to me, can rule reasonable and as yet unsatisfied haps all that is left to support that out nothing. demand, should be so enamored of faith is a levitated Home. In conclusion, I find it odd that the anecdotal evidence from the someone so astute as John Beloff at past. It speaks to me of some kind James E. Alcock perceiving the weaknesses and of faith—faith that Home as a gen­ Department of shortcomings of so much of para- tleman would not lie, or faith that Psychology psychological research, and that careful observers would not be Glendon College someone so forthright as Beloff in fooled, or maybe his overriding York University admitting that repeatability ("on faith that psi exists. In the absence Toronto, Canada

Which Skeptical Position?

SUSAN BLACKMORE

ohn Beloff has asked whether mediumship, spontaneous telepa­ am waiting for the psi hypothesis to the skeptical position is thy, group apparitions, and so on. reach the point at which believing philosophically tenable. Quite Beyond this, the "explanation" will in it does more scientific work than Jrightly he recognizes that there is do little scientific work. It will not rejecting it. I do not think that not just one skeptical position and predict the conditions under which point has been reached, and accordingly outlines two. Yet I these things should happen, who accordingly I am happy to call couldn't help wondering which one should experience them when, why myself a skeptic about psi. of these positions I hold, and I con­ they are so rare, and so on. This If ever it is reached, I shall cluded that it was neither. "explanation" will challenge our become a believer in the paranor­ Like John, I am absolutely skep­ views of matter, mind, and even mal. But I shall still be a skeptic— tical about some things, such as the time, but will not give us new or asking difficult questions and telepathic powers of Father better ones. In other words, it is sci­ rejecting vacuous explanations. Christmas or levitation by the entifically vacuous beyond its abili­ This brings me to one final Tooth Fairy, but not about the para­ ty to account for the anomalies. point. John concludes that "the normal, because I can imagine evi­ I may exaggerate, in that some opposition of skeptic versus believ­ dence that would make me change theories of psi do make predictions er is likely to persist." Let's try to my mind. I am not a "de facto skep­ (such as the observational theories), make it otherwise. His own argu­ tic" in the sense he outlines, because but the point is this: I am skeptical ments show that one can be a skep­ the incompatibility of the paranor­ because believing in psi does not tic and a believer at the same time. mal with our scientific worldview is get me anywhere. I cannot seem to He is a believer about psi and a only one part of the reason that I understand the universe, the data I skeptic about alien visitors. doubt the existence of psi. collect, or my own mind any better I am a believer about the life- Far more coercive to me is the if I admit psi. I want to understand changing power of NDEs and a fact that believing in the paranor­ OBEs and NDEs, apparitions and skeptic about life after death and mal does not get us anywhere inter­ lucid dreams. I ask myself ques­ NDEs involving psi. We don't need esting. If I believe that ganzfeld tions about life, the universe, and to be in opposition. results were obtained because there everything, and I have an open was ESP between sender and mind about what kinds of answers Susan Blackmore receiver, then I have to use the psi might be forthcoming. But in my Department of "explanation" to account for those experience, admitting the psi Psychology data. The same explanation may be hypothesis does not help. Univ. of the West of used to account for similar data and I am not waiting for even England extended to other claims, such as stronger evidence that psi exists. I Bristol BS 16 2JP, U.K.

26 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER • MAY/JUNE 1995 Historical Truth Is Not Exempt from Scientific Standards

RAY HYMAN

he skeptical position is ten­ height or higher and that in no case what conditions of visibility a phe­ able, according to Beloff, if was he ever detected, by any of the nomenon took place." To demand Twe consider only scientific hundreds of sitters who attended that conjurors replicate Home's truth. Beloff concedes that the case these stances, using sleight-of- phenomena under the "same" con­ for psi fails if we rely on the scien­ hand." I see several problems with ditions of "good illumination" is tific evidence. However, he wants to Beloffs attempt to use die "histori­ unrealistic if we do not know what find a rational basis for defending cal truth" of Home's alleged phe­ these conditions were truly like. his belief in the paranormal. He nomena as a rational basis of belief More to the point is that in the therefore argues that historical in the paranormal. I cannot discuss same period during which Beloff truth is a suitable alternative for jus­ adequately these problems in a brief says the art of conjuring has tifying belief in psi. This strikes me commentary. Instead, I will simply advanced, phenomena like Home's as question begging. If the scientif­ point to a few difficulties. have disappeared. Skeptics might ic case for psi were stronger, Beloff Beloff says that "the art of con­ reasonably conjecture that we no would obviously have argued that juring has made considerable strides longer witness such phenomena the skeptic's position was unten­ since those days. Why has no con­ because we now know more about able. Because he knows (believes, temporary conjuror recreated such a how they might be produced by desires) that psi is real, and he sitting for our entertainment and trickery and we also know more wants to ground his position on edification?" Here Beloff reveals the about the proper conditions under which to observe and record such rational grounds, he has to find an peculiarities of his position. He events. Skeptics might also guess alternative to scientific truth. His assumes that the "recreation of such that Home reared just in time to choice of historical truth implies a sitting" has to coincide with the avoid possible detection by more that it is an alternate way of know­ situation as described by contempo­ sophisticated investigators. ing. I would argue that this is a false rary witnesses. However, the subse­ dichotomy. Historical truth is not quent research on eyewitness testi­ Beloffs use of historical truth an alternative to scientific truth. mony, beginning with S. J. Davey's and Home's alleged miracles are an The trustworthiness of any histori­ 1887 studies of malobservation of attempt to place the burden of proof cal account has to be based on the seance phenomena, makes it clear on the skeptics. Whether Home, same considerations we use to judge why the reports of Home's phenom­ Geller, or any alleged psychic has the acceptability of a scientific ena, no matter how dramatic, can­ been detected in fraud is beside the account. not be taken at face value. Beloff, for point. The burden of proof still rests Beloff, along with other parapsy- example, emphasizes that Home's with the proponents. By today's chologists, points to die fact that sittings occurred in "good illumina­ standards, neither the alleged feats Daniel Dunglas Home was never tion." The "historical truth" is that of Home nor any other alleged paranormal phenomena have been exposed as a challenge to skeptics. the witnesses claimed that they proved by means of currently He writes, "The hard fact, against occurred in good illumination. In accepted standards. which would-be debunkers can only his report on "The psychology of bang their heads, is that, for more testimony in relation to the para- than twenty years, Home gave regu­ physical phenomena" (Proceedings, Ray Hyman lar sittings, sometimes more than Societyone a weekof Psychical, at whic Research,h in good 60illu, ­ Department of mination (usually gaslight) a large 1931-32), Theodore Besterman dis­ Psychology table would be levitated to shoulder covered that "sitters are able to only University of Oregon a very limited extent to report under Eugene, OR 97403

SKEPTICAL INQUIRER • MAY/JUNE 1995 27 RESPONSES 10 BELOFF

Is John Beloff an Absolute Paranormalist?

PAUL KURTZ

We should be indebted to skepticism. We need always to ask an article of unexamined faith, a John Beloff for his what the evidence is for a claim, form of the "transcendental temp­ W

28 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER • MAY/JUNE 1995 RESPONSES 10 BELOFF Extreme Credulity

MARTIN GARDNER

ho can disagree with totally destroyed by cancer, was Absolute skepticism about psi is Beloff's admirable instantly regenerated when a clod of indeed untenable. It is defensible to W earth from a saint's tomb was put on insist that extraordinary claims attack on absolute skep­ it. (2) Joseph of Cupertino, the "fly­ demand extraordinary evidence. ticism about psi phenomena? Of ing friar," who flitted above tree- There simply is no extraordinary course PK (psychokinesis) is logical­ tops. Beloff calls these aerial stunts evidence for the wild psychic phe­ ly possible, and so is the existence of "the best attested miracles associated nomena that Beloff takes so serious­ ESP. It is logically possible that the with any religious figure in history." ly. His difficulty, like that of so earth is a cube. Scientific assertions (3) The physical manifestations of many of his colleagues, is that are on a continuum that stretches the Boston medium Margery. (4) extreme credulity, coupled with a from almost certain to almost surely The Icelandic medium Indrid total ignorance of conjuring, has false, with all degrees of probability Indridason, who produced rap- rendered him absolutely incapable in between. The task of science is pings, breezes, ectoplasm, and of intelligently evaluating psychic not to proclaim absolute, final truth "unaccountable odors." (5) The claims. about the universe but to evaluate, Scottish medium Helen Duncan, As long as parapsychologists fail as accurately as possible, a claim*s whose spirit forms of the dead dis­ to devise an experiment repeatable degree of credibility. solved by sinking into the floor like by unbelievers, or to offer evidence Beloff surprised me by his the Wicked Witch of the West. commensurate with their extraordi­ absolute rejection of the possibility Beloff cannot believe in UFOs, nary claims, the majority of scien­ that aliens are visiting earth in but for a time he was enthusiastic tists will remain de facto skeptics. In spacecraft. I would give this a prob­ about Uri Geller's spoon-bending his book, Beloff derisively invented ability of less than 0.00001, but to and Ted Serios's power to project the term Flewism for Antony Flews rule it out absolutely is a curious thoughts onto Polaroid film. I once persistent skepticism. I have pro­ instance of unwarranted skepticism asked Beloff if he thought that, if posed the term Beloffism for the ten­ on the part of a man who believes someone had suddenly turned up dency of true believers to believe Palladino was a genuine medium the gaslight while Home was float­ almost anything. and that Home could levitate both ing near the ceiling, Home would tables and himself. have dropped to the floor. Quite Martin Gardner Beloff's latest book, The possible, Beloff wrote, because dark­ 3001 Chestnut Road Relentless Question, concludes with ness seems to play a mysterious role Hendersonville, NC five cases that he says no skeptic can in such phenomena! 28792 explain: (1) A woman's left breast, Quoteworthy ^__ The Victims of Psychic Detectives' over, and sometimes they'd charge the family money. . . . They'd say, "I see a street that starts with the letter C" or "I sec the number 7." "[Jody] Himebaugh [father of a 12-year-old boy who disappeared in And you're trying to figure out what all that means.' DiNova is among rural New Jersey in 1991] said no psychic ever asked him for money. those who would like to see psychics regulated. 'When the informa­ But that is little solace. He thinks they were after something (hat was tion they give families doesn't pan out, the family is literally devastat­ more precious to most of them—some kind of spiritual validation. ed again,' she said. 'I feel deep down in my heart that they should be 'They all say, "I'm not in it for the money"' Instead, Himebaugh said, bonded and be held responsible for what (hey tell the families. They (he psychics exacted an emotional toll. 'They get this information, should have some group that monitors diem." these visions, and then they want to know if it relates to my case or some other case, so they call me. ... All (his is what I go through.' —Dianna Marder, reporter, "Ivana DiNova of the Missing Children HELP Center in Tampa, Knight-Ridder Newspapers, Fla., said her introduction to psychics came 17 years ago when her in a nationally syndicated teenage cousin disappeared. 'We had psychics call us, or they'd come article, August 1994.

SKEPTICAL INQUIRER • MAY/JUNE 1995 29 Mediumship: Is It Mixed Or Just Mixed Up

GORDON STEIN

ne of the things to which believers in the

paranormal cling with tenacity is the Oidea of mixed mediumship. This means that a medium (substitute "psychic" or channeler today)

can he caught cheating sometimes, but may still be capa­

How should one approach ble of producing, and indeed may actually produce, real

the rationalization that phenomena at other times. In other words, it is a plea, catching a psychic or and a belief, that even though a medium has been caught medium cheating is no reason to believe he or cheating that is not enough reason to abandon all she always cheats? thought that he or she may be a genuine medium. It is

_ just that sometimes he or she cheats and sometimes he or

she doesn't.

When asked upon what grounds we should believe

that someone who cheats is only cheating sometimes the

best answer I have been able to obtain is that it is all a

matter of show business. Mediums are basically enter­

tainers. Their audience wants to see, and often has paid

30 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER • MAY/JUNE 1995 to see, a performance. If the medium is not in good form on a particular day, the audience must not be disappointed. Therefore, the medium cheats. One could counter that an honest person would not do this, but rather would simply tell die audience that he or she was not in good shape to perform that evening. Even if the audiences money had to be refunded, that kind of a statement would be what an honest person would do, and it is greatly preferable to cheating for the sake of pleasing the audience. The fact is that if the audience knew the medium was cheating, they would be quite upset with the perfor­ mance—more upset, in fact, than if the medium were unable to perform at all. Nobody likes to be cheated, except by a known conjurer when we dare him or her to fool us.

I would like to suggest a better nomena. Of course further testing, still repeated over and over. The standard approach to this whole matter, one that maintaining the stricter controls, is ones were levitation of a small table, I have hinted at before in print (Stein required. raps, sitters' being touched by a hand, 1992) but that has never before been Does taking the position outlined curtains of the "cabinet" billowing out, spelled out in detail. I refer to a princi­ above (namely, assuming die medium luminous forms flitting around the ple, adopted from the law, that says: to be guilty) treat the medium unfair­ table, and chairs or other objects being Treat everyone as innocent until ly? Docs it hold a person to be guilty moved. Many famous people sat in proved guilty; but once someone has this time because he or she was guilty Palladino's stances. Among them were been shown to be guilty (i.e., to have previously? The idea that a person's the Italian physician and criminologist cheated), then shift the burden of past criminal record is inadmissible Cesare Lombroso, the Nobel prize- proof from the observer to the medi­ during a trial for another offense comes winning physiologist Charles Richer, um, and from then on make the medi­ to mind. However, this is not an anal­ and almost all of the psychic investiga­ um show that anything he or she can ogous situation because the "offenses" tors of the late nineteenth and early do is not due to cheating. here were not unrelated previous ones, twentieth centuries (Carrington, What does this mean in a practical but tests of the same phenomena under Feilding, Aksakoff, the Sidgwicks, sense? It means that once a medium similar conditions at an immediately Lodge, Myers, et. al.). Many of them has been caught cheating, tighten the prior time. It's as if they were addition­ were totally convinced of Palladino's controls. Treat him or her as if he or al trials in the same test. Besides, there ability to produce paranormal phe­ she always cheats. Make the controls so is no finding of guilt the second time, nomena, even after she was convinc­ tight that cheating simply cannot but merely a tightening of conditions ingly caught several times using her foot occur. If the phenomena continue to so that if there is guilt, it will become to levitate the table and having freed occur, the medium is vindicated from more obvious. one of her hands from "control." charges of cheating, at least for now. If Perhaps the most notorious case At the same time, it must be admit­ the phenomena no longer occur, per­ where mixed mediumship was claimed ted that there is much testimony stating haps an initial conclusion can be made was that of the Italian medium Eusapia that some of the effects seen could not that there had been no genuine phe- Palladino. Her mediumship flourished have been produced by merely the free from 1885 to 1915. During that peri­ hand or foot of the medium. Hereward Gordon Stein is a physiologist, author, od she gave hundreds of seances and Carrington, Palladino's strongest and director of the Center for inquiry was caught in blatant fraud a number defender and later her manager, spelled Libraries. of times. Most of her phenomena were out what justified, to him, saying that

SKEPTICAL INQUIRER • MAY/JUNE 1995 31 someone who cheated could also some­ ipation in these seances, we move into example, not a specific case. Here, we times be authentic. He did this in his the area of criminal fraud. have a medium who may take the posi­ book The American Stances with Third, the idea that vanity was tion (often actually taken by mediums) Eusapia Palladino. Carrington's (1954: involved simply will not wash when we that, yes, he did do things fraudulently 7-8) response was that consider the fact that at times but, yes, there were other the medium may have Palladino often did not times when his powers were genuine. cheated on occasion deliver. One explana­ Indeed, with this hypothetical medium because: (1) real psychic tion for this failure on there were some times when phenome­ abilities are dependent occasion was that the na did occur and no fraud was detect­ upon an "inner energy controls then were sim­ ed. Was this simply a case of inade­ over which she had but ply too strict, not quate controls, or is it possible that little control" and, if it allowing any cheating. even our hypothetical medium (who, was weak, she had to An alternative conclu­ remember, I said was always fraudu­ resort to cheating if she sion that would sup­ lent) was able to fool the investigators was not to disappoint sit­ port the vanity idea at times? Eusapia Palladino, whose ters. (2) Palladino took "a simply does not work. mediumship flourished from Since it is not inconceivable that mischievous delight in 1885 to 1915. Why wouldn't she sim­ even a totally fraudulent medium could seeing how far she could ply cheat any time she fool investigators at times, it would go in hoodwinking her sitters." In other couldn't produce? seem that allowing the claim of "fraud­ words, she cheated just to see if she Fourth, while it is true that the ulent sometimes, genuine at other could get away with it. (3) Palladino stances often did exhaust Palladino times" opens the door to possible had a great deal of vanity and thought physically, she would often stay later wrong conclusions on the part of the of herself as someone who could never and produce additional manifestations investigators every time they relax their fail to deliver. When she couldn't deliv­ after many of the sitters (die ones she controls on a fraudulent medium. er authentically, she cheated. (4) The didn't like?) had left. It seems that her Wouldn't it be wiser from the point of production of "genuine" phenomena feelings of exhaustion dissipated rapidly. view of accurate conclusions to simply exhausted her, while artificial ones did Fifth, the "irresistible impulse" idea tighten up the controls on any medium not, so die cheating was done to save makes little sense. If she really wanted caught in fraud? If the phenomena con­ energy. (5) During semi-trance, she to fight that impulse, and was capable tinue, perhaps there are some genuine "had a strong impulse to move her of producing genuine phenomena, ones. If the phenomena stop, then the physical hand or foot and with it pro­ then she did not need the use of her medium is probably always fraudulent. duced the required phenomena." In hands and feet to produce those phe­ John Beloff (1991), who seems to other words, she cheated because of an nomena. Why, then, was she so intent have written the only other article on irresistible impulse. on freeing her hands and feet from con­ this subject, feels that each test of a Let's examine each of these in turn. trol? The statement that her hands and medium is a separate one, so previous First, the desire not to disappoint feet were necessary for the phenomena results should not enter into considera­ sitters is a noble one, but if it involves is false, and so the rationale for her tion of the actual events occurring in cheating, it implies a lack of integrity needing to free them is also false. the present test. He is only partially on the part of the medium. While "the So, none of the five reasons given by correct, since past evidence of fraud show must go on," there are many peo­ Carrington in justification of mixed should enter into the design of the pre­ ple who would feel more cheated and mediumship as a true state of affairs is sent experiments. They should be as disappointed if they knew that the very good. Perhaps there is no real jus­ fraud-proofed as possible, with the medium was faking it than if the medi­ tification for the existence of mixed type of past fraud being used as one of um honestly said he or she was unable mediumship. 1 would like to suggest an the major considerations in tightening to produce anything that time. In addi­ alternative. the design. tion, we have no evidence whatsoever When fraud is found, should there that psychic abilities depend upon be a feeling of "leniency" toward the References some inner energy beyond the medi­ medium? By that 1 mean is it reason­ Beloff John. 1991 "Once a Cheat, Always a um's control. able to even assume that there may be Cheat? Eusapia Palladino Revisited." Second, trying to see how much times when the medium can produce Proceeding, pp. 34-45. Parapsychological Association 34th Annual Convention, you can hoodwink the investigators is the same effects obtained by fraud, in Heidelberg, Germany. not a helpful attitude when serious this instance, by real paranormal pow­ Carrington, Hereward. 1954. The American investigators are trying to conduct seri­ ers at other times? We can obtain some Stances with Eusapia Palladino. New York: Garrett Publications. ous research. It obstructs any serious needed perspective on this question by Stein, Gordon. 1992. To the editor. Journal of the investigation. When we realize that looking at the case of the medium who Society for Psychical Research. 58: 407-408, Palladino was being paid for her partic- is always fraudulent. This is a nameless October. D

32 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER • MAY/JUNE 1995 A Young Grand Canyon

TIMOTHY H. HEATON

rowing up in Utah, I found the desert

canyons of the Colorado River drainage Gto be among my favorite places to visit, and they in large pan led me to my career in geology.

The scenery of the Four Corners area is spectacular, but

A university geologist it is also instructive because of the unparalleled exposures

critiques a creationist of sedimentary rock. Upon hearing as a teenager that the geologist's arguments that earth was very old, it immediately occurred to me that the Grand Canyon in particular and the Earth the deep erosional canyons of die Southwest demon­ in general are not as strated this. Try as I might, I could find no satisfactory

they seem to science. explanation for the vast canyons and plateaus other than

long-term erosion. As I later became an active hiker and

caver in the Grand Canyon and began my training in

geology, my early impressions were confirmed by much

more careful analysis.

