LmAA_____., Fir ( Spring 1985

E. O. Wilson on Sociobiology and Religion

Parapsychology and Religion James Alcock, John Beloff

The Legacy of Voltaire Paul Edwards

The Origins of Christianity R. Joseph Hoffmann

Plus: The New Witch-hunt Against Secular Humanism Leo Pfeffer, Paul Kurtz The Vatican's View of Sex Robert Francoeur Update on the Shroud of Turin joe Nickell SPRING 1985 ~In ISSN 0272-0701

VOL. 5, NO. 2 Contents

3 LETTERS TO THE EDITOR 4 EDITORIALS 8 ON THE BARRICADES ARTICLES 10 Update on the Shroud of Turin Joe Nickell 11 The Vatican's View of Sex: The Inaccurate Conception Robert T. Francoeur 15 An Interview with E. O. Wilson on Sociobiology and Religion Jeffrey Saver RELIGION AND PARAPSYCHOLOGY 25 Parapsychology: The "Spiritual" Science James E. Alcock 36 Science, Religion and the Paranormal John Beloff 42 The Legacy of Voltaire (Part I) Paul Edwards 50 The Origins of Christianity: A Guide to Answering Fundamentalists R. Joseph Hoffmann BOOKS 57 Humanist Solutions Vern Bullough 58 Doomsday Environmentalism and Cancer Rodger Pirnie Doyle 59 IN THE NAME OF GOD 62 CLASSIFIED

Editor: Paul Kurtz

Associate Editors: Gordon Stein, Lee Nisbet, Steven L. Mitchell, Doris Doyle

Managing Editor: Andrea Szalanski

Contributing Editors: Lionel Abel, author, critic, SUNY at Buffalo; Paul Beattie, president, Fellowship of Religious Humanists; Jo-Ann Boydston, director, Dewey Center; Laurence Briskman, lecturer, Edinburgh University, Scotland; Vern Bullough, historian, State University of New York College at Buffalo; Albert Ellis, director, Institute for Rational Living; Roy P. Fairfield, social scientist, Union Graduate School; Joseph Fletcher, theologian, University of Virginia Medical School; Antony Flew, philosopher, Reading University, England; Sidney Hook, professor emeritus of philosophy, NYU; Marvin Kohl, philosopher, State University of New York College at Fredonia; Jean Kotkin, executive director, American Ethical Union; Gerald Larne, professor emeritus of archaeology and biblical history, USC; Ernest Nagel, professor emeritus of philosophy, Columbia University; Howard Radest, director, Ethical Culture Schools; Ralph Raico, associate professor of history, State University College of New York at Buffalo; Robert Rimmer, author; William Ryan, free-lance reporter, novelist; Svetozar Stojanovic, professor of philosophy, University of Belgrade; Thomas Szasz, psychiatrist, Upstate Medical Center, Syracuse; V. M. Tarkunde, Supreme Court Judge, India; Richard Taylor, professor of philosophy, University of Rochester; Sherwin Wine, founder, Society for Humanistic Judaism

Editorial Associates: H. James Birx, James Martin-Diaz, Marvin Zimmerman

Executive Director of CODESH, Inc.: Jean Millholland Book Review Editor: Victor Culotta Promotion: Barry L. Karr

Systems Manager: Richard Seymour Typesetting: Paul E. Loynes Layout: Guy Burgstahler Staff: Jacqueline Livingston, Alfreda Pidgeon

FREE INQUIRY (ISSN 0272-0701) is published quarterly by the Council for Democratic and Secular Humanism (CODESH, Inc.), a nonprofit corporation, 3151 Bailey Avenue, Buffalo, NY 14215. Phone (716) 834-2921. Copyright ©1985 by CODESH, Inc. Second-class postage paid at Buffalo and at additional mailing offices. National distribution by International Periodicals Distributors, San Diego, California. Subscription rates: $15.00 for one year, $27.00 for two years, $35.00 for three years, $3.75 for single copies. Address subscription orders, changes of address, and advertising to: FREE INQUIRY, Central Park Station, Box 5, Buffalo, NY 14215. Manuscripts, letters and editorial inquiries should be addressed to: The Editor, FREE INQUIRY, Central Park Station, Box 5, Buffalo, N.Y. 14215. All manuscripts should be accompanied by two additional copies and a stamped, addressed envelope. Opinions expressed do not necessarily reflect the views of the editors or publisher.

2 FREE INQUIRY positions, but as one who has studied this issue for many years, I'd like to contribute some further thoughts. The gravest pitfall that the rights advocates have fallen into is the one concerning what constitutes an animal? Anyone who advocates human rights means the entire human race. The animal rights advocates don't refer to all LETTERS TO THE EDITOR animals, just certain preferred ones. If you ask these people to list the animals they believe should have rights, the list would consist primarily of furry mammals with expressive eyes, pets, farm animals, and a few others—all of which, by the way, they can see. Trillions of animals—most in fact—cannot be seen by the naked eye. How would the rights advocates give rights to cockroaches? To tapeworms? To maggots? Educational Reforms Indeed, to the intelligent rats who may infest their homes? And how about the rights of I am indebted to Delos McKown ("Are accept the fact that their ignorance is the fleas on their pets? American Educational Reforms Doomed?" exceeded only by their determination to Emotionalism is the principal tool of FI, Winter 1984/85) for helping me to maintain that state. After reading McKown, these advocates, and its catalyst is anthropo- understand a phenomenon that I experienced I am now convinced that these people felt, morphization. While no one with their head as an ambitious, idealistic, and as I look perhaps intuitively, that my talk about screwed on right wants to see animals suffer back now, hopelessly naive school-board developing in the students the habit of cri- for the fun of it, the bottom line on the member. Some years back, I decided that tical and logical thinking somehow rights issue is that it is only rational to talk my contribution to society would be to work represented a real threat to their basic reli- about rights as human rights. in public education. I assumed that (1) most gious beliefs and attendant life-styles. of society's ills were traceable to a pervasive May I offer another reason why Frank Walters and continuing ignorance, and further that McKown's predictions will be realized. Portland, Ore. (2) most people recognized this and would Those who are most qualified ("the brightest welcome any serious efforts to improve those and the best") to initiate reforms by serving Morality and Religion institutions designed to eradicate igno- on school boards will continue to refuse to rance—specifically our public school sys- do so. There are very few knowledgeable 1 liked Vern Bullough's rational editorial on tems. I was elected to the governing board and competent people so highly motivated "Sexual Morality and Religion" (FI, Winter of a rapidly growing suburban school (or so naive) to take on a job that has long 1984/85). However, he's not quite accurate district. I learned very quickly that my first hours, no pay, and whose primary reward is in saying that rape "is not against biblical assumption was correct. The widespread to suffer public abuse for daring to criticize teachings." Deuteronomy 22:28-29 says that ignorance of people about their school sys- one of our cherished institutions. "if a man meets a virgin who is not tem was unbelievable. I was surprised and betrothed, and seizes her and lies with her," shocked, however, to find little or no evi- Dave Campbell then he must marry the girl and pay her dence to support my second assumption— Phoenix, Ariz. father "fifty shekels of silver." Moreover, "he that most people want change and improve- may not put her away all his days." In verses ment in their schools. As one of the many 25-27 of the same chapter we find that "if in "unchurched," I lacked insight into what Animal Rights the open country a man meets a young Professor McKown describes as the "canker woman who is betrothed, and the man seizes at the core of Christianity." Now, at last, 1 "Sentiment, Guilt and Reason in the her and lies with her, then only the man think I know what was going on and why Management of Wild Herds" by Garrett who lay with her shall die ... because .. . my fight for reforms was an exercise in Hardin and "Animal Rights Re-evaluated" though the betrothed young woman cried futility. Accepting the fact that a great many by James Simpson (FI, Winter 1984/85 were for help there was no one to rescue her." people are ignorant was easy—but it took a breath of fresh air. Both authors gave eight years of getting kicked in the head to telling criticism of the so-called animal rights Richard L. Tierney Mason City, Iowa

Vern Bullough replies:

Conference Notice Richard J. Tierney has different ideas of FREE INQUIRY will sponsor a special conference on "Jesus what constitutes biblical prohibitions than I in History and Myth" on Friday and Saturday, April 19 do. The requirement that the rapist must marry his victim only punishes the woman. and 20, 1985, at the University of Michigan in Ann Arbor. Unfortunately, this custom still exists; a For details, turn to page 23. .I (Continued on p. 61)

Spring 1985 3 but this is no assurance that some funda- mentalist parent might not bring such a suit. Editorials: The New Witch-hunt The Hatch measure, notwithstanding its patent unconstitutionality, must be taken seriously. There is a real danger that if Against Secular Humanism enacted it would result in considerable revi- sion of public school teaching, not merely The U.S. Department of Education recently proposed a rule that prohibits school in the South where the fundamentalists are districts from spending federal funds on any courses that a district determines particularly strong, but throughout the "teaches secular humanism. " It was offered to implement a law (ESSA, Title nation, at least in public school districts that Sec. 509) enacted without adequate debate by Congress in the summer of 1984. rely on federal aid for survival. Moreover, history has shown that notwithstanding the evolution decisions, publishers of textbooks Leo Pfeffer used throughout the nation have been water- ing down or even eliminating the subject of orne defenders of the Equal Access Act measure could not reach an agreement as to evolution lest its treatment result in loss of Sof 1984, which would allow prayer in what "secular humanism" does mean and sales. secondary schools, may have hoped that its therefore left it to the state school districts The Washington Post article notes that enactment would satisfy champions of the to define the term. A legal aide to Hatch in an article entitled "Is Humanism Molest- return of religion to the public schools. If called it "a symbolic thing" and declared ing Your Child?" a Fort Worth, Texas, so, they should be sadly disillusioned by the that the purpose of the measure was to "put parents' group described secular humanism measure introduced by Senator Orrin G. the federal government on record saying that as a belief in "equal distribution of America's Hatch, which, according to a report in the federal funds should not be spent on propa- wealth . .. control of the environment, con- Washington Post, seeks to bar school gandizing an atheistic philosophy to our trol of energy and its limitation . . . the districts from spending federal funds to kids." removal of American patriotism and the free finance any course that a local school district If that is what the measure seeks to do, enterprise system, disarmament and the "determines is secular humanism." Neither there is hardly any need for it. Ever since creation of a one-world socialistic govern- fundamentalists, whose sincerity is unques- the Supreme Court's 1948 decision in the ment." Alas, there can be little doubt that tionable, nor political realists like President McCo/lum case, it has been unconstitutional groups like these will win control of school Reagan, who can recognize a good thing to propagandize an atheistic philosophy in boards in unforseeable numbers of com- when they see it, will rest until, one way or public schools; the Constitution requires munities. another, not only prayer but also religious neutrality and forbids hostility in respect to Can there be any doubt that the Hatch instruction and devotional Bible reading are religion. If a public school district seeks to measure presents a serious threat to the returned to the public schools at elementary inculcate atheism, all an objecting parent, integrity of public education in the United as well as secondary school levels. or even a taxpayer, need do is to bring a States? A laughing matter it is not. • The Hatch measure does not define suit for an injunction in the nearest federal what is meant by "secular humanism." The court. term came into the arena of constitutional According to another aide, the Hatch law in a 1961 opinion by Justice Hugo Black, measure was designed "to focus the money Paul Kurtz which ironically ruled unconstitutional a on real, concrete academic subjects like state law requiring all holders of public office biology or physics or real vocational subjects to take an oath that they believed in the like auto repair, and to get away from the _,.., existence of God. "Among religions in this softer social engineering kind of things." The he campaign against the public schools country," he wrote in a footnote to his trouble with that proposal lies in the reality Thas intensified in recent years, reaching opinion, "which do not teach what would that only auto repair is fairly safe. The a fever pitch in some areas of the country generally be considered a belief in the exis- measure could well be construed as denying where vigilante groups seek to censor what tence of God are Buddhism, Taoism, Ethical funds to public schools that include Dar- is being taught in the schools and rid them Culture, Secular Humanism and others." It winism in their biology courses or Galileoism of the influence of secular humanism. The is upon this footnote that Hatch and other (which denies the centrality of our planet as new law and the rule originally drafted by protagonists rely. Exactly what Black had related in the first chapter of Genesis) in Senator Orrin Hatch (R.-Utah) represents, in mind when he used that term is not clear, their physics courses. as far as we are aware, the first official but it is certain that he did not mean what The constitutionality of the Hatch pro- attempt by the federal government to ban Hatch says it means. posal so explained would, at the least, be the "religion of secular humanism" from the According to the Washington Post doubtful. Ever since the Epperson Supreme public schools. The rule only applies to report, the protagonists of the Hatch Court decision in 1968 and later lower funding for magnet schools, but it sets a federal court decisions in Texas, Louisiana, bad precedent. It is a dangerous development Tennessee, Arkansas, and the District of Leo Pfeffer is professor of constitutional and an unwarranted assault on the freedom Columbia, efforts to ban inclusion of evolu- law at Long Island University and special of speech clause of the First Amendment, tion in the teaching of biology have all counsel to the American Jewish Congress. and if allowed to go unchallenged, it may proved unsuccessful. As of the present His book, Religion, State, and the Burger undermine the entire educational process. writing, it does not appear that any legal Court, has just been released by Prometheus Secular humanism's opponents insist challenge to the current teaching of physics Books. that it is a "religion" and that the Constitu- in the public schools has been instituted, tion prohibits its being taught in the schools.

4 FREE INQUIRY defend theSupremeCourtwhenitsuitstheir decision inthe support theirviews.Interestingly,they They generallycitethe1961SupremeCourt an oathofofficebyswearingontheBible purposes andopposeitwhendoesnot(as in theirfierceoppositiontoRoevs.Wade, which legalizedabortion).Theirreference to Torcasoismistaken.Roywas ordered bytheStateofMarylandtotake in ordertoserveasanotarypublic.As tested thelawthatrequiredit.Inaunani- humanist, herefusedtodosoandcon- of unbelieversshouldbeprovidedthesame existence ofGodasatestofficewould fication foroffice.JusticeBlack,whowrote the opinion,arguedthattorequirebeliefin mous decisiontheSupremeCourtruledin No religioustestcanberequiredasaquali- his favor,maintainingthattheconscience theistic overnontheisticreligions.Heheld rights andprivilegesasthoseofbelievers: culture, andsecularhumanismasillustra- that manyreligionsdonotteachabeliefin prefer somereligionsoverothers,specifically God, andcitedBuddhism,Taoism,ethical "religion" bytheSupremeCourtandthat, tions. talists havebeenarguingthatsecular decision intheTorcasocaseshouldbeused ergo, itmustbeexcludedfromtheschools. Spring 1982 humanism hasbeenofficiallydeclareda It wouldbeironic,wroteLeoPfefferinthe by theenemiesofFirstAmendmentto Spring 1985 On thebasisofthisdecision,fundamen- FREE INQUIRY, Torcaso vs. Watkins case if JusticeBlack's to separates churchandstate,particularlysince separation principle.Surelythegovernment Justice Blackwasastaunchdefenderofthe and isnotareligion;thebriefreference should notbeallowedtodeclarewhatis weaken, ifnotdemolish,thewallthat deny thatitis.Arevegetarianism,theanimal especially whensecularhumaniststhemselves for defining "religion ofsecularhumanism"isalready all "religiously"pursuedbytheirdevotees— by JusticeBlackisnotadequatefoundation to beexcludedfromtheschoolsonsame basis? rights movement,ordedicationtosports— causing considerableconfusionineduca- tional circlesforitdoesnotdefine"secular and conservativegroupsareengagedina posed ruleprohibitingtheteachingof to eachschooldistrict.Therulecanwreak havoc throughouttheland,dependingon humanism" butleavesitsinterpretationup how itisinterpreted.Somefundamentalist courses inphilosophy,valuesclarification, scientific outlook,andtheybelieveininstil- ing ofDarwin'stheoryevolutionto lar humanismtoeverythingfromtheteach- new witch-hunt,andtheyhaveappliedsecu- critical intelligenceandthescientificmethod. literature, andthesocialsciences. moral education,ethics,sex a rationalethicalphilosophyindependentof ling inyoungpeopleanappreciationfor They maintainthatitispossibletodevelop The DepartmentofEducation'spro- Secular humanistsarecommittedtothe secular humanism asareligion, some 2,400yearsagoof"denyingtheGods of Athens,makingthebetterappear charges hewastried,convicted,andsen- any religiousfaith.Theyarecommittedtoa tenced todeathbytheAthenianassembly. worse, andcorruptingitsyouth."Onthese free, open,anddemocraticsociety.Among Socrates saidthathewasengagedinphi- losophical inquiry.Histaskwastoawaken the greatsecularhumanistsofpast,like this meanthatanycoursesexaminingtheir twentieth centuryhavebeenJohnDewey, the mostimportantsecularhumanistsin the lightofreasoninyoung,nottocor- education? ideas aretobeexcluded?Andwhatabout faith—or none—andteachingthemhowto carefully weighargumentsproandcon, indoctrinating studentsintoaspecific Bertrand Russell,andSidneyHook.Does not beanassaultontheveryviabilityof Would excludingthemfromschoolcurricula rupt them. engage infreeinquiryorraisefundamental which itisthebusinessofeducationtodo. Hume, Voltaire,Paine,Freud,andSartre? questions inordertodevelopanappreciation for reasonandcriticalintelligenceinthe If theschoolteachersofAmericacannot young, theneducationbecomesmere unthinking indoctrination,andthosewho would cultivateit,aretherealcorruptersof would denyfreeinquiry,notthosewho our youth.. Socrates wasaccusedbytheAthenians There isavastdifferencebetween U o om Toles an • 5 by President Reagan and Senator Jesse Helms would subject children to government- backed majority or plurality religious prac- tices and teachings on the 2,300 days the average child spends in school before his high school graduation. Religious minorities and dissenters would face harassment, Church vs. State: embarrassment, and strong pressure to con- form. The Coming Battles Success of the movement to get "equal time" for "creationism" in science classes would wreck science education and partially replace it with fundamentalist indoctrination. The "equal access" legislation passed by Congress in 1984 will, unless checked, allow adult missionaries to proselytize students in public schools from seventh grade on up without parental knowledge or permission and could divide each school into sectarian Edd Doerr enclaves. The prohibition on teaching an unde- fined "secular humanism," passed (probably We have now sunk to a depth at which a true conservatives who are dedicated to free- inadvertently) by Congress in 1984, could restatement of the obvious is the first duty dom. Let's itemize the specific threats. trigger witch-hunts and efforts by moral of intelligent men.—George 0rwell If just two Supreme Court justices retire majoritarians to control public school cur- soon (five of them are older than President ricula. Reagan), they will probably be replaced by If the constitutional right to choose men who will give us a Court that is likely abortion is denied directly by constitutional e made it through 1984 without see- to reverse many of the great civil liberties amendment or indirectly by the bombing of Wing Orwell's dystopic vision come rulings of the past two generations. clinics, women will lose the right to be moral true. Now, at the midpoint in Ronald If just two more state legislatures pass agents and many will be forced to risk their Reagan's White House tenure, we may be resolutions calling for a national constitu- lives with back-alley quacks. on the verge of sliding into a Falwellian tional convention, the first since 1787, we If the administration cut-off of funding dystopia. could see an uncontrolled, Radical Right for the International Planned Parenthood Our country has come a long way from dominated convention hacking up the Bill Federation is not reversed by Congress, the the days when Quakers were executed on of Rights. Specific Radical Right goals for Third World overpopulation problem will Boston Common, religious dissenters were a convention—aside from the proclaimed be worse than it already is, endangering the harassed, and the power of established goal of a constitutional provision to require lives and health of countless millions. churches was equal to government's. The a balanced federal budget, which even Presi- President Reagan's establishment of same leaders who severed our ties with dent Reagan is unwilling to submit to diplomatic relations with the headquarters Britain and got our nation moving on the Congress—include the outlawing of abortion of the Catholic church in 1984 is a symbol democratic path had the wisdom to invent (which was legal and widely practiced during of his administration's obeisance to a foreign and begin to implement the principle of the lives of Jefferson and Lincoln), allowing clerical autocrat whose influence over his separation of church and state. Our history government to force all constituents to sup- own "faithful" is tenuous. has seen steady progress in the guaranteeing port sectarian institutions, authorizing This is a grim picture. But recognizing of religious, intellectual, and personal freedom. government to mandate and regiment devo- the seriousness of the situation is the first Until now. The past half-dozen years tions in public schools, and requiring funda- step toward effective action to rectify it. It have seen the coalescing of sectarian reac- mentalist "creationism" to be taught in sci- is in the best interests of Americans of all tionary groups into a powerful movement ence classes. persuasions that the Bill of Rights be that, if unchecked, may undermine our most Pressure continues to mount to enact honored and respected, that the wall of basic freedoms and create a social system federal and state legislation to provide sup- separation between church and state be that is uncongenial to science, free inquiry, port for sectarian private schools through repaired and kept high and strong, that reason, democracy, and the intelligent tuition tax credits, vouchers, and other pluralism and secular democratic govern- resolution of social and ecological problems. means. This could wreck public education, ment be preserved. Civil libertarians have The most regressive elements within the two destroy academic freedom, divide education worked cooperatively and won many great main divisions of Christianity have combined and society into feudal sectarian enclaves, victories. We can continue to do so and ulti- with selfish secular power-seekers to develop and greatly worsen social division along reli- mately prevail if each of us will take respon- a force strong enough to push aside the dis- gious, ethnic, social class, and other lines. sibility for getting involved with one or more organized ranks of liberals, moderates, and Incidentally, more than $I billion in federal of the problems listed above and will per- and state funds is currently being used sonally support and work with the organiza- Edd Doerr is executive director of Ameri- annually to aid parochial and private tions dedicated to preserving free inquiry, cans for Religious Liberty. schools. science, reason, religious freedom, civil liber- A school prayer amendment promoted ties, and democratic values. •

6 FREE INQUIRY resources. I would no more call Pope Paul a humanist than I would Jerry Falwell or Billy Graham. Norman Lear responded to the presi- dent, rightly pointing out that there was something disingenuous in the president's equation of the enormous religious and poli- Toward a Nonreligious tical influence and power of the television evangelists with the influence of the relatively Secular Humanism small humanist movement and/or implying that humanists' views have provoked evan- gelists' to take defensive action. It is clear that secular humanism continues to be the bête noire of right-wing fundamentalists and conservatives and is being used as a kind of whipping boy. Yet secular humanism is a historic philosophical, scientific, and ethical tradition in Western civilization, and it need not apologize for its point of view. Fred Edwords, executive director of the n the heat of the 1984 election campaign, the source of the quotation. It did not appear American Humanist Association, replied to I Harper's magazine (October 1984) pub- in the Humanist magazine (when 1 was President Reagan in the January 1985 issue lished an exchange of letters between Presi- editor), but is taken from my article "Is of Harper's, correctly pointing out the ori- dent Reagan and Norman Lear, television Everyone a Humanist?" which originally ginal source of my statement. Edwords producer and founder of People for the appeared in Question, a British publication, added however "For the record, it has never American Way. This attracted considerable and was published in the United States in a been the policy of the American Humanist attention, and some of the letters were book that I edited, The Humanist Alterna- Association to reject Christian, Jewish, or reprinted in the New York Times. Since the tive (Prometheus Books 1973). other types of humanism." In my judgment, president specifically attacked me in that In this article 1 wrote that the term this statement confuses the issue. debate, it is important to set the record humanist was being used so widely that it It is no doubt true that there are "reli- straight. had been preempted by its historic critics. I gious humanists." These humanists wish to The exchange began with Norman Lear was referring to Pope Paul VI, who main- interpret humanism as a nontheistic religion, expressing his concern that the president had tained in his 1969 Christmas message that and by religion they are referring to a set of endorsed the "Christian Nation" movement, Christianity was "humanistic," and he basic moral values that move and inspire thus undermining the historic principle of insisted that "the only authentic humanism humanity. Some humanists even hold a sym- separation of church and state so basic to must be Christian." In the quotation in bolic or metaphoric belief in "God" as the American democracy. Lear wrote: "I am question 1 sought to differ with the pope structure and order of the cosmos or the concerned that you not use the office of the and also to defend secular humanism. I said summation of our ideals and aspirations. It presidency as Evangelist-in-Chief or to that humanism is a nontheistic and natu- is also clear, however, that there is another further the notion that any particular group ralistic philosophy, that it is based upon the basic strain of humanist thought that differs of Americans are to be given special standing scientific method and outlook, and that it with this interpretation and explicitly rejects because of their religious practices." Lear holds that ethical values can be developed the Judaic-Christian idea of a personal god, quoted statements by Jerry Falwell, Pat independent of a theological framework. the doctrine of salvation by means of faith, Robertson, James Robison, and Jimmy Incidentally, I pointed out in the same article and the belief that human history is fulfilling Swaggart, in which they maintained that that humanism is equally opposed to any some divine plan. It denies that our moral America is or should be a Christian country. form of Marxism-Leninism, even though obligations can only be derived from divine President Reagan, in reply to Lear, some Marxists have asserted that they were commandments, and it rejects the simplistic denied that he meant to establish a Christian also humanists. Humanism is, 1 wrote, view that only those who accept the Judaic- nation, and he added that the quotation opposed to any and all "authoritarian, reli- Christian religion can lead a moral life. taken from the evangelists "were defensive gious, or totalitarian ideologies that attempt Why fudge the issue? Secular humanism rather than aggressive." The president to suppress, limit, or censor human intelli- is not religious, nor does it pretend to be. It implied that possibly they were made in gence or to impose an orthodoxy of belief is committed to the methods of science and response to statements such as those offered or morality." reason, which it uses to interpret nature and by me in the Humanist: "Humanism cannot The basic principle of humanism is a solve human problems. "No deity will save in any sense of the word apply to one who commitment to the idea of free thought and us," says the secular humanist. "We must still believes in god as the source and creator the free mind, and its highest duty is to the save ourselves" (Humanist Manifesto II). We of the universe. Christian humanism would truth, as the humanist sees it, and to the are responsible for our own destiny. Our be possible only for those who are willing criticism of cant, fraud, deception, illusion, obligation is to work with our fellow human to admit there are atheistic humanists. It and dogma. That is why 1 excluded Pope beings to secure the fruits of liberty and the surely does not apply to god-intoxicated Paul from the range of humanism; for him, benefits of social justice and individual believers." faith had become a substitute for reason, happiness—and this can be done without First, the president was mistaken about and piety for dependence upon human any reference to a deity.—Paul Kurtz

Spring 1985 7 school officials, the group defined humanism thus: "There is no God—man's his own creator. There is no right or wrong. Ethics are situational. There are no basic truths; ON THE BARRICADES no absolutes; no feeling of individuality." It charged: "Young children . . . are indoc- trinated in an egotistic Gospel of Self-Esteem and Self-Fulfillment based on the abusive News & Views assumption of Encounter Group Therapy rather than any rational and realistic assess- ment of human nature." Schools Feel Chill of Education ant was a fifteen-year-old boy. Mr. Wilson The pamphlet went on: "From a Chris- tian point of view, the introduction of values Regulations checked into his background in an attempt to make some sense of his wife's death and clarification courses into both public and found a troubled teenager who had spent parochial schools presents both pedagogical Western New York, as one of the few areas his life in eleven holding centers and foster retrogression and the influence of a decadent in the U.S. with a magnet school system (in homes. Secular Humanist ideology intent upon Buffalo), is likely to become a battleground Social service agencies had dealt with changing the values of the younger genera- for the new Department of Education rule the boy but failed to prevent the tragedy. tion away from traditional Judaeo-Christian that prohibits spending federal funds to teach Wilson saw a need for a program that would ethics"(emphasis theirs). "secular humanism" in magnet schools (see detect and help such individuals before they The Concerned Parents and Taxpayers Editorials, p. 4). The rule will not be became a real danger to themselves and of W.N.Y. have already achieved some suc- finalized until April 1985, but residents of society. EPIC was the result. Public schools cess in ousting EPIC; they are likely to press Western New York have already had a taste in the area adopted EPIC readily since it their case further when the Department of of what its impact may be. satisfied New York State Education Depart- Education's rule banning federal expendi- In the fall of 1984, area critics of public ment requirements that students understand tures for teaching secular humanism becomes education and secular humanism combined and accept the values of justice, honesty, final. However, as they are beginning to dis- forces to attack the Effective Parenting self-discipline, due process, equality, and cover, an even more effective tool may be at Information for Children program, known majority rule with respect for minority rights. their disposal. as EPIC. They have already succeeded in The regents say that students must also That weapon is in the form of yet pressuring one school district to drop the understand and respect people of different another Department of Education rule, one program and are trying to get others to races, cultural heritage, and religious and that implements an amendment sponsored follow suit. social backgrounds. by Utah Senator Orrin Hatch to an educa- The assault shocked the administrators EPIC was structured to unite the com- tion bill passed in 1978. The rule denies of the innovative and acclaimed program; munity, home, and school in guiding chil- Department of Education funds to schools Director Sandra Rifkin said that when EPIC dren in developing positive attitudes about that ignore parents' wishes in structuring and was first charged with spreading secular themselves and strong senses of character presenting course material to students. humanism she had to consult a dictionary and responsibility. Its goals were to prevent Although the rule does not specifically name to find out what the term meant. Now she child abuse and neglect, teenage pregnancy, secular humanism as a subject parents may knows all too well how some view it; she and alcohol and drug abuse. EPIC was object to, some are already using the regu- has come under such fire that she refused to installed in about fifty schools in Western lation to purge schools of what they regard even discuss the controversy with FREE New York, and officials from school systems as humanism's evil influence. INQUIRY for fear of giving her opponents around the country were calling to find out For example, in response to such a con- more ammunition. how to start one in their area. cern voiced by a parent in Cobb County, EPIC was founded in 1977 by Robert To a group calling itself "Concerned Georgia, school administrators presented L. Wilson, a Western New Yorker whose Parents and Taxpayers of W.N.Y.," EPIC's teachers with a list of nine topics on which wife of thirty-nine years had been murdered activities smacked of secular humanism. In discussion was to be banned or restricted. It during a burglary at their home. Her assail- a pamphlet distributed to the public and included "alternative" and "aberrant" sexual

I've decided -to send mn son 11e isn't e member of ~ Falwell! down there for another your religion. visit.