I was startled to learn as a graduate student that the

Institute for Creation Research (ICR) had begun taking

SKEPTICAL INQUIRER • MAY/JUNE 1995 33 tours through the Grand Canyon over esoteric geologic disputes, such as the Grand Canyon: Monument to Catastrophe. source of certain sandstones, the origin Easter and using this setting to teach Edited by Steven A. Austin. Institute that the earth is only a few thousand Creation Research, Santee, Calif., 1994. of shrinkage cracks in mud, and the years old. I could scarcely imagine 248 pp. Paper SI9.95. presence or absence of sedimentary what kind of strange indoctrination hiatuses. Each point is well document­ was taking place as creation-hungry when it's staring him squarely in the ed from every perspective, but the Christians were being tutored by the face. His attempts to explain every geo- emphasis is to cast doubt on classic ICR staff in a balanced blend of arm- morphic feature as a relic of past interpretations involving long-term waving geology and prayer. Feeling process leads to some rather humorous deposition. At the end of each dispute that a heresy was being perpetrated and incomprehensible logic. Austin makes a brief comment on how against my childhood playground, I Grand Canyon: Monument to the Flood provides a good explanation decided to investigate. The primary Catastrophe, with its presumptuous for that feature, then he quickly moves geologist behind this effort was Steven title, was produced as a guidebook for on. For example, a nonrandom orien­ A. Austin, chairman of ICR's geology ICR fieldtrips and as the official ICR tation of 12 nautiloid fossils is used to artment and the editor and prima­ explanation for "the world's greatest show that they were deposited in mov­ ry author of the new ICR book Grand natural wonder," an alternative to the ing rather than still water. Throughout Canyon: Monument to Catastrophe. endless list of scientific and National the discussion Austin makes a special Upon request, he sent me a prelimi­ Park Service publications that teach point of rebutting the uniformitarian nary manuscript outlining his theory that the Grand Canyon is a monument ideas of Davis Young, a Christian geol­ that the Grand Canyon formed in a to time. The book begins with a theo­ ogist and critic of the young-earth cre­ single flood event, along with his other logical chapter. The biblical doctrines ationists. publications. I replied with a long list of a six-day creation, death originating Many of Austins arguments take of obvious objections to his theory, to with the Fall of Adam, and the world­ advantage of the fact that he is only which I received a respectful reply. wide Flood of Noah are expounded, studying a single region of the earth. Austin bears little resemblance to and special emphasis is placed on For example, by documenting that his rhetoric-bound mentors, Henry Apostle Peter's prophecy that in the there are no undisputed reefal lime­ Morris and Duane Gish. Ronald Last Days people would deny these stones in the Canyon, he is able to Numbers, in The Creationists (Knopf, doctrines. This creates a logical fallacy explain all limestones as carbonate 1992), describes him as the first great because, if uniformitarian geologists grains reworked by the Flood. The fact success story of a creationist getting are set up as the mere fulfillment of that classic reefs of equivalent age are through a graduate program in geology biblical prophecy, then their ideas will found in nearby New Mexico is never without losing his faith in a young of necessity be rejected even if they are mentioned. Another strategy has to do earth (quite a feat in my opinion as entirely correct! Such a starting point with scale. He points out the wide­ well). Austin has done extensive leads an otherwise rigorous, scientific spread distribution of sedimentary for­ research on catastrophic processes and book in a direction it cannot avoid. mations and attributes them to a vast has found that many geologic features The second chapter and part of the flood rather than local coastal environ­ once thought to require vast periods of third, in contrast, could almost have ments. But a global flood should pro­ time to form can in fact be replicated been lifted from an introductory geol­ duce worldwide sedimentary units, by short-term events. In his article ogy text. Principles of sedimentation and those in the Grand Canyon cover "Uniformitarianism—a Doctrine that and cross-cutting relations are only a minuscule area compared with Needs Rethinking" he outlines the explained as well as the interpretative the whole earth. Austin also asks why misconceptions of Charles Lyell, the framework needed to evaluate data. there is so little bioturbation of Grand father of modern geology, and shows Clearly the authors intended CO fit Canyon sediments if they were how uniformitarian thinking has their theories as best they could within deposited over millions of years, but a become a misapplied dogma in many the modern scientific framework. better question would be why there is cases (the Channeled Scablands of I will focus on the four chapters in any bioturbation at all if the sediments Washington State being a classic exam­ which Austin attributes the Grand were deposited during a rapid flood. ple). I concur with this analysis, as do Canyon's deposition and erosion to How he can attribute the overlying many geologists. But Austin has swung recent Flood-related events. The Mesozoic rocks, famous for their so far to the opposite extreme that he Precambrian rocks he considers pre- dinosaur trackways, to late in the can't see long-term equilibrium even Flood, but the 4,000 feet of Paleozoic Flood when all animals outside the Ark rocks exposed in the canyon he attrib­ were supposed to be dead is even more Timothy H. Heaton is an associate professor utes to Noah's Flood because they con­ mysterious. The book never even of earth sciences at the University of South tain fossils (evidence of death). In dis­ addresses the single most obvious Dakota, Vermillion, SD 57069, and a fre­ cussing these rocks Austin dives head­ problem with Flood geology: that the quent visitor to the Grand Canyon. long into agonizing detail concerning sedimentary rock record is composed

34 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER • MAY/JUNE 1995 of thousands of distinct fossil zones in BRYCBRYCEE CANYO CANYONN unvarying order. Austin uses fossils GRAND CANYON V G**Gi«y/ CutiCulls ** where they suit him, however, such as * WMlsCMI(mm CallSs attributing logs in Petrified Forest National Park, just cast of the Grand Canyon, to Flood driftwood! For the most pan Austin's research is rigorous and deserves praise, but in the end his logic fails on a count that is typical in creationist literature: he never presents a comprehensive theory BRYCE CANYON AREA GRAND CANYON AREA of how the Flood took place, where the (volcano*(volcano's* on north and south rtmtrims)) water came from, or how or from POST-FLOOD H™~fc, &A3 * - — £CCQ/1, i Q ——_ ——_ where it moved sediment to form the rocks of the Grand Canyon. In fact, most of these vital issues are never even 2IOZION CANYON AREA mentioned! A single diagram is given showing inundation and supposed LATE FLOOD zones of sedimentation (suspiciously similar to a classic marine transgression but presumably occurring much faster), but this raises far more ques­ tions than it answers. Without a com­ GRAND CANYON f prehensive theory of the Flood there is •»•>• no way to make a scientific comparison EARLY FLOOD of any kind, so pointing out esoteric problems in the classic theory is trivial and very misleading. Austin doesn't attribute the carving PRE-FLOOD of die Grand Canyon to Noah's Flood, & but he considers it a catastrophic event CREATION WEEK occurring in the Flood's aftermath. Here again he takes rich advantage of geologic disputes. Geologic cross-section through Grand Canyon region, showing different rock units and Steven Austin's creationist-strata interpretation. (From Grand Canyon: The Grand Canyon is as deep and Monument to Castrastrophe) spectacular as it is because a major river has eroded through a plateau that has load for only two minor intervals dur­ of capture, and deep entrenching is yet been uplifted by two sequential moun­ ing this period. to occur. The Grand Canyon can best tain-building events. The Canyon The big question Austin raises, be explained by antecedence with the opens on the east as the Colorado which has been raised by others, con­ caveat that some change in river course River crosses the East Kaibab cerns antecedence. An antecedent river occurred west of the East Kaibab Monocline, a Laramide fold structure is one that was flowing before an uplift Monocline at the beginning of Basin considered to be about 70 million years formed and was able to erode at the and Range faulting, a view well present­ old. The Canyon ends on the west pace of uplift, thus creating a deep ed by Ivo Lucchitta in Grand Canyon where die river crosses several faults at canyon. Most deep canyons are attrib­ Geology (Oxford University Press, the edge of the Basin and Range uted to antecedent rivers because, in 1990). Austin, however, presents the province that have been active for most cases, no other explanation makes antecedent and capture hypotheses as about the past five million years. This any sense. Rivers seek low ground, not two distinct, outdated theories that need creates semantic confusion as to how mountaintops. Rivers can, however, be to be discarded. In their place he pre­ old the Grand Canyon is, and Austin captured and thus change course, and sents a theory of catastrophic flooding makes his readers as confused as possi­ this appears to have happened at Grand that makes the problems of antecedence ble. He asks where all the sediment is if Canyon since some young lake sedi­ and capture look trifling in comparison, the Colorado River has been carrying ments are found near its west end. but, as before, his theory does not its current load for 70 million years, Course changes of this type are most receive the same scrutiny as die others. but this is a meaningless question since likely to occur just as uplift begins, since In brief, Austin postulates that two it has probably been carrying this high softer rocks form gullies that are capable large lakes breached a dam created by

SKEPTICAL INQUIRER • MAY/JUNE 1995 35 the Kaibab plateau, thus eroding the the configuration of the Grand having made this attempt with no Grand Canyon in very short order and Canyon in equilibrium or relectual? enlightenment, my childhood view of establishing the present drainages of Unquestionably it is the former. Given an old earth and long-term erosion the Colorado and Little Colorado a million years of current conditions seems more logical than ever. rivers. The fact that overland flow there would be considerable slope After corresponding with Austin would have circumvented the Kaibab retreat, but from all we can tell the gen­ and other creationists and reading their Plateau, rather than penetrating it, led eral appearance of the Grand Canyon works, I have no doubt that they Austin to postulate that the first lake would be virtually identical to what it believe in their convictions. They have failed by enlargement of an under­ is now. frequently been called dishonest for ground conduit. The theory that cata­ Austin cites the Channeled Scab- their blatant flaws of logic, but this is strophic flooding formed the Grand lands of eastern Washington State as perhaps a trait of human nature com­ Canyon is not new to creationists, but evidence that catastrophic flooding and mon to us all. Belief in a young earth Austin has expanded the model and rapid scouring of bedrock can occur, by a trained research geologist is most­ radically compressed the time frame to and appropriately so, but he fails to ly a testimony to the strength of reli­ fit his theological views. note the radical differences between the gious faith. Why certain Christians How would we go about testing features created by the Lake Missoula give the Bible the authority they do such a theory, especially when all direct floodwaters and those of die Grand and why they interpret it so rigidly is evidence has been washed away? Canyon. The narrow inner gorge of the hard for the skeptic to understand; but Testing for a flood has its problems, Grand Canyon and its equilibrium given that this is so, it is interesting to especially if it occurred Jong ago, but tributaries are the antithesis of the see the efforts to which people will go testing for a recent origin of the Grand broad floodplain, multiple overflow to make things fit. Canyon by flooding is a simple matter. channels, and gigantic "ripple marks" of Many readers may find this book The question to answer is whether the die Channeled Scablands. It would be especially threatening because of its Colorado River, its tributaries, and the hard to imagine two canyons more geo- mix of scholarship and creationist slopes of the canyon walls are in an morphically dissimilar to one another. dogma, targeted to a natural monu­ equilibrium state (i.e., whether they Much more could be said about the ment of great popularity. I like to look would have the same basic configura­ ideas presented in this book, it being on the bright side. Scholarship is tion if left to current erosion processes an easy target for critical analysis. more likely to lead to rational discus­ for an arbitrarily long time). Non- Many readers may even consider it sion than pure rhetoric, so why not equilibrium drainages can be found unworthy of a response. I disagree. For take the opportunity to discuss these wherever glaciation, catastrophic a young-earth creationist book it has scientific issues with our creationist flooding, or other nonstream processes reached a new level of scholarship, and colleagues? Only by breaking down have recently dominated. Such "de­ as such it provides a new opportunity the invisible walls that separate us can ranged" drainages are typified by to evaluate an old idea. Although my we hope to understand one another numerous lakes, U-shaped valleys, and review has been critical, I want to and find areas of agreement on which waterfalls where tributaries enter a assure my readers that I've tried my to build. I was pleased to sec that the river. In equilibrium drainages the trib­ level-headed best to see things through authors of this book break rank with utaries, even washes that only rarely Austin's eyes in hopes of finding some much of fundamentalist Christianity carry water, meet the river exactly at its spark of internal consistency and by taking a pro-conservation stand on level, and slopes are controlled primar­ insight previously missed in a cata- the environment. Maybe this is the ily by die hardness of the rock units. Is strophist model of earth history. But place to begin. D

Quoteworthy

"The producers of' 'The Other Side' (Four Point Entertainment show—worse, in some ways, than die standard morning assort­ Inc.) [a new show on NBC-TV] evidently determined that the ment of sex addicts, molesters with multiple personalities, and other lunatics—is, in shon, not good news. Trial defense time was ripe for a new kind of morning show to combat die lawyers, further, would do well to pray highly for a jury pool medium's neglect of out-of-body experiences, psychics, UFOs consisting of people devoted to programs like this, people nur­ and how-our-government-is-conspiring-to-hide-the-truth- tured in die belief that every claim is possible." about-them. . . . Clearly die show, like die daytime talk-freak shows generally, is based on the calculation that its audiences will believe any story put before diem, however outrageous, if —Dorothy Rabinowitz, in a review in the Wall Street presented with passion and conviction. . . . The arrival of this Journal November 14, 1994

36 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER • MAY/JUNE 1995 Ancient Aluminum Flexible Glass? Looking for the Real Heart of a Le

GERHARD EGGERT

The story has hardly been well-enough authenticated to war­ rant the publicity which it has long received.

Pliny, Natural History, Book 36, para. 195

o you like strange stories? What about

one with ingredients like an inventor of This incredible story is Dgenius, flexible glass, a tyrannical emper­ still being repeated and or, and a surprising end? The story, so critically com­ amplified even after mented upon above by the Roman encyclopedist Pliny almost 2,000 years. Is there any basis for it? the Elder (Gaius Plinius Secundus, A.D. 23-79), "who What accounts for its was besides not unduly skeptical" (Trowbridge 1930),

longevity? has it all. And more: According to the editors of Time-

Life Books (1990) in their Feats and Wisdom of the

Ancients, the story could be about aluminum. If true,

then certainly "the ancient metalsmith was centuries

ahead of his time."

Are you curious about it now? Here is the detailed

version given by the contemporary Roman author Petro-

SKEPTICAL INQUIRER • MAY/JUNE 1995 37 nius in his Satyricon (chap. 50, para. 7, appearance have had the desired metal­ shown at the World Exhibition in Paris to chap. 51, para. 6), where inserted in lic properties (fracture strength, form­ in 1855. In 1864, during an evening a conversation on metal tableware the ing by cold work), then the market for lecture at the Sorbonne, he told his swank Trimalchio boasts: metal tableware would have totally audience that he had had a Roman broken down. predecessor. He cited a General de Personally I prefer glass; glass at least In the Middle Ages, this fascinating Beville verbatim, who had "discovered does not smell. If it were not so story was often repeated (Trowbridge it in many latin texts" (Menault 1864). breakable I should prefer it to gold; as it is, it is so cheap. But there was 1930: 112). Alchemists searched for From this quotation, dc Beville's inten­ once a workman who made a glass the secret of malleable and flexible glass tions are obvious. He did not only try cup that was unbreakable. So he was in pursuit of perfect matter (Kunckel to flatter the modern aluminum pro­ given an audience of the Emperor 1689; Ilg 1873: 133-134). ducer for reviving an ancient Roman with his invention; he made Caesar give it back to him and then threw it tradition. He also contrasted the tyran­ on the floor. Caesar was as fright­ nical ancient Roman emperor Tiberius, ened as could be. But the man Ancient Aluminum who suppressed the invention, with the picked up his cup from the ground: modem French emperor Napoleon III, it was dinted like a bronze bowl; Where does the idea that the story is then he took a little hammer out of about aluminum come from? Every who acted as a patron of the technical his pocket and made the cup quite encyclopedia dates the discovery of alu­ innovation. sound again without any trouble. minum to the nineteenth century, so De Beville's idea to relate the story After doing this he thought he had himself seated on the throne of the existence of Roman aluminum is to the production of aluminum might Jupiter, especially when Caesar said certainly an extraordinary claim.* So, come from a misinterpretation of to him: "Does anyone else know what about the necessary extraordinary Petronius's expression aurum pro luto how to blow glass like this?" Just sec proof? Although Time-Life correctly habere (literally: to have gold as dirt). what happened. He said not, and then Caesar had him beheaded. gives Pliny and Petronius as sources The Latin word lutum, which means Why? Because if his invention were and cites them speaking of glass, its either dirt or clay, is here (and in other generally known we should treat version of the story clearly contains passages of the Satyricon) used in a gold like dirt. fakes, as is easily revealed by direct comparison as an example of some­ comparison. Time-Life calls the ctafts¬ thing totally valueless. De Beville pos­ man a "metalworker" and says the sibly interpreted the word as indicating Pliny (Nat. Hist., bk. 36, para. 195) material of the cup "looked like silver that the vessel itself was made from relates the story in a matter-of-fact but was much lighter" and "was clay. In his mind, what else could the manner: extracted from clay—just as aluminum material of die vessel be? It behaves like is." All these claims are fabrications a metal and competes with gold and The tale is told that, during the that have nothing to do with the origi­ silver, as "silver from clay," i.e., alu­ reign of Tiberius, a glass was nal story. Based on these and not, as it devised, so compounded as to be minum? A nice anecdote, indeed, per­ flexible, and that the workshop of falsely claims, on Petronius's and haps intended to cause a smile and not the inventor was utterly destroyed, Pliny's descriptions, the Time-Life be taken seriously. Later readers appar- lest there should be a decline in the book says, "... however, modern ently did not understand that—and so value of copper, silver, and gold. experts have speculated that it [the the story of Roman aluminum was cup] might have been fashioned from born. And there is one lesson of expe­ aluminum." Invent citations and you rience with such stories: Once promul­ The story must be seen in its historical certainly have a lot to speculate about! gated, they never go away. context in the first century A.D. The Of course the Time-Life editors did One simple, question was forgotten rather new invention of glass-blowing not do it themselves; they got their ver­ by all advocates of ancient aluminum: spread at that time, and glass vessels sion thirdhand. By a search in libraries, How did the Roman craftsman pro­ became readily available, competing I traced this account back to Henri duce it? Although there are claims in economically with luxury metal table­ Sainte-Claire Deville (1818-1881), the connection with Chinese finds ware (Pliny, Nat. Hist., bk. 36, para. founder of the industrial production of (Needham 1974), no repeatable 198; Forbes 1957: 170-171). Should aluminum. His "silver from clay" was method has been demonstrated using the new decolorized glass of crystal-like known ancient technical skills for the "There are also claims of ancient Chinese alu­ production of aluminum or its alloys Gerhard Eggert is a chemist and heads minum (see Editors of Time-Life 1990:26. and in the gram-size lumps necessary to Needham 1974), not under investigation here. the conservation department of the As opposed to the purported Roman aluminum, form artifacts from them. Despite Rheinisches Landesmuseum, Colmantstr. they refer to real objects and can therefore be Time-Life's listing of a large number of 14-16, D-53115 Bonn, Germany. He taken more seriously. However, the analyses, the dating of them as ancient, and the speculations editorial researchers, special contribu­ does research on archaeological conserva­ on production methods are not beyond every tors, correspondents, and consultants, tion and ancient techniques. reasonable doubt. no one has attempted just looking at