IS THAT YoU, IOW? \q1Les 15 HE — HOW ABOUT (AT10LIC? LtJMERAN? RIGNT FT R1E E001$All.6AME NE> T SATURPAY!,J Reprinted by permission: Tribune Media Services, Inc.

8 FREE INQUIRY March 16, 1985, at a dinner meeting chaired behavior, evolution, abortion as a social or Humanist Laureates: by Georgetown President Timothy Healy. political issue, communism, witchcraft, reli- —Mario Bunge, Frothingham Professor The discussion centered on Madison's role gion, personal inquiries, and "valuing"— of Foundations and Philosophy of Science in the struggle for religious liberty. Within instructional activities designed to promote at McGill University, Montreal, Canada. weeks of his birthday in 1785, Madison student decision-making and value selection. —Joseph Delgado, professor and chair- Memorial and Remonstrance, a classic Other groups are taking similar action. person in the Department of Neuropsychi- wrote statement on religious freedom that made a Some parents in Western New York are cir- atry at the University of Madrid. Formerly singular contribution to the passage of the culating a form to school officials that lists a professor at Yale University, Dr. Delgado Bill Establishing Religious Freedom. twenty-four topics in which they request their is one of Spain's leading scientists and a The committee also explored ways to child not be involved unless they give written pioneer in the area of animal brain research. become an effective participant in the permission. The list includes "instruction in —Alberto Hidalgo, president of the development of Montpelier, Madison's nuclear war," "guided fantasy techniques," Sociedad Asturiana de Filosofiá in Oviedo, Virginia home. Late in 1984, the property "education pertaining to alcohol and drug Spain. abuse," and "nonacademic personality tests." —Franco Lombardi, professor of phi- was transferred to the National Trust. Groups from the National Education losophy at the University of Rome. Recently, George Smith was appointed cura- Association and People for the American —Jole Lombardi (wife of Franco Lom- tor, and he is eager to open the estate to the Way are fighting these attacks on public bardi), distinguished Italian educator and public. However, funds are in short supply. education and secular humanism. Editorials organizer of a laic university for older per- With help from concerned citizens, Mont- opposing the Department of Education's sons. pelier's opening may coincide with the 1987 actions have appeared in major newspapers —Thomas Szasz, professor of psychia- bicentenary celebration of the Constitutional across the country, including the Washington try at the State University of New York Convention.—Robert Alley Post and the Milwaukee Journal. But the College of Medicine in Syracuse and a leader opposition has considerable force: the local in the movement against involuntary com- groups who initiate these measures have the mitment to mental hospitals. Fundamentalist-Humanist Dialogue backing from organizations like Phyllis These new members not only strengthen Canceled Schlafly's Eagle Forum, and even the White the international appeal of the Academy, but House. Even Department of Education also provide a broader base from which to Secretary William J. Bennett has gone on combat the growing worldwide threat to The Evangelical! Fundamentalist-Humanist record in encouraging parents to challenge intellectual freedom and scientific inquiry Dialogue, sponsored by FREE INQUIRY, has the teachers and school officials on their posed by religious fanaticism, rampant irra- been canceled. The two-day meeting was children's courses. Regretfully, the U.S. pub- tionalism, and repressive social forces. The originally slated for October 12 and 13, 1984, lic schools may be the scene of an all-out Academy offers its warmest welcome to the at the University of Richmond and post- attack by the foes of secular humanism. new Laureates. poned, at the request of the evangelists and —Andrea Szalanski. The Academy membership notes with fundamentalists scheduled to participate, deep regret the passing of Humanist Laure- until after the November presidential and ates George O. Abell, professor of astron- congressional elections. Attempts to resched- New Humanist Laureates Elected omy at the University of California at Los ule the event have been fruitless. Angeles, and Chaim Perelman, professor of The Academy of Humanism, founded in philosophy at the University of Brussells, 1983, seeks to develop public awareness of Belgium.—Steven L. Mitchell FI Cartoonist Wins Award the positive alternative presented by the humanist outlook. The Academy brought Tom Toles, who provides the original together thirty distinguished, internationally drawings for each issue of FREE INQUIRY, known nontheistic humanists to encourage Madison Committee Meets has won first place in the 1984 John Fischetti and cultivate scientific inquiry and other Editorial cartoonist competition. Mr. Toles humanistic values. The James Madison Memorial Committee was selected for the national honor over 130 In 1984, six outstanding humanists were held its annual commemoration of Madi- leading editorial cartoonists. It was presented elected to membership in the Academy as son's birthday at Georgetown University on at Columbia College in Chicago.

Na Something a Rile more Secular compatible will his beliefis. Viana. ._ MOSLEM? *F-4 MAYBE?

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Spring 1985 9

(Rowman & Allanheld, 1984), replaces some of the religious orientation of other works with a misguided skepticism. Drews, a clas- sical historian at Vanderbilt, argues that the imprint on the shroud is indeed of Jesus' body, but he equates it with the "Forma Christi" of the early Gnostics. This was sup- posedly an imprint taken by Pontius Pilate Update on the Shroud of Turin from the corpse of Jesus to embarrass the early Christians. Drews's thesis rests on what the Library Journal called a "slightly strained" interpretation of the evidence. In any case, as I told Drews when he wrote

Joe Nickell

he latest pro-authenticity books on the other hand, had never before tackled any- TShroud of Turin and an absurdly cred- thing remotely like an artistic forgery." (For ulous article recently distributed nationwide a critical review of Heller's book in com- by United Press International (UPI) continue parison with my Inquest on the Shroud of to present "research" on the "burial cloth of Turin [Prometheus, 1983] see Denis Christ" in the guise of science. Much of it is Dutton's "Requiem for the Shroud of Turin" conducted—or at least encouraged—by the in the Summer 1984 Michigan Quarterly A negative photograph of the face of the shroud image. Shroud of Turin Reseach Project (STURP), Review.) whose leaders serve on the Executive Council Frank C. Tribbe's Portrait of Jesus? asking for my help in supporting his thesis of the Holy Shroud Guild, a pro-authenticity (Stein and Day, 1983) touts Heller's con- (after publishing his book), a human body religious organization. clusions as valid, but unfortunately Tribbe's simply cannot produce a minimally distorted For example, the anecdotal Report on book is a mine field for the unwary, abound- image like the imprint on the shroud. (See the Shroud of Turin by STURP's John ing as it does in half-truths. For instance, he Inquest, pp. 78-81.) Heller (Houghton Mifflin, 1983) purports cites an early statement by McCrone in such Recently, National Geographic (October to establish that the "blood" on the cloth is a way as to imply that McCrone had 1984) once again cited the work of a free- genuine. Actually, a decade ago, the still red retracted his findings. Actually, McCrone s lance Swiss criminologist, Max Frei. Frei and "picturelike" stains failed a battery of further tests, including sophisticated instru- claimed to have found pollens on the shroud forensic tests, and subsequently the distin- mental analyses, established the presence of that proved its origin in the Holy Land. But guished microanalyst Walter McCrone dis- the pigments, and McCrone concluded that scientists have challenged Frei's methodology covered the "blood" was made up of artists' the shroud was a medieval forgery. (he used no controls) and his conclusions pigments—red ochre (iron oxide), vermilion, Later in his book, Tribbe discusses a have been discredited. (See Inquest, p. 113.) and rose madder. "parallel" to the shroud, the infamous Image Before his death in 1983, Frei squandered After McCrone presented these findings, of Guadalupe in Mexico that is alleged to much of his remaining credibility by pro- however, the samples were taken from him, be a miraculous portrait of the Virgin Mary. claiming "Hitler's Diaries" authentic. STURP refused to publish his report, and (Although he does not say so, some members But perhaps the silliest shroud he was "drummed out" of the organization. of STURP now also serve on the Image of "research" of recent vintage is that of a Utah Later Heller and an associate, Alan Adler, Guadalupe Research Project.) Unfortunately chemist, Joseph Kohlbeck, and a nun known were given the samples. Why this pair was for Tribbe, the comparison is all too appro- as Sister Damian of the Cross. In an article chosen invites speculation since, as Heller priate: An investigation of the Image, made written by Janice Perry of UPI, we learn admits, McCrone "had over two decades of shortly after its appearance in 1531, yielded that STURP's Ray Rogers gave Kohlbeck experience with this kind of problem and a testimony that it was the work of "the Indian some fibers from the shroud for testing. Like worldwide reputation. Adler and 1, on the painter Marcos," and paint has been detected others before, Kohlbeck found traces of cal- all over the "miraculous" portrait. Not sur- cium, but he attempted to associate it some- prisingly, Tribbe again plays down (or omits how with the formation of the image: "I Joe Nickell teaches computer-assisted tech- altogether) the negative evidence while was able to color fibers with [the calcium] nical writing at the University of Kentucky. quoting sources who suggest the obvious the exact same color as the image on the He is the author of Inquest on the Shroud painted areas are "additions." shroud," he claimed. However, any point of Turin (Prometheus Books 1983). A further book on the subject, In Search Kohlbeck might have been trying to make of the Shroud of Turin by Robert Drews is obscured by the fact that STURP's

10 FREE INQUIRY analyses showed the calcium was mostly on the opposite (nonimage) side of the cloth. Be that as it may, both Kohlbeck and Sister Damian suggest the calcium can be attributed to the limestone of Christ's tomb, on which Sister Damian is described as "per- haps the world's authority." Whether that is The Vatican's View of Sex: the "tomb of Christ" that is advertised to tourists is unclear. (There is no proof that it The Inaccurate Conception ever held the body of Jesus.) In any case, there are alternative explanations for the cal- cium that are consistent with the other evi- dence. For example, if it is indeed limestone, it could have resulted from contact with a bas-relief sculpture used by a forger to pro- duce the image. (See Inquest, p. 101 ff.) Sister Damian also thinks she can explain away the "red paint" discovered by McCrone. She points out that Jews of the Robert T. Francoeur time of Christ often used red ochre to write the deceased's name above the kokhim (or burial niche). Christ's followers, she explained, "were upset because Christ had died and were probably crying and shaking ver since the Vatican II Council debates goal. In simple terms, any form of sex that as they tried to paint his name on the Eon birth control and priestly celibacy does not end in vaginal intercourse— kokhim above him." She concluded, "Paint in the early 1960s, statements by the pope masturbation, oral and anal sex, as well as could have very easily dripped on the and Vatican officials on sexual morality have sex with contraceptives, premarital sex, gay shroud." Of course Sister Damian has made headlines: "Vatican calls masturbation sex, comarital sex, and even lusty ignored the vermilion and the fact that a grave moral disorder." "Pope urges mar- thoughts—is "unnatural, disordered and McCrone found the red ochre predominantly ried couples to abstain from sex." "Premari- immoral." on image areas but generally absent from tal sex is always immoral." "Church accepts Given the knowledge of past ages, these the background. homosexuals but says they must be celibate." views may have been valid and functional Articles like the forgoing typically omit "Test-tube babies and artificial insemination years ago, but in today's world they are evidence against authenticity. This negative condemned as unnatural and adulterous." antediluvian, vestiges of antiquated physi- evidence includes the incompatibility of the Though critics often attack such state- ology and psychology. I will attack those image and cloth with known Jewish burial ments as "reactionary," "Victorian," "out of primitive premises shortly, but first let me practices. (The hair and beard would have touch with the real world," and "antisexual," prepare for my main argument with a been shorn, for example, and multiple cloths such judgments focus on details rather than reductio ad absurdum diversion. If we accept would have been employed.) The 1,300-year on the whole picture. The essence of the the premises of the Vatican's view of sex, gap in the shroud's provenance is often current debates over sexual morality in the we are confronted with some ridiculous con- glossed over, and the forger's confession Catholic church is not the conclusions but clusions ancient theologians never thought (reported by a fourteenth-century bishop to the premises. Like every institution, the of because they lived in a relatively uncom- Pope Clement) is generally omitted. The Vatican has created its own picture of reality. plicated world. We live in a world of contra- "negative" image is often suggested as Within that framework and its assumptions, ceptive and reproductive technologies, of impossible for an artist to have produced the current pope and Vatican officials adhere in-depth psychological perspectives, and new and therefore miraculous, when a medieval to a strict logic. All sex is designed by nature forms of male-female relationships that were rubbing technique actually produces strik- and God for reproduction. Therefore, sex is inconceivable before 1900. The Vatican's ingly similar images. Often there is no men- allowed only for couples in heterosexual view of sex is as much in touch with modern tion of the pigments on the shroud. marriages when nothing interferes with this human relationships as its view of the sun When the shroud's owner, the exiled revolving around a flat world was with the King Umberto of Italy, died in 1983, the world Copernicus and Galileo knew as real Vatican inherited the "holy relic." Thus far Trained in Catholic theology by Jesuits and in 1632. the pope continues to prohibit radiocarbon Benedictines, Dr. Francoeur was ordained a Reduction to absurdity #1: No sexual dating of the cloth. But just in case he should diocesan priest in 1958. He was granted fantasies. "Impure thoughts," "delectatio relent and a date be obtained in the Middle permission by the Vatican to marry in 1967 morosa," lusty fantasies are sinful because Ages, some shroudologists have armed without being laicized. Author of Eve's New they involve mental sexual pleasure that does themselves with an explanation: The cloth Rib, Hot and Cool Sex: Cultures in Conflict, not climax in reproductive marital inter- might have become "too contaminated" for and the college text Becoming a Sexual course. Pope John Paul II recently warned testing. Experts know that this would not Person, he teaches at Fairleigh Dickinson husbands not to lust after their wives because be so—samples would be purified before University and works regularly with church such physical desire detracts a man from his testing. What the future promises in terms and clergy groups on sexual and life-style spiritual goals. (He implied that wives are of shroud research is uncertain and unsett- issues. never tempted to lust after their husbands!) ling. • But Kinsey found that 84 percent of hus-

Spring 1985 11 bands and two-thirds of American wives Other Absurdities: The behavioral exer- Augustine created a philosophy of work and fantasize while making love with their spouse cises devised by Masters and Johnson and pleasure that endures today in the Vatican's and many of those fantasies are about having widely used in sex therapy are often immoral inaccurate conception of sex. After a wild sex with a person other than that spouse. no matter how much they help the couple life with a mistress and illegitimate child, Without the variety of those fantasies marital become sexually functional. Sensate focus, Augustine joined the Manichean cult that sex often goes flat. Even Jimmy Carter con- stop-and-go, partner sexual exam, and pelvic held sex as the worst evil possible. Later, as fessed to "lusting in his heart" a few years muscle exercises involve sexual arousal but a repentant Christian bishop, Augustine pic- back. The fantasy enrichment exercises that not necessarily vaginal intercourse. Sex sur- tured the moral life as a lifelong conflict are a common part of modern sex therapy rogates are verboten. A childless husband between the City of God and the City of are totally unacceptable in the Vatican's may not masturbate to obtain a semen Mammon. Sex might be tolerated, possibly, morality. sample for fertility testing. And, despite the in marriage if it was productive work, but Reduction to Absurdity #2: No solo sex. emphasis on making babies, artificial insemi- sexual pleasure could never be accepted. Masturbation is the most common sexual nation and surrogate mothers are forbidden. Augustine's view of pleasure still prevails in outlet for men and women of all ages. In Behind these and other absurdities is the Vatican today. "Lust of the flesh, insofar the Vatican's view it is both "unnatural and the Vatican's neat logic of Newtonian as it seeks carnal and sensual pleasures," the disordered." Thus a Catholic teenager who machines. A cog is a cog. A penis is a penis. pope warns, "makes man in a certain sense masturbates sins more seriously than if he A cog has its fixed purpose in a machine blind and insensitive to the deeper values had fornicated. Fornication is a "disordered and a penis has its proper, "natural" which spring from love and which at the act" but natural because it involves vaginal mechanical function as a sperm depositor. same time constitute love in the interior truth intercourse. (If the teenager used a condom Any "playing around" with the "sword" out- that is its own." The present pope wants while fornicating he might be more responsi- side its vaginal "scabbard" is dangerous and married couples to exercise great control ble but his sin would be greater than if he immoral. But just because a penis functions over their sexual impulses and commit allowed the girl to become pregnant!) well in reproduction does not mean it always themselves to periods of abstinence. Put the Also, a Catholic wife may masturbate has to be used for that purpose, or only for Vatican mechanics of sexual parts together to orgasm if she doesn't climax during inter- that purpose. The Vatican's penis/vagina with Augustine's association of sexual course, but only if the semen was properly morality exists as if persons were irrelevant. pleasure with the City of Darkness and you deposited. Whether she can have multiple As long as the penis is licensed to the vagina have the roots of Vatican sexual morality. orgasms is questionable. Her husband is not and goes in naked, its penetration is assumed However, in the most authentic Catholic as fortunate. If physical exhaustion or to be morally good. theology, neither the Vatican nor the pope psychic conflicts about "polluting a madonna If, however, one views the sexual organs is "the Catholic church." Both are currently mother" (his wife) keep him from orgasm, as parts of a person who is relating with acting as if they are "the church." There has he is not allowed to relieve himself. him or herself or with another sexually active always been what theologians call the "sensus Reduction to Absurdity #3: No wet fun. person, the psychosomatic character of the fidelium," the idea that the "the people of Modern physiology tells us healthy men and relationship becomes the basis of morality. God" constitute the church. The Catholic women have erections or sexual arousal As the authors of a 1977 report sponsored laity has spoken clearly on sexual morality every ninety minutes during Rapid Eye by the Catholic Theological Society sug- since Vatican II, when the majority of Movement (REM) sleep. Vatican morality gested, Catholics need to move beyond the Catholic theologians approved and accepted prohibits any Catholic from enjoying this Vatican's "prescientific physiology": "It bears contraception, thereby confirming the moral pleasure if he or she wakes up and from repeating, without provision, that where judgment of the majority of Catholics that relieving the sexual tension by masturbation. there is sincere affection, responsibility and sexual intercourse need not always be open One must not enjoy a spontaneous wet the germ of authentic human relationship— to making babies. They view the pope and dream. in other words, where there is love—God is the Vatican as being out of touch with the Reduction to Absurdity #4: No barriers. surely present." Although this statement church. This difference in conviction about It is perfectly natural and moral for a dealt with homosexuals, it is an authentic who and what constitutes the Catholic Catholic couple to make love only when the Catholic position applicable to relations church is evident in the Vatican's recent calendar and clock say the wife is not ovu- between all sexual persons regardless of their move to expel twenty-four American nuns lating, but it is unnatural and disordered for status as straight or gay, single or married, who dared to say publicly that there is a a couple to use natural hormones to prevent and regardless of the logistics and uses of pluralism of views on abortion among dedi- ovulation so they can express their love for genital parts. cated, committed Catholic theologians and each other whenever the spirit moves them. laity. The nuns were among ninety-four Also, even when a wife is pregnant she can- American Catholic leaders who signed a New not use a contraceptive because superfecun- ritics too often attack the Vatican's York Times advertisement in support of dation is possible. If the wife has intercourse Cconclusions about this or that act being Governor Cuomo and vice-presidential can- while pregnant and doesn't use a contracep- disordered, unnatural, and immoral. It is didate Geraldine Ferarro's position in the tive she may ovulate again and become preg- more effective, in my view, to attack the debate with Archbishop O'Connor of New nant with fraternal twins. Vatican's principle of sexual mechanics and York. The nuns have refused to back down Reduction to Absurdity #5: No break- its refusal to accept erotic pleasure and inti- and have chided the Vatican for its "scan- down. A couple must be able to consummate macy as a valuable, morally acceptable goal dalous" attempt to impose its view of reality their marriage, but a quadraplegic may not in human relations. on them. know whether or not he can do so. Either According to Pope John Paul II we The battle lines are drawn. Umpires like he fornicates before the marriage, or he risks left all pleasure in the Garden of Eden. We Monsignor Caffarra, president of the Pon- entering an invalid marriage that can be are condemned to "work, work, work, work tifical Institute for the Study of Marriage annulled. . . ." Fifteen hundred years ago, Saint and Family, blame a half-dozen French,

12 FREE INQUIRY German, and American theologians for causing all the current confusion about the "Church's positions" on sex. These men, Caffarra complains, have "a vision that has accepted without sufficient criticism many An Invitation to Become a `pseudo-dogmas' of the contemporary cul- ture." Marsie Silvestro, coordinator for the FREE INQUIRY national Women's Ordination Conference, Associate ignores the Vatican's scramble to find scape- goats and strikes home when she states that REE INQUIRY and the Council for Democratic and Secular the problem with the Vatican's view of sex FHumanism are unique. They provide responsible, critical boils down to the pope's and bishops' "inability to deal as [adults] with sexuality." examination of religious claims—many of them ancient, some More basic, according to Silvestro, is a per- new—that are seldom, if ever, the subject of public discussion. vasive fear among the hierarchy that they are "losing their ... power." In his recent These beliefs, however, can and do have powerful political, book Sexual Practices, anthropologist Edgar moral, and social consequences. Hence, it is important that Gregersen concedes that the conflict between they be critically evaluated. That is the primary educational the hierarchy and lay Catholics will "have far-reaching implications for the authority mission of FREE INQUIRY and the Council for Democratic system as a whole." The Vatican may appear and Secular Humanism. to be winning, but the current confrontations have all the appearance of the Nazi Panzers If we are to succeed in this important work, we need all the gathering on the Russian front in 1943. Their fire-power appears invincible, but like the help we can get, and you, our readers, are our principal source Nazis, the Vatican is facing for the first time of support. intelligent, independent-thinking laity and theologians. These Catholics resent being May we urge you to contribute to the FREE INQUIRY Develop- treated as children and told that nothing ment Fund. Its purpose is to extend the influence of FREE ever changes or evolves and that sex revolves around making babies. While they believe INQUIRY and the Council. A minimum annual contribution of in some fundamental principles of all $100 or a one-time gift of $1,000 or more will enroll you as a morality, these Catholics know that those principles can have different conclusions FREE INQUIRY Associate. when radically new situations arise. In the past, sexual morality may have revolved Your support is vital. All contributions are tax-deductible. May around making babies, but today sensible we hear from you? persons know that the meaning and values of sex and sexual relations go far deeper than the mechanical picture. A whole new ball game started twenty years ago at Vatican II. The older hier- I wish to contribute to the FREE INQUIRY Develop- archical umpires know their power is in ment Fund. jeopardy, yet it is almost as if Galileo never lived. The Vatican umpires still insist on rules that worked before the sexual revolu- Name tion of the 1960s, patriarchical rules they made for their children. Today, when the umpires shout "Play ball," the nuns, theo- Address logians, and lay Catholics often decide to move the game to another ballpark with new rules. They are smart enough to know that City State Zip they, the "people of God," and not the umpires, are the church. They control the game. That is why the Vatican is taking such Return to: vehement stands on even the most insignifi- cant challenges. The whole authoritarian FREE INQUIRY Development Fund dogmatic hierarchical structure is on the Central Park Station, P.O. Box 5 verge of collapse and its support is fading. Like the ecclesiastical judges of Galileo, the Buffalo, NY 14215 Vatican's worst fear is that the world is indeed moving. •

Spring 1985 13 Photo by Lilian Kemp E. O. Wilson, professor of sociobiology at Harvard University, is a Laureate of the Academy of Humanism.

14 FREE INQUIRY An Interview with E. O. Wilson On Sociobiology and Religion

Jeffrey Saver

Edward O. Wilson possesses the rare distinction of having work included important contributions to entomology, classi- founded the new scientific discipline of sociobiology—"the fication, speciation theory, biogeography, and chemical com- systematic study of the biological basis of all social behavior." munication. By bringing an evolutionary perspective to the study of social It was with the publication in 1975 of his encyclopedic traits, Wilson revolutionized modern biology's understanding Sociobiology: The New Synthesis that Wilson ushered in a new of social behavior, laying new emphasis upon the role that era in the study of animal behavior. Four years earlier, in his Darwinian natural selection plays in shaping and constraining own research field of entomology, Wilson had brought together the behavioral repertoire of species at all levels of the animal principles from physiology, population biology, and evolu- kingdom. When he proceeded to apply sociobiological analysis tionary theory to produce a unifying explanation of the com- to human behavior, Wilson rekindled Western culture's peren- plicated systems of the social insects in The Insect Societies nial nature-nurture debate and emerged as a profound and (1971). Meticulously extending this approach to the many controversial social and moral thinker in his own right. thousands of social animal species, Wilson in Sociobiology Wilson was born in Birmingham, Alabama, in 1929. He provided an encompassing evolutionary account of the origin obtained a B.S. degree in 1949 and an M.S. in 195O from the and maintenance of the disparate patterns of sociality displayed University of Alabama, where he majored in biology. He by birds, primates, insects, and man. received his Ph. D. from Harvard University in 1955 and has The birth of sociobiology was attended by widespread and been in Cambridge ever since, now holding the position of bitter ideological debate. Many social scientists, liberals and Frank B. Baird, Jr., Professor of Science. His early scientific Marxists, defending a vision of human nature as wholly deter- mined by cultural conditions, charged that Wilson's recognition of an innate, genetic component to human behavior lent sup- Jeffrey Saver is a student at the Harvard Medical School with port to conservative, sexist, and racist political views. In a interests in philosophy and intellectual history. He is the author moment of excess zeal, radical demonstrators even dumped a of several articles and the coauthor of the forthcoming book pitcher of water over Wilson as he addressed a meeting of the The Ragged Edge. American Academy of Arts and Sciences. It is a mistake, how- ever, to align Wilson, a self-designated "typical Western liberal-

Spring 1985 15 democrat, " with the Social Darwinist hereditarians of a bygone tionary circuit" that runs from genes to culture and back are era. As Wilson's circle of inquiry grew from insect societies to the "epigenetic rules'-the genetically coded developmental human culture, he necessarily became a generalist, synthesizing regularities that direct the assembly of the mind. These mediate knowledge across a bewildering array of scientific disciplines. the reciprocal interaction of genes and culture by determining His chief concern has become the nature of the human predica- the brain's sensory ability to perceive culturgens—the units of ment itself, and he is a subtle thinker on a plane above the culture—and by shaping its cognitive capacity to process political—a true scientist-philosopher. acquired cultural information.—JEFFREY SAVER Already in Sociobiology he recognized that his fledgling science's revelations of the biological basis of human behavior had profound implications for moral philosophy. He there ... We have set out to explain religion itself as a wrote: "... Ethical philosophers intuit the deontological canons materialistic phenomenon. This is a distinction that I of morality by consulting the emotive centers of their own believe gives humanism the decisive edge over reli- hypothalamic-limbic systems. . . . Only by interpreting the gion." activity of the emotive centers as a biological adaptation can the meaning of the canons be deciphered." Wilson went on to explore the diverse philosophical rami- aver: Let me begin by noting that your writings suggest fications of a sociobiological view of man more fully in his that you feel that the topic of religion is in many ways a 1978 Pulitzer Prize-winning book-length speculative essay, On Sspecial one, that religion plays a particularly important Human Nature. On the academic level, he here suggested that, role in human life and offers tremendous promise to socio- by systematically addressing human behavior, sociobiology biology as a phenomenon to be explained. You have even would provide the long-sought bridge between the "hard" written that, "the sacred rituals are the most distinctively sciences of physics, chemistry, and biology and the "soft" human." Why did you say that? sciences of anthropology, economics, psychology, and sociology, Wilson: I said that because sacred rituals are among the and transform the humanities as well. On religion, Wilson sug- cultural universals and are generally regarded in most cultures gested that evolution had conferred upon man a biological as of overriding importance, taking precedence over almost predisposition to develop a blinding faith, which in primitive anything else. And because they are affective—that is, they tribes promoted greater social cohesion and the sacrifice of the produce such powerful emotions so readily. It is a common individual for the good of the community. However, he felt experience to observe people go through startling mental trans- that this great susceptibility to indoctrination in religious or formations in connection with ritual or tribal religion. And religiouslike causes was a liability in the modern world. Wilson sacred rituals typically entail the most complicated domain of offered in religion's stead a biological "mythopoeic epic" of the culture in each separate society. These features together indicate evolution of the mind from unreflecting inorganic matter to to me that there is a very powerful, emotive force built into the inexhaustible richness of human thought. human beings that strongly influences them to produce affective Most fundamentally, on a moral-existential level, Wilson and elaborate religious systems. described three far-reaching spiritual dilemmas arising from Saver: Nonetheless you have argued that scientific materi- sociobiology's comprehensive, materialistic explanation of alism is now in a position to deal a final blow to religion. You human nature. "The first," he wrote, "is that no species, ours have suggested that the increasing power of sociobiological included, possesses a purpose beyond the imperatives created accounts of the evolutionary sources of religious belief will by its genetic history. " In the absence of a religious dogma that undermine the religious position. However, Hume, Freud, and provides goals external to our biological nature, where do we many others in the past have advanced plausible, even com- go from here? Wilson's answer to this first dilemma was the pelling, explanations of the behavioral basis of religion, and scientific quest, suggesting that man might for the moment religious belief survived these earlier attacks on much the same devote himself to fully understanding his universe and his own front as the one you hold is crucial now. How would you species, including his evolutionary origins. But the knowledge respond to the suggestion that you were falling prey to what so acquired, Wilson predicted, would raise new dilemmas. Once you yourself have called "the humanist's touching faith in the we understand the evolutionary significance of human nature, power of knowledge Wand the idea of evolutionary progress over we must choose among the alternative emotional guides we the minds of men." have inherited. Either politically and sociologically in designing Wilson: I argued that scientific materialism is currently societies (the second dilemma) or biologically in designing indi- posing a new challenge to religious belief because up to this viduals through future molecular-engineering techniques (the time no one has thought through the full implications for reli- third dilemma), we must choose among and alter the com- gion of the Darwinian evolution of the mind. Consider, for ponents of the very essence of our humanity. example, what Charles Lumsden and I called, in our book Most recently, Wilson has attempted to translate the con- Genes, Mind and Culture, "the epigenetic rules." These are the jectures of On Human Nature into testable, scientific hypoth- features by which the mind is assembled. In some instances eses. In Genes, Mind and Culture (1981), Wilson and his co- they are very strict, narrow procedures, in others much more author Charles Lumsden theorized that genetic and cultural subtle and flexible; but all are nevertheless rules materialistically evolution are tightly coupled, and the nexus of their interaction based on physical brain mechanisms. Very few people have is the individual mind. The key intermediates in the "coevolu- thought carefully about the implications for religion of this