SKEPTICAL INQUIRER • MAY/JUNE 1995 38 what Pliny or Petronius really wrote or Roman bottles, which unlike open According to Muspratt (1858), what the background of their not "sur­ forms (sheets, plates, and cups) could thth e vessel was therefore not made prisingly true," but unsurprisingly not be toughened thermally even frofri m glass but possibly from molten untrue version is. today, have the same craquele patterns, sisilvel r chloride, which is a little trans­ Perhaps, Time-Life editors are less most likely due to corrosion during parenp: t and plastic. Unfortunately, to blame for what they included than burial. althougal h silver chloride is a frequent for what they missed—the real won­ All other evidence in favor of the ccorrosioc n product on silver objects ders of science and archaeology. As has hypothesis could be refuted in a eexcavatex d from salty soils, no Roman been shown recently (Craddock 1990), detailethere d studis,y indeed (Egger, ta strang1991be) metaas welll know. n objecol t deliberately made from to some ancients whose secret of pro­ Therefore, it has been concluded that moltem n silver chloride has been found duction was lost during the ages, at "hitherto no one has presented upj to now. least in Europe: zinc. A true feat of die unquestionable scientific evidence for Ilg (1873) critically discusses the ancients! Roman toughening of glass" (Eggert iided a that the Latin word vitrum here 1991a). mmean s enamel instead of glass, but concedecc s that this, too, would not explain the malleability. Thermally Toughened Glass What Else? ex Mellor (1964) says that the story Clearly, Pliny and Petronius were If not aluminum or thermally tough- ""recalln s the Delhi flexible sandstone." speaking of glass, and the later ened glass, what else could it have BBui t this can only be taken as an analo­ repeaters of the story understood it just been? gyy ("recalls"), not as an explanation, the same. Even the first glass technolo­ Other scientists, other speculations! bbecaus« e the interior microstructures of gists, living in the seventeenth century, Even Pliny himself, by referring the glglas; s and sandstone are totally differ­ did not believe in the malleability and unusual properties to a special compo- eentn . flexibility of glass vessels, because of sition, implicitly makes an assumption Kisa (1908) connects the alleged their own experience with that flexibility of the glass vessel in the brittle material and despite the story with fun glasses known from alchemists' claims (Kunckel early modern times having a spiral 1689). Their modern colleagues cut into the thin walls. When filled will certainly agree. But what they hold liquids, but, because of about the fracture strength? the slight flexibility of thin glass, Although one cannot render glass they leak when the rim and the unbreakable, its strength can be bottom are drawn apart. Even if improved, e.g., by thermal tough­ Roman glass-workers knew this ening. When the first method to nice trick, one should have found quench red-hot glass (in oil of relics of such objects. And, of 200-300°C) was patented in course, this glass would not be 1874, the new "verre trempe"" malleable, as Kisa himself admits. reminded H. E. Benrath (1875) of By the way, he has an interesting the old story of Pliny and suggestion as to the origin of the Petronius. Von Lippmann (1897) idea of malleable glass: a layperson, even drew a parallel with the hard­ not knowing the new technique of ening of steel, a process done sim­ glass-blowing, might imagine that ilarly and well known to the form-blown glass with reliefs ancients. A crucial step was taken would be produced similar to their recently by Rottlander (1990), lll|llll|llll[ hammered metallic counterparts. when he connected the old story Forbes (1957) is aware that the and the modern technique with a 0 1 2 3 4 5 i story cannot be literally true. In definite group of Roman glasses Broken like thermally toughened glass? Craquele his eyes, "it is more probable that on a Roman glass fragment from Flertzheim, found in Cologne. They appeared flexile refers originally to nothing Rhineland. Scale in cm. (Photo: RLMB/H. Lilienthal) to have broken during burial into more than the production of tiny pieces that lay close together. — — 'bent' hollow ware, with 'bent' Archaeologists remembered at first on the technical background. How- handleshi , in 'stony' glass, for the sight the fracture pattern of thermally ever, up to now there has been no glass aancientr s often classified glass with toughened glass, but a closer look can composition with properties similar to ststone.i " The story then became incon­ reveal the characteristic differences of those of the one purportedly shown to clusived , because such glass was— obvi­ the craquele" pattern. Long-necked Tiberius. ouoi s to the audience in the first century

SKEPTICAL INQUIRER • MAY/JUNE 1995 39 A.D.—frequently produced, so no such die company didn't start production, References invention was lost. so as not to lose the market for its nor­ More details and references can be found in the Bailey's speculation (see Pliny) is mal blades. The man therefore died German version of this article (Skepriker, 7:16- perhaps the most entertaining one. He poor. Despite the modernizing changes 20. 1994). commented upon the similar version (another invention, a big company tak­ of the story given by Dio Cassius in his ing over the role of the tyrant, not get­ Benrath, H. E. 1875. Die Glasfabrikation, p. Roman History (bk. 57, chap. 21, para. ting rich instead of capital punish­ 480. Braunschweig: Vieweg. 7), where the inventor repaired die ment), this is essentially the old story. Craddock, P., cd. 1990. 2000 Years of Zinc and Brass. Brit. Mus. Oct. Paper No. 50. glass with his hand: "Tiberius had him Tales that the breakthrough of an London: British Museum. put to death, and we may conjecture invention is prevented by conspiracies Editors of Time-Life. 1990. Feats and Wisdom of that he had found him out to be a con­ are quite frequent today, see, e.g., the the Ancients. Library of Curious and Unusual juring impostor." A true story about a rumors on green-powder inventor Facts, p. 24: "A Fatal Offering." Alexandria, false trickster? J. Andrews's death (SI, Fall 1993, p. 20). Va.: Time-Life Books. Eggert, G. 1991a. "Science and Source Texts on Altogether, these speculations form Stories might be true or false; per­ Glass." In Archaeometry '90, cd. by E, an impressively long list of possibilities. haps die most fascinating and remark­ Pernicka and G. A. Wagner. 247-253. Basel: But by weighing up the evidence, one able ones are those where you do not Birkhauser. can only agree with McDermott (1962): know exactly which, as in the case of . 1991b. "Virrum flexile" als rheinischer "The anecdote, its later versions, and still not knowing today of die possibil­ Bodenfund? Kolner Jahrb. Vorund Friihgesch, the problem of flexible glass have been ity of manufacturing razor blades that 24: 287-296. Forbes, R. J. 1957. Studies in Ancient Technology much discussed with little result." remain sharp for a long time. (There V. pp. 170-171. Leiden: Brill. may be better methods than to put Ilg, A., ed. 1873. Heraclius: Von den Farben und them inside a pyramid!) The ancients Just a Good Story Kunsten der Rimer, pp. 133-134. Wien: might have thought similarly of glass Braumiiller. Despite Pliny's critical comment it with unusual metallic properties. What Kisa, A. 1908. Das Glas im Abertume, pp. 175, seems that all authors looking for a challenge it is to our human endeavor 298-299, 699-700. Leipzig: Hiersemann. Kunckel, J. 1689. Ars vitraria experimental^ oder explanations implicitly made conclu­ to search for the truth in such stories. vollkommene Glasmacher-Kunst. Hildesheim: sions like this: the "story had been Olms, 1972, pp. 211-215,312-313. repeated so often, that one at last has to McDermott, W. C. 1962. Isidore and Petronius. believe in some true heart" (Neuburger Conclusions Classica et Mediaevalia. 23: 143-147. 1919). This kind of false reasoning is There is a lesson to be learned from Mellor, ]. W. 1964. A Comprehensire Treatise on Inorganic and Theoretical Chemistry, vol. 6, very well known to skeptics. Be it this case study. As we have seen, scien­ extraterrestrial UFOs, Noah's Ark, or 7th impr., pp. 140, 520. London: Longmans. tists like to speculate. That is part of Menault. E. 1864. Lecon de M. Henry Sainte- the Yeti: the number of "sightings" is their normal work of finding hypothe­ Claire Deville. De l'aluminium. Moniteur taken as evidence by believers that thereses tha t armuse opet n bteo experimentaat least "something,l falsi­ " scientifique. 6: 486-488. despite the bad factual quality of the fication or support by further evidence. Musprait, S. 1858. Theoretische, praktische und individual observations throughout. When publishing uncertain explana­ analytische Chemie. German ed. by F. Stoh- tions, scientists must always make clear mann, vol. 2, p. 908. Braunschweig: their limited probability, otherwise it Schwetschke. If not because of its "truth," why Needham, J. 1974. Science and Civilisation in becomes bad science and may be then was the story retold again and China, vol. 5, pi. 2, pp. 192-193. Cam­ again for almost 2,000 years? The triv­ exploited by pseudoscientists. What a bridge: Cambridge University Press. ial explanation missed so far by all the grand opportunity our story is for Neuburger, A 1919. Die Technik des Altertums. scholars and scientists: Consider the those who need ancient aluminum or p. 166. Leipzig: Voigtlandcr. main characters, look at die plot—it is thermally toughened glass for their Petronius. Satyricon. Trans!, by M. Heselrine. Loeb Classical Library. London: Heine- just a good story! An inventor is sur­ religion of ancient spacecrafts! (So far, I mann, 1951. prisingly, but convincingly, punished am unaware of such exploitations. Are there any?) Don't forget: when finding Pliny. Natural History. Translation and comment for economic reasons instead of being cited from: K. C. Bailey, The Elder Pliny's rewarded as expected, and the inven­ a possible explanation for something, Chapters on Chemical Subjects, vol. 2. tion is discarded. your job is not done. See if you can London: Arnold, 1932. find (or others have found) alternative Rottlander R. C. A. 1990. Naturwissen- Certainly, like modern urban leg­ ones. Then apply Occam's razor! I am schafiliche Uniersuchungcn zum rdmischen ends, an interesting story might appear convinced that die "just a good story" Glas in Koln. Kolner Jahrb. Vor- und in very different versions. Twenty years hypothesis performs best with this test, Friihgesch. 23: 563-582. ago I heard the following: an inventor at least in our case. So, when looking Trowbridge, M. L 1930. Philological Studies in Ancient Glass, pp. 110-112. Urbana: filed a patent on a razor blade that for the true material heart of a legend would never become blunt. He sold his University of Illinois Press. in reality, don't forget the zero-hypoth­ Von Lippmann, E. O. 1897. Zur angeblichen invention to a big company for a share esis: there might be none! Kcnntniss des Aluminiums im Altherthumc. in the sales of that type of blade. But Chemiker-Zeitung, 21:857. D

40 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER • MAY/JUNE 1995 Crop Circle Mania Wanes An Investigative Update

JOE NICKELL

*ith England's current crop of grain

("corn," in British parlance), there Whas sprouted yet another generation of "crop circles"—the swirled-grain phenomenon that for

a dozen yean had been increasingly imprinted across the

southern part of the country and caught the world's atten­

tion. "Circlemania" is in decline, however, as I learned on In the field among the a recent trip to witness the phenomenon first hand. (remaining) cerealogists, an afternoon adventure. The giant graffiti began to be noticed about 1980. Notions about their cause ranged from extraterrestrial

visitations to wind vortices. However, a study of the fea­

tures that characterized the phenomenon suggested

another answer (Nickell and Fisher 1992). There was an

escalation in frequency year after year, a similar increase

in complexity (from simple swirled circles in the early

period to elaborate pictograms in later years), a note­

worthy geographic distribution (the circles' predilection

SKEPTICAL INQUIRER • MAY/JUNE 1995 41 for southern England), and "the shy­ ness factor" (the phenomenon's avoid­ ance of being observed in action). These characteristics suggested hoaxing as the cause, and, indeed, in September 1991, two "jovial con men in their sixties"—Doug Bower and Dave Chorley—claimed responsi­ bility for many of the crop patterns produced over the years (Nickell and Fisher 1992). Last summer in London, where I was a speaker and panelist at the Fortean Times magazine's "UnCon- FIGURE 2. British skeptic Chris Nash examines the swirled-grain pattern in this slightly elevated view of a Wiltshire pictogram. vention," 1 met various "cerealogists" and crop-circle authors—notably Jenny John Macnish, who as producer of a Randies and Paul Fuller (see Figure I)— BBC program and a later bestselling as well as several hoaxers and video originally promoted die crop-cir­ swirled-crop artists. Fuller introduced cle phenomenon, has since written a himself and announced cheerfully that debunking book, Cropcircle Apocalypse he had reversed his former position: he (1993), that competes with Jim now believed only a very small percent­ Schnabel's Round in Circles (1993). In age of the grain designs are genuine, addition, some cerealogists have those he thought probably being due to become disillusioned and have given up the wind vortices postulated by Terence pursuit of the elusive "genuine" phe­ Meaden (1989). In his convention talk. nomenon. These include Meaden Fuller provided anecdotal evidence that (who, I am told, has turned to his ama­ FIGURE 3. Chris Nash (left) and fellow teur archaeological inter­ British skeptic John Eastmond are ests) and Pat Delgado— amused with a farmer's hand-made sign proclaiming the pictogram in the die "father of cerealogy"— distance to be a "hoax." who reportedly "'washed his hands' of die subject" Some new information pertaining to and suspended publication old matters has also come to light, of his newsletter. However, including Doug Bower's own photos of he has supposedly since crop circles he produced at Cheesefoot resumed conducting Head and at Westbury during the early research on crop circles 1980s (Macnish 1993, plates 15-18). (Fuller 1994a). Also Macnish (1993) relates how "believ­ FIGURE 1. Jenny Randies (left) and Paul Fuller, seen here Certainly many ers" at a 1992 CSETI watch for alien vis­ at the Fortean Times'* "Unconvention 94," coauthored others continue their itations were fooled by lighted balloons the book Crop Circles: A Mystery Solved. They still claim there are genuine crop circles produced by wind vortices. interest, which Fuller he says were launched by Schnabel and caters to with his infor­ an associate. He also provides new evi­ the "genuine" phenomenon had, spo­ mative periodical The Crop Watcher, dence^—previously suppressed by cereal­ radically, preceded the era of hoaxed although he cut back publication from ogists—concerning the elaborate circles. Skeptics in the audience, how­ bimonthly to quarterly. Interest among Mandelbrot-set pictogram: discovered at ever, were unconvinced by Fuller's data. dowsers appears to remain particularly the centers of the design's peripheral cir­ To relate briefly some new develop­ high (more on that in a moment). cles were small but telltale post holes. ments, die incidence of crop circles and However, the serious British news More recent information comes pictograms has declined since Doug media have all but declared a moratori­ from what I can literally call my field and Dave (as everyone calls them) con­ um on the subject. States Fuller research. On Sunday, June 18, follow­ fessed their nocturnal activity. Also (1992b): "Over the past couple of years ing the close of the Fortean conference, crop circles have taken a real beating I went on an expedition into the vast Joe Nickell is a technical writing instruc­ from the skeptics. In my opinion this wheat crops, conducted especially for tor at the University of Kentucky, the was long overdue and deserved. me by veteran crop-circle investigators author of scleral books, and an investiga­ Perhaps the lack of attention will drive Chris Nash and John Eastmond (both tor of strange phenomena. away the hoaxers." of Southhampton University) with an

42 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER • MAY/JUNE 1995 FIGURE 5. A dowser claims the reaction of his rod proves the pictogram is not a hoax but a genuine formation produced by earth spirits.

expanded from a few inches to several feet. "Wow!" we said.) Subsequently we made our way to the top of the hill to the nearby ancient barrow, where we encountered a group of young Christian evangelists. As we explored the barrow's tunnel-like pas­ sage with its flanking burial niches, overhead the young people sang and rhythmically clapped their hands to FIGURE 4. John Eastmond (left) and author Joe Nickell examine the "hoax" pic­ "bless" the site and counter any evil togram located opposite the famous man-made mound, Silbury Hill, seen in the forces. Oft" in die distance was another background. hillslope adorned with a large pic­ togram. assist from the United Kingdom's camera (Figure 2). Examining the swirl SKEPTICAL INQUIRER representative, pattern, Chris thought the figure a After dark we rested over refresh­ Michael J. Hutchinson (who did not, rather ordinary example of a relatively ments at an old stone tavern, where however, accompany us on the trip). simple pictogram. cerealogists had once congregated in With Chris at the wheel, the three of The second one we examined was droves. It was now hosting, among us motored into the picturesque more unusual, with a crescent-and-cir- others, a group of jockeys and three Wiltshire countryside. We passed de design, but it appeared somewhat skeptics—at least one of whom was through charming thatched-roof vil­ older, since the wheat was recovering tired but delighted with the afternoon's lages—including that of Avebury, set from having been matted. Amusingly, rich and colorful experiences. A train amid a great prehistoric circle of stand­ the farmer had placed crude signs at ride back to London, arriving at Paddington Station just past midnight, ing stones—and came upon a hillside the gate, requesting that visitors please brought to a close my crop-circle adorned with a giant white horse (one use the footpath so as not to damage adventure. of several ancient effigies formed by the crop and announcing huffily: "The exposing the underlying chalk). Circle—It's a Hoax" (Figure 3). By nightfall, we had discovered a Located just opposite the ancient References handful of circles and pictograms. Two man-made mound, Silbury Hill (Figure Fuller, Paul. 1994a. John Macnish at the British that were reasonably accessible are 4), the pictogram was nevertheless pro­ UFO Research Association, 4th December shown in the accompanying photos. nounced genuine by a group of local 1993, The Crop Watcher. 21 (Spring): 12. 14. The first was composed of a line of cir­ dowsers who had preceded us to the . 1994b. Editorial. The Crop Watcher. 21 cles—a dozen by my count, or, as site. One of them twitched his magical (Spring): 2. Chris waggishly clarified, mocking the wands for the camera (Figure 5) and Macnish, John. 1993. Cropcircle Apocalypse: exaggerating tone of crop-circle enthu­ explained that the swirled patterns were Pergonal Investigation into the Crop Circle Phenomenon. Ludlow, England: Circlevision. produced by spirits of the earth. He siasts, "exactly a dozen." (Rattier than (Reviewed by Paul Fuller. The Crop Watcher. follow the tractor "tramlines" into the observed that the figure was on a "ley 21: 18-28.) figure, we took a shortcut—carefully line" (a supposed path of mystical ener­ Meaden. George Terence. 1989. The Circles picking our way through the wheat.) gy) that ran from nearby West Kenner Effect and Its Mystery. Bradford-on-Avon. It is of course easier to see the over­ Long Barrow through Silbury Hill to Wiltshire Anetech. all pattern on a slope from a distance another ancient site. (Chris and I did Nickell, Joe. and John F. Fischer. 1992. The rather than from within the pictogram. our best to keep straight faces while the crop-circle phenomenon: An investigative report. SKEPTICAL INQUIRER. 16: 136-149. The skeptics did not have with them gentleman measured our invisible Schnabel. Jim. 1993. Hound in Circles: Physicists. their pole-mounted camera, but John "auras." After we had compliantly med­ Poltergiest. Pranksters and the Secret History of bravely climbed atop my shoulders for itated for a few moments, the witching Cropwatchers. London: Hamish Hamilton a better view and a snapshot from my rods indicated our energy fields had Ltd. D

SKEPTICAL INQUIRER • MAY/JUNE 1995 43 Book Reviews

exposing sychic Sleuths

ROBERT BAKER ^A Psychic Sleuths: ESP and Sensational Cases. Edited by Joe Nickell. ^ Prometheus Books, Amherst, N.Y. 1994. 251 pp. Hardcover, $24.95.

n his approach to the question of The claimants to whom these re­ crimes; two studies of the extent to Ipsychic detectives—self-proclaimed marks are applied and their investigators which psychics are actually used by the "psychics" who claim they help solve are: "The Man with the Radar Brain: police (one from the SKEPTICAL crimes—Joe Nickell wisely chose to Peter Hurkos," studied by Henry INQUIRER, see "Psychics: Do Police create a "task force" in which a number Gordon; "The Mozart of Psychics: Departments Really Use Them?" 17: of experienced, tough-minded investi­ Gerard Croiset," investigated by Stephen 148-158), and a fascinating, wry, and gators were each assigned a well-known Peterson; "America's Most Famous ironic survey of some of the psychic psychic sleuth and given a year to Psychic Sleuth: Dorothy Allison," exam- sleuths' "outstanding failures." examine his or her claims. Then, after ined by Michael R Dennett; "The The investigators' contributions are their reports were in, the distinguished Media's Rising Star Psychic Sleuth: incisive, thorough, factual, fair, and psychologist and critic of parapsycholo­ Noreen Renier," reviewed by Gary R clearly presented. All are well written gy James E. Alcock, agreed to evaluate Posner; "Veteran Psychic and make patent that none their findings in an afterword. This Detective: Bill Ward," of the independent investi­ approach was extraordinarily successful searched out by Jim Lippard; PSYCHIC gators rejected on a-priori and has produced—if not the final "A Recent Psychic Sleuth: SLEUTHS grounds the alleged psychic word on the subject—at least a chal­ Rosemarie Kerr," ferreted skills and abilities of the lenge of impressive magnitude. It is dif­ out by Lee Roger Taylor, Jr., claimants. The rejection ficult to confront Alcock's conclusions: and Michael R Dennett; occurred after the investi­ "The Mythological Psychic II III 1:111111 :I I gations were completed, The information presented by the Detective: Phil Jordan," clar­ not before. authors of the preceding chapters ified by Kenneth L. Feder In the event that indicates that even the term sleuth— let alone the adjective psychic— and Michael Alan Park; "A you, too, would like to try should not be applied to the indi­ Product of the Media: Greta your hand at pretending to viduals whom they have discussed, Alexander," exposed by Ward Lucas; and be a "psychic detective," Alcock has pro­ for despite the vaunted claims, care­ "A Psychic Detective Bureau: Some vided a step-by-step, do-it-yourself set ful examination reveals no successful crime solving but instead only tan­ Additional Claimants," listed and cited of procedures that are sure-fire. No rea­ gled webs of misinformation, gener­ by editor Nickell. son why you, too, shouldn't get in on alization, opportunistic credit-tak­ Extremely useful and informative the fun. If you are brave enough to give ing, and, in some instances, proba­ are five additional appendices evaluat­ it a try, just remember there are some ble deceit. Since they have not been found to be successful sleuths, there ing the use of psychics in the investiga­ gauntlets you will have to run, some pit­ seems little to be gained by debating tion of major crimes; an experimental falls that must be avoided, and some whether or not they arc psychic study comparing the skill of psychics, snares that can bring you down. These sleuths, (p. 173) detectives, and students in solving are the same ones that proved to be the