16 FREE INQUIRY conception of how the mind originated and focused genetic religion presents around the world, a more powerful counter- evolution in individual mental development. And the more we force has to be mounted. know about the neurobiology of the brain and mind—a subject Religion is a great deal more than just the opiate of the that is expanding exponentially fast—and the more we under- people, the happy pill for people to take during rites of stand from population biology and sociobiology about the passage—death, marriage, and so on. If it were only that, it origins of social patterns during Darwinian evolution, the more would be fine. I'm willing to swallow that pill myself. If it likely it is that before very long we will have a much fuller, and really did simply provide personal comfort, I think most scien- maybe intellectually fully satisfying, account of the origin of tists and materialist philosophers would say, "Indeed, religion religion in Darwinian terms. And if that is the case, then we for the rest and we won't worry about it." But it is much more —we the materialist, humanist scientists—have not simply pro- than that. posed explanations of phenomena around us that compete with The emotional power of religion is too easily captured by the traditional, mythological religious explanations, but we have nationalism and madmen's fantasies. Parts of the Muslim world set out to explain religion itself as a materialistic phenomenon. now are a perfect example of this—religion has become the This is a distinction that I believe gives humanism the decisive substance in a new sea of fanaticism. It has been adopted by edge over religion. people who are quite capable of leading their followers to But of course no one expects that the realization by neuro- suicidal actions. In the newspaper this morning I read biologists and philosophers of the biological meaning of religion Khomeini's latest pronouncement. He said, "What is a dictator- and their resulting rejection of most traditional religious claims ship? A dictatorship is that movement which opposes the will will result in a tidal wave of materialism that sweeps around of the Muslim Council." You have madness like this that is the world. Materialism is still largely an upper-middle-class, predicated .. . educated, elite phenomenon because it requires the possession Saver: Such doublespeak .. . of so much information. It also requires a certain amount of material security, so that the mind is not being repeatedly "There are a large number of philosophers, scientists, staggered by the threats to its survival for which evolution has and others who maintain a pure, natural scientific had literally hundreds of thousands of years to prepare it via approach to the large scientific problems they are the shortcut of religion. So you can't expect more than a tiny dealing with, but in matters of ethics and personal fraction of the population to see the import sociobiology has belief they are able to be religious, or to concede that for religion, not right away. What the new sociobiology does seem likely to threaten is theology. It will threaten the Hans part of the universe to the theologian. I don't believe Kungs and the Billy Grahams of this world, within the semi- that honesty will permit us to continue this easy com- naries and academic halls, not the religious pulse itself. The promise much longer." Averrhoist dictum holds firm: Philosophy for the philosophers, religion for the rest. Wilson:... It's obvious doublespeak and its powered by Yet, I believe a time will come when scientists will be far the authority people are able to surround themselves with in more interested in religion, mainly as a phenomenon for analy- the name of religion. Elsewhere in the world we can see how in sis, and the schizoid character of intellectual life, particularly other cultures religion or religionlike fervor produces fanatical scientific intellectual life, will tend to yield to a more monistic political movements. I would include here many of the world's view of the universe. At the moment there are a large number revolutionary Marxist movements. of philosophers, scientists, and others who maintain a pure, But remember too that a large part of the leadership in natural scientific approach to the large scientific problems they many places does consist of upper-middle-class, educated peo- are dealing with, but in matters of ethics and personal belief ple. It doesn't really matter if the population of the state of they are able to be religious, or to concede that part of the Tennessee believes in the literal interpretation of the Bible if universe to the theologian. I don't believe that honesty will enough of its leaders are educated enough—have been reached permit us to continue this easy compromise much longer. by enough training and experience, including science training— Saver: Do you think that this affluent elite who are able to know what the score is. to take on the materialist view should seek to expand its fol- Saver: What do you think of the threat to biology posed lowing? Should they proselytize it at all? by the creationists in the United States? Will the creationist Wilson: Yes, I think they should. That's something I worry movement sputter or is it here for some time.? about a lot. As you know, humanism right now is a dirty word Wilson: I couldn't predict. As I said, I was taken by sur- around the country. I was really surprised to see that happen, prise at its revival, so I don't consider myself a very good social frankly—that the fundamentalists, the New Right, would take prophet. I would say it's a menace and hope it's just a passing as their target something called secular humanism. And, to put movement. a lighter touch on the matter, I'm disappointed that On Human Remember, it's easy to exaggerate the power of groups Nature has not been a major target by the right wing. It would like this. One could get the impression from part of the New have made my life at Harvard much more comfortable to be Right and some organized religious groups that to end abortion targeted by the New Right and its allies instead of just the New is the overwhelming will of the American people—and of Left. But I do think that, faced with this kind of challenge, and course, as always, God. Not at all. I don't have the exact with the real dangers that organized fundamental, dogmatic figures, but something like 60 to 70 percent of the American

Spring 1985 17 And, also, I am a great believer in ritual and ceremony of "I think the way out is not to enthrone materialism, a secular nature when it is connected with real events in life. I don't know if the Harvard Commencement (the oldest truly but to employ it as a cleansing fire through which all American ceremony) moves you the way it does me, but for our assumptions and decisions about ourselves, our most people it's a reaffirmation and an uplifting experience, in meaning, and our ethics and morals are passed." the same way that religion is. One can surround the rites of passage—birth, assumption to adulthood, marriage, death— people are in favor of abortion. A substantial percentage of with beautiful ritual and in so doing draw on the whole history that, probably a majority of the American people, would favor of the species and human social institutions in a way that some kind of governmental support for abortion, at least for provides the kind of deep satisfaction that religion also provides. people who are disadvantaged or victims of rape. So the Combine this with a more realistic and scientific view of the absolutists constitute a minority group that may wear out its world and ultimately we could satisfy both parts of the brain. welcome in a few years. Saver: The "second dilemma" you stated in On Human Saver: Do you think that, in the contest for adherents, Nature asked on what grounds and in what direction we shall scientific materialism has any competitive advantages over the decide to aim our energies once a more powerful biology of various religious faiths or other intellectual frameworks? social behavior has revealed to us the evolutionary sources of Wilson: Well, scientific materialism does have a unique our basic drives and goals. This concern calls to mind similar advantage in that no competing scientific materialisms exist. questions raised by thinkers like William James in The Moral There have supposedly been about 100,000 religions in the Equivalent of War and Konrad Lorenz in On Aggression. Both history of man, but only one scientific materialism. The church of these men recommended that mankind undertake a commit- of scientific materialism is kept united and pure because its ment to tame and overcome nature as a way to beneficially assumptions and conclusions are always being tested. Any redirect the aggressive biological drives that lead to conflict found impure—a theory that doesn't work, a fact that turns and warfare in modern society. You seem to offer instead an out to be incorrect when double-checked—are banished. ideal of scientific discovery as a higher goal to which we might But as to how well it can compete with the religions, that's commit ourselves. This raised in my mind two questions. First, hard to say, because, as I pointed out in On Human Nature, it why did you not suggest the ideal of taming nature? doesn't have their emotional punch. It does not have the capa- Wilson: Because I'm a biologist. In particular, I'm an city to trigger those deep limbic responses that give you such evolutionary biologist and a naturalist, and that makes an enor- satisfaction when you hear a beautiful Haydn mass or watch a mous difference in the way I view the world. Typically, the parade on the Fourth of July. You just don't have that with grand scientific thinkers have not been trained in natural scientific materialism, and that's its great disadvantage. In this history. That may sound strange to say about Konrad Lorenz case, enlightenment really does short-circuit and circumvent because he is naturalistic in his approach, yet he knows only a the elaborate biological reinforcing mechanisms that have made very small number of animals. When you have been trained in us a group-oriented, religious species. the tradition of natural history, particularly in the tropics, you Saver: Would you oppose a Positivist, Comtean scheme have a better appreciation of the staggering complexity of the to elaborate rituals around scientific materialism? biosphere. You acquire a sense of true awe at the astounding Wilson: Yes, absolutely. Let me say I'm a great believer in range of species diversity that has stretched across billions of rituals, but the pathetic example of Robespierre and Comte in years of history. the history of this subject suggests caution in any attempt to I like to say that you can scoop almost anywhere two ritualize scientific materialism itself. I think it was Robespierre handfuls of earth and have enough in your hand to occupy you who, shortly before he was arrested and deposed, wanted to for a lifetime, be able to embark on a kind of Magellanic change all the churches in France to Cathedrals of Reason, voyage through inches of soil. It's not generally appreciated, with pomp and ceremony devoted to the god Reason. His fate but there's more complexity in such a fistful of life on earth and that of the revolution do not speak very well for the than there is on the entire surface of all the other planets put impulse. And Comte, as you mentioned, wanted to do much together. One ant contains genetic information that, if measured the same thing: enthrone reason and materialism. in bits and then transformed into words, would just about fill I think the way out is not to enthrone materialism, but to all the editions of the Encyclopaedia Britannica, from the first employ it as a cleansing fire through which all our assumptions one published in 1768. If we could turn inward, not narcis- and decisions about ourselves, our meaning, and our ethics sistically to ourselves and the human species, but inward to the and morals are passed. And that will come about increasingly, biosphere, and recognize its special character, we'd have an I believe, as the social sciences get a firmer underpinning— almost unlimited scope for discovery, exploration, and appre- when they finally give up this ridiculous resistance to biology ciation. and accept it as what it is, a powerful potential ally. When we Sure, tame nature to the extent necessary for human wel- start bringing neurobiology, genetics, and evolutionary theory fare. Convert that arable portion of the earth necessary for together to build a much stronger social science, then we can food production to maximum productivity. But look forward finally begin to put our basic assumptions and procedures to gaining almost unlimited satisfaction for the human mind through purifying tests to evaluate their truthfulness and from scientific exploration of the living world we have inherited. effectiveness. In terms of what could be known, despite the fascinating

18 FREE INQUIRY information we've already gathered, we must count ourselves down of the universe according to the second law of thermo- at the dawn of biology and naturalism. This exploration would dynamics with all its nihilistic implications. Do you see any also include a study of ourselves, the history of our own species way to successfully integrate this element of the scientific and how the human mind works. To me, that's an outward- world-view into an attractive scientific materialism? looking, potentially almost endlessly satisfying enterprise to Wilson: Each person uses a personal timescale to reflect offer the world. on the meaning of life. Some, hedonists, live on essentially a Saver: You may have just touched upon an answer to my weekly timescale. The average person tends to live on a time- second question, but let me nevertheless ask it. How would scale of years or decades. Young adults think in terms of at you reply to the charge that—unlike the ideal of conquering most ten to twenty years. As they age they tend to extend the nature, which would require the efforts of people on all levels scale a bit, thinking about the span of time that remains until of society, galvanizing individuals at every intellectual level— the day of their death. Evolutionary biologists are a bit your future would unleash the energies of only a scientific, different—they are trained to reason in terms of generations or intellectual elite? thousands of years, but still not on a scale of millions of years. Wilson: I would disagree. To discover doesn't entail being Perhaps some physicists feel an anxiety about proton decay first to make an important abstract generalization. It includes over billions of years, but I don't think on that scale. Such .a that of course, but it also can mean discovering in the sense of cosmic projection is meaningless not just for our generation the gardener or the amateur naturalist. Even the average person but literally for millions of generations stretching as far into today could be transported to the Amazon or Costa Rica and the future as one can reasonably conceive. It's a problem that within a week be seeing things that no other person has ever one puts out of mind. seen, or at least rediscovering known phenomena for themselves Saver: You have written that "all religions are probably in new places and new contexts. And as education gets better, oppressive to some degree." Would a mythopoeic scientific this sort of personal exploration can really become much more materialism be oppressive, and, if so, in what ways? advanced than it is now. I don't think this is an exclusionary, Wilson: Well that's an interesting question. It may be that elitist view of the world at all. it could become oppressive. It is likely that materialism will gain increasing influence over our thinking, in social planning, "... The new sociobiology [seems] likely to threaten in technology, in everyday life. If so, then the need for scientific training and thinking in the scientific mode will grow corre- theology. It will threaten the Hans Kungs and the spondingly intense, to the extent that young people might be Billy Grahams of this world, within the seminaries captured by it and virtually forced into a much more scientific and academic halls...." education, à la the Soviet Union, which now has its whole population taking two years of calculus. In the wrong hands or In fact I see it as by far the best, most human way to view with poor planning, the trend could lead to a withering of the world. Otherwise, without any kind of appreciation of the certain of the creative enterprises—art, music, poetry—that are biosphere for its own sake, without the joy of exploring it and more prominent in our present culture. Surely there is a power- knowing it that you can transmit to people so readily, you are ful call at the moment for more science in education. The in danger of having the mass of people defining themselves humanities are on the retreat. Science is on the march. I don't with reference to inherently inferior artifacts. I don't think the think that it must necessarily work this way, but it is possible human mind evolved hundreds of thousands of years to live in that science and scientific materialism could become so over- a steel and concrete cage. It evolved in a way that tends to whelmingly important in everyday life and education that it open it out toward exploration, especially the exploration of would be oppressive in this narrow sense. And certainly there life. is a feeling among humanistic scholars that science is becoming People do have a strong tendency to appreciate and love oppressive. life. I use the word biophilia to stress this natural human Saver: Let me ask you about the charge that some critics impulse to affiliate with and even to love living things. It's no have advanced that sociobiologists sometimes fall prey to the coincidence, for example, that most science fiction entails life, naturalistic fallacy—violating the categories of logic by trying either at the fairly crude level of a transference of human life, to derive moral values from scientific facts. In contrast, you politics, or social existence to some distant imagined place, or have argued that we can no longer naively go about deriving at the more speculative level of envisioning contact with other "oughts" without any reference at all to what "is," that all our forms of life. Very little sci-fi entails the real substance of ethical decisions must be informed by scientific information .. physics and chemistry. How compelling is it in the end to Wilson: I have attempted to weaken the naturalistic fallacy know what lies one kilometer below the surface of Jupiter? But or, more precisely, to rework the naturalistic fallacy into less of people become truly excited when writers start talking about a fallacy. Yes. the prospect of making contact with extraterrestrial life. Then Saver: But your argument seems to leave behind an impor- unlimited possibilities seem to open. tant residual issue. Even if social planners make full use of Saver: You have offered a majestic evolutionary epic of scientific knowledge, you seem to envision that they could still the mind as scientific materialism's "mythopoeic" vision of the be confronted by several different "oughts" to choose between, beginning, but I haven't seen you discuss scientific materialism's several different possible and desirable biological-social patterns. rather less attractive vision of the end—that is, the running Wilson: I think that will always be the case.

Spring 1985 19 Saver: Now is there any way that a "biologized ethics,"

such as the one you have called for, could help us make a final . . The advent of genetic engineering of human choice among competing societal goals in addition to telling us beings is possibly closer than we had ever dreamed what the cost and benefits of choosing each would be? . . . we are going to have to soon start thinking Wilson: That's a profound question, and at the moment I about the biological basis of our own humanity, in can't answer it. It's just as simple as that. In On Human Nature, I felt satisfied to get as far as offering a means of performing order to make decisions about what we wish to the cost-benefit analysis. Even there we're still on shaky ground, tamper with and what not." though our recent work is moving in the direction of making such evaluations more feasible. Also, I tried to identify those solve this dilemma, even though you had not hesitated to at present injustices that are clearly due to outdated religious least grapple with the similar second dilemma, which also dogma about what is natural in human behavior, as opposed demanded that we choose a future course by selecting among to modern biological understanding, which I consider to be the component elements of human nature, albeit culturally and much closer to the truth. not genetically. Do you now have any feeling about how to But aside from that, I don't have any prescriptions. This is approach the third dilemma? a fundamental philosophical issue that has yet to be properly Wilson: You're right, I side-stepped the third dilemma, in addressed by philosophers. Peter Singer did try to deal with it part because I already had enough controversy on my hands in in The Expanding Circle, but to my mind not very successfully. that book. At the time On Human Nature was written, genetic He reaches the point you described, accepting the main premises engineering was still quite a controversial subject on its own. of sociobiology but then asking, "Where do we go from here?" Now that has abated somewhat. Attitudes among scientists His answer is to propose that humanity continue to allow the and the educated public have visibly shifted in the past several circle of its concern to expand, insofar as we are able in prac- years, and people are a lot more sensible. Not only has much tical terms and consistent with our nature. As an ethical precept, of the fear of recombinant techniques and genetic engineering that's hard to argue with, and at the moment I don't have any in bacteria dissipated, but medical scientists have been able to additions or newer ideas on how to handle the implications. talk seriously about such topics as genetic surgery, using But I don't think it is grounded solidly enough to be a really advanced techniques to modify the most defective human genes, satisfying solution. the ones that cause sickness and death. Saver: In On Human Nature you wrote, "I also believe And you're correct in observing that the second and third that it will soon be within our power to identify many of the dilemmas are basically similar. In one we merely have the genes that influence behavior." How close do you think we difficulty of deciding which of these limbic satisfactions we are? want to cultivate and which we must find a detour around, and Wilson: We've come much closer since I wrote that. The in the other we actually have the option of engineering the number of genes actually identified in the four years after I genes at a more basic level so that we can permanently wipe wrote On Human Nature jumped 50 percent, thanks to the out a drive or enhance another drive. At first the two sound new techniques being developed in molecular biology, and quite different, but they are fundamentally the same moral problem. a few of those have been associated with behavior. Since that I had thought when I wrote the book that the time when time, for example, investigators have identified genes that alter we would have to confront the dilemma was sufficiently far reactions to particular odors and other genes that differentially ahead of us that we could concentrate on the first two, and or affect performances on four of an array of fifteen standard the biology of the mind and the problems of ethics. I didn't cognitive tests. The chances of actually specifying the genes expect the pace of technological development to accelerate so affecting schizophrenia, or the rate of certain mental processes, quickly. So 1 was surprised when Matthew Meselson, a molecu- or fluctuations in temperament, are now much more likely. We lar biologist very much involved in biotechnology, stated at a know that much of mood and mental activity is based on recent meeting of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences neurohormones and neurotransmitters. Such molecules are that the advent of genetic engineering of human beings is pos- being chemically defined at a rapid pace. They are used sibly closer than we had ever dreamed. He said that we are increasingly in psychiatry to diagnose and correct certain con- going to have to soon start thinking about the biological basis ditions, and the evidence has become quite strong that their of our own humanity, in order to make decisions about what levels of production are under genetic control. So I would say we wish to tamper with and what not. He even went so far as that the odds are very high that within ten years—twenty on to cite sociobiology as a possible means of getting at the funda- the outside—a number of genes will have been identified whose mental problem. effects can be traced through the actual production of particular So the experiment is probably now worth talking about. chemicals in the brain to measurable properties of temperament, How could we change our basic nature with genetic interven- mood, and even cognitive ability. tion? With more knowledge of the genetic assembly of the Saver: This progress in specifying the genetic basis of mind, you could tinker with the strength of the sex bond, or behavior makes even more urgent the "third dilemma" that the pleasure we get from children. It still sounds like science you raised at the end of On Human Nature: the issue of taking fiction to me, but it is possible that in a couple of generations charge of our own evolution through eugenics or genetic human beings can actually be created who respond to the engineering. It seemed to me that there you shirked trying to world very differently from the way you and I do, people who

20 FREE INQUIRY take deep pleasure in rural communes or space colonies— human nature could go in any of a great many directions. Saver: Do you think that we should indeed desire to Put FREE INQUIRY in Your Will tamper with our basic nature? Leaving aside the matter of If you are devoted to free thought and human- which direction we might move in, do you think that we should ism, you can help perpetuate the educational goals intervene at all? of FREE INQUIRY by making a bequest in your will. Wilson: Again, that's a question I can't answer. Suppose we really could do it. Should we? And, if so, what direction May we suggest this format: "I give and would we choose? How might we go about making such a bequeath to the Council for Democratic and Secular momentous decision? There may well be something within us Humanism (CODESH, Inc.), a nonprofit corporation that will prevent us from making any changes. In the end we now at 3151 Bailey Ave., Buffalo, NY 14215, for use could say, "All right, fellow hominids, we are sad, mixed-up in its general fund or for use in publishing FREE monsters, but we are what we are, and this is the way we INQUIRY, the sum of $ would like to remain. That is our basic humanity, and there is For further information, please contact Jean something fundamentally wrong with changing basic humanity. Millholland, executive director. All inquiries will be Let's improve our life without leaving home." held in the strictest confidence. The artificial intelligence (AI) people are coming at this problem from a fascinating and entirely different direction that ryr is nevertheless converging on sociobiology. They are talking ! rssI realistically now about the actual duplication of human intelli- gence in machines. They have started to add to AI devices not Central Park Station, P.O. Box 5 just the capacity to solve problems but also the capacity to Buffalo, New York 14215 formulate them. And they might soon supplement rationality 716-834-2921 with a limited form of emotive feelings, building in rewards for certain kind of problem solving. They may well devote their going in certain directions and not others. In short, they are lives to being the first to isolate a particular hormone to develop creating machines that are increasingly human in at least a few a certain technique. And that's it, finis. Many of them go home rudimentary features. The most adventurous are also beginning to their families in the evening without ever thinking about the to pose a troublesome question: "What will be left to human evolutionary biosocial significance of their families; some attend beings? If machines can perform most of our reasoning, even church without being bothered by the incongruities between seek new problems to solve for us, what does that leave us?" prayers and science. One possible answer is that it leaves human beings with For those who do think beyond these confines, who have their limbic system. It leaves us with all the nuances of altruism, philosophical ambitions or unsatisfied needs in growth of spirit, jealousy, sex bonding, exhilaration, tribal lore, and other mostly I would say that scientific materialism is very much of a belief primate traits that we inherited and do so relish on a day-to- system and can be blinding in terms of its effects on attitudes day basis. Maybe it's these that we will try to preserve. Of and ways of thinking. However, I believe that this effect is course we will continue to train our reasoning faculties and be likely to be lessened in the future as the social sciences, socio- better educated than we are now. But we will not try to advance biology, and neurobiology become more sophisticated.. Then with Al to the point of being able to actually produce a fully when we ask, "What is the meaning of man?" or "What is human-primate brain in a machine. And, for the same reasons, religion?" there will be more ready answers available in text- we will decide not to alter mankind genetically so that we books and the popular press. It won't be so much a matter of ourselves become more like machines. We will refuse to start blind faith, but instead a domain of intellectual inquiry open to tampering with the limbic controls and become cool, rational everyone. superdrones. Instead we will choose, I believe, to live in sym- Saver: In your own textbook, Life on Earth, you call the biosis with artificial intelligence. We will have the emotional evolutionary struggle for survival "the ultimate existential limbic system; it will have a still indeterminately larger part of game," and in Sociobiology you sympathetically quote Camus. the rational cortex. How would you distinguish scientific materialism from a com- Saver: In suggesting that evolutionary pressures have peting atheism, existentialism? selected for an inherent indoctrinability in man, you wrote: "In Wilson: What I like most about Camus is the poetry in his support of this simple biological hypothesis is the fact that the prose, the way he vividly captures the existentialist attitude. As blinding force of religious allegiance can operate in the absence much distaste as I have for most French philosophy I've read, I of theology." Does it operate in the dedication of scientists? have an almost unnatural attraction for that common French Wilson: Yes, I think, a great deal. Scientists work with style of writing that is polemical, heated, and tends to cut to very variable motivations. Most scientists are not excessively the center of things quickly. bright—and this includes university professors. Some of the As I understand the original French version, existentialism most successful are essentially supertechnicians. They're very is a relatively uninformed and attitudinal approach to the bright people, remarkable, and have done extraordinary things, meaning of human life. Its central pronouncement is that man but if you looked inside them you'd find basically business is alone and that he makes himself, that each individual must people—success-oriented careerists with great fascination for a create himself in life. Now that of course is not incompatible

Spring 1985 21 with a full-fledged scientific materialism. The difference is that be the rest of the world, the rest of life, which a fuller materi- the latter is informed. It recognizes that in shaping ourselves alistic view will free us to explore in an unhampered and more we make choices among different biological channels of satisfying manner. I'm not sure if I've answered your question, development along which we naturally tend to move. We have but it is true that from the somewhat gloomy, fatalistic position certain epigenetic rules of mental development that guide us at the close of Sociobiology I've moved to a more open, opti- with varying strengths in the different categories of behavior. mistic way of looking at the future. Certain activities give us deep satisfaction innately and hence Saver: I'd like to ask you a more personal question. One require a very small amount of learning and effort; others are cannot help but be struck by the impression that, despite being acquired only with great difficulty but may eventually be very an opponent of dogmatic religion, you have a genuine sensiti- rewarding, while still others automatically repel us. So I look vity to the religious viewpoint and a very real sense of what it on sociobiology as a development that is not incompatible with is the atheist has lost. Does this knowledge spring from a existentialism, but which provides a program for acquiring source in your upbringing and religious background? information toward a rational reconstruction of humanity. It Wilson: Yes, it does. I was raised a Southern Baptist in can expand the spirit in a way that is a great deal more com- Alabama and Florida, and had a traditional Baptist upbringing, forting, efficient, and hopeful than the original existentialism. including baptism and being born again at the age of seventeen. Saver: This hopefulness runs counter to what seemed to I was immersed, literally immersed in the chapel water tank, in a strong evangelical tradition. One holdover to which I. readily admit is the delight I take in constructing a good sermon, and I "I look on sociobiology as a development that is not suppose On Human Nature reflects this. In a recent Time article, the writer was uncomfortably close to the truth when incompatible with existentialism, but which provides he called me "the chief preacher of sociobiology." a program for acquiring information toward a I abandoned the doctrines of my religious background rational reconstruction of humanity." rather early, in the traditional manner of an emancipated young college student and intellectual. Yet I remained very sensitive to the deep religious needs of people that I had perceived so me to be an apocalyptic element in some of your writings. You vividly when I was growing up. Mine was not the experience of have suggested that at some point, roughly one hundred years a young wealthy New York Episcopalian or secular upper- from now, man will subscribe to a fully materialistic view of middle-class Jew with a certain ethnic affiliation blended with behavior and so be deprived of the support of all religious rational detachment. I saw the power of the charismatic religion "illusions," be facing momentous decisions about where to aim all around me, in my family and the people I lived with, and his evolutionary future, and, having overcome the problem of therefore could appreciate the strength of the need that people supplying his material needs, be confronting his residual have for some kind of satisfaction of the religious impulse. spiritual emptiness. You often seem very happy that you can Probably a major motivation in my later research, particularly say that all this is one hundred years away, that it's not for our now that I've become more involved in philosophical and other generation to confront. But do you have any words that you generalizing scholarship, has been an attempt to recapture that think would be of help to those who will be living at that religious feeling, but in a more sustainable form. critical time, if it indeed comes to pass? Saver: My last question is this. You've said that the cos- Wilson: Yes. Your question is drawn, I think, from the mological God is a last, unassailable redoubt of theology, that wistful note with which I ended Sociobiology. I was thinking science will never be able to disprove the concept of God as very much in terms of sociobiology's contrast with dogmatic creator of the universe. You have also said this concept of God religion, with all the pleasures and, as Camus said, the "illusions cannot alone sustain organized religion, for by itself it is unable and lights" of unexamined beliefs that compel us to feel awe to unleash the deep emotions and allegiances of man's biological and mystery and sustain us over a lifetime, if we are somehow religious impulse. However, I've never seen you discuss whether able to remain committed to mysticism. I was enthusiastic about you yourself believe in the cosmological God. Do you? neurobiology and sociobiology and envisioned that one hundred Wilson: I am at this point uncommitted. I won't say that years would be enough to produce an exact social science and I'm an agnostic, since agnosticism maintains that one cannot a pretty complete understanding of how the mind works, where know. But I'm not averse to the idea of some intelligence or it came from, and what the meaning of it is. And I concluded organizing force that set the initial conditions of the universe in that this knowledge will take away the illusions and the lights such a way that ultimately generated stars, planets, and life. that most of humanity so conspicuously enjoys—but that we Physicists tell us that the physical constants and certain still have a century before that really takes hold. parameters of the known physical laws had to fall within a My thinking brightened somewhat as I wrote On Human limited range in order to permit the evolution of molecules and Nature. I now feel that, once we have achieved that under- aggregate matter. If they had been set otherwise, you would standing, we will have opened up endlessly branching new have had a universe that was eternally composed entirely of avenues of exploration in the examination of life and mind. energy or low-level subatomic particles. But in fact the variables Once you know how the violin is constructed, you can still are adjusted and do exist within the limits required for atomic compose and produce original melodies of unimagined beauty, build-up, planetary bodies, and the potential for life to develop. and perhaps with even greater frequency. And then there will And that's worth pondering. •

22 FREE INQUIRY The general public does not often have the opportunity to hear a discussion of the question of Jesus in history. FREE INQUIRY is convening leading biblical scholars, scientists, and skeptics for the first time to debate this issue. INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM ON JESUS AND THE GOSPELS "JESUS IN HISTORY AND MYTH" April 19 and 20, 1985 The University of Michigan, Ann Arbor — Michigan Union Building

Sponsored by FREE INQUIRY Magazine in cooperation with the Religion and Biblical Criticism Research Project and the Department of Near Eastern Studies and the Program of Studies in Religion at the University of Michigan PROGRAM: Friday, April 19, 1985 8:00 A.M. Registration 9:00 A.M. Introduction Paul Kurtz, Editor of FREE INQUIRY. Session I: Jesus in History (Chair: R. Joseph Hoffmann). Speakers: G. A. Wells, Professor of German, University of London; Morton Smith, Professor Emeritus of History, Columbia University; Paul Beattie, President, Fellowship of Religious Humanists; Robert Alley, Professor of Humanities, University of Richmond. 2:00 P.M. Session II: Historical Problems (Chair: Vern Bullough, Dean of Natural Sciences, SUNY College at Buffalo). Speakers: John Allegro, author, Dead Sea Scrolls and the Christian Myth; David Noel Freedman, Professor of Old Testament, University of Michigan; John Dart, Religion Editor, Los Angeles Times; Ellis Rivkin, Ochs Professor of Jewish History, Hebrew Union College; Tikva Frymer-Kensky, Adjunct Professor of Ancient Biblical Studies, University of Michigan. 6:30 P.M. Banquet. Speakers: Gerald LaRue, Professor Emeritus of Biblical History, University of Southern California Paul Kurtz, Professor of Philosophy, SUNY at Buffalo. Saturday, April 20, 1985 9:00 A.M. Session III: The Apocryphal Jesus, the Gospel Tradition, and the Development of Christology (Chair: Gerald Larue). Randel Helms, Professor of English, Arizona State University; Michael Arnheim, Professor of Ancient History, University of Witwatersrand; R. Joseph Hoffmann, Assistant Professor of Early Christianity, University of Michigan; Rowan Greer, Professor of Early Christianity, Yale University. 2:00 P.M. Session IV: Theological Implications (Chair: Delos B. McKown, Professor of Philosophy, Auburn University). Antony Flew, Professor of Philosophy, Reading University and York University; Don Cuppit, Dean of Emmanuel College, Cambridge University; Van Harvey, Professor of Religion, Stanford University; John Hick, Professor of Systematic Theology, Claremont School of Theology. The registration fee for the conference is $40.00. Meals and accommodations are not included. Please use the form provided. Accommodations are available at: Campus Inn, East Huron at State, Ann Arbor, Michigan, 48104, (313) 769-2200. Single, $45; double, $55. Bell Tower Hotel, 300 S. Thayer, Ann Arbor, Michigan, 48104, (313) 769-3010. Single, $43; double, $51. Ann Arbor Inn, Huron at Fourth Avenue, Ann Arbor, Michigan, 48104, (313) 769-9500. Single, $44; double, $54. Registrants must identify themselves as attending the conference to obtain the special room rate. For further details, please contact Jean Millholland (media representatives should call or write Andrea Szalanski) at FREE INQUIRY, Central Park Station, Box 5, Buffalo, N.Y. 14215, (716) 834-2921. ❑ YES, I (we) plan to attend the conference on "Jesus in History and Myth" at the University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, April 19 and 20, 1985. Enclosed please find my check or money order (payable to FREE INQUIRY) for $ to cover registration and extras as checked below. The number of persons attending, including myself, will be

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Spring 1985 23 Religion and Parapsychology

The relationship between parapsychology or psychical research and reli- gion has never been carefully explored, yet surely a close affinity has always existed. Do many of those who pursue paranormal phenomena— ESP, precognition, clairvoyance, telepathy, and psychokinesis—do so out of religious conviction? What are the religious motives of the para- normal's critics? If the paranormal could be established on scientific grounds, would this challenge the physicalist-materialist view of the universe? Does our understanding of paranormal phenomena—whether it is real or imaginary, sincerely or fraudulently documented—shed any light on belief in supernatural events from miracles to revelations? Here to explore these intriguing questions are two well-known psychologists— one a skeptic of the paranormal and one a believer.—ED.

24 FREE INQUIRY Parapsychology: The "Spiritual" Science

James E. Alcock

Parapsychology, once the despised outcast of a materialistic- forces, which are said to lie beyond the realm of ordinary ally oriented orthodoxy, may now claim pride of place among nature, at least insofar as it is known by modern science, has the spiritual sciences, for it was parapsychology which not been an easy one. Yet, despite the slings and arrows of pioneered the exploration of the world beyond the senses. sometimes outrageous criticism, many men and women have dedicated themselves over the years to the pursuit of psi and to —J. L. Randall, Parapsychology and the Nature of Life the task of attempting to convince skeptical scientists of the necessity of taking the psi hypothesis seriously. There must be some important motivation to continue to hether in séance parlors, in "haunted" houses, in believe in the reality of psi, and to continue to pursue its study. simple laboratories using decks of cards and rolling In this article, it will be argued that this motivation is, for most dice, or in sophisticated research centers employing W parapsychologists at least, a quasi-religious one. Such a view- equipment of the atomic age, the search for psychic ("psi") point is bound to anger many in parapsychology who see them- forces has been under way, in the name of science, for over a selves simply as dedicated researchers who are on the trail of century. The quest to demonstrate the reality of these putative important phenomena that normal science has refused to study. However, were that the case, one would expect to see much more disillusionment and abandonment, given the paucity of James E. Alcock is associate the results, than actually occurs. There are several, perhaps professor of psychology at many, instances in parapsychology of researchers who admit Glendon College of York not only to never having produced a single indication of psi in University in Toronto. A their laboratories but to not even having had personal experi- skeptical critic of parapsy- ences of a seemingly psychic sort; yet they continue to be active chology, he is a Fellow of within parapsychology and to express a conviction that psi is the Committee for the Sci- real. Such behavior is hard to understand until one examines entific Investigation of the history of parapsychology, until one sees the reasons that Claims of the Paranormal distinguished scholars were in the past drawn to the study of and the author of Parapsy- the paranormal. In order to understand the rise of parapsy- chology: Science or Magic? chology, it is necessary to begin with the development of science itself.

Spring 1985 25 uman beings everywhere have always tried to come to Hgrips with the mysteries of existence through the erection of powerful belief systems to explain them. Both through natural magic, based on the notion that nature operates in a lawful way that can be discovered and then used to control natural processes, and through religion, which is based on a belief in supernatural beings who hold in their power the destiny of the world and all that is in it, humankind has tried to forge a link with nature and with forces that might lie beyond it. In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, when modern science began to form out of a swill of superstitious ignorance mixed with practical knowledge, belief in spirits, witchcraft, and divination was still taken very seriously, not just by the untutored masses but by the educated elite as well. The scientific revolution, beginning with Copernicus's challenge to the geo- centric model of the universe, reflected in part a growing sense of dissatisfaction with the dogmatic theological philosophy that had been predominant in Europe for centuries, a dissatisfaction that had already given rise to the Protestant Reformation. As scientific thought developed and spread, the belief in magic began to decline, although the reason for this is not so obvious as it might seem, and indeed is not fully understood even today (Thomas 1971). The keystone to the development of science, as K. E. Boulding (1980) pointed out, was the high value placed on the combination of informed speculation and empirical testing, with belief that one could personally question theological dogma, the latter being used as a check on the former. It was the for it was necessary to have both the will and the freedom to attempt to fit theory to observation, rather than the use of challenge the Aristotelian pronouncements that had for so long sophisticated logic by itself, that led to the Copernican challenge dominated the world-view of the Roman Catholic church. that began the scientific revolution. Copernicus's ideas, espe- Yet, in many specific instances, organized religion did do cially as later promoted by Galileo, ran headlong into opposi- battle with science and technology. This was especially true of tion with Catholic dogma, and this led to considerable friction the Roman Catholic church in the early days of science. This between the emerging scientific world-view and theology. Yet was partly because the church, under the guidance of St. the degree of conflict between science and religion has usually Thomas Aquinas, had linked theology and morality to Aristo- been greatly overstated (Rudwick 1981). The giants at the roots telian science, and thus any significant departure from the latter of modern science—Isaac Newton, Robert Boyle, and the threatened the former. Consequently, as Andrew White ([1896] others—in no way doubted the existence of a divine creator, 1965) described, the Catholic church attempted to suppress nor were they hindered by organized religion in their attempts not only the heliocentric theory of the solar system but many to explain the workings of nature. Indeed, it may be in no other ideas and products of science as well, from inoculation to small part due to religious ideas that modern science arose, for lightning rods. This is not to suggest that Protestant leaders it can be argued that it was principally the evolution of religious were always foursquare on the side of science, for nothing thought that gave rise to the quest to discover immutable could be further from the truth, although some Protestant natural laws of nature. The rise of Protestantism, whether sects do appear to have been more tolerant and inspiring with reflecting or generating the shift away from magical thought, regard to scientific thought than were others (Kemsley 1973). brought with it a dramatic change with regard to belief about Despite the individual freedom to question dogma, and despite divine intervention in human affairs and promoted an attitude a new view of the role of the divinity, some Protestant leaders that was far less oriented toward the miraculous and the super- exceeded their Catholic counterparts in their zeal to halt the natural than was that of the Roman Catholic faith. rise of science and technology. However, even when Protestant While the Catholic God regularly manifested himself clerics were outraged by scientific claims, Protestantism as a through miracles and sacraments, Protestantism, especially the whole could not mount as effective an opposition as the Lutheran and Calvinistic strains of it, downplayed or denied Catholic church for several reasons: There was a diversity of the immanence of God. The Protestant belief in a transcendent competing sects; there was no body like the Inquisition to God led to the view that the universe is a legal-mechanical enforce orthodox belief in Protestant countries; and, perhaps creation that operates according to divine law. Thus Newton, most important, Protestantism did not possess the concept of Boyle, and others carried out their research secure in the belief infallibility. Scriptural interpretation was left to individual judg- that immutable laws of nature, imposed by God, were there to ment, and thus it was possible for individuals to accommodate be discovered (Klaaren 1977). Protestantism no doubt further scientific ideas through modification of their interpretation of influenced the development of the scientific method through its tation of the Bible (Russell [ 1935] 1961). Yet it is clear that,

26 FREE INQUIRY where Protestant clerics have been able to mount effective pro- tests, they have often done so; the Scopes "monkey trials" and "Ironically, just as Protestantism seems to have the recent attempts to promote "scientific creationism" as an been responsible, at least in part, for the changes alternative to evolutionary theory through insistence that science textbooks should give equal time to creationism bear witness in thinking that led to the scientific revolution to the fact that at least some Protestant sects continue to view and to the consequences of that revolution that science as a threat. challenged all religion, so too can Protestantism It is important to note that during the same epoch that be linked to the birth of psychical research...." gave rise to science—the late sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries—there was also a sharp recrudescence in magical that it is no accident that psychical research emerged in Great thinking and practice. As John Beloff (1976) commented: Britain and the United States rather than elsewhere. This is because, he says, the Protestant versions of Christianity make ... The challenge to orthodoxy in religion and philosophy, some particular demands on the individual: The believer is led especially to Aristotelian scholasticism, had left something of to understand his own selfhood in terms of an ineffable, unique, an intellectual vacuum which science had not yet been able to and immortal soul. Yet he argues, as did Georg Weber before fill. The result was a great upsurge of interest, not only in the him, that Protestant belief systems were also particularly vul- two traditional occult sciences of astrology and alchemy but nerable to secularizing forces, as a result of the denial of super- also in all manner of old and new systems of magic. [p. 193] natural interventions into the day-to-day world: Two centuries later, beginning in the second half of the During the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, scientists nineteenth century, there was another explosion of scientific attempted to move into the cultural territory vacated by reli- and technological achievement and, just as in the sixteenth gion. But science's alternative view of selfhood (or, perhaps, its century, interest in magic and the occult flourished; this was failure to provide any singular or cogent view of selfhood) was the very time that modern psychical research was born. disquieting. First in Spiritualism and then in psychical research, what we see is an attempt to come to terms with scientific n the second half of the nineteenth century, a number of thought while retaining the understanding of the self that reli- influences combined to set the stage for the development of gious tradition had transmitted. [ 1982, pp. xi-xii] "scientific" parapsychology: 1. The growing interest within medical circles with regard The attempt to save the concept of the soul, while at the to hypnotism and dissociation stimulated speculation about the same time casting it into a form more acceptable within the hidden potentialities of the human mind. Hypnotized subjects framework of science, led to the formulation of what Cerullo occasionally seemed to demonstrate clairvoyant or other psychic calls the "secular soul": qualities, and this aroused curiosity about the possibility of true psychic powers. Although the concept of hypnosis itself It was a vision of selfhood that whittled down the Western was not quite respectable in scientific circles because of a pedi- religious sensibility to its barest essence and, in doing so, mag- gree that tied it to mesmerism, respectable medical researchers nified its most intoxicating assertion. It was a vision of the self were beginning to assess its properties. that incorporated what had been the supernatural qualities of the soul into the worldly persona itself, with the vitalism reli- 2. Because of the religious opposition that had met some gion would truly unleash only after death operational in the aspects of scientific and technological advancement, there was here and now. It was a vision of protean man. [p. xii] great suspiciousness in science about anything that was redolent of the religious beliefs that had so dominated thought through- 3. The Darwinian theory of evolution and the challenge it out the Middle Ages and beyond. Christianity became a target posed to religious beliefs made many people, scientists among for those who found scientific thought more compelling than them, uneasy about the future of their beliefs and pushed them religious dogma. For example, Sir Francis Galton initiated an to attempt to find evidence of an empirical nature to buttress experimental attack on the manifestations of religion with his them. It was Darwin's Origin of Species that most threatened famous "Statistical Inquiries into the Efficacy of Prayer," first the Christian concept of the soul. It was as serious a challenge published in the Fortnightly Review in 1883 (Hearnshaw 1973). to theology as had been Copernicus's heliocentric model of the The latter 1800s also saw a number of critical analyses of solar system; for if evolutionary theory were true it would be biblical material, such as Ernest Renan's Life of Jesus, which necessary to abandon the idea of the fixity of species, to accept made it difficult for those of a logical, rational bent to continue that humankind descended from the lower animals rather than to accept the Bible as being literally correct. having been the special creation of a divine Being, and to Ironically, just as Protestantism seems to have been accept that the world was created much, much earlier than responsible, at least in part, for the changes in thinking that led calculations based on biblical descriptions would suggest. As to the scientific revolution and to the consequences of that one clergyman in Darwin's day expressed it: "If the Darwinian revolution that challenged all religion, so too can Protestantism theory is true, Genesis is a lie, the whole framework of the be linked to the birth of psychical research, an endeavor that in book of life falls to pieces, and the revelation of God to man, its turn ultimately stands as a challenge to traditional religion. as we Christians know it, is a delusion and a snare" (cited by J. J. Cerullo (1982) in The Secularization of the Soul, suggests R. A. White [1895] 1955, 71).

Spring 1985 27 through them. Indeed, just as occurred later in séance parlors "Spiritualism was a direct ancestor of modern of Europe, the spirits of the recently dead presented evidence parapsychology. The roots of the spiritualism of their identities through the medium. In Dingwall's words, "The Shakers had sown the seed: the harvest had merely to be craze that swept North America and western gathered in" (1929, 329). This harvesting began in Hydesville, Europe during the late nineteenth and early New York, in 1848, when the now famous Fox sisters produced twentieth century can be traced to the Shaking their mysterious spirit rappings. Out of this, the spiritualist Quakers." mania was born, and a system of belief began to grow up around it. No doubt because of the high value given to scientific Catholics and Protestants alike condemned Darwin's ideas. thought in those days, and because of the fact that spiritualism Some theologians argued that "Christ died to save men, not was in part a reaction to materialistic science and appealed to monkeys" (Russell [1935] 1961) while Pope Pius IX wrote those whose religious beliefs had given way to scientific thought, about Darwinism: the spiritualists wanted and claimed to be on the side of science; they saw themselves as empiricists who were investigating A system which is repugnant at once to history, to the tradition observable phenomena, and they rejected supernaturalism, of all peoples, to exact science, to observed facts, and even to claiming that natural laws were immutable (Moore 1977). An Reason herself, would seem to need no refutation, did not opportunity to explore the afterworld without having to give alienation from God and the leaning toward materialism, due up life or science and without the need to obey biblical injunc- to depravity, eagerly seek a support in all this tissue of fables. . And, in fact, pride, after rejecting the Creator of all things tions or to believe religious mythology was a welcome refuge and proclaiming man independent, wishing him to be his own for many for whom the struggle between science and theology king, his own priest, and his own God—pride goes so far as to was too uncomfortable. As Dingwall (1929, p. 329) said: "The degrade man himself to the level of the unreasoning brutes, claim to be able to furnish evidence of human survival after perhaps even of lifeless matter.... [Cited by R. A. White death naturally compelled the attention of those over whom (1895) 1955, p. 75.] the influence of orthodox religion was beginning to weaken." These four factors, and possibly others as well, provided a Darwin himself was uncomfortable with the implications Zeitgeist conducive to psychical research. It was in this time of his work had for religious beliefs, and Alfred Russel Wallace, previously unparalleled scientific advancement that threatened who independently discovered natural selection, never accepted deeply held convictions about the nature and meaning of life that this process was responsible for moral and mental abilities. that the first organization dedicated to the scientific study of Some process other than natural selection must account for psychic phenomena was born. these, Wallace believed, and ultimately he turned to spiritualism, since it seemed to offer to him a "scientific explanation for the he Society for Psychical Research (SPR) was organized in development of human moral character" (Turner 1974). England in 1882. Its objectives included the study of the 4. The spiritualist movement, with its claims of empirical extent to which one mind can affect another beyond the limits demonstrations of mediumistic communication with the dead, of normal sensory communication: the study of hypnotism and called out for scientific appraisal, especially since spiritualists clairvoyance; the investigation of reports concerning apparitions presented themselves not as religious worshippers but as empir- and hauntings, and an inquiry into physical phenomena asso- ically oriented investigators. ciated with spiritualism (Shepard 1980). While its working goal Spiritualism was a direct ancestor of modern parapsy- was to investigate the mediumistic claims, the SPR's leaders chology. The roots of the spiritualism craze that swept North also hoped that they would one day be able to put the existence America and western Europe during the late nineteenth and of the soul on a sound scientific footing (Mauskopf and early twentieth century can be traced to the Shaking Quakers, McVaugh 1980) or, at the very least, show that there is a a Protestant sect (Dingwall 1929). Ann Lee, a young English- nonmaterial aspect to the human mind (Cerullo 1982). woman, joined the Shaking Quakers in the latter part of the It is commonly believed that the SPR was organized by eighteenth century and began to show a mediumistic capability. Cambridge scholars who were upset by the challenges made by She emigrated to the United States in 1774, and was well science to their religious beliefs. While it was just such scholars known for her mediumistic abilities when the religious revival who formally led the society and who served as its principal broke out in 1779. She died in 1784 and was succeeded by investigators, the organization and control of the society were others of similar talent. The belief in mediumistic communica- actually in the hands of spiritualists (Nicol 1972). Indeed, the tion with the dead continued to be held by that sect and, in very idea for the society grew out of a conference held in the 1837, a series of disturbances in which small girls began to sing offices of the British National Association of Spiritualists in in a strange fashion and to describe visions of angels occurred January 1882 (Shepard 1980). When the society was being set at various Quaker settlements. This was followed by adults up, Dawson Rogers, who was vice president of the Central being attacked by convulsions that sometimes took them into Association of Spiritualists, and William Barrett, a professor trancelike states in which they ostensibly carried on conversa- of physics at the Royal College of Science in Dublin and a tions with the dead. Their bodies were said to have been taken spiritualist, decided that they must have someone of intellectual over and controlled by these spirits who spoke and acted strength and respectability to be the head of the new society.

28 FREE INQUIRY Their choice fell upon Henry Sidgwick, a Cambridge philoso- Yet there had to be more to human existence than materialism pher of considerable repute. allows; in psychical research, he saw the opportunity to demon- Sidgwick and the other major figures who contributed to strate the ineffable aspects of the inner person. the founding of the SPR had previously undergone religious There was nothing inherently irrational, of course, in the crises. Although raised by parents who put heavy emphasis on desire to investigate the claims of the mediums. Even Michael the central importance of religion in one's life, their education Faraday, the great physicist, turned his attention to the exami- put their religious belief into doubt (Gauld 1968; Moore 1977; nation of the table-tilting during séances; he reported that Turner 1974). Henry Sidgwick's belief in Christianity had been nothing unusual was occurring and that the movements of the shaken both by Darwin's theory of evolution, which denied to table were unconsciously made by the hands of the participants. humankind the special place in the world described by the However, the difference between Faraday's and SPR's approach account in Genesis, and by Ernest Renan's criticisms of the was that, despite their dedication to scientific empiricism, the Bible's accuracy. This was very upsetting, since without the SPR investigators hoped to find evidence of paranormal phe- Bible, there would be no moral code; consequently, he sought nomena in order to shore up their faith in post-mortem survival to find some other basis upon which to anchor morality. and in morality. This is not to suggest that they did not take a According to. Cerullo (1982): rigorous stance in their evaluation of evidence, for they certainly tried to do so, to the dismay of the spiritualists, who left the Without a solution in the form of a system of ethics on a SPR in large numbers once the SPR investigators' hard-nosed firmly rationalistic foundation, Sidgwick could foresee little attitude toward mediums became evident. but social chaos and an uninhabitable world. For his ethical system to achieve coherence, Sidgwick found himself required to postulate that the human personality survives bodily death, o sooner was psychical research formally begun in Britain so that the sacrifice of personal gratification necessitated by Nthan an organization was set up in the United States to social duty could eventually be compensated. Demonstration pursue similar research. The American Society for Psychical of survival, for Sidgwick, became something of an obsession. Research (ASPR) was founded in Boston in 1885. The officers [p. 41] of this group included four prominent psychologists: William James, G. Morton Prince, Stanley Hall, and Joseph Jastrow. In order to demonstrate the existence of post-mortem sur- The latter two were later to become outspoken critics of para- vival, it would be necessary to demonstrate a nonphysical aspect psychology. Unlike their British counterparts, these men, with of the human personality while the person was still alive, an the notable exception of James, had no interest in trying to aspect not tied to the material world and therefore not subject demonstrate the reality of post-mortem survival, but they shared to disintegration upon the death of the physical body. Sidgwick with the SPR an interest in investigating the claims of spiritu- saw in telepathy the possibility of demonstrating the existence alists. On the whole, these people were critical of the SPR, of spirit, and in the SPR, the opportunity, in Cerullo's words, viewing it as being in large part a spiritualist organization to "secularize the soul"—to demonstrate, in a scientific way, (Mauskopf and McVaugh 1980). When they were unable to the existence of a soul without all the attendant beliefs that come up with any solid evidence, most of the group lost interest. surround the concept of soul in the religious context. It disbanded in 1889 and its remnants were absorbed by the After Sidgwick became president of the SPR, several British SPR. James continued to support psychical research important friends and colleagues at Cambridge joined the and went on to become president of the SPR. In 1905, James Society, including F. W. H. Myers and Edmund Gurney, who Hyslop of Columbia University set up the new American became the principal researchers. Myers had a particular horror Society for Psychical Research. However, Hyslop died in 1920 of the idea of death and the dissolution of the human per- and in 1923 the spiritualists managed to legally assume control sonality into nothingness. He, too, surrendered his belief in of ASPR. Walter Prince, who had been Hyslop's assistant and Christianity to the rationality of science. During a life- protégé then founded, under the sponsorship of psychologists threatening bout of pneumonia in 1869, he realized that he was William McDougall and Gardner Murphy, the Boston Society no longer a Christian, and for the next year he vacillated for Psychical Research in an effort to keep experimental para- between agnosticism and semi-belief—he needed religion in psychology alive in the United States. It was only in 1941 that order to make life meaningful (Gauld 1968). He then began the Gardner Murphy and George Hyslop (James Hyslop's son) search for evidence that the soul lives on beyond bodily death, managed to wrestle the ASPR away from the spiritualists and using as his tool the very science that had robbed him of his again turn it into an organization dedicated to scientific inves- religious beliefs. Indeed, Myers wanted nothing less than to tigation of parapsychological phenomena. build a new religion, a religion whose basic spiritual tenets Just as in Britain, disaffection with conventional religion would be scientifically demonstrable. It was telepathy that con- played an important role in bringing people into psychical vinced Myers that the mind existed separately from the physical research. For one notable example, Gardner Murphy, a giant body, and he felt that the spiritual sphere of existence may in the history of modern parapsychology, just as he was a giant exist side by side with the material sphere (Turner 1974). in the history of psychology, gave up his religious faith because Edmund Gurney also became estranged from orthodox of its conflict with his education. He was the son of an religion; in his case, the suffering in his own life, including the Episcopal minister, and perhaps because of this the loss of deaths of three sisters in a boating accident on the Nile, led religion was not easy to accept. As had Sidgwick, Myers, and him to reject the possibility of the existence of a kindly God. others, he found comfort in psychical research, which he viewed

Spring 1985 29 as "a potential hostage in the scientific camp and through same domain. However, the Rhines were never totally at ease which he might eventually find his way back to religious belief" with scientific materialism. Despite their dedication to the scien- (Mauskopf and McVaugh 1980, 60). Murphy saw psi as a tific method, they harbored many doubts about strict materi- means for humankind to reach out to one another: alism, and they wondered about the place of human beings in the natural order of things and about the existence of a soul ... Because man cannot bear to be sealed up within the little (MacKenzie 1981). cell of his own individuality he uses to the limit of his powers Even before they obtained their Ph.D.'s, the Rhines had the senses and the outreaching arms which immerse him in the become interested in psychical research. When they attended a world of his fellows; that when his senses fail him or his arms lecture given by Sir Arthur Conan Doyle, who toured the cannot reach to those whom he seeks, he contrives other modes United States in 1922 speaking on spiritualism and describing of seeking, of which two are through the mystical and through the wondrous feat of mediumistic communication with the dead, the paranormal. [Murphy 1952, p. 141] they were impressed by Doyle's belief that psychical phenomena could be subjected to scientific evaluation. It seemed to them Throughout his life, Murphy was a driving force in para- that psychical research might be able to serve as a bridge psychology, and perhaps more than anyone else in the modern between science and religion, a view that was to persist era, he brought respectability to the study of the paranormal throughout their lifetimes (Mauskopf and McVaugh 1980). by virtue of his stalwart reputation within mainstream psy- The Rhines sought out William McDougall, an eminent chology. However, it fell to Joseph Banks Rhine, who devoted psychologist and a committed opponent to the wave of behav- his entire professional career to the subject, to lead American iorism that was sweeping through North American psychology. parapsychology to world predominance. McDougall shared with the Rhines a vitalistic view of life, believing that there is more to human existence than material- he history of parapsychology would no doubt have been ism can account for. In 1927, McDougall was appointed to the Tvery different indeed were it not for Joseph Banks Rhine chair of the psychology department in the newly created Duke and his wife Louisa, for it was the Rhines, especially J.B., who University. Shortly after, it was arranged that J. B. Rhine put the study of parapsychology on an empirical footing that would spend a semester at Duke during which time he would was based on laboratory studies. examine, under McDougall's supervision, a body of evidence J. B. Rhine had planned a career as a minister, but like relating to mediumistic communications. He was to be sup- Sidgwick, Myers, and others we have already discussed, his ported by a private donor, indeed, the same individual who university studies led him to doubt the validity of his religious had furnished the mediumistic evidence. Thus, Rhine's parapsy- beliefs. He grew to see scientific materialism as a substitute for chological career was born out of the study of the survival his religious outlook and pursued an education in science that problem (Rhine et al. 1965). Rhine was soon appointed to the led to a Ph.D. in plant physiology from the University of position of assistant professor of philosophy and psychology Chicago in 1925; Louisa Rhine also obtained a Ph.D. in the (in 1929), and he subsequently founded the Parapsychology Laboratory at Duke. He and his wife Louisa spent the rest of their careers, indeed the rest of their lives, pursuing parapsy- chological research. To Rhine, it was essential to demonstrate the reality of extrasensory perception and psychokinesis (PK) if one were to have any hope of putting the existence of a soul, or at least the principle of mind-body dualism, on a solid scientific footing. In 1943, in an editorial in the Journal of Parapsychology, which had been founded by Rhine and his colleagues, Rhine wrote that it was essential to demonstrate

that man possesses ESP and PK capacities in order to make any tentative conception of an existence beyond the transitions of bodily death a reasonable one. Without them, such survival could not occur and be discovered. [ 1943, p. 227]