44 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER • MAY/JUNE 1995 undoing of the more famous and infa­ ic's apparent success is due to die enlightening rebuttal to the 1991 vol­ mous psychics that have gone before. faulty recollection of what he or she ume The Blue Sense (Mysterious Press, You must also beware of die doubters actually said; fourth, psychics tend to New York) by Arthur Lyons and and nonbelievers—and those skeptics deal in vague generalities—nothing is Marcello Truzzi, who found some who have read this book—will snicker ever very specific; fifth, other psychics sense and substance in die paranormal maliciously at your boasts and claims. frequently benefit from after-die-fact claims of these psychic pretenders. Nickell has, however, neatly enumer­ interpretations, i.e., retrofitting predic­ If you want to own die one best ated these traps for all you players in his tions and outcomes; sixth, and finally, if book on die topic of psychic detectives Introduction: first, some famous cases it weren't for all those other social and and their alleged powers, as well as of successful crime-solving never actual­ psychological factors that cause people their lack of same, Nickell's volume is to accept die accuracy of dubious infor­ ly happened; second, psychics used the one to get. mation—you'd be dead in die water. ordinary means for getting information that they then presented as having been Taken as a whole, Psychic Sleuths Robert A. Baker is professor emeritus of psychically obtained; third, much of a serves as a timely, definitive, and psychology at the University of Kentucky The Lessons of Lysenkoism

GRAYDON JOHN FORRER ^ Lysenko and the Tragedy of Soviet Science. By Valery N. Soyfer ^^^^•^^^^•^^^^•^••1 ^ (translated by Leo and Rebecca Gruliow). Rutgers University Press, New Brunswick, N.J., 1994. 379 pp. Hardcover. $35.

alery Soyfer has written an impor­ die Soviet biological community in its meager education in science and agron­ Vtant book for all skeptics and thrall for more than 40 years. Those omy, rose to dominate the Soviet bio­ those who would defend die scientific methodwho questioned Lysenkoan odr thhies cadreright s to frelogicae inquiryl establishmen. t through the use of The lesson of Soyfer's Lysenko and the were purged from government and guile and a keen sense of the political Tragedy of Soviet Science is that freedom academia without mercy. Indeed, die and ideological wind blowing through of thought is a fragile flower that may full power of die Stalinist police state the Stalinist state. be easily crushed by charlatans, fakes, was employed by Lysenko and his For Lysenko, scientific ignorance and demagogues unafraid of using the adherents to terrorize and silence all was a positive attribute. He was the power of the state for their own cynical who challenged Lysenko's pseudoscien- "Peasant Scientist," the self-made, self- ends. The book is a warning about tific theories. Thousands of biologists, taught new Soviet man. By his exam­ both the power of the state and die geneticists, and agronomists were dis­ ple, the wonders and promise of mod­ appeal of pseudoscience. More impor­ missed from their jobs, many served ern science and technology would be tant, die book is a call to action for all time in the Gulag, and made available to all with­ who watch with passive disdain the rise some paid for their dissent with theirlives . Even todayout an, y fuss or bother over of such modern Lysenkoist practices as die biological and genetic LYSENKO the niceties of proof or untested alternative medicine, New sciences in the former mid the analysis. He championed a Age philosophies, creation science, and Soviet Union suffer as a TRAGEDY new science that could be the demagoguery of the religious right. result of Lysenko's reign of applied directly to the vast While die story of Lysenko and terror. SOVIET economic and agricultural Lysenkoism is not new, Soyfer's intelli­ SCIENCE challenges facing the new gent and authoritative retelling makes Soyfer, a professor and Soviet state. He would, he for compelling reading. Beginning in director of the Laboratory proclaimed, revolutionize the late 1920s, die government of the of Molecular Genetics at VALERY M. SOYFER agriculture just as Stalin rev­ Soviet Union embraced die biological George Mason University, olutionized the world. He and agricultural theories of Trofim knew Lysenko as a young shrilly denounced those Lysenko (1898-1976) to the exclusion biology student in Moscow during die who questioned his theory and method of traditional biology and genetics. 1950s. He vividly and expertly details as bourgeois enemies of socialism and Lysenkoist Biology became die official the systematic destruction of Soviet the new Soviet society, and a credulous biology of both party and state and held biology and genetics under Stalin. He and scientifically ignorant political chronicles how Lysenko, with only a leadership latched on to Lysenko as die

SKEPTICAL INQUIRER • MAY/JUNE 1995 45 savior of Soviet agriculture. They pro­ couraged as a plot by the bourgeoisie to Today, we find an American public ever moted him, disguised his failures, and enslave the peasant class. All question­ more leery of the promise of science silenced his opponents. ing of method was deemed politically and technology to provide solutions to Lysenko brazenly declared that suspect. Academic inquiry and analysis complex global problems. The public, modern, Mendelian genetics was bunk were insults to the great Soviet people woefully ill-informed on the means, and propounded a theory that plants and consequently stifled. All progress in structure, and method of scientific and their unique genetic characteristics genetics, agriculture, and biology inquiry, readily embraces philosophies could be quickly "trained" to serve achieved in the West was dismissed as a and ideologies that seem to offer easy Soviet agricultural interests. Lysenko fraud. All independent biology and solutions. Unfortunately, the public's postulated that, through a process called genetics in the Soviet Union halted misguided acceptance—for example, "vernalization," plants could "learn" to unless it had Lysenko's approval. of the promises of untested alternative grow in any fashion that the Marxist At the peak of his power, Lysenko medicines and parapsychology—has state needed in its effort to revolutionize controlled the Soviet Academy of made it easy prey for those who, like Soviet agriculture. Where traditional Science and served as one of the chair­ Lysenko, posit solutions without proof biologists and geneticists argued that men of the Supreme Soviet—the titular and who argue that Western scientific many generations and many years were rulers of the country. He commanded methods and standards cannot be necessary to change basic plant charac­ the car of Stalin and later Khrushchev applied to the intangible universal truth teristics and develop new varieties, with impossible promises of the quick they seek to reveal. Lysenko asserted that progress could be and vast expansion of Soviet agriculture Soyfer's book makes a compelling achieved with the breakneck speed of that would demonstrate the superiority argument for standing up and engag­ one or two generations. of Soviet science while burying the ing in vigorous debate with those who Thus, for instance, spring wheat West. In the end, the Soviet state would bedazzle the public with scien­ could be transformed in a mere genera­ ordered the adoption of Lysenko's tific and logical sleight of hand. More tion into winter varieties. Elm trees method on a huge scale. The result was important, it underscores the need for could be trained to be hickory trees. an unprecedented, manmade agricul­ the community of skeptics to patiently Nonliving matter could be transformed tural disaster causing untold human and without condescension engage the into living matter. Lysenko, in short, suffering and environmental damage public in a continuing national dia­ strove to relegate Mendelian biology that continues to plague Russia today. logue about what science is and what it and proved agricultural practices to the Lysenko and the Tragedy of Soviet can and cannot do. waste-bin of history as the dying rem­ Science provides a rare, firsthand insight nant of an immoral capitalist science. into how a terrorist state uses and abus­ GraydonJoh n Forrer is a confidential assis­ Through all his years of dominat­ es public trust and ignorance to under­ tant to the Undersecretary of Agriculture, ing Soviet biology, Lysenko and his mine freedom. It is also a stern warning Food and Consumer Services, U.S. cronies never offered any tangible proof for those who believe that some form of Department of Agriculture, Washington, for his theories. Peer review was dis- Lysenkoism could not happen here. DC 20250.

Good-humored Adventure in the Congo

JOHN H. ACORN ^ Drums Along the Congo: On the Trail of Mokele-Mbembe, the Last ^^^^^H^^^^^M ^^ Living Dinosaur. By Rory Nugent. Houghton Mifflin, Boston, Mass., 1993. 243 pp. Paper, $10.95.

nlike claims for die existence of port. The 1985 Disney movie Baby, took the underlying idea seriously. Udie Loch Ness Monster or the Secret of the Lost Legend brought the After all, it's a silly idea. Sasquatch, the idea of a living sauro- "Mokele-Mbembe" to a wide audience, Cryptozoologists, on the other pod dinosaur in the Lake Tele region of but in my judgment, based on work hand, are often incapable of grasping the Congo Basin of Africa has never with educational books, films, and the extent of their own silliness, and as quite captured its share of popular sup- exhibits about dinosaurs, few people a casual observer of cryptozoology I get

46 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER • MAY/JUNE 1995 the impression that the Mokele- photographs, footprints, hair samples, perfectly well that he won't come back Mbembe is now one of their favorite and die like, are used to argue that (1) with a dinosaur, but by that point it beasts. In his preface to Roy Mackal's the animal exists, (2) it will be captured doesn't much matter. This is a book book A Living Dinosaur? the father of soon, and (3) the zoological orthodoxy about die Congo, its people, and one cryptozoology, Bernard Heuvelmans. is ignoring both (1) and (2). For zool­ of the last remaining tracts of more or referred to the Mokele-Mbembe as die ogists, and skeptics in general, two less undisturbed rainforest on the "zoological craze of the 1980s." If responses are appropriate. First, one African continent. It has but 243 indeed this was the case, which in ret­ can investigate the evidence for oneself pages, leaving only 71 for his expedi­ rospect it wasn't, the impact of and attempt to distinguish fraud and tion proper. Mokele-Mbembe was no doubt also misinterpretation from real empirical Of course that doesn't mean Nugent fueled by the recent dinosaur craze, corroboration. Second, one can con­ is off die hook. After all, he did set out which seems to have peaked with struct alternative hypotheses that arc to prove the existence of a living sauro­ Steven Spielberg's Jurassic Park. consistent with and explain the evi­ pod, and as skeptics we can't forget that Popular interest in this subject dence, but which have the advantage of fact, even if he is a nice guy. Nugent's began with expeditions in 1980 and greater parsimony by virtue of being credentials ate never disclosed, 1981 led by Chicago's Roy Mackal. less encumbered by poorly supported although he does (p. 124) claim to have Mackal's book, A Living Dinosaur? assumptions. Herein lies the difficulty been part of a group of journalists. The became a cult favorite among my biol­ for untrained or poorly trained book is liberally spiced with natural his­ ogist friends. To pass away die time we observers: judging parsimony requires tory notes, however, and these allow us used to read parts of the book aloud, breadth of both experience and educa­ to judge his credibility in a general howling with laughter at the sorry tion, and is more than just a matter of sense. 1 have not taken the time to excuses for evidence offered in support following a formula for die "scientific check on all his claims, but a number of of the Mokele-Mbembe hypothesis. method." For most zoologists, the idea problematic items popped out at me as We especially enjoyed Mackal's ac­ that such things as Mokele-Mbembe I read. For example, the lizard photo­ count of a supposed sauropod foot­ exist is far less parsimonious than the graph in the insert between pages 152 print (invisible in his photograph) that, suggestion that they are mythical, and and 153 clearly corresponds with the for reasons that completely escaped us, in the absence of definitive proof parsi­ text on page 213. In the text, the lizard could not possibly have been made by mony is not just die best reasoning tool is described as a "two-foot long reptile. an elephant. The idea that extraordi­ nary claims require extraordinary proof available but the only one as well. It has a triple-horned snout and stubby seems never to have occurred to Returning to the matter at hand, tail. . . ." The photo shows neither of Mackal, although he more or less this is an enjoyable book. Nugent is a these features, but is readily identifiable admits that he really hasn't established talented, intelligent writer with a sense as a monitor lizard in the genus die existence of anything. of humor. Whatever prob­ Varanus, These lizards do lems he may have with not have horns on their Well, the good news is that the foot­ credulity are compensated snouts, and possess long, print is still there, visible for a fee, and for by his admirable spirit whiplike tails, not stubby that a much better writer than Mackal of adventure. One quickly ones. Another obvious gaffe recently made the trip to see it. gets the impression that he appears on page 183, where Cryptozoologists seem to me to be a really could not have cared he refers to Lord Derby harmless bunch, with no particular less whether he saw a squirrels as "the best flyers political or social agenda, and for Mokele-Mbembe, which of among mammals," presum­ "fringe-watchers" their adventures and course he didn't. He gives ably unaware of the fact rationalizations make for entertaining no indication that he dial bats, which fly very fare. So, when I picked up Rory intends to follow up on his well, are also mammals. Nugent's Drums Along the Congo: On quest, and in that sense alone he sets These examples are not alone, and they the Trail of Mokele-Mbembe, the Last himself apart from just about every serve to underscore the need for a Living Dinosaur, I expected another cryptozoological writer in print. In pinch of salt when reading the more yarn about a pseudoscientific crackpot on a hopeless expedition. I was in for a fact, he is an adventure/travel writer, important passages. surprise; but before I disclose why, let not a cryptozoological writer. To illus­ For cryptozoologists, the highlight me quickly summarize what I believe trate, the first 172 pages of the book of die book will be the two pho­ to be the appropriate skeptical re­ tell only of his adventures on the way to tographs that claim to portray Mokele- sponse to claims for the existence of the rainforest, and in those pages we Mbembe. One is a very distant snap­ monsters. meet an amusing cast of petty bureau­ shot of what appears to be a log floating crats, witch doctors, and the everyday in a lake; the other might as well be a Every crypto/oological claim comes folk of the Congo. By the time Nugent flying, out-of-focus wedding bouquet with at least some evidence. Sightings, reaches Lake Tele, the reader knows in transit past a bed sheet. Nugent's

SKEPTICAL INQUIRER • MAY/JUNE 1995 47 account of his "sighting" is equally announce that "their film had been like sightings, or being led down the vague, and he makes no attempt to dis­ ruined." Even Roy Mackal makes it into garden path by the suggestibility of one's guise this fact. The final photo, howev­ this chapter, with Nugent recounting subject. Did the Mokele-Mbembe- er, is the telling one. It is captioned 'A the fact that "over the phone he left the hunting cryptozoologists possess these diorama sighting of Mokele-Mbembe impression that he was a full-time uni­ skills!1 It doesn't seem likely. in Milwaukee. (Dave Robbins, Inst­ versity professor, but I found him in the I predict that hard-core cryptozool­ itute of Comedy)." It shows a carefully administrative offices associated with the ogists will not be happy with this book. lit model of an ornithomimid dinosaur building and grounds department." Nugent doesn't try hard enough to pre­ with its head obscured by vegetation. What is perhaps Nugent's most tend he's a scientist, and he makes no At this point, it is impossible to know important contribution to Mokele- effort to hide his sense of humor. For whether or not the entire book was Mbembe lore appears on page 163, cryptozoology, I suspect it will be con­ written tongue-in-cheek, but as I said although Nugent himself makes no sidered bad press. On the other hand, earlier, it doesn't much matter. claim that it is significant. Here, he it is one of the most enjoyable Another highlight consists of recounts an interview with a witch doc­ "unknown animal" books I have read, Nugent's account of meeting Marc tor: "He believes Mokele-Mbembe is a and it exhibits a sort of frankness and Rothermel and three other members of a powerful deity that constantly changes lack of pretension that deserves praise. British expedition in search of Mokele- appearance, varying by divine whim Sure, Nugent is a zany adventurer who Mbembe. (Oh, please, let them write a and human perception. People have does things most of us would never book about it!) When asked if they suc­ come to him with wildly differing dream of but somehow he seems to ceeded, Rothermel is said to have descriptions of Mokele-Mbembe, and keep it all in some kind of perspective, responded, "We didn't see one bit of evi­ he believes them all, sure that no one at least between the covers of this book. dence." Nugent then sums up the results would risk their own well-being by lying of other expeditions before his. about the gods." The implications are John Acorn is a freelance science writer Marcellin Agnagna, a Congolese forestry obvious: if Mokele-Mbembe is consid­ and broadcaster. He has written numer­ agent, says he saw the beast, took pic­ ered a god, and if local people believe ous popular works on insects and dino­ tures of it, but "forgot to remove the that it can take any shape, then extreme saurs, as well as serving as science consul­ camera's lens cap." Herman and Kia care would be needed on the pan of tant for the Dinosaur Project, a joint Regusters, from California, had a similar cryptozoological interviewers in order Canadian-Chinese paleontological col­ experience, and returned home only to to avoid selectively presenting dinosaur- laboration.

New Books

^>

Camera Clues. Joe Nickell. University Corporation, 2203 Airport Way Available by mail only from: Fortean Press of Kentucky, Lexington, KY South, Suite 350, Seattle, WA 98134, Times, Box 754, Manhasset, NY 40508-4008, 1994. 234 pp. $26.95. 1994. 131 pp. $12.95, paper. Written 11030, or 20 Paul Street, Frome, hardcover. An authoritative work on all by a DNA expert and a science writer, Somerset BA11 IDX, UK, 1994. 350 aspects of photographic investigation. this is a timely and handy guide to all pp. $44.00 (UK: £19.99), paper. The Topics include how to identify and aspects of the use of DNA in the court­ first in an annual series published by date old photos, how to distinguish room. Succinctly outlines the science the Fortean Times, the journal of originals from fakes, forensic applica­ and technology of DNA testing and strange phenomena. Intended as a tions, "surreptitious" photography, and legal issues involved in understanding repository of contemporary Fortean "paranormal" photography: alleged and accepting the validity of scientific research from around the world, par­ photographs of ghosts, UFOs, and leg­ evidence. A final chapter, on DNA and ticularly research articles too long and endary creatures, "miracle" pictures, the O. J. Simpson case, serves as a complex to be included in the maga­ and pictures supposedly produced by primer on the DNA-related issues in zine itself. Filled with a variety of ESP. To be reviewed in our next issue. that trial. strange reports, unfortunately often presented with insufficient skepticism. DNA in the Courtroom. Howard Fortean Studies. Edited by Steve Coleman and Eric Swenson. GeneLex Moore. John Brown Publishing. —Kendrick Frazier

48 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER • MAY/JUNE 1995 Articles of Note