As time went on, Rhine became convinced of the reality of paranormal phenomena, ESP and PK in particular, and he began to write about their implications for philosophy and for living. In 1953, in his book New World of the Mind, he said,

But the work in parapsychology does more than refute materi- alism. It is more, too, than a new method of solving problems. There are, at least, still other definite implications and possi- bilities. Since this new science has penetrated the physical bar-

30 FREE INQUIRY rier that has hidden man's true nature from the scientists of the happened to disbelieve in the existence of God, but that "most past, it has become literally the science of the spiritual aspect parapsychologists, from the very time they lapsed into agnos- of nature. [ 1953, 227] ticism, began searching for evidence to sustain the view that In the same work, he speculated on the relationship individual life held meaning" (p. 239). between religious communication and paranormal communica- In a similar vein, Ruth Brandon (1983; 1984), who has tion: studied the history of parapsychology in Britain, reported on her examination of the scientists who have become involved in If prayer is effective and if the thoughts of men do reach out to the study of the paranormal: other personalities in the universe beyond the range of the senses, it must be through the medium of extrasensory percep- In almost every case I have looked into, the facts turn out to tion. If, originating in any personal agency anywhere, celestial be singularly revealing. Time and again they present a curious or mundane, there is an effect produced upon the physical dichotomy between the publicly proclaimed spirit of pure scien- world in answer to prayer, it would have to be a psychokinetic tific inquiry in which the investigations in question were under- effect, a psi phenomenon. Psi, then, would be the scientific taken, and the underlying emotional motivation which concept of the operations underlying any demonstrable spiritual prompted those investigations in the first place. [1983, p. 785] manifestation involving either cognitive or kinetic effects. [p. 229] That the founders of modern parapsychology were moti- vated by the need to find a bridge between science and religion, Rhine, it seemed, had done something of which Myers by a desire to demonstrate through the methods of science that and Sidgwick and Gurney had only dreamed. He had scientif- human personality and thought are more than epiphenomena, ically demonstrated the reality of extra-materialistic processes there can be little doubt. This by itself does not of course that indeed must put the lie to the monistic, materialistic view necessarily weaken the evidential value of the products of their of humankind. Toward the end of his life, Rhine reiterated his labors. After all, as mentioned earlier, the founders of modern belief that parapsychological research deals with the same science were steeped in religious beliefs. One difference, how- phenomena that gave rise to religious belief: ever, is the fact that psychical research was not carried out despite religious needs and beliefs, but, it seems, because of On the whole, the types of psi that have been quite indepen- such needs. The quest was not simply to understand nature, dently outlined by laboratory research closely resemble the but rather to demonstrate that nature is more than what is kinds of exchange that religious men have assumed in the dreamt of in the materialists' philosophy, and it has, historically theologies that arose out of human experience long before the laboratories of parapsychology began their work. [Cited by at least, been associated with a dissatisfaction not just with Hall 1981.] scientific materialism but also with the mythological aspects of conventional religion. Other eminent parapsychologists shared the view that the It is important to stress that it would be quite unfair to existence of psi ruled out materialism. One such individual, automatically attribute such motivation to any and all who Henry Habberley Price, a professor of logic at Oxford Univer- work within parapsychology. Nonetheless, it would be equally sity, commented in 1949 that: imprudent to ignore the major role that anti-materialistic senti- ment has historically played and continues to play in parapsy- We must conclude, 1 think, that there is no room for telepathy chology. It may well be that modern parapsychologists are not in a Materialistic universe. Telepathy is something which ought all motivated by the needs that pushed Sidgwick, Myers, Rhine, not to happen at all, if the Materialistic theory were true. But and others. Nonetheless, there are prominent parapsychologists it does happen, so there must be something seriously wrong even today who explicitly see parapsychology as a bridge with the Materialistic theory, however numerous and imposing between science and religion. Some contemporary parapsy- the normal facts which support it may be. [Cited by Randall chologists talk openly along these lines: Charles Tart (1977), 1977, p. 186.] one of today's most prominent parapsychologists, wrote:

Likewise, it could be argued, as John Beloff (1976) has Because 1 was so impressed with the power and accomplish- done, that "If ever scientific materialism should win the day it ments of the scientific enterprise, I found it hard to believe that [is] hard to see how religion, in any meaningful sense, could science could have totally ignored the spiritual dimensions of survive...." human existence. I began reading intensively in the fringe areas The triumph of materialism would be, for many, the death of science and discovered the greatly neglected field of psychical of existential meaning. It is the fear of this that seems to have research. motivated so many of the leaders in parapsychology. R. L. 1 had happened upon a partial resolution of my personal Moore (1977) concluded, in his study of the history of parapsy- (and my culture's) conflict between science and religion. Para- psychology validated the existence of basic phenomena that chology in the United States, that not only were the leaders of could partially account for, and fit in with, some of the spiritual parapsychology motivated by the quest to find meaning in life views of the universe... . after having lost their religious convictions that had earlier I now understand that the personal conflict I experienced provided such meaning, and not only were the people who between my religious upbringing and the scientific world view showed the greatest interest in Rhine's results people who also was and is shared by many of us. [pp. xii—xiii]

Spring 1985 31 Indeed, in recent years, the parallelism between parapsy- It is true that if the Bible or the literature from other chological and religious thought has been made more apparent religions is examined from a paranormal viewpoint, there is an by parapsychologists themselves. This is not to suggest that abundance of seemingly parapsychological phenonmena: tele- parapsychologists are surrendering themselves to the charge pathy, clairvoyance, precognition, mediumship, psychokinesis, that they are motivated by other than pure scientific curiosity, and out-of-body experiences (Clark 1977; Perry 1982; White but only that the similarities between parapsychological phe- 1982). Indeed, D. Scott Rogo (1982) devoted an entire book to nomena and religion are so obvious that some researchers are the examination and discussion of miraculous religious phe- beginning to reinterpret religious concepts, and particularly nomena and M. Perry (1982) argued that "the paranormal and miraculous ones, including prayer, in terms of parapsychological the miraculous are not identical phenomena, though they over- constructs. It is to this subject that we shall now turn. lap; to remove either from the pages of the Bible would be to emasculate it intolerably" (p. 370). late it intolerably" (p. 370). "Not only have some parapsychologists seen in Rhine, too, commented on the parallels between scriptural parapsychology vindication of their belief in the reports of miracles and the discoveries made by parapsychology: wrongness of the philosophy of materialism but there have been many calls to examine the . . . What parapsychology had discovered and labeled psi accounts of miraculous religious phenomena from communication in all its types, forms, and conditions has turned out to have a remarkable parallel to the whole com- a parapsychological point of view." munication system of religion. . . . Had the founders of the religions been working with the 34-volume set of the Journal of Parapsychology, or had the workers in parapsychology been of only have some parapsychologists seen in parapsy- guided by the scriptures of the great religions, the parallelism chology vindication of their belief in the wrongness of the of the two systems of communication could hardly have been philosophy of materialism, but there have been many calls to more nearly perfect. [ 1972, p. 117] examine the accounts of miraculous religious phenomena from a parapsychological point of view. Indeed, parapsychological Grosso (1983) advocates even more interest by parapsy- interest in miraculous events that occur in a religious context chologists in religious phenomena and miracles: seem to be drawing increasing interest among parapsycholgists in recent years (Grosso 1983). Some take the position that psi and religious forces are one and the same, while others, such as ... psychical research branched out in two directions: scientific W. H. Clark (1977), contend that it is perfectly possible to parapsychology and, through William James, the psychology separate religious and paranormal occurrences, although there of religion ... The parapsychology of religion would reunite these distinctive strands onto one discipline and begin to forge does seem to be a "deep-lying kinship." a powerful new science of the human spirit. [p. 344] R. H. Thouless (1977) argued that reports of miracles in the religious literature take on a new credibility in the light of parapsychological findings and that parapsychology can bring There are many other examples of a growing interest in a belief in God back into respectability: the similarities between paranormal constructs and certain reli- gious ones. R. A. McConnell (1982), suggested in effect, that Belief in God or in any spiritual reality has seemed to many religion arose out of ignorance of the true nature of paranormal people to have become impossible, because these beliefs contra- processes: dict the expectations raised by the scientific views which have come down to us from the last century. These views regard What does it mean that throughout history the phenomena of reality as being bounded by the physical world and necessarily parapsychology have been in the province of religion? Perhaps exclude any spiritual world. Parapsychological investigations organized religion is nothing more than the cultural expression tend to undermine this "physicalistic" view of the world and, of psi phenomenon and the truth behind religion may be thus, to remove one of the obstacles to religious belief... . waiting for discovery by science. [p. 140] Parapsychological research seems to reveal a world in which it is more reasonable to suppose that God and the supernatural play a part. [pp. 175-176] Even paraphysicists Russell Targ and Harold Puthoff (1977) have linked parapsychology and religion: J. R. Randall (1977) made a similar point: When man first began modeling the universe around him, para- normal functioning was gracefully accepted as one of the phe- Despite the contempt with which religion is regarded in some nomena to be accounted for, and therefore occupied an impor- intellectual circles, the vast majority of mankind still seeks tant place in religion and philosophy. [p. 212] relief from the misery of the existential vacuum through ritual, sacrament and prayer. Now at last we are witnessing the exten- sion of scientific procedures into these spiritual areas of human These several excerpts are intended to help convey the experience: is it too much to hope that the result will be a seriousness with which some modern parapsychologists view deepening of understanding which will lead to yet another the correspondence between religion and parapsychology. Of advance in the liberation of the human spirit? [pp. 242-243] course the former is typically seen as a somewhat mistaken

32 FREE INQUIRY interpretation of the latter. It is fascinating, given what has spaceless, or we might say transtemporal and transpatial been said about the historical motivation underlying parapsy- character at the very heart of the paranormal. This is indeed chology that, in a sense, parapsychology not only supplants one of the major reasons why the phenomena do not belong to religion's role of supplying meaning to life and hope about and are rejected by official science. [p. 276] post-mortem existence, but is now taking over its miracles as well. Yet there may be many present-day parapsychologists who On the other hand, there are also parapsychologists who conduct their studies without even considering the dualistic show a decided disinterest in anything touching on religion and implications of the phenomena they hope to demonstrate. As yet who accept the basic dualistic philosophy that underlies Louisa Rhine (1967) wrote: virtually all religion. It is the axiom of mind-body dualism, with its obvious anti-materialistic ramifications, that not only It is not only outside the field but also within it that sometimes links parapsychology and religion but keeps parapsychology an appreciation of the objective behind present-day parapsy- outside of science. chological research is lacking. It is entirely possible to do work in parapsychology today and never once consider the antithesis here is still much in contemporary parapsychology that between the parapsychological and the physical. [p. 241] Tdirectly reflects the tradition of mind-body dualism, of a soul that can survive bodily death. William Roll's studies of B. MacKenzie and S. L. MacKenzie (1980), in their analy- poltergeists, Karl Osis' pursuit of near-death out-of-the-body sis of the development of parapsychological thought, found the experiences, and Ian Stevenson's studies of reincarnation are earlier philosophical approach to the paranormal more in obvious examples. Yet, it is hard to say whether or not these keeping with the essence of parapsychological inquiry: form part of the mainstream in modern parapsychology, for it is difficult to say just what the mainstream is. Certainly some Even if modern researchers are not driven by the motive of eminent parapsychologists will deny any interest in proving disproving mechanism, materialism, etc., the objects of their mind-body dualism. They would claim to be simply good scien- study are still phenomena barred from the universe by the tists in hot pursuit of anomalous phenomena that do not fit the assumptions and implications of the natural sciences. . . . contemporary world-view. However, others openly embrace Parapsychology remains tied to its historically conditioned dualism; consider the words of M. A. Thalbourne (1984): adversary relationship with the natural sciences. Without that, it has no continuing basis for identity. Achievements in the field, therefore, are important just to the extent that they are Whether we like it or not, and despite the best efforts of an incompatible with, and as a result have revolutionary implica- Eccles or a Popper ... the dominant mode of thinking among tions for, the modern scientific world picture. For these reasons, present-day scientists is that of Central-State Materialism. we feel that the old-fashioned ideologues in the field, such as Parapsychologists alone constitute a professional group where J. B. Rhine and J. G. Pratt, had a more accurate conception of Dualism is still the most popular assumption. [p. 13] parapsychology's significance than some of the less, philoso- phical newcomers. [p. 163] As John Beloff (1977) pointed out, these two different guiding philosophies exist side by side in modern parapsy- If the philosophy of materialism is incorrect, once that chology. For those in the first camp, there is the view that misunderstanding is put right the implications for humankind ultimately the phenomena of parapsychology will be understood could be overwhelming, at least in the view of some parapsy- within the context of an expanded scientific world-view. The chologists whose writings suggest that the harnessing of our concept of "paranormal" will no longer be needed. For those psychic potentials will herald a new chapter in human history. in the other camp, there is the viewpoint that has historically Theirs is the dream of a better age to come, the dream of a dominated parapsychology, the one we have been describing, psychic millennium. which argues that paranormal phenomena mark the boundary limits of the scientific world-view. Beloff wrote: umankind has often dreamed of the transformation of Hsociety into one in which personal problems and social Beyond that boundary lies the domain of mind liberated from evils have been vanquished through the coming of a "new age" its dependence on the brain. On this view, parapsychology, (Wilson 1973). These dreams have taken many forms, from using the methods of science, becomes a vindication of the those of the Cargo Cults awaiting salvation from the air to essentially spiritual nature of man which must forever defy those of the Judeo-Christian tradition awaiting the Messiah, or strict scientific analysis. [ 1977, p. 21] to the more secular and perhaps less seriously held wish of the sixties' youth for the dawning of the "Age of Aquarius." However, even the first view must surely lead one to a There is a certain strain of such millennialism to be found dualistic position; for as Gardner Murphy (1961) commented, in the writings of some contemporary parapsychologists. the nature of psi seems to require Although the idea that the human condition will be greatly improved once psychic forces are understood has been held the assumption of some kind of fundamental dualism, some basic difference, between normal and paranormal processes. throughout the history of parapsychology, it seems that in One way of stating the situation is that paranormal processes recent years, perhaps because of growing disillusionment with do not represent a part of the time-space-event system which the ability of science and technology to alleviate human social the physical sciences describe.... There is a certain timeless, problems and suffering, there has been a growing tendency in

Spring 1985 33 founders of parapsychology—the beliefs that telepathy, clair- "There are many examples of millennialistic thought voyance, precognition, and psychokinesis, and ultimately, post- to be gleaned from the pages of parapsychological mortem survival of the human personality are real? If the writing.... [They] represent yet another motivation answer to the first question were yes, then parapsychology behind the search for the paranormal, a motivation would have no particular raison d'être except to inquire into those phenomena that mainstream psychology has for so long that is held in common with most religions." ignored. In this case, a rapprochement between psychology and parapsychology would not be long in coming; for such some parapsychological quarters to look to the flowering of phenomena, in my view at least, do not require the introduction psychic abilities to save the world. of the concept of psi for their explanation. However, parapsy- Even though most parapsychologists would likely be very chology began, not because of any anomalies encountered in hesitant to make predictions about the future in a world in scientific research, but rather because parapsychologists believed which psi is understood and harnessed, that has not stopped that emerging scientific laws threatened the concepts of the some prominent parapsychologists from rhapsodizing about soul (Cerullo 1982) and morality (R. A. White 1982). Although just how great the future is going to be. Some write about the modern-day parapsychology may not directly concern itself with supposedly soon-to-come "paradigm shift" that will force the soul or with morality, the search to find evidence for para- science to accommodate psi and consequently open the door to normal processes continues to be, by its very nature, an attempt a multitude of new discoveries about the place of humankind to challenge the current scientific-mechanistic world-view rather in nature. Of course, if it were true that parapsychological than simply the study of anomalistic experiences and research will ultimately be able to answer the question "What phenomena. is man as a person in a physical universe?" (L. Rhine 1967), To call parapsychology a "spiritual science," as a few para- and if that answer is that humanness transcends material exis- psychologists have done, would appear to be a contradiction in tence, then, obviously, the meaning of human existence would terms: How can a science of the spirit exist, given that science take on quite an exciting new flavor. However, some specula- is by its very nature materialistic? If one believes in the reality tion has gone far beyond that, to dreams of the psychic control of the paranormal, then one must ultimately either change the of the material world. For example, Targ and Puthoff (1977) basic foundations of science or accept that paranormal phe- speculated about the "peaceful use of psychic energy" in terms nomena lie beyond science, in either case overthrowing materi- of "executive ESP," medical diagnosis, psychic exploration of alism. While both approaches coexist within modern parapsy- space, and forecasting future social and political trends. R. O. chology, perhaps it is this contradiction inherent in the phrase Becker (1977) was even more obviously millennialistic: "spiritual science" that perhaps best reflects both the persistence of parapsychology and its estrangement from science: Parapsy- The scientific revolution and scientific medicine have both failed chology is quasi-religious in nature while attempting to follow humanity, and a new appraisal of our situation and a new scientific revolution are in order. The opposition of the scientific the path of science, a path laid down upon the foundation of establishment to such a new revolution is obvious and deter- materialism. mined, and its power is not to be underestimated .. . Instead Robert Jahn (1982) likened parapsychological The discipline of parapsychology is uniquely suited to lead research to the search for bizarre, rarely seen, and scientifically the new revolution. It deals directly with the core of the living unrecognized forms of fauna in a vast, fog-shrouded swamp: process.... It can lead to a new vision of the human being Some researchers claim that they have searched and found and his place in the universe. Indeed, it may be the last and nothing but shadows and sunken stumps that mislead the gulli- best hope we have.... [pp. ix-x] ble, while others report with equal conviction and in minute detail their observations of "a variety of extraordinary beings R. A. McConnell (1982) too has referred to parapsychology as of awesome dimensions and capability" (p. 136). Jahn con- our last hope, calling it "the wild card in a stacked deck." He cluded that: argued that the ethical and philosophical implications of psi "offer the only hope I know—and slim it is—for a continuation When fully sifted, only a very few legitimate specimens seem to of the human experiment" (p. 140). have been captured, by tediously deliberate trolling of the There are many other examples of millennialistic thought brackish domain, or by more incisive invasion of its turbid to be gleaned from the pages of parapsychological writing. interior, and even these have proven so incomprehensible and Although such thinking may not reflect the viewpoint of the so delicate to exposure, and the imposed criteria for their credi- majority of parapsychologists, and indeed would probably be bility have been so severe, that they have not been fully per- challenged by many, it does represent yet another motivation suasive. Yet the goal remains alluring, and the search continues. behind the search for the paranormal, a motivation again that [p. 136] is held in common with most religions. Parapsychologists are not, for the most part at least, just n the final analysis, we are left with one question: Is the fishers of facts on the prowl for scientific anomalies for; if that Igoal of parapsychology to explain anomalous experiences, were so, they would surely have long ago migrated to much be they labeled telepathic, precognitive, out-of-body, or phan- richer waters of normal science. However, it seems to me that tasmagoric, or is the goal to vindicate the core beliefs of the parapsychologists are not simply practical-minded investigators

34 FREE INQUIRY tramping through the foggy night in R. G. Jahn's swampland parapsychology. Journal of Parapsychology, 45:65-84. looking for rarely seen specimens. Rather, the specimens, the MacKenzie, B., and S. L. MacKenzie. 1980. Whence the enchanted anomalies, are for most parapsychologists only the means to boundary? Sources and significance of the parapsychological an end; ultimately, they hope, these specimens will demonstrate tradition. Journal of Parapsychology, 44:125-166. Mauskopf, S. H., and M. R. McVaugh. 1980. The Elusive Science. once and for all that science as we know it is badly mistaken in Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. its materialistic orientation and that human existence involves McConnell, R. A. 1982. Parapsychology and Self-deception in an ineffable, nonmaterial aspect that may very well survive the Science. Pittsburgh: R. A. McConnell. death and decay of the physical body. As long as the need to Moore, R. L. 1977. In Search of White Crows. New York: Oxford. find meaning in life beyond that which is forthcoming from a Murphy, Gardner. 1952. The natural, the mystical and the paranor- materialistic philosophy exists, the search for the paranormal mal. Journal of the American Society for Psychical Research, will go on. That being said, in all likelihood it will go on, in 46:125-142. one form or another, until the end of the human story • . 1961. Challenge of Psychical Research. New York: Harper & Row. Nicol, F. 1972. The founders of the Society for Psychical Research. Acknowledgment Proceedings of the Society for Psychical Research, 55:341-367. Perry, M. 1982. Psychical research and religion. In Psychical I wish to express my gratitude to Professors Ronald Cohen and Ray Research, ed. I. Grattan-Guiness. Wellingborough, Eng.: Hyman for reviewing an earlier version of this manuscript, and for Aquarian Press. their thoughtful suggestions, most of which have been incorporated Randall, J. L. 1977. 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New York: American Society for Psychical Research, 23:323-336. Delacorte Press. Gauld, A. 1968. The Founders of Psychical Research. London: Tart, Charles T. 1977. Psi: Scientific Studies of the Psychic Realm. Routledge & Kegan Paul. New York: E. P. Dutton. Grosso, M. 1983. The parapsychology of religion: Remarks on Thalbourne, M. A. 1984. The conceptual framework of parapsy- D. Scott Rogo's "Miracles: A parascientific inquiry into won- chology: Time for a reformation. Paper presented at the 27th drous phenomena." Journal of the American Society for Annual Meeting of the Parapsychological Association. Dallas. Psychical Research, 77:327-345. August. Hall, James A. 1981. The work of J. B. Rhine: Implications for Thomas, K. 1971. Religion and the Decline of Magic. Harmonds- religion. Journal of Parapsychology, 45:55-63. worth, Eng.: Penguin. Hearnshaw, L. S. 1973. The psychology of religion. In The Psy- Thouless, R. H. 1977. Implications for religious studies. In Advances chology of Religion, ed. L. B. Brown. Harmondsworth, Eng.: in Parapsychological Research, ed. S. Krippner, vol. 1: Psycho- Penguin. kinesis, 175-190. New York: Plenum. Jahn, R. G. 1982. The persistent paradox of psychic phenomena: An Turner, F. M. 1974. Between Science and Religion. New Haven: engineering perspective. Proceedings of the IEEE, 70: 136-170. Yale University Press. Kemsley, D. S. 1973. Religious influences in the rise of modern Westfall, R. S. 1973. Newton and the fudge factor. Science, science. In Science and Religious Belief ed. C. A. Russell, 74- 179:751-758. 102. London: University of London Press. White, Andrew D. 1955. A History of the Warfare of Science with Klaaren, E. M. 1977. Religious Origins of Modern Science. Grand Theology in Christendom (1895). New York: George Braziller. Rapids, Mich.: W. B. Eerdmans. White, R. A. 1982. An analysis of ESP phenomena in the saints. Leahey, T. H., and G. E. Leahey. 1983. Psychology's Occult Doubles. Parapsychology Review, 13:15-18. Chicago: Nelson-Hall. Wilson, B. R. 1973. Magic and the Millennium. New York: Harper MacKenzie, B. 1981. The place of J. B. Rhine in the history of & Row. •

Spring 1985 35 Science, Religion and the Paranormal

John Beloff

sychical research was one of the by-products of the the Mind). And, although it would be unwise to press Rhine's conflict that came to a head in Victorian England in analogy too far, I think we can agree .that the findings of the aftermath of the Darwinian revolution. Its parapsychology are not irrelevant to religion. Indeed, I would leaders—Frederic Myers, Edmund Gurney, the Sidgwicks— like to add that the events associated with certain religious were among those who had lost their faith in revealed religion figures, saints, mystics, and the like, cannot be irrelevant to but were not ready to embrace the new creed of scientific parapsychology. materialism that was then in the ascendant. In some cases, and Let us look, first, at the implications of parapsychology this was true both of Myers and Gurney, personal bereavements for religious belief. I would maintain that the parapsychological provided additional incentive to examine, for what it might be evidence legitimates religion in the same sense and to the same worth, the evidence for survival that was being put forward by extent that physicalism invalidates it. By physicalism, I mean the spiritualists. Their aim in founding the Society for Psychical the doctrine that everything that happens in the universe hap- Research was to apply to the problem of the paranormal the pens strictly in accordance with the laws of physics. Rhine methods and standards of evidence that we associate with sci- held, correctly in my opinion, that if psi phenomena (ESP and ence. For they shared the optimistic Victorian faith in science PK) were real then we have instances of phenomena that cannot as the universal key to true knowledge. At the same time they be explained in terms of the impersonal laws and equations believed that, when the scientific approach was applied to these that physics seeks to establish. Insofar, therefore, as religion is traditional mysteries, it would vindicate a conception of man incompatible with physicalism, it cannot be indifferent to the and of the cosmos that had more in common with the teachings kind of evidence that undermines the physicalist position. of religion than it did with the contemporary scientific outlook. But is it true that religion is incompatible with physical- Even J. B. Rhine, whose name is usually associated with the ism? Many modern theologians, of whom Don Cupitt, dean of transition from psychical research to parapsychology—that is Emanuel College, Cambridge, is the best-known representative to say, from a preoccupation with mediumship and with sur- in Britain, would emphatically deny this. His arguments, how- vival to research of the strict laboratory kind—went on record ever, strike me as specious. For example, I cannot see how the as saying that parapsychology stood to religion as biology concept of moral accountability, which is so central not only to stands to medicine or physics to engineering (New World of every religious creed but to any system of morality, could be reconciled with the view that all our thoughts and actions are, in the last resort, determined by processes in the brain operating John Beloff is one of the in strict accordance with the impersonal laws of electro- world's leading parapsy- chemistry. Likewise, I cannot see how divine intervention in chologists. He is professor nature would be possible if we accept that the world is a closed of psychology at the Uni- physical system; and if, as a concession to modernism, we versity of Edinburgh in forgo divine intervention, what sense can we make of peti- Scotland and editor of the tionary prayer? Or, again, consider the question of survival. British Journal of the Soci- The different religions differ markedly regarding what they ety for Psychical Research. teach about a life after death; but setting aside, for the moment, The University of Edinburgh the views of some sophisticated liberal theologians who contend has received an endowment that belief in survival is a positive hindrance to the religious from the estate of writer life, one can safely say that there is no known religion that Arthur Koestler to support does not affirm an afterlife of some shape or form. Certainly in parapsychological research. Christianity it has been absolutely central and indispensable to the whole concept of salvation. It is true that the church has

36 FREE INQUIRY preferred to keep the nature of our post-mortem existence shrouded in mystery, to discourage speculation on the topic, "The relevance of parapsychology to religion can, and to forbid, as an anathema, all attempts to communicate perhaps, be best summed up by saying that, in the with the deceased. Now, from the physicalist standpoint, there absence of any paranormal phenomena, the physicalist is of course nothing to survive once the brain is defunct. For all these reasons, therefore, I cannot see what would remain of interpretation of science would be difficult to challenge religion under a physicalist dispensation other than some kind and, hence, the religious option would be difficult to of special attitude toward life dressed up in religious language; defend. and it is hard to imagine that such a diluted and minimalist religion could for long satisfy the spiritual needs of ordinary As a rationalist, I had some sympathy with the good bishop people. in his struggles with his own backwoodsmen, and I would The relevance of parapsychology to religion can, perhaps, agree with him entirely that, if the case for Christianity had to be best summed up by saying that, in the absence of any rest on the miracles attributed to Jesus, it would rest on shaky paranormal phenomena, the physicalist interpretation of science ground indeed. For, considered as accurate reportage, it would would be difficult to challenge and, hence, the religious option now generally be conceded that the Gospels leave much to be would be difficult to defend. Obviously parapsychology cannot desired. I have sometimes teased my Christian friends by prove the supposed truths of religion if only because no mere pointing out that, had the Gospels been submitted to me in my empirical evidence can ever establish a religious or meta- capacity as editor of the Journal of the Society for Psychical physical doctrine; it is only scientific hypotheses that can be Research, they would never have got beyond my referees! This established in this way. Even if parapsychology could prove is not to deny their value as symbolic or mythic truths but the truth of survival, in itself a problematical enterprise, this simply to stress that they do not meet the criteria that we would still not vindicate the Christian conception of heaven or would now apply to claims of this kind. On the other hand, of life everlasting. At best it would prove that the mind was there are a great many historical, post-biblical miracles that no independent of the brain; it would not imply that our souls are parapsychologist could afford to ignore on pain of being created by God. On the other hand, those who, unlike me, charged with inconsistency, because they can stand comparison already have their faith to sustain them could then reasonably with some of the best spontaneous cases in the literature of invoke such evidence to strengthen that faith and could reason- psychical research. ably draw comfort from the thought that this life, with all its The variety of miracles is endless, but for the sake of this miseries and tribulations, does not represent the sum total of exposition I shall confine myself to two types of miracles: (1) our existence. bodily levitations of the kind that have been attributed to cer- tain saintly or enlightened individuals, usually in an advanced et us now turn to the other side of the question, the impli- stage of meditation or in the throes of ecstasy, and (2) miracles L cations of religion for psychical research. The most striking of healing. The latter may occur at the hands of some divinely fact here is that some of the most remarkable paranormal inspired healer or at some sacred spot like a shrine, or they events on record are those that occurred in a religious context. may be taken as the answer to a prayer or as a token of divine I refer to those events that, in religious terms, would be mercy. Both types of miracles are to be found in a wide range described as miracles or manifestations of supernatural or of different cultural settings, in tribal as well as in civilized spiritual powers. That this should be so presents a problem for societies, so that to acknowledge them is not to take sides with the secular parapsychologist who cannot assume divine inter- one faith or church. All in all, the Catholic church has, I vention in nature. From the sociological angle, the prime func- suppose, the edge over all its rivals in this regard, but it certainly tion of a miracle is to serve as propaganda. A miracle is to the has no monopoly. pious what a victorious battle is to the patriot. In both cases, One advantage that the Catholic church can offer in this however, the efficacy of the propaganda will depend to some context is that, before an individual could qualify for canoniza- extent on the credibility of the claims, and it is here that the tion, he or she was expected to produce at least one properly expertise of the parapsychologist can be brought to bear. It is authenticated miracle. The so-called Congregation of Rites was somewhat ironical that on the question of the historicity of assigned the specific duty of authenticating the miracle or mira- particular miracles the religious community displays much the cles in question. Scholars who have studied the deliberations of same broad spectrum of belief as one finds within the parapsy- this august body in the Vatican archives have been impressed chological community with respect to the authenticity of par- with their thoroughness and judiciousness, and 1 have no reason ticular parapsychological evidence. This was brought home to to doubt their word. They brought to their sacred task a degree me recently as a result of the appointment of David Jenkins, a of critical intelligence that makes them worthy forerunners of professor of theology at Leeds, as Bishop of Durham. Con- the Society for Psychical Research. Unhappily, they labored sternation erupted among his Church of England flock when it under two disadvantages that did not apply to the psychical became known that he did not believe, in the literal sense, researchers. First, they could conduct their inquiries only after either in the Virgin Birth, or, more shocking still, in the Resur- the death of the individual concerned. Second, many individuals rection. Indeed, he considered that all the miracles of the New with equally strong claims to have produced miracles were Testament required a symbolic rather than a literal inter- never candidates for canonization and so did not benefit from pretation. their attention. Thus, to quote Father Herbert Thurston, S.J.