Abraham, Yvonne. "The Alienation Pseudoscientific Belief: 'Knowledge involving ESP, Lysenkoism, the Bermuda Effect." Lingua Franca, 5(1): 9-11, Industries' and the Legitimation of Triangle, etc. November/December 1994. Scholars who Threatened Worldviews." Advances in study alleged alien abduction risk damaging Group Processes, 10:133-162. 1993. Moore, Timothy E. "Subliminal Self-Help their academic careers. "It's difficult ... to Scholars often attribute pseudoscientific Auditory Tapes: An Empirical Test of use UFO research for tenure," laments one. beliefs to such individual factors as igno­ Perceptual Consequences." Journal of rance, superstition, and psychopathology. Behavioral Science. 27:9-20. 1995. Fifty- Barry, Dan. "Feinstein's Universe." The authors suggest, in contrast, that pseudoscientificthree subjectbelie s listenef ofted nt o originatepairs of s commerin nor­­ Providence Sunday Journal, November 13, mal group processes. They show how com­ cially available subliminal audio rapes that 1994, pp. 1, 24-25. A three-newspaper- mon errors in human reasoning arc often contained ostensibly different subliminal page investigation into how Rhode Island influenced by emergent norms within one's messages but were otherwise identical. direct-mail-sales multimillionaire/philan­ peer group. They also show that much Participants were asked to distinguish one thropist Alan Shawn Feinstein makes pseudoscientific belief arises normally out tape from the other. After 400 trials, their money. Included are reports on his Project of a struggle among cultural traditionalists, performance was indistinguishable from Indigo, in which he encouraged partici­ modernists, and postmodernists, and that chance. The data indicate that the tapes "do pants to direct a synchronized mental mes­ this is a struggle to promulgate one's cul­ not appear to meet the minimum condi­ sage to extraterrestrials; his holographic tural views over generations. tion necessary for demonstrating sublimi­ space-alien cards; and promotion in his nal perception, thereby obviating any pos­ widely distributed newsletter about the sible therapeutic consequences." "Face on Mars" as an alien artifact. Frei, Matt. "Italy's Obsession with the Devil." The Spectator, November 12, 1994, Nollinger, Mark. "Something Weird Is Cohen, Jon. "The Duesberg Phenom­ pp. 14-16. Each year in Italy an estimated Coming to a TV Near You." TV Guide, enon." Science, 266:1642-1649, December 12 million people seek the help of "magi," October 22. 1994, pp. 16-20. Reports on 9, 1994. A three-month Science investigation healers, and exorcists whose services are the latest manifestation of TV's fascination into the claims by Berkeley virologist Peter advertised in the yellow pages. with the supernatural and the paranormal, Duesberg that the HIV virus is not the cause the rash of "reality-based shows touting un­ of AIDS. The investigation concludes that Highfield, Roger. "It's All a Load of reality." although Duesberg "raises provocative ques­ Twaddle." Weekly Telegraph (London), tions, few researchers find his basic con­ Issue No. 184, January 25-31. 1995, p. 27. Scott, Eugenie C. "Science and tention that HIV is not the cause of AIDS Inquiry into why people cling to the pscu- Christianity Are Compatible—With Some persuasive. Mainstream AIDS researchers doscience of astrology. Reviews the evi­ Compromises." The Scientist, January 9, argue that Duesberg's arguments are con­ dence against it and quotes psychologists 1995, p. 12. The executive director of the structed by selective reading of the scientific Susan Blackmore and Adrian Furnham on National Center for Science Education offers literature, dismissing evidence that contra­ "the fallacy of personal validation," the way a thoughtful essay. After reviewing the many dicts his theses, requiring impossibly defini­ the human mind is made to search for con­ differences between science and religion, she tive proof, and dismissing outright studies nections, valid or not, and so on. A com­ points out that many scientists are also reli­ marked by inconsequential weaknesses." panion piece, "13th Zodiac Sign May Be gious and says acceptance of science does not Also finds specifically that in hemophiliacs Lucky for Some," has Jacqueline Mitton of necessarily require acceptance of philosophi­ (Duesberg's best test case) there is abundant the Royal Astronomical Society pointing cal naturalism. She emphasizes that it is not evidence that HIV causes disease and death out that the dates governing each astrologi­ wise for scientists to pose science as an enemy and that HIV now fulfills the classic postu­ cal sign are wildly inaccurate. In addition, of religion, since in U.S. society more than lates of disease causation. Also, Duesberg the sun is in each constellation for varying 90 percent of the people believe in God. cited the AIDS epidemic in Thailand as con­ lengths of time and anyone born between firmation of his theories, but it instead seems November 30 and December 17 is in reali­ Timpane, John. "How to Convince a to confirm the role of HIV in AIDS. Letters ty born under a "new" sign, the constella­ Reluctant Scientist." Scientific American, in response appear in Science, 267: 157-160, tion Ophiuchus. The BBC informed the January 1995. p. 104. Asks, "What makes a January 13. 1995. and 267: 313-315 tabloid newspapers about the new zodiac, scientific argument persuasive?" Says January 20, 1995. The latter includes "but they would not touch the story as they Timpane: "Conversion happens when a Duesberg's response and Cohen's brief reply. didn't want to discredit their highly paid piece falls into place and renders the whole astrologers," said a spokesman. puzzle new. Often the new vision is so pow­ erful that our decision to accept may seem Curry, Patrick. "Stars in Our Eyes." New hardly a decision at all. But a decision it is. Martin, Michael. "Pseudoscience, the Statesman and Society, January 6, 1995. pp. Precisely because they are not rational, such Paranormal, and Science Education." 32-33 . Curry discusses the human desire to leaps—from final ice flow to riverbank— Science and Education, 3(4): 357-371, know the future, which provides a living for arc wonderfully, deeply human." both astrologers and financial forecasters. October 1994. Science teachers should not be ignoring pseudoscience and the paranor­ Eve, Raymond, and Francis B. Harrold. mal, but using them to teach critical-think­ —Kendrick Frazier "The Influence of Group Process on ing skills. Martin offers lesson suggestions and Robert Lopresti

SKEPTICAL INQUIRER • MAY/JUNE 1995 49 Follow-Up

Empirical Evidence for Reincarnation? A Response to Leonard Angel

IAi N STEVENSON

f I could be sure that readers of the either event, it seems risky, because for which Haffez was not a verifier. I SKEPTICAL INQUIRER would ex­ anyone turning to my report could tabulated 61 statements in the two tab­ Iamine my report of the case of Imad read (on page 283) the following: ulations of my report (these ate apart Elawar (Stevenson 1974), I should have from Imad's recognitions). Of these, no need to reply to Leonard Angel's At the end of my stay in Lebanon in 49 were correct for Ibrahim, 5 unveri­ criticism of my investigation of it March, 1964, the verifications of the fied, 6 incorrect, and I doubtful. Two statements attributed to Imad (Angel 1994). Readers of my report Elawar had come largely from only of the items I list as incorrect were would quickly learn that Angel's state­ one witness, Mr. Haffez Bouhamzy. partly correct or doubtful. ments show grave omissions of impor­ ... I had no reason to doubt Mr. Angel would disqualify Haffez tant information that I included in the Haffez Bouhamzy's testimony, but Bouhamzy as a reliable informant believed that I ought to check it report as well as inappropriate against that of other witnesses. I because he said incorrectly that emphases on certain discrepancies in therefore decided to return to Ibrahim Bouhamzy had had tuberculo­ the testimony and verifications. Lebanon and did so in August, sis of the spine. (In my full Reply to If the SKEPTICAL INQUIRER were a 1964. Angel I offered a plausible explanation scientific journal, its editor would have of how Haffez came to misunderstand invited me to prepare a reply that After this passage I give the names the organs affected by Ibrahim's tuber­ would be published in the same issue of the additional informants I inter­ culosis, but I do not deny that he was as Angel's article. Instead, I only viewed in August 1964. Angel makes mistaken on this point.) In emphasiz­ learned about Angel's article from no mention of this second trip to ing this mistake, however. Angel over­ friends who persuaded me to depart Lebanon made for the express purpose looks the confirmation by other infor­ from my policy of ignoring criticisms of extending the verifications. He mants of all but one of Haffez's 23 ver­ published in magazines. I then sent to states that Haffez Bouhamzy was a ver­ ifications for which there was another the editor a detailed reply, which he has ifier for 28 items, which is true. What verifier. In confirming Haffez's state­ found too long to publish (notwith­ he leaves out is that of these items only ments Nabih Bouhamzy made a valu­ standing the considerable length of 5 depended solely on Haffez able witness, because he had not been Angel's article). I am given adequate Bouhamzy for their verification. (In present when I had interviewed Haffez. space to reply to only one of Angel's this count I have omitted item 1 of (Haffez was present during my inter­ points, and accordingly I have selected Tabulation One of my report; view with Nabih.) Also, having lived in one of his most egregious distortions. although I recorded in the tabulation the United States, he spoke English, Angel claims that I placed too much only Haffez Bouhamzy as verifying it, which obviated possible errors in trans­ reliance on the verifying testimony of several other informants obviously did lation. I interviewed Ibrahim's brother Haffez Bouhamzy, Ibrahim Bouham- so also.) For all the other verifiable and Fuad without Haffez being present. In zy's cousin. I cannot say whether Angel correct items I found one or more a footnote on pages 281-282 of my made this statement from ill-consid­ other persons who verified them. Imad report of the case I drew attention to ered guile or from carelessness. In also made 20 other correct statements the concordance between Fuad's testi-

50 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER • MAY/JUNE 1995 mony and that of Haffez in matters studied other cases that presented a References other than Ibrahim's final illness. Angel similar problem: that of finding a per­ does not mention this footnote or the son exactly matching the subject's state­ Angel. Leonard. 1994. Empirical evidence for nearly uniform agreement of other ments. Interested readers can find reincarnation? Examining Stevenson's "most informants with Haffez. examples in reports—by myself and important" case. SKEPTICAL INQUIRER. 18:481-487. Readers wishing to study my full other investigators—of other cases with Haraldsson, Erlendur. 1992. Children claiming written records made before verifica­ reply to Angel with its correction of his past-life memories: Four cases in Sri Lanka. other misrepresentations may obtain a tion (Mills, Haraldsson, and Keil 1994; Journal of Scientific Exploration, 5:233-261. copy by writing to me at the address Stevenson 1977; Stevenson and Mills, Antonia: Haraldsson, Erlendur, and Keil; below; alternatively, they could read Samararatne 1988; and Haraldsson H. H. Jurgen. 1994. Replication studies of my original report of the case of Imad 1992). Our endeavor in all such cases is cases suggestive of reincarnation by three Elawar and learn from doing so how not just that of finding a deceased per­ independent investigators. Journal of the American Society for Psychical Research, misleading Angel was in other state­ son who matches the child's statements; 88:207-219. we want to be as certain as we can that ments in his article. Stevenson. Ian. 1974. Twenty dues Suggestive of the statements match the life of no one In conclusion, I would like to men­ Reincarnation. 2nd cd. rev. Charlottesville: else. I believe that the case of Imad tion that, since my investigation of University Press of Virginia. Elawar reaches this standard, and I con­ Stevenson, Ian. 1977. Cases of the Reincarnation Imad's case, my colleagues and I have tinue to think it one of the strongest Type: II. Ten Cases in Sri Lanka. Char­ cases I have investigated. Since its inves­ lottesville: University Press of Virginia. Ian Stevenson is Carlson Professor of tigation, we have found others as good Stevenson. Ian, and Godwin Samararatne. 1988. Three new cases of the reincarnation type in Psychiatry at the University of Virginia or stronger. It is therefore particularly (Department of Psychiatric Medicine, Sri Lanka with written records made before foolish for Angel to claim that if he verification. Journal of Nervous and Mental Division of Personality Studies, Box 152 could discredit the case of Imad Elawar, Disease, 176:741. (See also more detailed Health Sciences Center, Charlottesville, his work would be over. reports of these cases in the Journal of VA 22908 U.S.A.). Scientific Exploration, 1988, 2:217-238.)

Leonard Angel Replies

Unfortunately, Ian Stevenson's response not aware of what a previous informant found wasn't Mahmoud, had never only confirms the difficulty he has grasp­ has said. Why else would Stevenson married, and died of tuberculosis. ing the content of elementary criticisms. not say whether open or closed ques­ Stevenson had the child available to The claim in point 5 of my article was tions were put to Fuad and Nabih, and him when he was establishing the not that we must "disqualify Haffez" for whether his interviewing methods claims. Why in the world didn't having made an error. The focus was on allowed them to infer what Haffez's Stevenson ensure, prior to verification, {a) the inadequacies of Stevenson's inter­ testimony had been? Stevenson's lack that the child clarified the basic facts viewing procedures, (b) the inadequacies of discussion of these matters then and concerning who he thought he had of his reporting on his interviewing pro­ now shows his unawareness, or worse, been? That Stevenson still doesn't rec­ cedures, and (c) the consequent unrelia­ of crucial issues concerning interview­ ognize the devastating impact this has bility of verifications asserted. That is, ing methods. on his case (and continues to regard it there are grounds to severely doubt that Finally, I too would encourage read­ as one of his strongest) shows the what Stevenson counted as having been ers to send for Stevenson's full reply. In poverty of his standards. verified had indeed been properly veri­ it, for the first time, he admits unam­ My Enlightenment East and West fied. This was clearly stated, and it is sur­ biguously that when he first went to (SUNY Press, 1994, pp. 280-291) pre­ prising that Stevenson has missed the Khriby (i.e., after supposedly having sents my analysis of the Imad Elawar point. settled any uneasiness he had over the case in fuller detail than the SI article. To the charge that he seems to have accuracy of his notes of the boy's Also, I'd be happy to correspond on been unaware of proper interviewing claims), Stevenson recorded that the these matters. methods, Stevenson can't respond, "Yes, boy was claiming to have been but look how much interviewing I Mahmoud, married to Jamileh, who Leonard Angel did!" which is the content of his letter. died as a result of a truck accident after Dept. of Arts and Humanities After all these years Stevenson still a quarrel with the driver. Yet Stevenson Douglas College seems ignorant of the issues. He does­ allowed the claims to be so radically P.O. Box 2503 n't seem to understand the relevance of reinterpreted during and subsequent to New Westminster, B.C. V3L 5B2 checking to make sure that a verifier is the verification visits that the person Canada

SKEPTICAL INQUIRER • MAY/JUNE 1995 51 Forum

postmodernism and Jew Age Unreason

GEORGE ENGLEBRETSEN

In Book Gamma of the Metaphysics, moderns based their willingness to verse with those who would reject the Aristotle considers the possibility that accept or reject a speaker's claim on constraints of logic might well be con­ one might deny the universal logical their judgment of how well it seemed sidered now as Adam's Fall with respect constraints on rational discourse. In to fit the facts of the case and to what to the "ethics of conversation." particular, he is concerned with those extent it was logically consistent with So there is no truth. Or, to be fair, who might deny the law of noncontra­ the speaker's other claims or assump­ there is no Truth. diction ("A statement and its negation tions. By contrast, postmoderns "play There are lots of little truths, all of cannot both be true at the same time"). the believing game," accepting the which are relative to the social, psycho­ His conclusion is that such a speaker speaker's claim according to the degree logical, historical, political, etc., con­ could not be counted on to say what he of sincerity the speaker exhibits. Truth texts of their utterances. Consequently, or she means (or mean what is said). and coherence are no longer allowed to there can be no disagreement. A says And his advice to us is not to attempt bully us in our communicative efforts. "X" while B says "Not X." But by post­ conversation with such people. Expertise and authority are no longer modern lights they do not contradict Postmodern thinkers claim to have the possession of only an elite few. We one another. (Indeed, today Whitman broken die fetters of logic (inter alia) all share expertise and authority equal­ could not even contradict himself!) A that have characterized the modern ly. Communication, finally, is demo­ says what she says as a woman, or as an notion of rational discourse. The cratic. The premodern and modern in­ oriental, or as an unemployed person, result, it is claimed, is a new freedom of formed and rational despots have been or as a mother, and so on and so on. B communication. Rationality, in the overthrown. We are all informed; we says what he says as a male, or as an sense of allegiance to universal logical are all rational. Hispanic, or as an artist, and so on and constraints, is no longer the only, or As a consequence of this newfound so on. One man's (or woman's) "X" is even major, "communicative virtue." communicative democracy, none of us another's "Not X," depending on who Social, psychological, political, histori­ is in a privileged position relative to (= where, when, what gender, race, age, cal considerations must all take prece­ another when it comes to imparting etc.) they arc. dence over logic. Judging the rational knowledge and understanding. Any­ A new age of communicative success of a piece of discourse (or one can teach anything to anyone else. democracy has now dawned, so the "text") is now a matter to be dealt with Thus, no sin is greater in these post­ cant goes. And this new age has helped by social scientists and literary critics modern times than the sin of "sub-dia­ foster the New Age. Now there is a rather than by logicians (the ones in logic discourse," i.e., monologue (lec­ strong temptation to simply ignore whom moderns and premoderns had turing, instructing, etc.) or null dis­ nonsense, unreason, irrationality. The invested the task of defining rationali­ course (silence, closing conversation). rationalist often, and understandably, ty). Freed from the confines of logic, As that guru of American postmod­ wants to say that those who live in discourse can now become open, hon­ ernism, Richard Rorty, has said, our ignorance deserve the consequences. est, sincere, politically sensitive, histor­ only task is to "keep the conversation But the simple fact is that all of us suf­ ically conditioned. Premoderns and going." Aristotle's refusal even to con- fer the consequences of willful stupidi-

52 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER • MAY/JUNE 1995 ty. When reason is under attack, as it certainly is today, there are many vic­ tims. In particular, science and educa­ tion are compromised, contorted, den­ igrated, denied. And when the war against reason is backed by a large cadre of articulate sophists (e.g., the postmodern philosophers and literary critics) the results are even more insid­ ious. Postmoderns conjure a vision of science, viewed as "no more than the handmaiden of technology," according to Rorty, which is virtually evil itself. Science, from this point of view, is to blame for most of today's economic, environmental, and medical ills. Anti- science, pseudoscience, and literature constitute a new trivium. The latter is the "presiding discipline" of postmod­ ern culture. Education, at all levels, is seen as contributing to the advance of this evil science. Moreover, the whole idea of education as it has been prac­ ticed since the Enlightenment is reject­ ed on moral grounds. There can be no separation of teacher (master) and stu­ dent (slave) when there are no univer­ sal standards of truth.

Postmoderns are fond of their uni­ versal tolerance of all ideas. After all, by postmodern lights all ideas are equal (i.e., equally true). My idea that the reason Clinton is having political trou­ bles is because he committed a series of hurtful acts during one of his previous lives and your idea that his troubles are due to a complex array of personal and political factors arc on a par with each other. Each deserves the same consider­ ation. Each is to be tolerated. The irony here is that this universal toler­ ance for ideas (reasonable and unrea­ sonable alike) is coupled with a dis­ turbing intolerance for people. The philosophy that sees only "local" truths the long run at least, tends to manifest moderns and New Agers, the kind of rather than universal truths not only itself in racism, nationalism, sexism, thinking that scorns and abjures rea­ repudiates science (the attempt to and the like. When my truth and your son. If we are to keep away the dark­ know the truth), but divides people truth are different depending on the ness of ignorance and intolerance, according to their locality, according to differences between us, then the differ­ philosophers, scientists, and educators who, where, when, what color, gender, ences between us cannot be ignored— who honor the universal benefits of etc., they are. The natural result of they matter too much. modern science, liberal education, and such division is an intolerance that, in If a new Dark Age is about to rational discourse must cast light on descend upon us, as many believe, it today's advocates of nonsense wherever will be the result of a variety of factors they are found. For, as Goethe said, George Englebretsen is in the Department (just as with the last Dark Age). But humans fear reason, but they ought to of Philosophy, Bishop's University, surely one important factor will be the fear stupidity—for reason can be hard, Lennoxville, Quebec JIM 1Z7, Canada kind of thinking advocated by post- but stupidity can be fatal. D

SKEPTICAL INQUIRER • MAY/JUNE 1995 53 Guru frontpage 11 for a half-hour while the control group For a while, Henning threatened to merely closed their eyes and relaxed. take Veda Land away from Niagara divine their secret mantra by ESP! Blood samples were taken and mea­ Falls unless the city fathers refused to In 1994 the cost of a basic TM surements made of chemicals indicat­ allow a gambling casino to open in course jumped from $400 to $1,000. ing stress. The researchers concluded town. Gambling, said Doug, always Officials insist that for decades the that TM meditation failed to induce a brings a plague of hookers. When the price has been too low to meet expens­ metabolic state distinguishable from city refused to bar gambling, Doug es. Besides, they argue, the new price one achieved by just sitting quietly and changed his mind. After all, could not will winnow out dabblers. possibly dozing. Veda Land's Vedic flyers counter the Does mantra meditation relieve Similar studies have shown that evils of betting and prostitution by stress more effectively than praying or focusing on a Hindu mantra is no more their sidhi powers? "Darkness," just sitting quietly with closed eyes? In effective in calming the mind than declared Doug, "cannot show itself in 1976, a study of this was made at the focusing on any other word, such as the face of light." University of Michigan and reported in peace, one, or banana. Psychologist Will Veda Land and its floating Science News (June 19). A group of David Holmes, at the University of building ever get off the ground? It's trained TMers were compared with a Kansas, could find no physiological dif­ possible, but my crystal ball tells me it control group of subjects unfamiliar ference between meditation and relax­ is no more than a fantasy in Doug with TM. The TM group meditated ing for 20 minutes in a reclining chair. Henning's field of consciousness. D

young diabetic boy telling his father beings don't offer the specific dates, Idles from page 13 that he has just seen the Virgin Mary at times, and locations of devastating remote-controlled camera in Dianne's Medjugorje, in the former Yugoslavia. earthquakes or other unpredictable residence to capture the frequent kid­ But the words on the tape are so mud­ natural phenomena so skeptics can nappings on tape? Apparently not. dled, the producers superimpose the believe. STOP. FAST FORWARD. PLAY. child's reputed words on the screen. If Raphael introduces a man whose It's the day after Christmas and Sally the child did see Mary, it didn't cure his rosary beads supposedly turned to gold Jessy Raphael's topic is mystical vision­ diabetes. His mother claims the need after a visit to Medjugorje. Has aries. She's brought in Michael H. for insulin dropped for about a week, Raphael or her staff had the rosary ana­ Brown, journalist and author of The but in the end the youngster has not lyzed to check if gold is really there? Final Hour, to help her "investigate" been healed. Apparently not. Have Raphael or her various reports of people seeing God, Among Raphael's other guests are staff done their homework and discov­ Jesus, and the Virgin Mary. "Estela," who says that the Virgin ered that people often rub off the silver Brown, asked about the authentici­ Mary visits her monthly. Estela reveals plating to reveal copper or brass ty of such apparitions, sounds as if he's that Mary looks exactly like the photo­ beneath, or that tarnishing caused by reading from the same playbook as graph she had been looking at just repeated rubbing can give silver a gold­ John Mack when he declares, "I have before the apparition appeared, an odd en hue? If they have, Raphael's not no doubt because of the consistency coincidence Raphael never questions. telling her viewers. and detail" from place to place and Then there's "Jim," who has repeat­ PAUSE. from person to person. edly spoken to God and Jesus. Raphael And the television industry's quest Raphael shows a videotape of a doesn't think to ask why these divine to inform the public continues.

You can make a lasting impact on the future of skepticism. . . . when you provide for the SKEPTICAL INQUIRER in your will. CSICOP and the SKEPTICAL INQUIRER changed the terms of discussion in We would be happy to work with you and your attorneorneyy In fields ranging from pseudoscience and the paranormal to science the development of a will or estate plan that meets your wishes. and educational policy. You can take an enduring step to preserve A variety of arrangements are possible, including gifts of a fixed its vitality when you provide for the Skeptical Inquirer in your will. amount or a percentage of your estate; living trusts or gift annu­ Your bequest to CSICOP, Inc., will help to provide for the future ities, which provide you with a lifetime income; or a contingent of skepticism as it helps to keep the SKEPTICAL INQUIRER financially bequest that provides for the SKEPTICAL INQUIRER only if your pri­ secure. Depending on your tax situation, a charitable bequest to mary beneficiaries do not survive you. CSICOP may have little impact on the net size of your estate—or may For more information, contact Barry Karr, Executive Director even result in a greater amount being available to your beneficiaries. of CSICOP. All inquiries will be held in the strictest confidence.

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54 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER • MAY/JUNE 1995 Letters to the Editor

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We received an unusually large number of letters For a shnook like me to criticize Sagan is in response to our January/February 1995 the height of chutzpah. However, I must issue—the first in our new, enlarged format. As complain about his reference to recovered SKEPTICAL a result, weir had to be more selective than usual memories (pp. 28-29). in choosing which to publish. We appreciate this He refers to a maddening tendency of response. We read all letters with interest and skeptics to forget that real and appalling share marry of them with authors and others abuse happens, and he tells of a 13-statc involved in tire editorial process.—EDITOR survey that finds one-sixth of all rape vic­ tims under age 12, and that one-half of Science and wonder this number were raped by their fathers. I am a volunteer at the False Memory When I listened to Carl Sagan's keynote Syndrome Foundation office in Phila­ address during the CSICOP conference delphia. I've yet to meet anybody who in Seattle—the first time I ever saw him doesn't realize that child abuse is a reality. in public—I missed his point. Now, with It's recalled memory that's die problem. his article "Science and Wonder" (SI, How many of these under age 12 forgot January/February 1995), based on the their experiences? I would suggest that it address, I get it. is infinitesimal. Oprah Winfrey was a •J rr-tL:rr.-JTr:;:„ If Sagan had remained a New York sexually abused child, and she never for­ street boy without ever asking his local got the experience, and she didn't need a I was about 17 when one of my librarian for "a book on stars," he may psychiatrist to remind her. uncles, a poet who wanted to educate me have been swept away emotionally by a At the FMSF office, I sec the pain, so in the literary masterpieces of the world, (hypothetical) medium who promised to much pain, of accused parents. I've also recommended that I read Heliopolis. In put him in touch with his parents after seen the pain of the recanters. I have fact, so impressed was he by this work their deaths. "Would you think less of heard so many stories of pain on both that he proclaimed "the world is divided me if I fell for it?" Sagan asks us. "People sides. . . . into two classes of people: those who are not stupid," he remarked twice. have read Heliopolis, and those who have No, we are not. In die 1970s I quit my Ted Klugman not." Well, read the book I did, then parents' church; in the 1980s I gave up a Lansdale, Pa. pointed out the error to my uncle, who New Age cult; and in the 1990s, thanks in angrily chided me for calling attention to pan to the skeptical movement and its lit­ such trivial matters that in no way erature, I lost interest in parapsychology, of Literary science blunders detract from the beauty of this work of which I was an ardent believer for a long genius. We had quite an argument about time. The point is that my IQ hasn't 1 very much enjoyed reading Martin this, which I think I lost. improved a single digit in the past few Gardner's "Literary Science Blunders" years. I wasn't more stupid then than now. (SI. January/February 1995). I marveled Duller de Fontaine Well, if I can have a compassionate retro­ at how astute Gardner was at detecting Professor of Materials Science spective look at myself, why not extend "howlers" in literature, errors that 1 University of California this understanding and compassion to the might not always have detected on cur­ Berkeley, Calif. ^'0^to'<< Ine channelers, and .ill oilier sory reading. people who believe in all such doctrines, as One error I did catch appeared in Ernst Sagan advises us in his ending paragraph? Junger's famous novel Heliopolis. Junger's Permit me to add to Martin Gardners Born-again skeptics like me know all hero travels to the moon and describes in delightful list of "Literary Science too well that there is indeed a bridge poetic terms how the landscape colon Blunders." between "Us" and "Them," a bridge that itself in successive shades of yellow, then Nikos Kazantzakis, in his controver­ may save skeptics from permanent orange, then red as the sun sets over the sial novel The Last Temptation of Christ, minority status in the future. moon's horizon. In reality, of course, the constructed a scene where the disciples of moon's mountains, craters, and plains Jesus arc fearfully discussing the potential Cesar Ton must remain colorless due to the absence ramifications of the recent beheading of Mexico City, Mexico of any atmosphere on the moon. John the Baptist by King Herod. Jacob

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WINTER 1991 (vol. 15. no. 2): Special report: Gallup Part 2 / Doomsday The May 2000 prediction / My on role-playing games / Global fortune-telling and visit to the Nevada Clinic / Morphic resonance in Bible prophecy / Chemikov pattern puzzle. poll: Belief in paranormal phenomena / Science and self-government / West Bank collective hysteria episode silicon chips / Abigail's anomalous apparition / The E\LL 1993 (vol 18, no. 1):'Perspectives on education riddle of the Colorado ghost lights. in America: Sandia study challenges misconceptions / / Acceptance of personality test results / Belief in astrol­ ogy: A test of the Bamum effect / A test of clairvoyance WINTER 1987-88 (vol.12, no.2): The MJ-12 papers: Do 'honesty' tests really measure honesty? / Astrology Pan I / The aliens among us: Hypnotic regression strikes back—but to what effect? / Diagnoses of alien using signal-detection / Intercessory prayer as medical treatment? revisited / The brain and consciousness: Implications kidnappings that result from conjunction effects in tor psi / Past-life hypnotic regression / Fantasizing memory / Mathematical magic for skeptics / The blind FALL 1990 (vol. 15. no. 1): Neural Organization under hypnosis / The verdict on creationism. girl who saw the flash of the first nuclear weapon test / Technique: Treatment or torture / The spooks of Science: The feminists' scapegoat? quantum mechanics / Science and Sir FALL 1987 (vol. 12. no. 1): the burden SUMMER 1993 (vol 17, no. 4): The right hemi­ William Crookes / The 'N' machine / of skepticism / Is there intelligent life on sphere: An esoteric closet? / Improving science teach­ Biological cycles and rhythms vs. bio- Earth? / Chiropractic / Homeopathy / ing: The textbook problem / The eyewitness: Imperfect rhythms / 1990 CSICOP Conference. 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Pan 1 / The tives: A critical examination / Therapeutic Touch. / spread of satanic-cult rumors / Lying about poly­ SPRING 1987 (vol. II. no. 3): The elusrw^open Improving science teaching in the UBS / The Big Sur graph tests / Worldwide disasters and moon phase. mind: Ten years of negative research in parapsy­ 'UFO' / The strange case of the New Haven oysters. WINTER 1990 (vol 14. no 2): The new cata- chology / Docs astrology need to be true? / Part 2: FALL 1992 (vol 17. no 1): A celebration of Isaac srrophism / A field guide to critical thinking / Cold The answer is no / Magic, science, and Meta-Science: Some notes on perception / Velikovsky's Asimov: A man for the universe. Kendrick Frazier. fusion: A case history in 'wishful science'? The air­ interpretation of the evidence offered by China. Arthur C Clarke. Frederik Ml. Harlan Ellison, L ship hysteria of 1896-97 / Newspaper editors and WINTER 1986-87 (vol. 11. no. 2): Case study of Sprague de Camp. Carl Sagan, Stephen Jay Gould. the creation-evolution controversy / Special report: West Periston 'haunted' house / Science, creation­ Martin Gardner. Paul Kurtz, Donald Goldsmith, New evidence of MJ-12 hoax. ism and the Supreme Court. with statements by James Randi. and E. C. Krupp I Gaia without mys­ FALL 1989 (vol. 14. no. I): Myths about science / Ayala, Gould, and Gell-Mann. I The great East ticism / Gaia's scientific coming of age / The curse The relativity of wrong / Richard Feynman on fringe Coast UFO of August 1986 / Does astrology need of the runestone: Deathless hoaxes / Night tenors, science: Luis Alvarez and the explorer's quest / The to be true? Pan I / Homing abilities of bees, cats, sleep paralysis, and devil-stricken telephone cords two cultures / The 'top-secret UFO papers' NASA and people. from hell / Scientific creationism: The social agen­ won't release / The metaphysics of Murphy's Law. da of a pseudoscience / Observing stars in the day­ SUMMER 1989 (vol. 13. no. 4): The New Age— time: The chimney myth / Docs an ancient Jewish An examination: The New Age in perspective / A amulet commemorate the conjunction of 2 B.C.? New Age reflection in the magic mirror of science / For a complete listing of our SUMMER 1992 (vol. 16. no. 4): Freedom of sci­ The New Age: The need for myth in an age of sci­ entific inquiry under siege / Psychic experiences: ence / Channeling / The psychology of channeling back issues, call 800-634-1610 / 'Entities' in the linguistic minefield / Crystals / for a brochure. Most readers like our new format . . .

Here are selections from the many com­ new format I think you have done an less stuffy and more accessible, particu­ ments about our new format. excellent job. I enjoy the magazine very larly to youth. Your new format is a much and look forward to each new issue. giant step in the right direction, as is the In addition to being visually stunning catchy subtitle. Keep up the good work. (pleasant although unnecessary), the —David Barnes first issue of the "new" SKEPTICAL San Diego, Calif. —Bryan Nichols INQUIRER gives us a virtual cornucopia Lantzville, B.C. of marvelous writers and clear thinkers; Your magazine is simply awesome. At Canada this is an issue worth keeping, as, in last, a home. I'm only saddened that I fact, have been most of its predecessors. didn't know about it before (what won­ The new format of the SKEPTICAL derful things I must have missed!). INQUIRER is a welcome improvement to —Edwin Van Woert a fine magazine. Thank you. Oro Valley, Ariz. —Michael Bendzela Standish, Maine —Milton Danon Congratulations on your new format. Tarrytown, N.Y. Your most recent issue of SI was out of —Daniel H. Bigelow this world!!! I was already in SI heaven Congratulations on the new format for Cathlamet, Wash. with the receipt of four back issues, but the magazine. The changes you've made the brand new issue with the great new should make it more visually appealing Congratulations on the new-style SI. style, enlarged content, and stellar arti­ on the shelves of libraries and book­ Very nice. cles was a religious experience that held stores. Catching the eye is certainly one me completely spellbound. . . . Really way to entice potential readers to explore —Toby Howard beautiful job! between the covers, thereby encounter­ Editor, The Skeptic (U.K.) ing articles and ideas they might other­ Manchester, England —H. V. Grey wise miss. 1 was particularly struck with Nakomis Fla. the artwork of Leonard Parkin. Compliments to you and 10 the staffs of both CSICOP and the SKEPTICAL Congratulations on your new format. As —William L. Gauntt INQUIRER for the expanded and revised a long-term subscriber, I was surprised Manutua, N.J. format of the magazine. It looks very and pleased to see the magazine in my professional but yet very readable, and I corner grocery store. Best of luck turn­ I am thoroughly enjoying my new sub­ am sure it will enhance readership. ing it into a mass-circulation magazine. scription to 5/, which I only discovered last summer. And congratulations are in —Mark W. Durm —Howard Coleman, President order for the all-new-bigger-better for­ Athens, Ala. GeneLex mat. Truly a job well done! Seattle, Wash. When the changes in the SKEPTICAL —William T Hartwell INQUIRER were announced I was skepti­ Congratulations on the new format. I'd Desert Research Institute cal, but after seeing this first issue in die like to help the skeptics' image become Las Vegas, Nev.

speaks to his compatriots: "Wait a conventions and of the processes by editor's omission. Fitzgerald knew damn minute, lads," he said, "don't explode like which books and films reach the public. well what he was describing, and so does gunpowder." Of course gunpowder While I'm sure it is true that artists anyone who reads the passage, but his edi­ would not be known in the Middle East and authors are as ignorant about science tor should have noticed that he used the for another 1,300 years. . . ! as the general public, it would have been wrong word to describe the visible part of nice if Gardner had chosen more con­ the eye, and corrected the manuscript. Robert R. Weilacher vincing examples of blunders; this would Authors may describe things counter Palestine, Texas have shown how such "howlers" detract to nature for a variety of reasons. In The from otherwise noteworthy works, there­ Mill on the Floss, the log that overtakes fore justifying the posit that artists Maggie Tulliver's boat is a metaphor for I was delighted with the premise of should be better informed than the gen­ the way life has overtaken her, it is a liter­ Martin Gardner's "Literary Science eral public, as I think they should ary device. Yes, physically it should not Blunders." However, I became disap­ Gardner seems not to know a true con­ have happened; that's the whole point. pointed, as he seemed to defeat his ceptual error on the part of the author (the Other, in turn, describes the appearance premise by showing ignorance of literary eyeglass scene in Lord of the flies) from an of the man's eye, not the scientific reality

SKEPTICAL INQUIRER • MAY/JUNE 1995 57 of his condition. Often a severe cataract is literary artists, for not being scientists. teurs at living; and while Einstein did visible through the pupil and does appear He mocks writers for not knowing what play classical music, the joke was that he to grow over the eye. Krock is destined to we know. Such derision requires the couldn't keep "time." have drink destroy him, so Dickens assumptions that it is better to know decides to use high drama to make a what we know than what they know and James Alan Brown point. Krock is an alcohol-soaked raisin that we arc superior to them for knowing Willoughby, Ohio (a Victorian dessert, served flaming) lit by it. The polite term for Gardner's attitude the hand of an exasperated God. . .. is "arrogant." The precise term is "bigot­ I sincerely hope Gardner has more ed." If Gardner wants to ferret out literary sci­ examples of literary blunders—ones that Ironically, Carl Sagan's "Wonder and ence blunders, he should get his litera­ can stand scrutiny, because it is certainly Skepticism" in the same issue warns us ture thatcorrec t first. I"thn en oleas plact effective in Nikolae wayi for skeptics true that art suffers when artists are igno­ to get the attention of . . . people is to Gogol's Dead Souls does any character rant. Would a gifted wordsmith with a belittle or condescend, or show arro­ physically "spontaneously combust." small scope have been more prolific and gance." Gogol does make references, in his last insightful if better informed? Probably. chapter, to the protagonist Chichikov Gardner is the first person that I know of Sagan again: "The chief deficiency I symbolically being consumed by fire in to take a "hard science" tack with this see in die skeptical movement is polariza­ an expensive suit of "smoke and flame." subject, but social scientists have been tion: Us vs. Them—the sense that we Later, Chichikov "was shaken to the core picking at historical and cultural inaccu­ have a monopoly on the truth; that those of his being and melted too. . . . The racies in literature for generations. I hope other people ... are morons; that if strongest of men also yield in the furnace they all will continue. you're sensible, you'll listen to us." of misfortune. . . ." (Dead Souls, the Reavey translation, Part 2, Chapter 5). This is, again, only a symbolic reference. Rebekah Hammer Russell King Chichikov, in the last mention Gogol Bloomington, Ind. Madison, Wise. makes of him, is still alive, hardly a pile of cinders. Writers certainly make science blunders, but the converse, scientists In "Literary Science Blunders," no effort Gardner's essay on writers ignorant of making "literature blunders," is equally appears to have been made to distinguish scientific fact was amusing; but perhaps amusing. mistakes that might be worthy of such he might also collect lists of science writ­ characterization from misstatements of ers who make glaring literary blunders. scientific truths that more properly An off-the-cuff example: a recent Walter W Reisner should be characterized as literary/poetic overview of dinosaur paleontology (Kings Durham, N.C. license. If an author perceives a need for of Creation, Lessem, 1992) illustrates the an occurrence that requires some depar­ geological time-scale by quoting Mark ture from "truth," it would seem to fall Twain—that human life on this planet is Gardner writes: "Thomas Cook, in his within the millennia-old tradition of like the paint atop the Empire State crime novel Flesh and Blood (1989), has dens ex machina. If, quite properly, an Building. Twain died in 1910, long on page 44 an autopsy report saying: At "exception" is recognized for science fic­ before the Empire State Building existed. the moment of her death, her heart had tion, why are "mainstream" authors not This is a minor error of fact comparable weighed 4 grams, her brain seven.' He to be afforded the same luxury? Indeed, to F. Scott Fitzgerald's using "retinas" for must have meant kilograms." is Gardner also guilty of a "blunder" pupils. The average human brain is about 3 when he states that on a trip to the moon Unlike Gardner, I am skeptical as to pounds, or 1.3 kilograms. Unless the the ship "would be in free-fall all the way whether scientists are any more knowl­ brain had swelled up and cracked open to the moon." What ever happened to edgeable about the arts and humanities the skull, it's unlikely the brain was 7 the need to achieve and maintain escape than painters and poets and musicians kilograms. velocity from the earth? Is that an over­ are knowledgeable about science. In simplification, a blunder, or to be over­ regard to major errors of understanding, Mark Gilkey looked? (Or am I wrong in believing that for every blockheaded artist ignorant of Palo Alto, Calif. that is a scientific fact that comes into the orbits of the moon there arc also play on any attempt to leave the earth's blockheaded scientists ignorant of their gravitational pull, before one can achieve own lunatic fringe. An off-the-cuff exam­ It is perhaps unfortunate that Gardner's free-fall to the moon?) ple: the "great" biologist Haeckel, who in notes on literary science blunders was in Riddle of the Universe and other popular the same issue with C. Eugene Emery, Jr.'s Kenneth B. Povodator works recorded dangerous distortions of Media Watch column, because this con­ Fairfield, Conn. history, philosophy, and religion, as well tained a blunder almost as delicious as the as bad science. Fortunately, different ones that Gardner commented on. human beings have different talents that Specificallyadd check, Emers yan noted balanced that speopl to die ewer hubrie s of Gardner's "Literary Science Blunders" any expertise. Ultimately, we are all ama­ not masked against alien viruses or bacte­ serves only to ridicule artists, particularly ria in the Roswell TV movie. Infectious