Spring 1985 37 opposite, a dearth of miracles! The point is, however, that her negative attitude does at least scotch the suspicion that the whole affair might just have been a pious put-up job. Our next levitator was a person of a very different sort, Joseph of Copertino. (See E. J. Dingwall's Human Oddities.) He was a kind of holy fool or simpleton whose only qualifica- tions for sainthood, apart from his miracles, were his piety, childlike enthusiasms, and extreme asceticism. With regard to his levitations, however, it can be said without much fear of contradiction that they have never been surpassed either from the point of view of their magnitude, duration, and frequency or as regards the amount of evidence that can be mustered for their authenticity. For it must be understood that we are talking here of prolonged suspensions in mid-air and aerial flights to tree-top heights, so that there can be no question of sudden leaps into the air being misperceived by the pious as genuine levitations. Moreover, the witnesses to these events included three cardinals, Joseph's personal physician, who attended him during his final illness, when levitations were still occurring, and other persons of repute. Within three years of his death in 1663, the authorities began to collect sworn depositions, and an official biography ris was duly published in 1678. It was not, however, until 1751 that Joseph became a candidate for beatification and the Con- (The Physical Phenomena of Mysticism), the great authority gregation of Rites met to adjudicate his case. The promoter on the physical phenomena of saints and mystics: "Not a few fidei (better known as the "Devil's advocate") on this occasion of the most interesting cases of alleged levitation are to be was none other than Prosper Lambertini, a formidable scholar found in the lives of mystics who have never actually been later to become Pope Benedict XIV. It says something, I feel, beatified." He cites as an example the great Spanish mystic for the enlightened outlook of this man that, as pope, he won Father Francis Suarez. However, there are two individuals who even the admiration of Voltaire, an admiration that was did ultimately achieve both beatification and canonization for apparently reciprocated (Renée Haynes, Philosopher King: The whom there is strong evidence for levitation. Humanist Pope Benedict XIV). If anyone could be expected to The first of these is St. Teresa of Avila. If one is willing to see through a mere pious imposture, it was surely he, the more recognize anything as miraculous, it would be hard to doubt especially when cast in the role of Devil's advocate. Yet, suc- the testimony given under oath before the authorities of the cumbing to the sheer weight of the evidence, he duly acknowl- Holy Office by her subordinate, Sister Anne. She testified to edged the "celebrated levitations and remarkable flights of this the levitations she had witnessed while Teresa was engaged in servant of God." Joseph was canonized in 1767. her devotions. It is true that her deposition was given some thirteen years after Teresa's death and some thirty years after hat is so frustrating from the point of view of a parapsy- the events they describe. However, they correspond so closely Wchologist is that nothing on this scale has ever been seen to the account given by Teresa herself, who kept a diary (her again. Sporadic reports of isolated cases of levitation have autobiography was published in 1566), that the two accounts continued down to the present, sometimes in connection with can be regarded as corroborating each other. Thus, if we only pious mystics like Joseph, sometimes in connection with cases had Teresa's own word for it, we might well conclude that she of alleged demonic possession in children; but perhaps the only was suffering from some kind of illusion, despite her reputation individual of a later age who can stand comparison with Joseph as a woman of sound sense and good intellect. But this com- is the celebrated Victorian medium, D. D. Home. According to bination of eyewitness report and the subject's self-report rules William Crookes, one of the foremost British scientists of the this out. Another aspect of the case is worth mentioning here. time, who graphically described one such levitation in his own Teresa's attitude toward this unsolicited gift was remarkably home, there were "at least a hundred recorded instances of Mr. negative. Deeming herself unworthy of such special grace, she Home's rising from the ground in the presence of as many prayed to God that her "raptures," as she called them, might separate persons," and he goes on to say: "To reject the recorded forthwith cease (as they eventually did), and meanwhile her evidence on this subject is to reject all human testimony what- nuns were under strict orders to say nothing about them. I ever: for no fact in sacred or profane history is supported by a have sometimes wondered whether, as head of her convent, it stronger array of proofs" (from an article that first appeared in might have offended her sense of decorum to be found by her the Quarterly Journal of Science, January 1874; reprinted in acolytes with her feet off the ground. In any case it is hard for Crookes and the Spirit World, by R. G. Medhurst). someone like myself to appreciate her attitude. As a jobbing Yet, with due respect to Crookes, conditions in the case of parapsychologist I have suffered all my life from the exact Home were far from ideal. The levitations took place in semi-

38 FREE INQUIRY darkness and often at the tail-end of a lengthy séance, when complete, and unexpected that it would be disingenuous to deny excitement and expectation were high. Joseph's levitations, on it the epithet of miraculous. I suppose the name of Lourdes the other hand, usually took place in the open air or in a large springs to mind for most people in this connection, but, what- church and were not preceded by any psychological build-up ever else it may be that Lourdes can offer its pilgrims, as a apart from the occasional shrill cry that Joseph would utter power-house of healing its record is not impressive, especially when he was about to take off. In the latter case we even have when one considers the large number of those who annually accounts of onlookers who endeavored to restrain him and undertake the pilgrimage. Indeed, the Vatican itself has been then found themselves hoisted up alongside! Nevertheless, the very reticent about claiming miracles. At all events, in search comparison with Home may remind us that divine grace does of a shrine where miracles occurred in abundance, I have had not seem to be a prerequisite of levitation. Far from being a to go back to the eighteenth century, to the cemetery of St. saint, Daniel Home was a rather vain and worldly man and an Médard, then on the outskirts of Paris. There, at the tomb of ambitious social climber. However, he does seem to have taken the Abbé François de Pâris, a saintly priest belonging to the seriously his life mission to propagate the new gospel of spiritu- sect known as the Jansenists, there occurred within the space alism in Europe, so perhaps we should not regard his phe- of about five years, from 1727, the year he died, to 1732, when nomena as having a purely secular character. the civic authorities had the place closed down, an unprece- Levitation, in the West at any rate, seems to have reached dented profusion of healing miracles. In making this bold asser- a climax in the Church of the Counter-Reformation. It is almost tion, one is not relying on hearsay. The relevant documents as if it were a necessary adjunct of Baroque art and archi- and depositions were painstakingly collected by one who, tecture. St. Joseph was, after all, a contemporary of Bernini, though initially a skeptic in matters of religion, became the whose sculpture and buildings likewise appear to deny gravity. faithful chronicler of these events. This man was Carré de As propaganda, moreover, an important consideration in the Montgeron, a nobleman, a magistrate, and a member of the Counter-Reformation, Joseph's miracles were very effective. Thus, when Johann Friedrich, Duke of Brunswick, a Lutheran "There are a great many historical, post-biblical now best remembered as the patron of Leibniz, visited Italy, he miracles that no parapsychologist could afford to happened to attend a church service at Assisi where, to his ignore on pain of being charged with inconsistency, astonishment, he saw Joseph floating just above the altar steps for about a quarter of an hour. The duke returned to Germany because they can stand comparison with some of the a Catholic convert! best spontaneous cases in the literature of psychical In the East, levitation has always been associated with the research." practice of yoga. Levitation, or "laghima," is listed by Patanjaili in his classic treatise as one of the eight recognized siddhis, or royal parliament. He had the good sense to dedicate his book supernormal powers, that an enlightened yogi may hope to to the King (Louis XV) but was promptly sent to the Bastille attain. One modern British authority on yoga, Professor Ernest for his audacity! Presumably he had not reckoned with the Wood, in his book Yoga that Penguin issued in 1959, speaks power of the Jesuits, who were determined to stop at nothing of levitation as a "universally accepted fact in India" and some- to stamp out the Jansenist heresy. Anyone rash enough to what casually goes on to recall one instance for which he could testify to the authenticity of a St. Médard miracle incurred personally vouch, when "an elderly yogi was levitated in a their wrath and suffered harassment and persecution at their recumbent posture about six feet off the ground in an open hands. Montgeron, however, was not easily cowed and even field for about half an hour while visitors were permitted to succeeded in bringing out two more volumes of case studies pass sticks to and fro in the space between." The late Arthur while still in prison. Koestler, who had an abiding interest in the phenomenon of I have space to discuss just one of the many cures that levitation, takes Wood to task for failing to give the precise Montgeron records. This was the case of Mlle. Louise Coirin. date and place for such an astounding event as this. During his This unfortunate woman had suffered for twelve years from a tour of India in 1958, Koestler tried hard but vainly to obtain cancer of the left breast that had destroyed the flesh and the objective evidence of yogic levitations. Already a number of nipple of that breast and was said to have produced an odor institutes in India were beginning to study yoga from a scientific that made her unapproachable. Since her father and two of her standpoint, but no data on levitation were available. (See brothers were officers in the royal household, we can presume Arthur Koestler's The Lotus and the Robot.) that she had access to the best medical opinion of the day, but all her physicians agreed that her condition was incurable. T et us pass on now to a different type of miracle, which Eventually in desperation, in 1731, she made the pilgrimage to i Jinvolves healing. This is obviously a far more complex the tomb at St. Médard. She was then forty-five years old. phenomenon than levitation, and it is also much harder in There, we are told, in the best miraculous fashion, she duly these cases to draw the line between what is merely very excep- recovered—instantaneously, completely, and permanently. tional and what is truly paranormal. Short of the acquisition Montgeron produced depositions from no less than five eminent of a new limb, it is very hard to be sure, given the uncertainties physicians or surgeons in addition to those from lay persons of of medical science, that a cure defies explanation in natural repute testifying to the fact that both her breasts and the nipples terms. When all is said and done, however, there are some were perfect and free from any trace or scar. One of these cases in the religious literature when the recovery was so sudden, witnesses, a Monsieur Souchay, listed as surgeon to the Prince

Spring 1985 39 he was found to have a cancer of the stomach for which he was "The parapsychologist may need to come to terms operated on May 26, 1965. The surgeon was not able to remove with something in the nature of a cosmic mind con- all traces of the malignant tumor, but Fagan was discharged in ceived as being at once a universal data-bank and a July. Then, in November 1966, he again developed pains and reservoir of power that suitably endowed individuals vomiting, which the surgeon assumed to be due to the original can occasionally draw upon in order to achieve some cancer; but there was nothing further that the hospital could do for him and, although his condition steadily deteriorated, paranormal goal." he was thereafter cared for at home. At the end of January 1967 he was given the last rites, and by March 5 he was not de Conti, had previously pronounced her to be incurable but expected to live another day, having by then taken virtually no then went of his own accord to a notary public to make his food for seven weeks. That day a group of religious friends and deposition. well-wishers gathered at his bedside and held a prayer meeting. Such, it would appear, are the facts so far as these can They beseeched the Blessed John Ogilvie, the Catholic martyr now be ascertained. What we make of them is our affair. Was who was hanged for treason in Glasgow in 1614, to intercede François de Pâris exerting posthumous powers of healing from on behalf of the dying man. The following morning when his beyond the grave? Was God active on his behalf? Or were the wife entered the bedroom expecting to find her husband dead, pilgrims imbued with such faith that they brought about their he was sitting up, free from pain and demanding a meal. There own healing? One who put his own construction on these were no further relapses, and he was alive and well some ten bizarre events was the great Scottish skeptic David Hume. In years later. Did he owe his life to the Blessed John Ogilvie? His his well-known essay on miracles (An Enquiry Into Human parish priest, Father Thomas Reilly of the Church of the Blessed Understanding), he goes out of his way to draw the reader's John Ogilvie, certainly thought so and, together with a group attention to the events at St. Médard. But not, as one might of Glaswegian priests, brought the matter to the attention of suppose, in order to heap ridicule on them but, on the contrary, the Vatican. In 1971 the Vatican sent their own medical expert to make the point that, even a case like this, where, he agrees, to Scotland to look into the affair, and a medical commission the evidence is overwhelming, a reasonable person must still was duly appointed. The conclusion of the experts, however, reject the miraculous. These events, he admits, were of recent was not unanimous. Dr. Gerard Crean, an authority on gastro- vintage and not culled like so many miracles from the dim and intestinal disorders at the University of Edinburgh, though him- distant past. They had taken place in the most civilized city of self a Catholic, offered a nonmiraculous explanation. He sug- Europe, not in some remote spot. They had been enacted in gested that the surgeon may have been mistaken in thinking the full glare of publicity and in the teeth of the implacable that the operation was not a complete success, and hence the opposition from the authorities who sought every means to relapse may have been due, not to a metastasis of the original discredit them but whose own doctors insisted on testifying in carcinoma but to a stomach ulcer, so that the recovery may their favor. The claims were "proved upon the spot before have been due to a spontaneous discharge of that ulcer. On judges of unquestioned integrity attested by witnesses of credit this hypothesis it was, of course, no more than a coincidence and distinction." "Where" asks Hume, "shall we find such a that the ulcer should have discharged itself during the night number of circumstances agreeing to the corroboration of one following the prayer meeting. fact?" Hume might well ask, but the answer he gave to his own This illustrates a common feature in the assessment of rhetorical question is one to which we must pay careful atten- nearly all alleged miraculous cures, namely the possibility of a tion, because it has resurfaced in every discussion of the para- misdiagnosis in the first place. However, in this instance, Dr. normal ever since. What Hume tells us, in effect, is that we Crean was overridden by the other authorities, especially after must take our stand on the absolute a priori impossibility of Fagan underwent further extensive medical examinations in miracles. The point is that a miracle is, by definition, a singular 1971 and 1972, both at the Western General Hospital in Edin- event that runs counter to the universal experience of mankind burgh and at the Royal Infirmary in Glasgow. At all events, as to the way nature works. Hence, no mere human testimony the Vatican was eventually satisfied that the case could not be can ever outweigh the reasons we have to doubt it in such explained by medical science and must be attributed to the cases. This, Hume contends, "in the eyes of all reasonable intercession of the Blessed John Ogilvie. Accordingly, in people will alone be regarded as sufficient refutation." But will February 1976. Pope Paul V issued a decree officially declaring it? To me, at least, what Hume unwittingly has succeeeded here the case a miracle, and the following October the famous in doing is to provide us with the reductio ad absurdum of all a Scottish martyr was duly canonized at a service in St. Peters at priori arguments against the paranormal. which Mr. and Mrs. Fagan were present. In discussing levitation it looks as if the age of miracles I shall mention one more such case from this century. is indeed past. Healing miracles, on the other hand, however This one concerns a woman who was, by all accounts, herself a infrequent, continue to crop up from time to time. The most natural saint, and the miracle in question took place in London recent case known to me that attracted worldwide attention on February 18, 1912. Dorothy Kerin was born in 1889 and occurred in Glasgow on March 5, 1967. (See Miracle by Des died in 1963. She was of Irish extraction but belonged to the Hickey and Gus Smith.) The protagonist was a fifty-three- Anglican Communion, although her career was very much in year-old retired Glaswegian dock-worker, John Connolly the Catholic mould. The medical facts are briefly as follows. (I Fagan, a Catholic. He had been taken ill two years before, and have had to rely on Dorothy Musgrave Arnold's biography

40 FREE INQUIRY Dorothy Kerin: Called by Christ to Heal, a devotional work.) lack the power provided he chooses to use it. Even more per- Her health began to deteriorate when she was thirteen. At plexing is the question of why He should see fit to afflict his fifteen she contracted diphtheria and spent nine weeks in a creatures with all manner of dreadful disease so that once in a hospital. On her return home she developed pneumonia and while He can arbitrarily single out one of their number for a pleurisy and hovered on the brink of death. She was thereafter spectacular reprieve? For reasons like these, I, for one, cannot bedridden for many years after a bacterial examination revealed accept the idea of God as a person, however mysterious or that she was infected with general tuberculosis. In 1911, at the otherworldly as is clearly implied when we use such traditional age of twenty-two, a diagnosis of tubercular peritonitis was epithets as "creator," "ruler," "law-giver," "judge," or "father." recorded that was complicated by a tubercular meningitis that On the other hand, miracles cannot be easily assimilated eventually rendered her blind and unconscious. She was kept to a purely secular science either. When confronted with some alive for six weeks on a diet of brandy, opium, and starch, but paranormal manifestation, parapsychologists have tended to by February 18 her doctor declared that she was unlikely to attribute it to certain unconscious powers residing in the living last another day. Her friends duly gathered at her bedside to person. J. B. Rhine always held fast to that interpretation. Yet pay their last respects, and by half-past nine it looked as if she one reaches a point where one hesitates to go on stretching had breathed her last and her heart had stopped beating. It indefinitely even such an elastic concept as that of the uncon- was then that she sat up, called for her dressing-gown and, to scious. When that point is reached, the parapsychologist may the consternation of those present, calmly announced that she have to consider the possibility of some kind of a supraper- wanted her supper. Her doctor arrived the next morning sonal dimensi\n to psi. Jung, who had a better nose for the expecting to sign the death certificate but was amazed to find paranormal than Freud did, was driven to extend the personal her well and healthy. She had weighed a mere four and a half unconscious and introduce a collective unconscious. But even stone when he had last weighed her, and he reckoned that she the collective unconscious may be inadequate. The parapsy- must have put on about two stone overnight! A subsequent chologist may need to come to terms with something in the X-ray showed that her lungs, which had been wasting away, nature of a cosmic mind conceived as being at once a universal were like new, and a blood test revealed no sign of the former infection. data-bank and a reservoir of power that suitably endowed indi- How had it happened? According to the patient herself it viduals can occasionally draw upon in order to achieve some was simplicity itself. She had had a vision of an angel sur- paranormal goal. Perhaps it is just such a cosmic mind that the rounded by bright light, who spoke to her, saying: "Dorothy, great mystics, from all ages and from all faiths, have been your sufferings are over, get up and walk." At all events, alluding to when they claim to be in direct communion with medical science has no better explanation to offer in its stead. the godhead. • She duly lived to a ripe age, and the rest of her life was devoted to good works and, more especially, to the practice and promotion of healing through the power of Christ, as she conceived it to be. I have dwelt on two spectacular cases, but of course, the practice of psychic or spiritual healing has become widespread a quarterly and a great many remarkable cures are to be found in the devoted to the ideals of relevant literature. It is, however, worth noting in this context that, although most healers in the West operate under the secularism and freedom auspices of a church or religious body and regard themselves as no more than a channel for the divine power, psychic healing We invite you to subscribe of a very similar kind, with the laying on of hands, etc., is now ❑ 1 year $15.00 quite common in the Soviet Union, where there have been ❑ some outstandingly successful exponents. But they do not, to 2 years $27.00 my knowledge, claim divine inspiration. ❑ 3 years $35.00 ❑ New ❑ Payment enclosed o much for miracles. But, if we acknowledge them as ❑ Renew ❑ Bill me Sgenuine paranormal events, they pose a problem for the theologian and the parapsychologist alike. For the theologian they pose again what I like to call the central paradox of Name theism—or should we call it Job's unanswered question— (print clearly) namely, Why is God so sparing with his miracles? If He can Street intervene at all, why so seldom? Is it possible that He does not care? An uncaring God would seem to be a contradiction in City State Zip terms, and such an entity would scarcely deserve our worship. Outside U.S. add $4.00 for surface mail, $8.00 for airmail. Is it possible that He is powerless to prevent suffering as we so (U.S. funds on U.S. bank). often are? This is, I suppose, conceivable but, quite apart from FREE INQUIRY the fact that an impotent God lacks credibility, the implication Central Park Station • Box 5 • Buffalo, New York 14215 of the miracles we have been considering is that God does not

Spring 1985 41 The Legacy of Voltaire Part I

This is the first part of the article on Voltaire in the two-volume Encyclopedia of Unbelief, which will be published later this year by Prometheus Books. It is printed here with the permission of the author and of Dr. Gordon Stein, the editor-in-chief of the Encyclopedia of Unbelief. In addition to writing the article on Voltaire and contributing several other articles, Professor Edwards has also written the Preface to the Encyclopedia of Unbelief.

Paul Edwards

oltaire (1694-1778) was born Francois-Marie Arouet in English translation as Letters Concerning the English Nation, Paris to a prosperous notary. He was sent to the Jesuit and a year later in Paris. This slim volume was aptly described Vschool of Louis le Grand, where he received an excellent by Voltaire's biographer, Gustave Lanson, as the first bomb classical education. He was extremely precocious, and at the hurled against the ancien régime and became the inspiration of age of twelve he wrote polished verses that delighted his liberal reformers throughout the European continent for the teachers. To the chagrin of his family, he abandoned the study rest of the century. Voltaire was in England when an excep- of law for literary pursuits, in which he was spectacularly suc- tionally liberal government was in power, and he therefore cessful almost from the start. tended to exaggerate the prevailing degree of freedom and In 1718 his first tragedy, Oedipe, was performed with great toleration. In the Lettres, he praised English institutions and, success, and his plays dominated the French stage for the rest by implication, condemned conditions in France—the wealth, of the eighteenth century. His epic poem, La Henriade, which intolerance, and immense power of the church, the despotism appeared in 1723, celebrated Henri IV, the last liberal French of the king, and the privileges of the aristocracy. He recom- king. Although the poem was banned because of its undisguised mended equal status for merchants and nobles, a fair distribu- hostility to Christianity, La Henriade had a vast circulation tion of taxes, and toleration for all religions. England, he wrote, and was hailed by critics as the greatest epic in the French is a land of sects and "an Englishman, like a free man, goes to language. Voltaire's unorthodox opinions did not prevent his heaven by whatever route he chooses." being a favorite at the court. The queen was said to have wept The Lettres also contain an exposition and defense of the over his plays, and she gave him an allowance of 1,500 livres empiricism of Locke and the methods and achievements of from her purse. This relatively serene period came to an end Newton, accompanied by satires of the theories of Aristotle when a young nobleman, the Chevalier de Rohan, stung by and Descartes. The French edition contained an additional some of Voltaire's derisive remarks, had him beaten up. Voltaire "letter" on Pascal, whose gloomy fideism is vigorously opposed. not only failed to obtain justice but, because of the influence of Pascal's notorious "wager," as well as his appeal to the heart, the well-connected Rohan family, ended up in the Bastille. The were anathema to Voltaire, who thought that our opinions in episode left an indelible impression on his mind and made all fields should be based on evidence. "The interest I have in him an unrelenting enemy of judicial arbitrariness and cruelty. believing a thing," Voltaire wrote, "is not a proof of the exis- He was released from the Bastille only after promising to tence of that thing." As if to confirm his strictures, the authori- go to England, where he spent more than two years (1726- ties at once moved to suppress the Lettres. The publisher was 1729). He mastered the language and diligently studied the sent to the Bastille, Voltaire had to flee from Paris, and the works of the English philosophers, scientists, and social courts condemned the book to be "torn and burned in the reformers. On returning to France he wrote the Lettres Palace courtyard ... by the common executioner, as being philosophiques, which appeared first in London in 1733 in scandalous, contrary to religion, good morals, and the respect due to the ruling powers." Most of the fifteen years following the publication of the Paul Edwards teaches philosophy at Brooklyn College and the Lettres was spent by Voltaire in the company of his learned New School for Social Research. He is the editor-in-chief of mistress, Madame du Châtelet, at Cirey in Lorraine. This was the Encyclopedia of Philosophy and the author and editor of one of the most peaceful periods of his life. In 1734 he wrote numerous books and articles. His monograph Heidegger and the Traité de métaphysique, which is the most systematic and Death will be published in a German translation later this closely argued of his philosophical works. It was "written for" year. Professor Edwards was awarded the Butler Silver Medal and dedicated to Mme. du Châtelet. It was also undoubtedly for Outstanding Contributions to Philosophy by Columbia written for the world at large, but Voltaire made no effort to University in 1979. get it published during his lifetime. It finally appeared in Volume 40 of the first collected edition of Voltaire's works,

42 FREE INQUIRY prepared between 1785 and 1789. It seems that Voltaire wrote more candidly here about the touchiest questions, namely God and immortality, than in any of the books and pamphlets ry published while he was alive. He accepted the "design" argu- ment but stated the case against belief in God much more Libra blic

forcefully than elsewhere, and he totally rejected any kind of Pu belief in life after death. In 1738, he published The Elements of Co. the Newtonian Philosophy, in which he demonstrated the ie superiority of Newton's mechanics and cosmology to those of & Er lo

Descartes, whose views were still widely preferred by French ffa scientists. The censorship in France was so severe that even this Bu he t f

relatively harmless book had to be published in Holland, with- o

out mention of the author's name. tesy r During this period, Voltaire also composed numerous Cou plays, the incomparable philosophical tales, of which Zadig and Micromegas are the most famous, and several huge histories. Because of their glittering style and streams of Voltaire (1694-1778) amusing anecdotes, these histories make delightful reading, even after more than two centuries, but the significance of Voltaire's The Calvinists of Geneva were by no means pleased with historical works transcends their literary merits. Explanations Voltaire's presence in their city. They objected to the theatrical in terms of divine providence that fill the volumes of earlier performances at his chateau and they were particularly dis- historians, including Voltaire's illustrious predecessor, Jacques pleased by certain statements in the article "Genève," written Bossuet, are not allowed and, perhaps more important, history for Diderot's Encyclopédie by D'Alembert at Voltaire's sugges- is treated as the story of peoples rather than of rulers and tion. In 1759 he purchased a magnificent estate at Ferney, a military leaders, with special emphasis on progress in the arts few miles over the French border, where he lived unmolested and sciences and their impact on society. by French, German, or Swiss authorities, until shortly before During this time Voltaire also achieved, for the only time his death. in his life, official recognition from the French Court and the government. Through the influence of his friend, Mme. de hen Voltaire settled in Ferney he was sixty-six, Pompadour, he was appointed Royal Historiographer in 1745, Wimmensely famous, and immensely rich. He was to live and the next year, after a most disingenuous display of piety, he another eighteen years, and this final period became the most was elected to the French Academy. Mme. du Châtelet died in rewarding and productive of his life. He waged two campaigns 1749, and in 1750 Voltaire accepted an invitation from that shook Europe like nothing since Luther's break with the Frederick the Great to become "philosopher-poet" in residence Church of Rome. The two campaigns were intertwined, but at Potsdam. Here he spent three disagreeable and largely only the first was the result of deliberate planning. unproductive years, ending in an entirely predictable quarrel It is not clear when Voltaire lost what little belief in Chris- with the king. Neither of the two behaved admirably, but the tianity he may ever have entertained. What is certain is that he king showed much greater forbearance. Among other things opposed Christianity throughout his adult life and came to Voltaire could not resist the temptation of ridiculing the king's regard it as a major aberration of the human mind, as well as a French poetry. He also engaged in financial dealings that terrible disaster for the human race. He believed Christianity bordered on criminality and were most unbecoming in a distin- had to be destroyed before one could achieve a rational and guished member of the Court. The break, when it came, was humane society. Christianity, he wrote to Frederick the Great, violent, but some years later all was forgiven, and the two "is the most ridiculous, the most absurd, and bloody religion resumed their amicable correspondence. In one of his letters, that has ever infected the world." Voltaire did not openly write Frederick wrote with much justice: "Would that Heaven, which against Christianity until the I760s. From then until his death gave you so much wit, had given you judgment proportion- he waged an unrelenting campaign against "the infamous thing," ately!" as he called it. During the Ferney years, letters to his friends Voltaire's extensive and often unscrupulous financial always concluded with the slogan "Ecrasez l'infâme," and speculations had made him enormously rich by this time and, "l'infâme" was not, as some squeamish historians have alleged, after traveling for a year, he bought a chateau in Geneva that fanaticism in general but the Christian religion. he named "Les Delices." During his stay in Geneva, he pub- The first of his major anti-Christian publications, The lished the first edition of his universal history, Essai sur les Sermon of the Fifty, was published in 1762, but it had been moeurs (1756), a multivolume work that introduced Western written several years earlier, possibly during Voltaire's last years readers to the history of Arabic and Chinese civilizations. In at Cirey. This pamphlet reads like a declaration of war on Geneva he also wrote Candide (1759). On the front page it Christianity, and it is written in a deliberately inflammatory bore the inscription "Translated from the German of Dr. style. It attacks Christian mysteries like Transubstantiation as Ralph." Voltaire vigorously denied authorship of Candide, but absurd; Christian miracles as incredible; the Bible as full of he was not displeased by the book's enormous popularity. contradictions; the Jews, whose religion had led to Christianity,

Spring 1985 43 gists as the Antichrist. Almost half a century later, Joseph de "[Voltaire] opposed Christianity throughout his adult Maistre still proclaimed that hell had put "its entire power into life and came to regard it as a major aberration of the hands of Voltaire." Voltaire did not at all mind being called the human mind, as well as a terrible disaster for the the Antichrist. In fact, he often referred to himself as "Beelze- human race." bub's theologian," and he knew that the hatred he provoked proved the enormous effectiveness of his campaign. as an ignorant and mendacious people; and the God of Chris- - Voltaire's second campaign was against judicial barbarism, tianity as a cruel and hateful tyrant. The true God, the sermon and it led to the writing of two of his best and most constructive concluded, "surely cannot have been born of a girl, nor died on books, Commentary on Beccaria's "Of Crimes and Punish- the gibbet, nor be eaten in a piece of dough." Nor could he ments" (1766) and Prix de la Justice et de l'humanité (1777). have inspired "books, filled with contradictions, madness, and This campaign, which did a great deal to prepare France for horror." May the true God "have pity on the sect of Christians revolutionary change, was precipitated by the judicial murder that blasphemes him!" of Jean Calas, a Huguenot trader in cotton goods, who, on the As another installment in the war against Christianity, basis of malicious rumors, had been arrested for murdering his Voltaire published in Holland, also in 1762, extracts from the son. The rumors had it that the son, Marc Antoine, was plan- Testament of the Abbé Meslier. According to Voltaire's ning a conversion to Catholicism and that, to prevent this, his unsigned introduction, Meslier was a country priest who, while father and the other members of the family had strangled him. living an outward life of conformity, had composed a powerful Marc Antoine had not had the slightest interest in a conversion defense of atheism, democracy, and revolution. Voltaire pro- and had committed suicide in a fit of depression. The accusation fessed to deplore the "melancholy spectacle" of a priest, with a leveled at the Calas family was unsupported by anything that fine sense of justice and a highly developed intellect, con- would pass as evidence in a civilized court and was clearly demning Christianity in such harsh tones. Meslier's Testament inconsistent with common sense and all the known facts. The became one of the great documents of the French Enlighten- family was nevertheless tried and found guilty by the judges of ment, and its publication caused a tremendous stir. The fact Toulouse. The family property was confiscated, and Jean Calas that Voltaire did not share the more extreme of Meslier's incen- was condemned to be broken at the wheel and then burned at diary views did little to mollify his clerical enemies. the stake. The other members of the family were banished Unquestionably, the most powerful and also the most from France. delightful of Voltaire's missiles against Christianity was the The sentence against Jean Calas was carried out with Philosophical Dictionary, which is widely regarded as his true unspeakable brutality on March 10, 1762. When Voltaire heard masterpiece. This melange of witty reflections on a vast variety about the execution he resolved to rehabilitate the wronged of topics attempts to demolish the enemy by laughing him out family. He mobilized all his influential acquaintances at the of existence. Voltaire wrote the first articles in Potsdam as Court of Versailles, including Mme. de Pompadour and the early as 1752. He kept jotting down ideas for a number of Duke of Richelieu, and his powerful friends elsewhere, espe- years, but he did not resume serious work on the Philosophical cially Frederick the Great and the Empress of Russia. He pub- Dictionary until late in 1762. The first edition, then one small lished pamphlet after pamphlet, in several languages, exposing volume, appeared in Geneva in June 1764 with a false London the judges of Toulouse. The Toulouse authorities would not imprint and without Voltaire's name on the cover. As usual, make the court documents available, and at first the king and Voltaire strenuously denied his authorship, but nobody took the government refused to overrule them. Eventually the public the denial seriously. The first edition sold out immediately. The clamor became so great that a new trial was ordered. On March Genevan government condemned the book to be burnt in Sep- 9, 1765, forty Paris judges declared Jean Calas to have been tember 1764; liberal Holland followed suit in December, and in innocent in a unanimous decision. The Calas property was Paris it was publicly burned in March 1765. In July of that restored and the king granted 36,000 livres as compensation to year, it was put on the index by the Holy Office. the widow. There were festivities in Paris. Crowds gathered to In spite of these condemnations, new and enlarged editions applaud the widow and the judges. Voltaire, who always appeared year after year. In the final form given to it by referred to this case as "mon meilleur ouvrage" (my best work), Voltaire, the work was published in 1769 in two large volumes. was from then on known as "the saviour of the Calas." It was reprinted in this form several times during the remaining Another case from the same part of France in which Vol- years of Voltaire's life. Even larger editions, incorporating taire intervened concerned Pierre Paul Sirven, a well-to-do material from other of Voltaire's writings and some running to Protestant, and his wife who had been sentenced to be hanged eight volumes, were brought out in later years. These later for the murder of their daughter. Here, too, it was charged that editions have been a nightmare for bibliographers, but they the daughter had been planning to become a Catholic, and contain many glorious riches that might not otherwise have again the evidence against the accused was incredibly flimsy been available to readers of later generations. It goes without and at variance with all the known facts. Fortunately, the saying that the Philosophical Dictionary outraged Voltaire's Sirvens fled to Switzerland before their trial. It took Voltaire clerical enemies. Some started compiling "anti-philosophical" nearly nine years to establish their innocence and to have their dictionaries that, as Voltaire would have put it, "regrettably" fortune restored. The Sirven case, Voltaire wryly remarked in a did not remotely rival the original work in popularity. From letter, lacked "the éclat of the Calas case" because "nobody was this time on, Voltaire came to be regarded by Catholic apolo- broken on the wheel."

44 FREE INQUIRY Unfortunately the same could not be said about the "l'homme aux Calas." Voltaire did not lose his head. "What beheading of the nineteen-year-old Chevalier de la Barre for crowds to greet you," somebody said to him. "Alas!" he blasphemy. La Barre and his young companion Gaillard answered, "there would be just as many to see me on the d'Etallonde were accused of mutilating a wooden crucifix, scaffold." The royal family ignored his presence, but he was making blasphemous remarks about the Virgin, and singing feted at the Comedie Française and the Academy where only blasphemous songs. D'Etallonde escaped before the trial, and the clerical members refused to attend. At the Hôtel de Villette, la Barre, pleading guilty to the other charges, steadfastly denied where he was staying, he received visitors eager to pay their mutilating the crucifix. He was tried and found guilty of all respects. The callers included Benjamin Franklin and Diderot, charges by a court in Abbeville, near Amiens, on February 28, with whose writings and activities he was familiar, but neither 1766. He was condemned to have his tongue cut out, his right of whom he had met. Benjamin Franklin brought his grandson hand cut off, and to be burned at the stake. The verdict was and asked Voltaire's blessing for him. Voltaire stretched out his appealed to the parlement of Paris. Voltaire and most observers hand and simply said "God and Liberty." Diderot was so eager expected that the sentence of the Abbeville court would not be to impress him with his wit and eloquence that Voltaire had to -upheld and that la Barre would get off with a prison sentence. accept the unaccustomed role of passive listener. After their However, chiefly because of the ravings of the Paris clergy meeting, Diderot is reported to have described Voltaire as a about the dangerous spread of infidelity, the parlement ratified fairy castle, fallen in ruins, but still inhabited by an old sor- the original conviction. It spared la Barre from having his cerer. When asked his opinion of Diderot, the "old sorcerer" tongue and right hand cut off, but the death sentence was remarked that there could be no doubt about the man's confirmed, substituting decapitation for burning at the stake. brilliance, adding that unfortunately "nature has denied him To extract a further confession, la Barre was to be tortured one essential gift, that of dialogue." before his execution. This incredible sentence was carried out In May 1778, Voltaire was seized by a fever. The doctor on July 1, 1766. After his beheading, his corpse was burnt diagnosed cancer of the prostate. He died on May 30. There along with a copy of the Philosophical Dictionary. were the usual rumors of agonized shrieks and death-bed con- Voltaire was powerless to save la Barre, but he obtained a fessions. The Marquise de Villette, who was with him when he position for d'Etallonde in the Prussian army and tirelessly died, denied all such assertions. "To the very last moment," she worked for his rehabilitation, which was not granted until 1788, said, "everything showed the goodness and benevolence of his ten years after Voltaire's death. No case infuriated Voltaire character, everything bespoke tranquility, peace and resigna- more, and none contributed more to his determination to tion." change the French legal code and its administration. "The Refused a Christian burial in Paris, Voltaire was buried atrocity of this act," he wrote to d'Alembert, "seizes me with surreptitiously outside the city. In 1792 his remains were moved horror and anger," and eight years later he told Condorcet that to the Pantheon, but they were once again dispersed at the rage came into his heart and tears into his eyes every time he onset of the Restoration. The Nazis, quite fittingly, melted thought about this horror, which he described as "a hundred down his statue during their occupation of Paris. The best times more hellish than the assassination of Calas." epitaph for Voltaire was perhaps written by Thomas Macaulay. Voltaire was involved in many other cases. He succeeded "Voltaire possessed a voice," Macaulay wrote, "which made in freeing Claud Chaumont, who was on the galley bench itself heard from Moscow to Cádiz, and which sentenced the because he had attended a Protestant service. He also succeeded unjust judges to the contempt and detestation of all Europe. in freeing Jean Pierre Espinas, who had spent twenty-three ... Bigots and tyrants, who had never been moved by the years in the galleys because he had given lodging to a Protestant wailing and cursing of millions, turned pale at his name." clergyman for one night. Not all cases involved religious bigotry. One of the most celebrated concerned General Lally, the French "Voltaire's second campaign was against judicial bar- royal commissioner in India, who had been defeated by the barism ... [It] did a great deal to prepare France English and was executed on unproven charges of disloyalty. Voltaire pursued his efforts to vindicate the general's name for for revolutionary change...." ten years and received the news of his rehabilitation as he lay dying in Paris in May 1778. It roused him to write the last t has been maintained by some reputable scholars that, letter of his life. "The dying man revives upon hearing this Iregardless of his numerous public and private statements to great news," he wrote to the general's son, "... he will die the contrary, Voltaire was an atheist. However, the great content." majority of commentators agree that he was a sincere and In 1778, Voltaire's latest play, Irène, was to be performed ardent believer in God. It is true that, in one or two places, in Paris, and he expressed a wish to attend its premiere. He Voltaire discussed the subject without reaching a definite con- had been banished from Paris during the lifetime of Louis XV, clusion. Thus, in a late article entitled "On the Existence of but with the accession of Louis XVI and a new ministry that God," he simply set out the arguments in favor of God's exis- included his friend the Encyclopedist Turgot, Paris was once tence and those against it and did not declare that he sided again open to him. with either. There arlso passages in his correspondence that Voltaire was recognized and hailed by crowds at every dismiss belief in God as absurd. Against this, it must be empha- stop on the journey from Ferney. In Paris, there were tremen- sized that in literally hundreds of books, articles, and letters he dous ovations in the streets, and everywhere he was hailed as insists, with almost compulsive repetitiveness, that the order of

Spring 1985 45 nature and the teleological character of biological systems requires us to infer the existence of a "supreme intelligence." "[When Voltaire died] there were the usual rumors Moreover, Voltaire wrote extensively against the atheism of of agonized shrieks and death-bed confessions. The some of his fellow-Encyclopedists and of Spinoza, whom he always regarded as an atheist. Voltaire not only rejected atheism Marquise de Villette, who was with him when he as false, but also believed that, if it became widely accepted, it died, denied all such assertions." would cause vast harm to the human race. It seems on balance more reasonable to assume that, like many other believers, has no doubt that he can take care of the former and thus Voltaire occasionally wavered and had spells of doubt and prove God's "infinite duration." To do this, he borrows a disbelief than that he engaged in a lifelong deliberate charade, version of the cosmological argument found in Locke. God is deceiving not only the religious world but also his fellow- eternal, Voltaire writes, since He "cannot be produced from philosophers, many of whom he loved and admired. nothing, which, being nothing, can produce nothing." Thus, Voltaire called himself a theist, but in fact the position he given the existence of something, it is demonstrated that some- advocated is more commonly described as "deism." This means thing has existed for all eternity. that he believed in the existence of God while opposing revealed The argument is doubly fallacious. Even if it succeeded in religion—miracles, dogmas, and any kind of priesthood. He proving that there must be an entity that has always existed, it always made a careful distinction between "true religion" and does not follow that this eternal entity is God. Furthermore, "superstition," and he argued that, unlike superstitious religions, the "principle" that something cannot come from nothing does especially Christianity, the kind of religion he championed could not, in conjunction with the statement that something exists only do good. In one place he wrote: "The sole religion is to now, yield the desired conclusion that some particular being worship God and to be an honorable man. This pure and must always have existed. The conclusion that follows is that everlasting religion cannot possibly produce harm." "Super- at all times there must have been something in existence, which stition," he wrote in the Treatise on Toleration, "is to religion is not at all the same thing as that one and the same thing has what astrology is to astronomy—the mad daughter of a wise always existed. An infinite series of causes, each of whose mother. These daughters have too long dominated the earth." members is of finite duration, is entirely consistent with the In several places he tells us both what we can and what we facts that something exists now and that something cannot cannot know about God. The lists of divine attributes supplied come from nothing. (These criticisms disregard the vagueness in different books are not entirely consistent. In the article and ambiguities in the principle that something cannot come "Theist" in the Philosophical Dictionary, the theist, i.e., the from nothing. It occurred neither to Locke nor to Voltaire Voltairean believer, is said to be "a man firmly convinced of that, as it stands, the principle is much too vague to be the existence of a Supreme Being, as good as it is powerful, employed in a serious philosophical argument.) which has created all the extended, vegetating, feeling, and Not only God, but matter too is eternal. Voltaire's God is reflecting beings, which perpetuates their species." To this he thus a Demiurge rather than a Creator. "My reason alone characteristically adds that the theist's religion "consists neither proves to me a Being who has arranged the matter of this in the opinions of an unintelligible metaphysics nor in vain world," he writes in the article "God-Gods" in the Philosophical display, but in worship and in justice. To do good—that is his Dictionary. Reason, however, is "unable to prove that he made worship; to submit to God—that is his doctrine." It should be this matter—that he brought it out of nothing." In the article noted that the Supreme Being is described as good but not as "Matter" and also in The Ignorant Philosopher, he goes further perfectly good, and as powerful but not omnipotent. In his and maintains that reason requires us to hold that matter is very late essay "We Must Take Sides," which deals exclusively eternal. In one of his customary stabs at the scholastic philo- with the existence and nature of God, goodness is omitted sophers, he remarks that "today we are lucky enough to know from the list of divine attributes; and the omission is not acci- by faith that God drew matter from nothingness," but this is dental. This time the emphasis is on the power, the intelligence, not a conclusion warranted by the evidence. Nor is it in fact and the eternity of God. The Supreme Being is "very powerful" the view of most religions. In their view the "divine hand" since it "directs so vast and complex a machine," and it is "very arranged the world out of chaos, not out of nothingness. Belief intelligent" because "the smallest spring of this machine cannot in the eternity of matter has not "injured the cult of the Divinity be equalled by us, who are intelligent beings." Human beings in any nation." We are not diminishing the majesty of God if cannot make solar systems, and they also cannot make eyes or we describe him as "the master of an eternal matter." Not even ears or stomachs. Since God can produce these things, He Genesis teaches creation out of nothing. It simply asserts that must be vastly more intelligent than even the most intelligent the gods, Elohim, not Eloi, "made heaven and earth," leaving it men. open whether there was any matter out of which heaven and As we shall see shortly, Voltaire primarily relies on various earth were shaped. forms of the design argument to justify belief in God. However, Voltaire's pronouncements on the relations between the he realized that, even if it is otherwise unobjectionable, the Demiurge and the rest of the universe are far from clear. In the design argument cannot prove God's eternity. Watchmakers article "Infinity" in the Philosophical Dictionary he writes that and other "manufacturers" are born and they die. How do we the Supreme Being, by "modifying matter," caused "worlds to know that the Supreme Designer has no beginning and no circulate in space and form animals, vegetables and metals." end? Voltaire never addresses the latter of these issues, but he He approvingly mentions the view of the Romans that "matter,

46 FREE INQUIRY in the hands of God, was felt to be like clay on the potter's fame is an attempt to obtain a prosecution of Hume on wheel," although he adds that such a comparison is no more charges of blasphemy, asserted that the Lisbon earthquake, than a "feeble image" to express divine power. In The Ignorant "displayed God's glory in its fairest colors." In a sermon on the Philosopher, he remarks that "he cannot conceive that the cause of earthquakes, John Wesley attributed the disaster to cause that continually and visibly actuates nature" could have "sin," to "that curse that was brought upon the earth by the been inactive at any time and that an "eternity of idleness" is original transgression of Adam and Eve." Many Christian incompatible with his other properties. He concludes that the apologists claimed that the explanation must be sought in the world has probably always "issued from a primordial and wickedness of the inhabitants of Lisbon. Rousseau argued that necessary cause as light emanates from the sun." Voltaire the earthquake was a just punishment of men who had aban- emphatically disagrees with the teaching of non-Christian reli- doned a natural country life for the artificial pleasures of big gions and of Hesiod and Ovid that before the Divinity's inter- cities, that if men had lived in villages, the number of victims vention matter was in a state of chaos. "Chaos is precisely would have been much smaller. Moreover, writing specifically contrary to all the laws of nature" and "chaos never existed in reply to Voltaire's long poem on the Lisbon earthquake, anywhere but in our heads." As a convinced determinist, Rousseau added that, as the only alternative to a suicidal pessi- Voltaire could have added that, since what goes on in our mism, we must continue to have faith in the goodness of heads also happens according to laws, in the sense here in God—we must believe that in the long run things turn out well question, chaos never exists even in our heads. If initially there and that from a sufficiently broad perspective everything will was no chaos, there also was not the order we now find in the be seen to make sense. world. In the course of replying to the charge that belief in the eternity of matter commits him to Manicheism, Voltaire wrote: "Voltaire called himself a theist, but in fact the posi- "Here are stones an architect has not made; he has raised an tion he advocated is more commonly described as immense building with them; I don't accept two architects; "deism." This means that he believed in the existence brute stones obeyed power and genius." It would appear that Voltaire did believe in one or more of God while opposing revealed religion—miracles, datable ordering acts on the part of the Demiurge. Initially, dogmas, and any kind of priesthood." matter was not without order, but the order we now have was imposed on it by the Demiurge. Furthermore, as we shall see Voltaire disposed of these and similar "explanations" not later on, Voltaire believed that the Demiurge was involved in only in the poem on the Lisbon earthquake but also in Candide, the production of every biological structure so that, as far as in which the character Doctor Pangloss is a composite of living organisms are concerned, creation is still going on. The Leibniz, Rousseau, and Alexander Pope. The latter was the similarity of Voltaire's views to those found in Plato's Timaeus author of The Essay on Man, in which it had been maintained is obvious, but, according to most of his interpreters, Plato did that really "there are no evils," but if there were any "particular not believe that the imposition of order by the Demiurge evils, they compose the general good." Nobody had shown that occurred in time. there were more sinners in Lisbon than in London or Paris. Yet Lisbon lay shattered while Paris danced. Even if the adult n his earlier writings, Voltaire did not hesitate to speak of victims of the earthquake had been such dreadful sinners as to IGod as good and just. This was in harmony with his deserve their fate, what about the infants that lay crushed and generally optimistic view about the prevalence of both virtue bloody on their mothers' breasts? Moreover, what happened in and happiness on the human scene. In the Philosophical Letters, Lisbon was only an extreme illustration of the suffering that is in response to Pascal's gloom, Voltaire declared that animals the inevitable lot of living things. "All the world," Voltaire were generally very contented and that many human beings led writes, "in all its members groans, all born for suffering and for reasonably happy lives. Rather smugly, he observed that when mutual death." The "ferocious vulture" darts upon its "timid he looked at Paris or London he saw nothing remotely like the prey" and "feasts with joy" on its helpless victim. Its triumph, "desert island" to which Pascal had compared our "mute uni- however, is short-lived. For soon an eagle "with sharply cutting verse." What he saw were "opulent" and "civilized" places where beak devours the vulture." The eagle in turn is reached by a men were "as happy as nature allows." To Frederick the Great deadly shot coming from a man who not long afterwards lies he had written in a similar vein in 1738 that "when everything dying in the dust of a bloody battlefield. There he serves as the is counted and weighed up ... there are infinitely more enjoy- food of voracious birds. Beast and men suffer, almost without ments than bitterness in this life." ceasing, but men suffer more because, in addition to all their In succeeding years, as his sympathies widened and his illnesses and misfortunes, they are conscious of their inevitable observations grew more extensive, Voltaire drastically changed extinction. his outlook. The Lisbon earthquake of 1755, in which 15,000 We must not listen to the optimists who tell us that "all is people were killed and another 15,000 seriously injured, finally well" and that the misery of each part composes the happiness made him doubt not the existence but the goodness and justice of the whole. The universe, Voltaire replies to the optimists, of God. What irritated him beyond measure were the facile "gives you the lie, and your own heart refutes a hundred times attempts to explain why the disaster was in complete harmony the error of your mind." Pope's "general good" is a "strange with the perfect goodness of God. Bishop William Warburton, thing indeed, composed of the [kidney] stone, the gout, all an influential Anglican divine whose main claim to posthumous crimes, all sufferings, death, and damnation." No, evil is very

Spring 1985 47 real, and Epicurus was right to insist that its existence rules out sophical Dictionary, he is prepared to "admit that final causes a God who is both all powerful and perfectly good. The prob- are nothing but chimeras," adding that he would be content lem of evil is "an abyss whose bottom nobody has been able to "to go by the name of a fool" to the end of his life. Needless to see," "an inexplicable chaos for those who search honestly," an say, Voltaire did not think that he had to go by the name of a "unshakable rock" against which the arrows fired by a hundred fool to the end of his life. Unlike those who have "willfully shut "bachelors and doctors of divinity" have been totally ineffective. their eyes and understanding," he gladly admitted that there is It is a "terrible shelter" for atheists who are wrong in concluding design in nature, and, if there is design, then "there is an that there is no God but right in questioning His goodness and intelligent cause: there exists a God." justice. In one place, in discussing Manicheism, Voltaire seems In a passage quoted earlier, Voltaire spoke of "the prodi- to incline to the view that God is indeed good but not all- gious art" that pervaded the structures of animals and vege- powerful. He tells his imaginary Manicheist that one deity is tables. This art is displayed in a great variety of ways but most more economical than two, and he prefers to believe that the undeniably and impressively in the construction of bodies of true God is the good Ormazd, speculating that possibly this animals and men. "Consider yourself," says Freind, the sage deity "could not do better." He is a "powerful, wise, and good" who brings the misguided atheist Birton to his knees: "examine being but also one who is limited by the materials he works with what art, never sufficiently explored, all is constructed with. within and without for all your wishes and actions." There is Most frequently in his later works, Voltaire simply regards not one "superfluous vessel." The arrangement throughout the the entire situation as a baffling mystery that requires us to body is so artful that "there is not a single vein without valves confess the limits of our understanding. If my understanding is and sluices, making a passage for the blood." From the roots so weak, he wrote, that I cannot even know "by what I am of the hair to the toes "all is art, design, cause, and effect." It is animated" how "can I have any acquaintance with that ineffable "audacious madness" to deny that we are here confronted with intelligence which visibly presides over the universe?" final causes. A sane person has to admit that the mouth was made to eat and speak with, the eyes "admirably contrived for oltaire occasionally had recourse to the cosmological argu- seeing," the ears for hearing, and the nerves for feeling. Nothing Vment not only in Locke's version mentioned earlier but perhaps shows the presence of design more clearly than the also in the form in which it is found in Samuel Clarke. arrangement of the reproductive systems in males and females Voltaire's statement of the argument is greatly inferior to alike and the pleasure associated with the sex act that guaran- Clarke's own formulation, and it is evident that he does not tees the perpetuation of the species. Even Epicurus, the unbe- have his heart in this argument, which seems to be too scholastic liever, would be obliged to admit that "pleasure is divine" and and metaphysical for his taste. On the other hand, he defends that pleasure is a "final cause" leading to the incessant intro- numerous versions of the design argument with great enthu- duction of new organisms into the world. "When I see the siasm. He regards it as a genuinely empirical argument and he springs of the human body," Voltaire writes in the relatively finds it adequate to the task of proving the finite Demiurge skeptical paper "On the Existence of God," "I conclude that an whose existence he champions. Contemporaries like Holbach intelligent being has arranged these organs," an intelligent and who scoff at the argument are castigated at great length. This "superior being" who "skillfully prepared and fashioned the much despised argument, he writes, in the article "God-Gods" matter." In The Ignorant Philosopher, this superior intelligence is referred to as "the supreme artisan" or "workman" who "If my understanding is so weak, [Voltaire] wrote, "actuates" the enormous multitude of biological arrangements that I cannot even know 'by what I am animated' and who, except for the superiority of his intelligence and skill, how 'can I have any acquaintance with that ineffable is in these respects entirely comparable to human craftsmen. intelligence which visibly presides over the universe?" The order or lawfulness of the universe, especially as it is exemplified in the movements of the heavenly bodies, is just as in the Philosophical Dictionary, "is that of Cicero and of strong evidence for a supernatural Designer as the purposive Newton. This alone might somewhat lessen the confidence of character of biological structures. The order of the universe, he atheists in themselves." Many sages, "observing the course of writes in the article "Atheism" in the Philosophical Dictionary, the stars, and the prodigious art that pervades the structure of "now that it is better known, bespeaks a workman; and so animals and vegetables," have acknowledged "a powerful hand many never-varying laws, announce a law-giver." So far from working these continual wonders." The appeal to final causes is promoting atheism, Newton's discoveries in mechanics have "the most natural" and "for common capacities" the most per- greatly strengthened the case for a cosmic designer. Voltaire fect argument to show that an intelligent being "presides over was particularly pleased with his dictum that "as a catechist the universe." As with many other defenders of the argument, proclaims God to children, so Newton demonstrates him to the both before and after him, the starting point is what we know learned." In one place he quite correctly attributes this remark or supposedly know about the relation between a watch and its to "a philosophical Frenchman who was persecuted in his own intelligent maker. "When I see a watch whose hand marks the country for asserting as much." This theme is developed in hours," Voltaire wrote, "I conclude that an intelligent being detail in the essay "We Must Take Sides," where he writes: has arranged the springs of this machine in order that the hand "The unvarying uniformity of the laws which control the march may mark the hour." If a clock is not made for the purpose of of the heavenly bodies and the movements of our own globe" telling the time, he wrote in "Final Causes," also in the Philo- show that there is "a single, universal and powerful intelligence."