58 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER • MAY/JUNE 1995 agents, at least on our planet, tend to be negative results observed among mice Stephen Barrett replies: highly species specific. Infection across given the smallest amount of supplemental species boundaries are unusual. vitamin C are not transferable to humans, I did not criticize the Pauling Institute for Transmission by species with completely who, unlike mice, do not synthesize the accepting money from Hoffmann-LaRoche different evolutionary histories is almost vitamin. As postulated by Pauling and later or "insinuate that the institute's research was inconceivable and certainly far less likely confirmed by Tsao et al. (Journal of biased because of corporate sponsorship. "All than that a forester would contract dutch Nutrition [1987] and Life Sciences [1989]), I said was that Hoffmann-LaRoche, which elm disease. Emery may have also missed giving small amounts of vitamin C to mice produces most of the world's vitamin C, is the most entertaining biologic error in the affected the biosynthesis or metabolism of the institute's largest corporate donor. I Roswell incident, the assumption that an the vitamin, thereby decreasing its amount assume that Roche felt that supporting the intelligent, tool-using being would have to in various tissues and organs and increas­ work of Vitamin C's most prominent boost­ be patterned after mankind, obviously the ing the risk of developing skin cancer. er was a good investment. highest point on the evolutionary tree. My High levels of vitamin C had a strong pro­ I did not "imply" that Robinson was parrot, Ralph, suggests that this is the tective effect; they were not "nearly lethal." fired because the results of an experiment height of speciesism and extraordinarily Barrett suggests that people have been did not conform to Pauling's thesis. I stated unlikely from an evolutionary standpoint. damaged by following Pauling's advice, but that Robinson told a reporter he was fired he offers no evidence. "The safety (especial­ after his research led him to conclude that Mark Hauswald, M.D. ly compared with OTC drugs) and pre­ vitamin C might promote some types of Associate Professor ventive value of vitamin C have been cancer. After Pauling publicly attacked Dept. of Emergency Medicine demonstrated in many studies (Beyond Robinson's research as "amateurish and School of Medicine Deficiency: New Views on the Function and incompetent. " Robinson sued for libel and University of New Mexico Health Effects of Vitamins [1992] and collected $575,000 in an out-of-court set­ Albuquerque, N.M. Natural Antioxidants in Human Health tlement. I have read the depositions in the and Disease [ 1994]. In Third Conference on case and believe that Robinson was telling Vitamin C [1987], Rivers states: ". . . The the truth. Linus Pauling's legacy practice of ingesting large quantities of During the 25 years I have tracked ascorbic acid [vitamin C] will not result in Pauling's activities, most of his megavita- Stephen Barrett's article "The Dark Side calcium-oxalate stones, increased uric acid min claims have been unsubstantiated and of Linus Pauling's Legacy" (SI, excretion, impaired vitamin B status, iron not shared by responsible nutrition scien­ January/February 1995) is plagued by overload, systemic conditioning, or tists. The epidemiological studies cited by bias and misrepresentation. increased mutagenic activity in healthy Stephen Lawson have found certain corre­ Contrary to Barrett's assertions, large individuals." The Journal of the National lations between the levels of intake of amounts of vitamin C significantly Cancer Institute (1991) reported that vita­ antioxidant vitamins (in food as well as in decrease the symptoms and duration of min C exhibited significant protection pills) and the incidence of a few aliments. colds (clinical studies reviewed by against cancer in 33 of 46 epidemiological Clinical studies, however, have found that Hemila in Scandinavian Journal of studies. Epidemiology (1992) reported a 27 high doses of antioxidants may increase the Infectious Diseases [1994]). percent decrease in mortality in a group of incidence of cancer and hemorrhagic 11,348 people followed for about ten ),ears Barrett criticizes the Linus Pauling stroke. Further research is needed to deter­ who consumed vitamin C supplements. Institute, whose Board of Associates mine whether taking antioxidants is more The New England Journal of Medicine includes 22 Nobel laureates, for accepting likely to be helpful, harmful, or neither. (1993) concluded that the risk for heart contributions from Hoffmann-LaRoche. Regardless, the existing data are complicat­ disease may be significantly reduced by a As a nonprofit research organization, the ed and conflicting and do not support high intake of vitamin E. Pauling's valid Institute welcomes contributions from Pauling's sweeping pronouncements. criticisms of the Mayo Clinic studies have most sources, including corporations. I have seen patients with diarrhea due been effectively discussed by Richards in Corporate support is heavily relied upon to vitamin C, including one who bad Vitamin C and Cancer: Medicine or by academic institutions, but has provid­ about ten loose bowel movements a day for Politics? (1991). Barrett's claim that "no ed only a small fraction of the Institute's several years while taking 3-5 grams per responsible medical or nutrition scientists" revenue, which comes mainly from indi­ day When I informed Pauling of this case, share Pauling's views is simply wrong. viduals. Any insinuation that the he replied: "Looseness of the bowels occurs, Institute's research has been biased One expects articles in SKEPTICAL especially in well people, following an because of corporate sponsorship is INQUIRER to be characterized by rational intake of a large quantity of vitamin C. unwarranted and insulting. arguments based on relevant data; Barrett's There is question as to whether it should be Barrett attacks Pauling as "less than article does not meet this criterion. called diarrhea, however, which is defined honest" and implies that Robinson was as a morbidly profuse discharge of loose or fired because results of a mouse skin cancer Stephen Lawson fluid evacuations from the intestinal tract. " experiment did not conform to Pauling's Chief Executive Officer Additional information about the thesis. Robinson and Pauling disagreed Linus Pauling Institute of activities of Pauling and his allies can be about administrative and other research Science and Medicine obtained from my recently published book. matters that Barren did not address. The Palo Alto, Calif. The Vitamin Pushers: How the "Health-

skeptical INQUIRER • MAY/JUNE 1995 59 Food" Industry Is Selling America a Bill of several vitamins at levels far exceeding mentation then and now. . . . of Goods (Prometheus Books, 1994). the MDR. Barrett's statement that "no We don't need cheerleading, rah! rah! responsible medical or nutrition scien­ articles boosting scientific innovation in tists share these views" is simply incorrect the SKEPTICAL INQUIRER. Most of us are Barrett's "The Dark Side of Linus and displays his own bias. Of course I already on the team. What is needed, I Pauling's Legacy" provided some useful acknowledge that my personal anecdote think, is a sober analysis by an eminent information of which 1 was not previous­ is useless as a proof, but I cannot ignore thinker of how we conduct our experi­ ly aware. However, he made several com­ or discount it. I just wish to suggest that ments and whether (and how) our ethical ments for which I find no factual basis. the matter may be more complex than standards need improvement. Barrett writes that "6,000 to 18,000 Barrett's simplistic go/no-go approach mg of vitamin C, 400 to 1,600 IU of vit­ would indicate. David J. Simmons amin E, and 25,000 IU of vitamin A" Ridgecrest, Calif. have "no proved benefit and can cause William H. Beauman troublesome side effects." In fact, no seri­ Chicago, 111. ous toxicity has ever been shown for vit­ Glenn Seaborg strongly defends the test­ amin C, E, or the beta carotene precursor ing of patients with nuclear isotopes half of vitamin A. Caffeine and aspirin are Stephen Barrett replies: a century ago. But, if 1 recall correctly, examples of two over-the-counter drugs what has aroused people's indignation is that are far more toxic than any of these Vitamin C megadoses can cause diarrhea. not that the tests were performed, but vitamins. As for effectiveness, Barrett High doses of vitamin E can have anti­ that they were performed on people who would have served his readers better to coagulant action and cause unwanted did not give informed consent. His have discussed some of the studies (unaf­ bleeding. Daily dosage of25,000 IU of vit­ points about the value of radioisotopes filiated with Pauling) that have found amin A can cause liver damage. Pauling's strike me as valid, but they do not benefits for vitamin E and beta carotene. unsubstantiated ideas about vitamins as address the ethical issue of performing Barrett writes, "The physical damage therapeutic agents stretched far beyond tests on subjects without their consent. to people [Pauling] led astray cannot be what the studies cited by Kreuter suggest measured." If Barrett has any evidence (and by no means prove). Gary McGath chat the dosages recommended by Colds are caused by a large family of Hooksett, N.H. Pauling cause "physical damage," he viruses. Each episode provides immunity to should have mentioned it in his article. the virus that caused it. The incidence of colds is also influenced by how many infect­ The Astonishing Hypothesis William Kreuter ed persons one is exposed to. Most people Seattle, Wash. tend to have fewer colds as they get older. I like your new format. Beauman's "anecdote" illustrates how peo­ I have one observation about Francis ple tend to value personal experience more Crick's piece on the Astonishing Barrett's article about Linus Pauling was than scientific evidence. Hypothesis. In it he says: a disturbing eye-opener. I am a chemist Charles Marshall's Vitamins and "In short, your brain constructs what who tries to keep current, and I was well Minerals: Help or Harm? (Lippincott, you see from the incoming information aware of the long-standing controversy 1985), which I edited discusses vitamin and from your past experience (and from over vitamin C megatherapy. However, toxicity in detail and describes most of the the experience of your ancestors embod­ vitamin C's effect on my own life has well-designed clinical trials done to test ied in your genes)" [my emphasis]. been so dramatic and clear-cut that I whether vitamin C prevents colds. This statement smacks of Lysen- always assumed the studies that failed to koism. I'm sure that it was not what he support Pauling's premise to be flawed, as intended to say, but it came out wrong. he claimed. Radioisotopes When I try to rewrite the sentence the During my long college and graduate- best I can do is to leave out some words school years, I had so many bad colds that I approach my self-imposed task of criti­ so that it reads: ". . . and from your I was hospitalized with viral pneumonia cizing Glenn Seaborg's article on radio­ ancestors, embodied in your genes." II times. After a friend introduced me to isotopes (5/. January/February 1995) Pauling and vitamin C, and I began tak­ with considerable trepidation. He is such Bernard S. Edwards ing 1,000 mg a day, I never had a bad a towering scientific figure and I am so Richmond, Va. cold again and was never again diagnosed insignificant. with viral pneumonia. That was 25 years I do not believe that the relatively ago, and both die regimen and the results well-informed and sophisticated audi­ Science and the 'Mars effect' continue. I swear by vitamin C megather­ ence of this magazine needs a primer on apy, at least for myself, and Barrett's arti­ the benefits to society of nuclear medi­ I was reading about the so-called Mars cle has not changed my mind. cine and nuclear technology in general. effect (From the Chairman, SI, In recent years 1 have seen a great What could be used is an analytical dis­ January/February 1995), and ii occurred many articles documenting the benefits cussion of the ethics involved in experi- to me to offer a rather simple argument

60 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER • MAY/JUNE 1995 that might help to resolve this inter­ as long as anyone will listen, or more Crank letters and misguided scientists minable business, and perhaps some probably continue to pursue their illogi­ will always be with us, but we must tol­ other matters as well. cal obsession in confused isolation. . . . erate and treat them gently, lest we dis­ Science consists of the development When we use the words "normal" and courage amateurs and people going out­ of a model of "reality," in words and sym­ "natural," we use them simply to mean side their area of expertise. It's sad that bols, that demonstrates what docs and "what really happens"; and so, logically, if current mores deny "nonprofessionals" doesn't happen, what causes what, and they did find evidence of a "Man effect," the opportunity to participate in the how it all works. The principle on which all that would actually prove is that it was intellectual and scientific life of Western this model rests is that of internal consis­ a normal, though obviously not very sig­ society. We must do what we can to com­ tency, meaning that if two parts of this nificant or even interesting, phenome­ bat this. Until we find it expected that model contradict each other, something non. The most likely reason that no one carpenters and plumbers appreciate and is wrong. can unambiguously find any "Mars participate in science, most of our public The problem with the so-called para­ effect" is that it is not just uninteresting, will remain ignorant. . . . normal is that it is based entirely on a irrelevant, and silly; but that there is no simple misunderstanding. Science does such thing. Keith Conover, M.D. not say what can and can't exist; it mere­ Timothy Mead Clinical Assistant Professor ly notices what happens and then looks Hagersville, Ontario Division of Emergency Medicine for the explanation most consistent with Canada University of Pittsburgh its model. And if something definitely Pittsburgh, Pa. happens and can't be fitted into its pre­ sent model, it is happy to look for a bet­ Us vs. Them? ter model. The simple misunderstanding The Roswell Incident on which any discussion of the "paranor­ I eagerly picked up the new, large-format mal" depends is best illustrated by an January/February issue of SI and started Congratulations on SI's new look and example, and I will use the "Mars effect." reading straight through. I read about thanks with a couple reservations for the First, any such effect, if it existed, Linus Pauling's straying into pseudo- mini-review of my "Roswell Incident" would then be real, pan of the natural science and went on, tinged with regret research monograph, Roswell in Perspec­ world, and as such no different from any at the fall of a great man. As I read Keay tive ("New Books," SI. January/February other natural phenomenon. Second, Davidson's "Everyone Has a Theory!" let­ 1995). because it wasn't noticed by science, and ter to cranks, though, a sense of unease Contrary to your misrepresentation science can find no good evidence of it crept over me. Linus Pauling's example of my views, I do not believe in crashed even when it tries, the "effect" is obvi­ notwithstanding, I cannot believe, as flying saucers. I do hold the door open to ously so insignificant or uninteresting Davidson's letter says, that science is only the possibility that "saucers" exist and that it requires no serious investigation, "a business for competent professionals, may have crashed. This is not a fine dis­ and even if real would require no funda­ not for armchair science buffs. tinction, and nothing in Roswell in mental adjustment of our model of reali­ Many great contributions to science Perspective could possibly leave an objec­ ty, since natural events only ever merit have been made by "armchair science tive reader with any doubt about my provisional "explanation," which are all buffs." Only in recent times do we see thinking on this matter. open to revision at any time. . . . Third, science as a job reserved for professionals. Contrary to your uncritical accep­ if the Mars effect is real, that is simply an To me, a professional scientist is one tance of it, the Air Force report on isolated fact. It has nothing whatever, whose research is driven by the available Roswell does not explain the incident, either empirically or logically, to do with jobs, not by a sense of wonder. And even "essentially." It provides a substan­ any other so-called paranormal phenom­ whatever sense of wonder there is often tial body of evidence that very strongly enon. And if any of them had any dies in a toxic intellectual wasteland of and convincingly suggests the debris that detectable effect on anything, then by grant applications and academic politics. created the public excitement in the first definition that effect could be detected, In Carl Sagan's article "Wonder and place was from a very sensitive Army Air investigated, and fitted into a more com­ Skepticism," in die same issue, he says: Force project code-named Mogul, a con­ plete, but still entirely scientific and nat­ "The chief deficiency 1 see in the skepti­ nection that Robert Todd and I discov­ ural, model of reality. cal movement is its polarization: Us vs. ered independently of each other and the The problem with the "Mars effect," Them—the sense thai we have a monop­ Air Force. However, the report also quite and every other "paranormal" silliness, is oly on the truth." irresponsibly and unprofessionally dis­ that it is so irrelevant, so peripheral, so It's the same with science! We tell peo­ misses "the rest of the story," the strange uninteresting, that unless there is some ple that science can only be done by bodies and associated wreckage reported good evidence that it actually happens, Trained Professionals—Don't Try This At to be in Army custody at Roswell Army no one who might be interested in Home! and then decry the lack of die Air Field at about the same time, and explaining it properly will have any rea­ public's scientific knowledge. We tell which in my opinion all but certainly son to do so. And those who do contin­ them: "You must learn about science, but had no connection with the Mogul ue to bother with it will go on fudging don't think you can possibly critique or debris. (For those SI readers who may be the evidence and making up silly theories contribute to it. Stuff and nonsense. interested, my "Roswell, the Air Force,

SKEPTICAL INQUIRER • MAY/JUNE 1995 61 and Us" in the International UFO The "dumbing down" of schoolbooks there is a way of modeling an attitude of Reporter [November/December 1994] seems a symptom of the equality kick on wonder toward nature, of pleasure in addresses the strengths and shortcomings which the world is currently high. The engaging in it, and of responsibility in of the Air Force report.) apparent fact that some people are reaching conclusions that would show smarter than others seems to many unfair how much better such an attitude is Karl T. Pflock and undemocratic, so we should pretend than an inclination to accept fringe Placitas, N.M. that they are in fact equal and suppress notions. evidence to the contrary. If most people's Naturally additional funds would be Editor's note: Here are three relevant sen­ brains are still on the Homo erectus level, required to produce the video and CD- tences from the 1994 Air Force report (pp. we should try to make a H. erectus out of ROM materials that I am suggesting, but 5-7) that was excerpted in the everybody. experience shows that real information January/February issue: "The relatively The French revolutionary Francois can have a wide audience, and when simple description of sticks, paper, tape, Babeuf (1760-1797) carried the ideal of there's an audience, funds can be found. and tinfoil [from the "rather benign" origi­ equality to the point of denouncing any­ nal newspaper reports] has since grown to one who, by working harder or more John W. Barthel exotic metals with hieroglyphics and fiber skillfully than others, raised himself eco­ Uxbridge, Mass. optic-like materials, . . . two crash sites.... nomically above them. Such a person, and at the second site, alleged bodies of said Babeuf, was "a conspirator against extraterrestrial aliens. . . . What is unique­ our precious equality," deserving UFOs or UVPs? ly lacking in the entire exploration and condign punishment. Eventually he exploitation of the 'Roswell Incident' is offi­ tried to lead an uprising against the Why do we skeptics even continue to cial positive documentary evidence of any Directoire. He failed, and the guillotine discuss the subject of UFOs under that kind that supports the claims of those who got him. . . . particular acronym? Doesn't this already allege that something unusual happened . . . Equality is a fine ideal, but like others give the game away by explicitly recog­ Many of these claims appear to be hearsay it can be pursued to absurdity. nizing them as "objects" that are "flying" undocumented, taken out of context, self- and only need to be "identified"? serving, or otherwise dubious. ..." L. Sprague de Camp Unless and until somebody brings us Piano, Texas a real palpable object that we can exam­ ine, why don't we insist on referring to all Poor schoolbooks such claims as, perhaps, "UVPs: Popularizing science Unexplained Visual Perceptions" or some I'd like to add one additional thought to other more accurate categorization? the letter from Ann Finlayson (SI, The discussion of science literacy in the Alternative candidates welcomed. January/February 1995) regarding Frank News and Comment section of your Reiner's article "The Synthetic Mind January/February 1995 issue concludes A. E. Siegman Clashes with the Reductionist Text" (SI, by asserting that it is up to scientists to Professor of Engineering Summer 1994). popularize science. However, we are in a Stanford University While I totally agree that correct infor­ high-tech media age, and any populariz­ Stanford, Calif. mation and good organization (of which ing of science must compete with mas­ paragraphing is one aspect) are essential in sive high-tech popularizing of unscientif­ order to have good science textbooks, the ic and antiscientific notions and attitudes A. E. Siegman is of course correct. In one of real culprit in producing textbooks that aren'that teffectiv we ear eis assailevoice. dI n witshorth , eversciency daye . our early issues (Fall 1979), Anthony textbooks are boring. Many textbooks are Scientists in education are already trying Standen wrote a short article expressing the written in a flat, "just-the-facts, ma'am" to raise the level of scientific literacy to same concerns and suggesting "Unexplained stilted style that does not invite interest. the best of their abilities, and only mar­ Aerial Appearance" (UAA) as an alterna­ ginal improvement can be expected in tive. Unfortunately, "UFO, " with all its "Voice separates writing that is read that area. regrettably misleading connotations, is fully from writing that is not read. . . . Voice is This is a field that CSICOP should ingrained in the language.—EDITOR the writer revealed" (Donald Murray). move into, and not in the guise of a new "Good writing is supposed to evoke sen­ priesthood in white lab coats talking sation in the reader—not the fact that it's incomprehensible double-talk, nor in The letters column is a forum for views on raining, but the feel of being rained that of a Gee-Whiz Mr. Science TV pro­ matters raised in previous issues. Letters upon" (E. L Doctorow). gram for kids that tries to sell science as should be no more than 250 words. Due to Voice is die difference between the a form of magic, nor even in that of the the volume of letters, not all can be pub­ army manual and Carl Sagan and between SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, which is per­ lished. They should be typed double- legal documents and Stephen Hawking. ceived by the scientifically indifferent as spaced. Address: Letters to the Editor, a spoil-sport new Calvinism saying, SKEPTICAL INQUIRER. 944 Deer Dr. NE, Judith A. Arter "No, you mustn't believe that," referring Albuquerque, NM 87122. Beavercrcek, Ore. to dozens of intriguing ideas. Surely

62 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER • MAY/JUNE 1995 racy of fact and perspective. It is good practice on all sides. If longer paper is used (e.g., A4), GUIDE FOR AUTHORS to have knowledgeable colleagues review drafts allow commensurately bigger top and bottom The Skeptical Inquirer critically examines before submission. Reports of original margins. Number all pages in sequence, claims of paranormal, fringe-science, and research, especially highly technical experi­ including those for references, figures, and pseudoscientific phenomena from a responsible, mental or statistical studies, arc best submitted captions. For Articles, submit an original and scientific point of view and provides a forum to a formal scientific journal; a nontechnical two photocopies (for reviewers); for other cat­ for informed discussion of all relevant issues. It summary may be submitted to the SKEPTICAL egories, an original and one photocopy. encourages science and scientific inquiry, crit* INQUIRER. Studies based on small- scale tests ical thinking, and the use of reason and the or surveys of students will be considered only References and Notes: For reference citations in methods of science in examining important if they establish something new, provide a text, use author-date style: Smith (1994) or issues. The readership includes scholars and needed replication of some important earlier (Smith 1994). Arrange entries within References researchers in many fields and lay readers of study, or test some new theoretical position. section alphabetically by the last name of author. diverse backgrounds. Write clearly, interestingly, Give full names of journals. Lower-case article and simply. Avoid unnecessary technical terms. Articles should have a title page that begins with titles except for first word and proper names. Maintain a factual, professional, and restrained i succinct, inviting title followed by a concise, Follow the style used in recent issues for other tone. All submissions arc judged on the basis of 10- to 20- word statement of the articles main specifics. If explanatory notes arc required, num­ interest, clarity, significance, relevance, authority, point or theme. This will be set in display type ber them sequentially and include them in a and topicality. on the first page of the published article. The Notes section preceding the References. title page should also give the authors name Direct critiques toward ideas and issues, not and address. Include a brief cover letter stating Important: We strongly encourage camera- individuals. Authors should be prepared to that the article has not been submitted else­ ready illustrations with all submissions. provide documentation of all factual asser­ where and giving the authors' titles and affilia­ Figures and graphs should be in high-quality tions. A useful set of guidelines for those who tions and the lead authors address and home camera-ready form. Photos can be glossy or seek to evaluate paranormal claims, titled and office telephone and fax numbers (impor­ matte black-and-white. Color photos arc also "Proper Criticism" and written by Professor tant!). Include information in the letter or at acceptable. Assign each illustration a Figure Ray Hyman. is available from the Editor. the end of the manuscript for a one or two-sen­ number and supply captions on a separate Among the guidelines: clarify your objectives, tence author note. If you do not wish your sheet. Suggestions for obtaining other illustra­ let the facts speak for themselves, be precise address given in the author note, please so state. tions arc welcome. and careful with language, and avoid loaded words and sensationalism. State others' posi­ Book Reviews: Most book reviews arc about Upon acceptance of a manuscript, authors arc tions in a fair, objective, and nonemotional 600 to 1,200 words. Both solicited and unso­ asked to send a 3 1/2" Macintosh or PC diskette manner. licited reviews arc used. Include publication of the article to our editorial production office: data at the top of the review in this order: Title. CATEGORIES OF PAPERS Author. Publisher, city, year. Number of pages. Thomas Genoni Categories of contributions include Articles, Hardcover or paperback (or both), price. Skeptical Inquirer Book Reviews, News and Comment, Forum, Include a suggested author note. If possible, P.O. Box 703 Follow-Up, and Letters to the Editor. include the cover of the book for illustration. Amherst, NY. 14226. U.S.A.

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ARGENTINA. CAIRP. Director, Ladislao Enrique (SOMIE), Mario Mendez-Acosta, Chairman, INDIANA. Indiana Skeptics, Robert Craig. Chairperson. Marquez. Jose Marti, 35 dep C. 1406 Buenos Aires. Apartado Postal 19-546. Mexico 03900. D.F. 5401 Hedgerow Drive. Indianapolis. IN 46226. AUSTRALIA. National: Australian Skeptics, PO. Bra A2324. NETHERLANDS. Stichting Skepsis, Rob Nanninga. KENTUCKY. Kentucky Assn. of Science Educators and Sydney South. NSW 2000, (E-mail: skcptic#spo| - Secretary. Westerkade 20. 9718 AS Groningen. Skeptics (KASES). Chairman. Prof. Robert A. Baker, tt-sw.au.oz). Regional: Australian Capital Territory, HO. NEW ZEALAND. New Zealand Skeptical, Vicki Hyde, 3495 Castleton Way North. Lexington. KY 40502. Box 555. Civic Square, 2608. Newcastle Skeptics. Chairperson, South Pacific Publications, Box 19-760. LOUISIANA. Baton Rouge Proponents of Rational Chairperson. Colin Keay. Physio Dept.. Newcastle Christchurch 5, N.Z.. Fax: 64 3 384-5138. Inquiry and Scientific Methods (BR-PRISM). Dick University. NSW 2308. Queensland. DO. Box 2180, NORWAY. NIVFO. K. Stenodegard. Boks 9. N-7082, Schroth. Director. 425 Carriage Way. Baton Rouge. Brisbane. 4001. South Australia. IK). Bra 91, Magill. Kattem. Skepsis, Terje Emberland, Contact. P. B. LA 70808-4828 (504-766-4747). 5072. Victoria. PO. Box 1555P, Melbourne. 3001. 2943 Toyen 0608. Oslo 6. MASSACHUSETTS. Skeptical Inquirer, of New Western Australia. PO. Box 899. Morley WA 6062. RUSSIA. Contact Edward Gevorkian. Ulyanovskaya 43. England. Contact Laurence Moss. Ho Hi Moss. 72 BELGIUM. Committee Para, ). Dommanget. Chairman. Kor4, 109004. Moscow. Kneeland St.. Boston 02111. Observatoire Royal dc Belgique. Avenue Circulaire 3. SOUTH AFRICA. Assn. for die Rational Investigation MICHIGAN. Great Lakes Skeptics, Carol Lynn, contact. B-1180 Brussels. SKEPP. W Ben. Secretary. Laarbceldaan of the Paranormal (ARIP), Marian Laserson. 1264 Bedford Rd.. Grosse Pointe Park. Ml 103. B1090 Brussels (FAX 32-2- 4774301). Secretary. 4 Wales St.. Sandringham 2192. 84230-1116. BRAZIL Opcao Racional, Luis Gutman. Rua Santa SOCRATES, Leon Retief, contact. 3 Hoheizen MINNESOTA. Minnesota Skeptics, Robert W. McCoy. Clara,43l. Bloco 5. Apt. 803, Copacabana - Rio de Crescent. Hoheizen. Bellville 7530. 549 Turnpike Rd. Golden Valley. MN 55416. St. Janeiro 22041-010 (021-227-8694). SPAIN. Alternative Racional a las Pseudosciencias (ARP). Kloud ESP Teaching Investigation Committee CANADA. Alberta Skeptics, Heidi Lloyd-Price. Carlos Telleria. Executive Director. Apdto. 1516. (SKEPTIC). Jerry Mertens. Coordinator Psychology Secretary. PO. Box 5571. Station A. Calgary. Alberta 50080 Zaragoza. El Investigator Esceptico. Contact Dept.. St. Cloud State Univ.. St. Cloud. MN 56301. T2H 1X9. British Columbia Skeptics, Lee Moller. Felix Ares De Bias. Gamez/Ares/Martinez. P. O . Box MISSOURI. Kansas City Committee for Skeptical contact. 1188 Beaufort Road. Vancouver V7G IR7. 904. 20080 Donostia-San Sebastian. Inquiry, Verle Muhrer, Chairman. 2658 East 7th. Manitoba Skeptics. Contact John Toews. President. SWEDEN, Vetenskap dc Folkbildning (Science and Kansas City. MO 64124. Gateway Skeptics. Box 92. St. Vital. Winnipeg. Man. R2M 4A5. Peoples Education). Sven Ove Hansson, Secretary. Chairperson. Steve Best, 6943 Amherst Ave.. Univer­ Ontario Skeptics, Henry Gordon, Chairman. 343 Box 185, 101 23 Stockholm. sity City. MO 63130. Clark Ave West. Suite 1009. Thornhill Ontario L4J TAIWAN. Tim Holmes. # 269 Chung Hsing Rd., NEW MEXICO. New Mexicans for Science & Reason, 7K5. Sceptiques du Quebec: Jean Ouellette. C.R Fengyuan. John Geohegan, Chairman, 450 Montclaire SE. 202. Succ. Beaublen. Montreal H2G 3C9. UKRAINE Perspective, Oleg G. Bakhtiarov. Director, Albuquerque. NM 87108; John Smallwood. 320 CZECH REPUBLIC. Contact Milos Chvojka. Inst, of 3-B Khmclmtskogo St.. 252001 Kiev. Artist Road. Santa Fe. NM 87501 (505-988-2800). Physics. Czech Academy of Sciences. Na Slovance 2. united KINGDOM. SKEPTICAL INQUIRER Representative. NEW YORK. Inquiring Skeptics of Upper New York I 80 40 Prague 8. Michael J. Hutchinson. 10 Crescent View. Loughton, (SUNY). Contact. Michael Sofka. 8 Providence St.. ESTONIA. Contact Indrek Rohtmets. Horisont, EE Essex IGI0 4PZ The Skeptic magazine. Editors. Toby Albany, NY 12203. (518-437-1750). New York Area 0102 Tallinn. Narva mm. 5. Howard and Steve Donnelly, PO. Box 475. Manchester Skeptics (NYASk). Wayne Tytell. contact person, FINLAND. Skepsis. Veli Toukomies, President. M60 2TH. (E-mail: toby@>cs.man.ac.uk). London 159 Melrose Ave.. E. Massapequa. NY 11758. (516- Rintamamichcntic 15. 06100 Porvoo. (358-15- Student Skeptics, Contact: Bill Human. 21 Manville 798-6902). Western New York Skeptics, Tim 5249-3200. Fax: 358-15-584-620). Rd., London SWI7 8JW Wessex Skeptics, Robin Allen, Madigan. Chairman. 3965 Rensch Rd. Buffalo. NY FRANCE. Cercle Zetetiquc, Contact: Henri Broch. 12 Dept. of Physics, Southampton Univ., Highfield. 14228. Rue David Deitz. 57000 Men. Comite Francais Southampton S09 5NH. OHIO. South Shore Skeptics, Page Stephens. 6006 Fir pour l'Etude des Phenomenes Paranormaux, Claude Avenue, Cleveland. OH 44102 (216-631-5987). Benski. Secretary-General. Merlin Gerin. RGE/A2 United States Association for Rational Thinking (Cincinnati area). 38050 Grenoble Cedex. ALABAMA. Alabama Skeptics. Emory Kimbrough. Joseph F Gastright, Contact. 111 Wallace Ave., GERMANY. Society for the Scientific Investigation of 3550 Watermelon Road, Apt. 28A. Northport. AL Covington. KY' 41014 (606-581-7315). Para-Science (GWUP). Amardeo Sarma. Convenor. 35476 (205-759-2624). OREGON. Oregonian's for Rationality, Contact. BUI Postfach 1222, D64374 Rossdorf (FAX: .49 6154 ARIZONA. Tucson Skeptics Inc. James McGaha. Capron. PO Box 4739. Vancouver. WA 98662 (206- 81912). Chairman, 7049 E. 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Podanur 641-023 Coimbatore Sacramento Skeptics Society. Terry Sandbek. 3550 (HAST). Darrell Kachilla. P.O. Box 541314. Tamil nadu. Indian Rationalist Association, Contact, Watt Ave.. Suite #3. Sacramento, CA 95821 (916-188- Houston, TX 77254. North Texas Skeptics. Joe Sana! Edamaruku. 779. Pocket 5. Mayur Vihar I. 3772. E-mail: TSandbek.mother.com). Voelkering, President. PO. Box 111794. Carrollton. New Delhi 110 091. Maharashtra Superstition COLORADO. Rocky Mountain Skeptics, Bela Scheiber. TX 750111794. West Texas Society to Advance Irradiation Committee, Dada Chandane, Secy.. President. P.O. Box 7277. Boulder. CO 80306 Rational Thought. Co-Chairmen: George D/6. First Floor, Super Market. Solapur 413001. (303-444-5368). Robertson. 4700 Polo Pky.. Apt. 183. Midland. TX ISRAEL. Israel Skeptics Society, Philip Marmaros. D.C. Capital Area. National Capital Area Skeptics, c/o 79705-1542. Chairman. P.O. Box 8481, Jerusalem. (Fax: 972-2- D.W. "Chip- Denman. 8006 Valley Street, Silver WASHINGTON. The Society for Sensible 611652. E-mail: humcfccti?eIronet.co.il). Spring. MD 20910. Explanations. P.O. Box 7121. Seattle. WA 98133- IRELAND. Irish Skeptics, Peter O'Hara. Contact. St. FLORIDA. Tampa Bay Skeptics. Gary Posner. 1113 2121. Tad Cook. Sec/Trcas. (E-mail: tadg'ssc.com). Joseph's Hospital. Limerick. Normandy Trace Rd.. Tampa. FL 33602 WISCONSIN. Contact person: Roxine McQuitty. ITALY. Comitato Italiano per il Controllo delle (813-221-3533). MATC-West. 1200 S. 71st St. West Allis. Wl 53214 ArTcrmazioni sul Paranormale, Massimo Polidoro. GEORGIA. Georgia Skeptics, Becky Long. President. (414-456-5402. 414-873-4446. McQuittvS?Music. Editor. Some* & PamarmtU. PO. Box 60. 27058 2277 Winding Woods Dr.. Tucker. GA 30084. lib.MATC.edu). Voghera (PV). ILLINOIS. Midwest Committee for Rational Inquiry, JAPAN. Japan Skeptics, Jun Jugaku, Chairperson, Danielle Kafka. President. PO. Box 2792. Des Plaines. The organizations listed above have aims similar to those Business Center for Academic Societies Japan, 16-9 IL 60017-2792. Rational Examination Assoc of of CSICOP but are independent and autonomous. Honkomagomc 5-chome. Bunkyo-Ku. Tokyo 113. Lincoln Land (REALL). David Bloomberg. Chairman. Representatives of these organizations cannot speak on MEXICO. Mexican Association for Skeptical Research PO. Box 20302. Springfield IL 62708 (217-787-9098). behalf of CSICOP. THE COMMITTEE FOR THE SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATION OF CLAIMS OF THE PARANORMAL AN INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATION

Paul Kurtz, Chairman Barry Karr, Executive Director

SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNICAL CONSULTANTS

George Agogino, Dept. of Anthropology, Terence M. Hines, professor of psychology, anthropology. SUNY. Buffalo Eastern New Mexico University Pace University, Pleasantville, N.Y. •Member of CSICOP Executive Council Bill G. Aldridge. executive director, National Philip A. lanna, assoc. professor of astronomy, Erwin M. Segal, professor of psychology, Science Teachers Assoc. Univ. of Virginia SUNY. Buffalo William Sims Bainbridge, director, National William Jarvis, professor of health promo­ I IK- A. Shneour, biochemist; director, Science Foundation Sociology Program, tion and public health, Loma Linda Uni­ Biosystems Research Institute, La Jolla, Arlington, Va. versity, School of Public Health California Gary Bauslaugh, dean of technical and I. W, Kelly, professor of psychology. academic education and professor of University of Saskatchewan Steven N. Shore, associate professor and chair, Dept. of Physics and Astronomy, chemistry, Malaspina College, Nanaimo, Richard H. Lange, M.D. Mohawk Valley British Columbia, Canada Physician Health Plan, Schenectady, N.Y. Indiana Univ. South Bend Barry Singer, psychologist, Eugene, Oregon Richard E, Berendzen, astronomer, Gerald A. Larue, professor of biblical history Mark Slovak, astronomer. University of Washington, D.C. and archaeology. University of So. Wisconsin-Madison Martin Bridgstock, lecturer. School of California. Gordon Stein, physiologist, author; editor of Science, Griffith Observatory, Brisbane, Bernard J. Leikind, staff scientist, GA the American Rationalist Australia Technologies Inc., San Diego Waclaw Szybalski, professor, McArdle Richard Busch, magician, Pittsburgh, Pa. William M. London, associate professor Laboratory, University of Wisconsin- of health education, Kent State Shawn Carlson, physicist, San Diego. Calif. Madison University Charles J. Cazeau, geologist, Deary, Idaho Ernest H. Taves, psychoanalyst. Cambridge, Ronald J. Crowley, professor of physics, Thomas R. McDonough, lecturer in engi­ neering, Caltech, and SETI Coordinator Massachusetts California State University, Fullerton of the Planetary Society Sarah G. Thomason, professor of linguistics. Roger B. Culver, professor of astronomy. University of Pittsburgh, editor of James E. McGaha, Major, USAF; pilot Colorado State Univ. Language. J. Dahi, professor of engineering, Ecole Joel A. Moskowitz, director of medical psy­ Royale Militaire, Brussels, Belgium chiatry, Calabasas Mental Health Services, Los Angeles. Felix Ares De Bias, professor of computer CSICOP science, University of Basque, San Robert B. Painter, professor of microbiology. School of Medicine. University of Sebastian, Spain SUBCOMMITTEES California Michael K. Dennett, writer, investigator, Federal Way. Washington John W Patterson, professor of materials sci­ Astrology Subcommittee: Chairman, ence and engineering. Iowa State Sid Deutsch, Visiting Professor of electrical 1. W. Kelly, Dept. of Educational University engineering, University of South Florida. Psychology, 28 Campus Drive, Steven Pinker, professor and director of the Tampa Saskatoon, Sask., Canada. 57N-OX1 Center for Cognitive Neuroscience. MIT J. Dommanget, astronomer, Royale Electronic Communication Observatory, Brussels. Belgium James Pomerantz, professor of psychology, Rice University Subcommittee: Chairman, Page Natham J. Duker, assistant professor of Stephens, 6006 Fir Ave., Cleveland, pathology, Temple University Gary Posner, M.D., Tampa, Ha. Barbara Eisenslade, educator. Clifton Park, Daisie Radner, professor of philosophy, OH 44102. E-Mail: Jim Kutz N.Y. SUNY, Buffalo [email protected] Michael Radner, professor of philosophy. John F. Fischer, forensic analyst. Orlando Fla. Health Claims Subcommittee: Co- McMaster University, Hamilton, Frederic A. Friedel, philosopher, Hamburg, chairmen, William Jams, Professor Ontario, Canada West Germany of Health Promotion and Education, Robert H. Romer, professor of physics, Robert E. Funk, anthropologist, New York School of Public Health, Loma State Museum & Science Service Amherst College Linda University, Loma Linda, CA Eileen Gambrill, professor of social welfare, Milton A. Rothman, physicist, Philadelphia, 93350, and Stephen Barrett, M.D.. University of California at Berkeley Pa. P.O. Box 1747, Allentown, PA Sylvio Garattini. director, Mario Negri Karl Sabbagh. journalist, Richmond. Surrey. 18105. Pharmacology Institute, Milan. Italy England Laurie Godfrey, anthropologist, University of Robert J. Samp, assistant professor of educa­ Parapsychology Subcommittee: tion and medicine, University of Massachusetts Chairman, Ray Hyman. Psychology Gerald Goldin, mathematician, Rutgers Wisconsin-Madison Dept., Univ. of Oregon, Eugene. University, New Jersey Steven D. Schafersman, geologist, Houston OR 97402. Donald Goldsmith, astronomer president. Beta Scheiber,* system analyst. Boulder. Interstellar Media Colo. UFO Subcommittee: Chairman, Philip Clyde F. Herreid. professor of biology. Chris Scott, statistician, London, England J. Klass, 404 "N" Street S.W., SUNY. Buffalo Stuart D. Scott, Jr., associate professor of Washington. D. C 20024. The Committee for the Scientific Investigation of Claims of the Paranormal

The Committee for the Scientific Investigation of Claims of the Paranormal encourages the critical investigation of paranormal and fringe-science claims from a responsible, scientific rHGCfl&k point of view and disseminates factual information about the results of such inquiries to the scientific community and the public. It also promotes science and scientific inquiry, critical thinking, science education, and the use of reason in examining important issues. To carry out these objectives the Committee:

• Maintains a network of people interested in critically examining paranormal, fringe-science, and other claims, and in contributing to consumer education • Prepares bibliographies of published materials that carefully examine such claims • Encourages research by objective and impartial inquiry in areas where it is needed • Convenes conferences and meetings • Publishes articles that examine claims of the paranormal • Does not reject claims on a priori grounds, antecedent to inquiry, but examines them objectively and carefully

The Committee is a nonprofit scientific and educational organization. The SKEPTICAL INQUIRER is its official journal.