48 FREE INQUIRY There are three possible ways of accounting for the order D'Alembert (July 27, 1770). "It seems to me absurd," writes in the world. One is blind chance; the second is the view that Voltaire, "to derive intelligence from something like matter and the order was produced by the heavenly bodies behaving in an motion which are not intelligent." It may be interesting to note orderly fashion; and the third is the postulation of an eternal that D'Alembert himself, who eventually became a thorough- Orderer or Geometrician. Taking as his illustration one of going atheist, accepted this argument in his earlier years. Kepler's laws, Voltaire dismisses blind chance as "extreme folly." After this argument one is prepared for the worst, and the Surely it is preposterous to maintain that blind chance has worst does not fail to come. What is the purpose of the sun? produced an arrangement in which "the square of the revolution Most educated people since Copernicus would not find this an of one planet is always to the squares of the others, as the cube easy question. Not so Voltaire in one of his Panglossian moods. of its distance is to the cubes of the distances of others, from "When the atheist lights a candle," he writes, "he admits that it the common centre." Voltaire next rules out the possibility that is for the purpose of giving light." He should then similarly the planets themselves or more generally "Nature" are responsi- admit that "the sun was made to illuminate our part of the ble for the order discovered by astronomers. In the "Dialogue universe." Fortunately, however, such Panglossian outbursts Between the Philosopher and Nature," Nature remarks that are rare. Most of the time, Voltaire confesses that we do not "she" is no mathematician and that yet everything "in and know the purpose of the universe nor presumably that of the about" her is "arranged agreeably to mathematical laws." The sun. In the "Dialogue Between Nature and the Philosopher," philosopher draws the consequence. If "your great universal the philosopher asks his "beloved mother" why she exists and system knows nothing of mathematics," the philosopher why, in fact, anything exists. Nature modestly replies that she responds, and if nevertheless the laws by which "you are regu- knows nothing about the matter. The philosopher persists: Why lated" are those of the "most profound geometry," there must would not "nothing itself' have been preferable to "that multi- necessarily be "an eternal geometrician, who directs you, and tude of existences formed to be continually dissolved," the presides over your operations." Again, in "Atheism" in the animals born to devour others and to be devoured in their Philosophical Dictionary we are presented with the disjunction turn, the numberless beings whose lives are filled with pain, that "either the planets are great geometricians or the Eternal and the tribes of "reasoning beings" who never or at most Geometrician has arranged the planets." The former alternative rarely listen to reason? For what purpose, he demands, was all is plainly absurd, and hence we must embrace the latter. this? Leave me alone, Nature replies in effect. "Go and inquire At times, Voltaire appeals to the fact, or rather what he of Him who made me." takes to be the fact, that the universe is a vast machine. "When The question of the purpose of the universe also arises for we see a fine machine," he writes, "we know that there must be Voltaire when he tries to answer the opponents of the design a 'good machinist' with 'an excellent understanding.' " This argument who bring up the obvious imperfections in the world argument is "old, but is not therefore the worse." It should be as a reason for questioning the wisdom and even the existence remarked that it is not identical with the one appealing to the of a supernatural designer. Some critics have brought up such orderly nature of the universe, but it is doubtful that Voltaire phenomena as earthquakes, eruptions of volcanos, and "plains perceived the difference between them. of moving sands." Others have mentioned frightening and poi- Another version of the design argument is based on copies sonous animals like serpents and sharks. And there is, of course, or reproductions that human beings make of natural objects or the problem posed by "the woes and crimes of mankind." collections of such objects. Since the copy required an intelligent Voltaire always gave the same answer to such challenges. The cause, we may affirm the same of the original. Voltaire's main various imperfections may show that the designer lacks good- illustrations were "orreries," the then newly invented contrap- ness and concern for the welfare of living things. Perhaps they tions in which the bodies of the solar system were represented even show that He is malevolent, but they do not weaken the by balls moved by wheelwork. An orrery is "the chef d'oeuvre inference to a designer of some kind. "If the naves of your of the skill of our artisans," and everybody admires Lord chariot wheel catch fire," he writes, this does not show that Orrery for his invention. Yet it is a very imperfect copy of the "your chariot was not made expressly for the purpose of con- solar system and its revolutions. "If the copy indicates genius," veying you from one place to another." Similarly, the existence how much more must there be in the maker of the original! of serpents and "so many wicked men worse than serpents" Similar considerations apply to landscape paintings, drawings does not show that either serpents or men were not designed. If of animals, or models in colored wax. They are the work of flies could reason, Voltaire adds, they would undoubtedly com- "clever artists." If this is true of the copies, it must also be true plain to God about the existence of spiders, but they would of the original. "I do not see," Voltaire observed, "how this nevertheless admit that the spider's web was arranged in a demonstration can be assailed." wonderful manner. • There is also the problem of accounting for intelligence. Even a materialist like Holbach cannot deny that there is "some End of Part I difference between a clod and the ideas of Newton." Intelligent beings like Newton cannot have been "formed" by something blind, brute, insensible, i.e., by matter. It follows that "Newton's Part II of this article, containing a detailed critical discussion intelligence came from some other intelligence." These quota- of Voltaire's various versions of the design argument as well as tions come from the previously mentioned article on "Atheism." of his views on immortality and miracles, will be published in The argument is repeated a short time later in a letter to the next issue of FREE INQUIRY.-ED.

Spring 1985 49 The Origins of Christianity: A Guide to Answering Fundamentalists

R. Joseph Hoffmann

he answers to the following ten commonly asked ques- Today scholars agree that Greek is the primary language tions about Christianity are as brief and factual as of the Gospel of Matthew and that Papias, whatever other Tanyone has the right to expect from a historian, and virtues he may have possessed, was a pretty bad historian. The they are briefer and more factual than anyone would get from Gospels, the letters of Paul (those written by him and forged in a theologian, many of whom are as uncurious about the origins his name), and the rest of the canonical material were written and historical context of the charter documents of Christianity in the lingua franca of the hellenistic world, Greek. Put dif- as Supreme Court justices are about the intellectual life of the ferently, the "records" of Jesus' life and teaching are both lin- eighteenth century. It seemed best to me to be blunt, even guistically and culturally removed by at least one stratum from flatfooted, with respect to the difficult historical problems the language he is assumed to have spoken and the ideas he is involved in the study of Christian origins and the New Testa- thought to have espoused. ment. I say this not out of disrespect for the text, but because I 2. How many original manuscripts (signatures) of the New am convinced that bluntness has its place, both as a response Testament have survived? to the Enthusiasmos of the fundamentalist fringe now claiming None at all. When one hears of the New Testament—or exclusive ownership of the Bible and to the learned quasi- the Bible generally—being the word of God, one assumes that theological histories of the biblical text that bury significant we possess ancient papyrus scrolls signed by the authors of the information beneath the freighted prose of the religious estab- various books and witnessed by the first-century equivalent of lishment. a notary public. Such thinking is dangerous and unhistorical. I. In what language or languages was the New Testament ori- In fact, our earliest papyrus fragment of the New Testament ginally composed? dates from no earlier than the middle of the second century Greek. From time to time one hears of "lost" Aramaic (known as the John Rylands papyrus) and is no bigger than gospels, purported to stand nearer to the historical Jesus than the average thumbnail. It is assumed to be a fragment of the the present text of the synoptics (Matthew, Mark, Luke). There Gospel of John but may be a piece of a gnostic text, since the is absolutely no solid evidence, either of a linguistic or of a fragment was discovered in Egypt where gnostic Christians textual variety, that warrants assuming the existence of an "Ur- were in the majority. Needless to say, this tiny scrap bears no gospel"—an original gospel, older than the text of our earliest authorial ascription, nor in fact does any surviving papyrus canonical gospel, Mark. It is true that the Gospels were written fragment bear the name of its writer, the pieces being for the on papyrus and that papyrus has a habit of rotting in the most part hypothetically assigned to the fuller Gospels preserved course of a century or two; thus some have used the absence of in later—chiefly fourth-century—collections known as "codices." papyrus evidence to argue that the Greek Gospels are really Hence none of the original manuscripts of the New Testament translations from original Hebrew or Aramaic sources. The has survived, nor have any direct copies of the original manu- perpetrator of this fable is a second-century writer named scripts. Papias—a dilettante if ever there was one—who claimed that What we possess are copies of copies, so far removed Matthew had recorded the words of Jesus in Hebrew. In fact, from anything that might be called a "primary" account that it Papias was reporting from hearsay a tradition that linked the is useless to speculate about what an original version of the First Gospel with the tax-collector disciple named in Matthew's gospel would have included. Into these copies crept the errors gospel. of theologically motivated scribes, together with the additions and omissions that they or their superiors found it necessary to R. Joseph Hoffmann is make. This should not surprise us. The sacred scripture of associate professor of bib- earliest Christianity was the Old Testament; there was no lical studies in the Depart- imperative—real or supernatural—to copy the Gospels and ment of Near Eastern Epistles word for word; and as no text can be better than the Studies at the University of one from which it was copied, we must assume that our modern Michigan. He is on FREE texts of the Gospels—translations of imperfect copies—are very INQUIRY's Religion and Bib- far removed from the events they describe. lical Criticism Research Project. 3. Was there no protection against manuscript error? After all, the early Christians must have known that they were charged

50 FREE INQUIRY with a task of monumental importance and would have taken approved and supported the work of a group of Oxbridge care to guard against contamination? translators and subsequently authorized their translation (and There were no safeguards against such error. We know, no other) for use in the Church of England. It is worth noting for example, that early manuscripts of the New Testament can in passing that the Bible upon which the Christian common- be classified into "families," the classification being based on wealth of the New World was founded was not the King James certain regional or theological characteristics that set one manu- (the Puritans having removed themselves from England to script group apart from another. Errors, corrections, and addi- Leiden before the 1611 Bible gained currency) but a pirated tions made in Rome were perpetuated in manuscripts copied at translation compiled in Geneva in 1560 by English-speaking Rome and not at Antioch or Alexandria. Each religious center refugees to Switzerland. It was this Bible that came over on the would preserve and add to its own peculiar readings, and grad- Mayflower. ually texts in and around these regional centers took on their 6. Were the Gospels written before or after the letters of Paul? own characteristics. When copied, the characteristics, including After—by about a generation. The earliest of Paul's letters, the errors, were transmitted. 1 Thessalonians, was written around the year 50; the earliest 4. Isn't it the case that in about 90 percent of the New Testa- "The fact of the matter is that even the earliest gospel, ment the manuscripts agree and that the differences occur in a contrary to popular belief and church piety, is a small percentage of passages and do not affect fundamental theological treatise and not a historical annal." Christian doctrine? The percentage is higher than 10 and approaches nearer to gospel, the one assigned to Mark, was not written until after 20 if we take into account the full range of manuscript disagree- the destruction of the Temple in Jerusalem in the year 70. ments. Not only is that a substantial figure, but disagreement What looks like a "prophecy" in Mark 13:1-4—a prediction of affects even the most fundamental of Christian doctrines: the the fate of the Temple—is rather obviously put onto Jesus' lips doctrine of the trinity. In certain poor manuscripts dating from by an author, or authors, familiar with the Jewish Wars of the the fourteenth century, the text of 1 John 5:7 f. carries the years 66-70, culminating in the burning of the Temple by the following reference: "There are three who bear witness in Roman legions under Titus. The fiction is even plainer in Luke's heaven, the father, the Word and the Holy Spirit." This verse telling of the story: "When you see Jerusalem surrounded by is missing in all Greek manuscripts of early vintage and in the armies, then know that its desolation has come near" (Luke original (Eastern) translations of the Latin Vulgate Bible. It 21:20 f.). was first introduced into the mainstream of Bible transmission Such allusions, once recognized as belonging to the time in 1519 by Erasmus in the third edition of his Greek New of the author of the story rather than to Jesus' lifetime, help us Testament. From these Greek editions, the passage made its to date the Gospels. The order Mark, Matthew, Luke, John way into the received text of the Bible. Without exception, this approaches chronological correctness, though the traditional verse is regarded today by scholars as a later addition without order (Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John) is sometimes defended. historical pedigree; consequently, reliable modern translations It may even be the case that the Gospel of John, the most omit it, although it is still to be found in all printings of the theologically advanced of the four, is in part older than the "authorized" (King James) Bible of 1611 and is still the most synoptic accounts, though this view is still considered radical frequently cited "prooftext" for the Christian doctrine of a on the silly assumption that the more "biographically orien- triune God. tated" narratives Mark, for instance—with their use of sayings, traditions, and strings of miracle stories are indisputably older 5. Is it because the King James translation of the Bible was than the Fourth Gospel with its high-blown doctrine of Jesus based on the best manuscript evidence available that warrants as the eternal logos (word) of God. We shall never know exactly its being called "authorized'? which gospel is the oldest, but there is reason to suppose that The King James Bible, so named after its royal sponsor, either an early version of Mark or a proto-version of Luke was James I of England, is based on an undistinguished text known around by the end of the first century, and that in another as the Byzantine version, which originated in the late third or quarter of Christianity (Ephesus?) a rather different looking early fourth century around Antioch. For this reason, it is also gospel, that assigned finally to the apostle John, was in circu- (and more appropriately) known as the Antiochene or Syrian lation and in process of revision to bring it (more or less) into text. Adopted officially in Constantinople during that city's line with other Gospels. ascent to imperial hegemony, it soon predominated in the The dating of Paul's letters, a hotly debated issue, is not Byzantine world. So dominant was this version after the eighth usually taken to be a matter of such urgent historical and century that it became the text found in almost all late manu- religious significance as the dating of the Gospels. This is so scripts and the basis for the first printed editions of the Greek because the Gospels purport to tell the story of Jesus—to repro- New Testament in the sixteenth century. Technically, it is duce his message and the proclamation about him (i.e., that he characterized by conflations (that is, combinations of readings was, and claimed to be, the Son of God, the Messiah, the from other manuscripts) and revisions of a stylistic and theo- savior of the world, and so on), as well as those characteristic logical character. The term authorized as applied to the English actions (miracles, healings, and the like) and events (crucifixion, translation of this text has absolutely nothing to do with a resurrection) that were passed along in the "traditions" of the divine mandate. It means only that the British monarch early Christian communities. History or not, the Gospels have

Spring 1985 51 been perceived as historical in character—accurate records of by examining the needs of a growing cult of apocalyptic enthu- an individual's life, teaching, and significance. The earlier a siasts as by postulating the existence of a historical individual gospel can be shown to be, the reasoning goes, the closer we whose unique personality gave rise to the movement that bears approximate "what really happened." While the majority of the name "Messiah-people" (= Christians). In short, one must New Testament scholars and church historians find such rea- at least entertain the possibility that the Gospels tell the story soning naive, it persists in determining the course of twentieth- of a god becoming man on the order of other ancient theo- century theology. The fact of the matter is that even the earliest phanies—Herakles, Horus, and Mithras, to name only a few. gospel, contrary to popular belief and church piety, is a Pagan writers like Celsus made just this point about the Gospels theological treatise and not a historical annal. And the earliest in their day, indicting them as inferior versions of ancient myths. surviving works of the Christian movement, the letters of Paul, That the Gospels tell the story of how a man was legendized show just how thoroughly popular belief succeeded in displacing into godhood remains the standard assessment, but it is an the historical details of Jesus' life and teaching by the year 50 assessment based on a faulty reading of the evidence as at latest. Paul shows almost no interest in—and perhaps had skewered attempts to write historical narrative or else to exag- very little knowledge of—the biography of Jesus of Nazareth. gerate events that really took place. The superhuman propor- Whatever reliable information the Gospels contain must be tions of Jesus Christ can only be understood in terms of the weighed against the certainty that the historical Jesus was of controversies that called forth is words, deeds, and prophecies, practically no moment to the earliest missionaries, and that the and these belong not to a human person but to the Christ cult Gospels are to one degree or another pious historicizations of of the late first century. The message about Jesus determined popular belief, worked out in terms of Old Testament pro- the message assigned to him from the beginning. phecies. By and large it was controversy that called forth the histor- 7. Is it not the case that the Gospels were written by men who ical figure—the need to prove his messianic status, to explain had followed Jesus and thus would have had intimate knowl- away his execution, to show the felicity of his teaching, and to edge of his teachings and actions? encourage believers in their faith that the end of time was This seems not to have been the case. It is certainly true about to dawn (though its arrival was long overdue). The notion that the early church, in developing its patriarchal idea of that the historical figure was significant enough—as teacher, authority and government, also developed certain criteria for miracle-worker, and political rebel—to produce the encompas- determining what books and letters possessed the prescribed sing myth that became his life story still holds sway in scholarly authority. From an early date, but not before the first decades circles. Largely this is so because the pattern of history from of the second century, it became a matter of piety and finally Alexander the Great to John Fitzgerald Kennedy—has been to of tradition to ascribe the most widely used gospels and letters mythicize heroes, conquerors, and great religious leaders. Such to Jesus' followers and to members of the inner circle of dis- a pattern is discernible, however, precisely because we have ciples. Thus we have inherited two letters ascribed to the apostle other empirical traces of the man to go by, whereas in the case Peter, neither of which can plausibly be assigned to him (nor in of Jesus of Nazareth the myth is the whole of the record. What fact to the same author!). One dates fróm as late as the year "looks" historical about the Gospels can as easily be explained 150. The same holds true for the letters ascribed to James, r

ris

52 FREE INQUIRY Jude, and John, and to nearly half of the letters assigned to Paul. The New Testament is by and large a collection of pseu- "The New Testament is by and large a collection of donymous writings—works written under the name of an pseudonymous writings—works written under the author whose reputation or prestige, based on his proximity to name of an author whose reputation or prestige, Jesus, would serve to legitimate the material. Neither Paul nor any of the writers to whom such material has been assigned based on his proximity to Jesus, would serve to legiti- seem to have been eyewitnesses of the ministry of Jesus. What mate the material." the Gospels offer for the most part are traditions handed down in local communities and traditions about these traditions: ethical manuals (such as the beatitudes), theological traditions to be called the "Messiah of Israel"; their accounts, however, (the story of Peter confessing Jesus as the Christ and Son of contain a discrepancy of some four hundred years, and both (cf. God), and pseudobiographical traditions, such as the story of 23:38 ff.) present the reader with the dilemma of choosing the crucifixion, based mainly on Psalm 22 and assorted other between virgin birth and the paternity of Joseph. If the intention Old Testament passages rather than on the testimony of wit- for presenting the genealogies is to be maintained—to argue nesses. Another and perhaps blunter way of putting this would lineal descent through the male parent—then the virgin birth be to say that the Gospels are the handiwork of early churches must go. If the story of the virgin birth is the one to be credited, and that there are, accordingly, manifold contradictions in the then the lineal descent of Jesus from David through Joseph traditions they preserve. These contradictions point to the fact must be discredited. Further complications ensue when we turn that different churches "remembered" and believed different to the Gospel of John, where still another explanation of Jesus' things. divinity is put forward: namely, that Jesus was God's son neither by adoption at baptism nor by birth to a virgin, but 8. But the church teaches that the Gospels are without contra- rather was a full-fledged idea (logos) preexisting in the mind or dictions and that the object of faith is to learn to overcome the will of God throughout all eternity, and ultimately made visible apparent inconsistencies in the New Testament. in the flesh in the person of Jesus Christ (the incarnation). Even the church fathers were aware that the Gospels were 2. The synoptic Gospels (Matthew, Mark, Luke) claim far from consistent in their telling of the story of Jesus Christ. that Jesus was baptized by John; the Gospel of John maintains Origen of Alexandria, one of the greatest thinkers of the early that John did not baptize Jesus and carries contradictory church, acknowledged that the accounts of the life of Jesus reports concerning whether Jesus himself baptized anyone (John lacked the sophistication of pagan biography and the literary 3:32 v. 4:2 f.). In any event, it looks as though the gospel beauty of popular literature. He also realized that the contra- writers were at a loss to cover up the fact that Jesus (historical dictions in the accounts were a great advantage to the oppo- person or idea) was a derivative figure—either someone nents of the Christian movement. Origen thought that to solve preached by John who never materialized (and whose death the problem, whenever the Gospels contained apparent contra- became the explanation for his disappearance) or, if historical, dictions, one should look beyond the literal meaning of the a man who had followed John as a disciple and later rose to text to the higher spiritual reality that the text embodied. But prominence by furthering the Baptist's message of repentance such thinking was defensive. What is significant is that writers and apocalyptic doom. like Origen were unwilling to use "faith" in defense of the 3. The synoptic Gospels offer no clear idea of Jesus' Gospels; rather, they argued their case from the laws of Greek learning. It is certainly commonplace that the appeal of the rhetoric and Stoic logic and in so doing never denied that there Christian movement, at least in the first two centuries of the were real problems with the text. common era, was greatest among the uneducated—those memorialized in the Gospels as the "poor in spirit." Even the 9. Are there contradictions in the New Testament that have language of the Gospel of Mark, unliterary and stylistically direct bearings on Christians' beliefs? spare as it is, offers proof of the sort of person to whom the Clearly there is no room to cite every instance of contra- message of Christianity seemed credible. Pagan philosophers diction in the Gospels. A few will suffice to illustrate the general like Celsus did not hesitate to say that Christianity was a "reli- problem encountered by New Testament scholars and biblical gion for old women, yokels, and little children," a conclusion theologians. not altogether unwarranted by the gospel evidence (Mark 1: 1. The earliest gospel, Mark, dates the beginning of Jesus' 13-16). At the same time, Jesus himself is represented as being divine status from his adoption to the sonship of God at the the cleverest of teachers, always ready with the right answer, time of his baptism by John (Mark 1:9 f.). Matthew and Luke always winning out over his rather obtuse pharisaic opponents offer (contradictory) accounts stressing that Jesus was not with their questions about the law, tax collecting, resurrection "adopted" as the son of God but was God's son by the miracu- from the dead, and adultery. That a follower of John the lous union of the holy spirit and a virgin—a tale obviously Baptist (Mark 1:14 f.), a wandering preacher who sought to gleaned from Graeco-Roman legends about the birth of Plato, emulate the style of the Old Testament prophets by remaining Alexander the Great, Pythagoras, and other heroes. Both on the outskirts of "official" Judaism, should be presented as a Matthew and Luke offer genealogies to support their contention rival of the great teachers of Torah, is remarkable enough. But that Jesus was a lineal descendant of David and thus entitled in fact it is only the Gospels of Matthew and Luke, with their

Spring 1985 53 great "teaching sections," that Jesus comes off as a rabbinical 4. Nor is there any consistency in the record of Jesus' prodigy (Matt. 5-7; Luke 6:20-49), and here both evangelists words: Mark (10:11) reports that Jesus recognized the right of rely on a source (or sources) that perhaps had originally nothing a woman to divorce her husband as well as the right of a man to do with Jesus. to divorce his wife. Yet it is well known that Jewish women of More instructive is the way in which the tradition has the first century had no such right (though Roman freewomen been altered for the purpose of making a teacher of the unlet- could initiate divorce proceedings in some circumstances). tered preacher. Mark, for example, has Jesus (followed by Further, Mark makes all cases of divorce adulterous, whereas unspecified disciples) return to "his own country" (Nazareth?) Matthew, who omits Mark's reference to the right of a woman in order to teach in the synagogue. The writer is careful to to divorce her husband (Matt. 5:13 f.) records Jesus as saying point out that everyone who heard Jesus was astonished, less unchastity constitutes grounds for divorce. Confusion—enough at his teaching (assumed in any case to be earth-shattering) at least to lead to the English reformation under Henry VIII than at its source: "Where did this man get his wisdom," they and the confounding of civil law ever since—comes still later in ask: "Is he not a carpenter's son ... and aren't his sisters still Mark's gospel: "What God has joined together man cannot with us? And they took offense at him" (Mark 4:2 f.). Luke, divide" (Mark 10:9), and the declaration (also recorded by disliking the notion that the son of God was considered ignorant Matthew) that divorce was an expedient granted to the Jews by his audience, alters the Markan text to read as follows: by Moses "for their hardness of heart," and never intended to "And he went to Nazareth where he had been brought up, and be a permanent dispensation (Mark 10:2). Confusion on this he came to the synagogue, as was his custom on the sabbath point is hardly mitigated when we consider that the "sayings" day; and he stood up to read, and a book was given to him, of Jesus about divorce probably have nothing to do with his the book of the prophet Isaiah, and he opened the book and teaching but reflect the varying practices of Christian communi- found the passage where it stands written, 'The spirit of the ties in their shift from Jewish divorce practice to Gentile pro- Lord is upon me, because he has anointed me to preach good visions concerning marriage, divorce, almsgiving, the care of widows, and the duties of parents. 5. Even in the most trivial matters the Gospels show no "Even in the most trivial matters the Gospels show consistency; or to be plainer, they do not show the sort of no consistency; or to be plainer, they do not show consistency one would expect if the words attributed to Jesus the sort of consistency one would expect if the words were firmly fixed in the historical memory of the early com- munities. Thus Mark reports Jesus charging his disciples, "Take attributed to Jesus were firmly fixed in the historical nothing for your journey except a staff ... but wear sandals, memory of the early communities." and do not put on two tunics" (Mark 6:8 f.), while Matthew writes, "Take no gold nor silver ... no bag for your journey, nor two tunics, nor sandals, nor a staff' (Matt. 10:9 f). Matthew news to the poor.... And he closed the book and gave it back suggests (10:5) that Jesus instructed his disciples to "go nowhere to the attendant, and sat down, and all the eyes of the syna- among the gentiles, but only to the lost sheep of the house of gogue were upon him.... And all spoke well of him, and Israel." As the kingdom was coming soon, there would be little marvelled at the gracious words that came from his mouth" time for them to engage in a worldwide mission. Yet a later (Luke 4:16 ff.). Luke has tried, albeit inconsistently (cf. Luke editor of the same gospel, confronted with the disconfirmation 4:29), to remove the offense taken at Jesus' want of credentials of early Christian belief in the immediate return of the son of by positing his literacy: He reads from a book; he customarily man, shows Jesus saying after his resurrection, "Go—make dis- sits with the rabbis, even as a child, Luke reports; he has ciples of all nations" (Matt. 28:16-20), a missionary vision fingertip control of the scroll of the Book of Isaiah. Postulating emphasized still later by Luke (Acts 1:6) in response to a ques- a difference of perhaps twenty or twenty-five years between the tion put to the risen Jesus by an idealized apostolic college: writing of Mark's gospel and that of Luke, we might conclude "Lord, will you now restore the kingdom to Israel?" "It is none that the need to present Jesus as having magisterial authority—a of your business to know what time or date has been established rhetorical swordsman always ready with the right assault and by the Father," Jesus is made to reply; "after you receive the defense—has been responsible for the graying over of an early holy spirit, you will be my witnesses in Judaea, Samaria tradition that Jesus was a traveling evangelist—one perhaps of [territory forbidden them in Matt. 10:5] and even to the very remarkable power, but one who constantly came up against ends of the earth." Here again, the "contradiction" does not the brick wall of pharisaic logic. If there was a historical Jesus, point up the existence of a historical person who was wont to it could have been no other way. change his mind but to sayings contrived to meet the changing At the same time, the existence of these "controversy" geographical and cultural circumstances of an expanding move- stories in the Gospels does not prove the existence of a histor- ment—one that had rationalized its apocalyptic hopes and come ical person. Instead, we may chart in the shift from Mark to to terms with the empirical, largely political reality of growth Luke the transition from a movement self-consciously defensive as power. about its membership (so, too, Paul in I Corinthians!) to a 6. Even with respect to the matters one would suppose cult-church on the verge of attracting its share of literate men free of contradiction—the account of the crucifixion and resur- and women—a theme Luke is very keen to emphasize. One rection of Jesus, for example—the Gospels provide no coherent may thus see Jesus as the personification of this transition. picture. The trial scenes seem to derive from two orginally

54 FREE INQUIRY discrete traditions: one that blamed the death of the Messiah Peter and the others (who had fled home in chapter 14), but on the Jews, another that named the Romans. Echoes of the end up saying nothing to anyone (Mark 16:8). Matthew tells us former can still be detected in Paul's letter to the church at that two women went to the tomb, where an earthquake (one Thessalonike (1 Thess. 2:15 f.) and in certain passages preserved of Matthew's favorite devices, cf. Matt. 27:51) announces the in the Talmud. The two tales have been woven together on the descent of an angel from the heavens. In front of their eyes he premise that the Sanhedrin lacked the power to execute Jesus rolls the stone away from the tomb. The guards are said to for the crimes he was alleged to have committed; but it is well have "become like dead men at the sight," but are bribed by known that in the time the scene is set—the procuratorship of the Jews (28:11 ff.) to spread the story that the disciples of Pontius Pilate—the Sanhedrin lacked no such power, and Mark Jesus stole his body away, thus making the Jews believers in 14:55 and the very abrupt transition between Mark 14:64, where the resurrection and the soldiers doltish accomplices willing to the guards set upon Jesus, and Mark 14:66 f., the story of accuse themselves of sleeping through the events they were Peter's denial of Jesus, point to the possibility of a rather posted outside the tomb to prevent! Luke (24:1 ff.) agrees with different ending to the trial before the Jewish council. Nor is Mark on the trivial detail that the stone was found already there any clear statement of the charges against him: Luke rolled away, but does not specify who the visitants are (though offers political rebellion and the preaching of tax evasion as it is implied that an array of women were present [cf. 23:49]). the offenses (23:2-5) but the point of the trial before the priests seems to be that he was charged with preaching himself as the Messiah (Mark 14:62 f.), although this in itself was not a capital Good-looking, sturdy files offense. Sharing Pilate's perplexity about the specifics of the to protect your copies of crime, we may conclude, as church piety requires, that Jesus suffered because he was innocent. Whether he suffered cru- cifixion at the hands of the Romans or was stoned as a blas- F zc i1nuir phemer by the Jews is in the long run a matter of little conse- quence; the Romans as the actual executioners (a point on which there is marginal agreement) is surely offset by the rhe- torical efforts to make the Jews the true villains of the piece and to exculpate Pilate (Luke 23:15; Mark 15:15; John 19:12; etc.). There is no easy way to explain this fundamental contra- diction except to say that the early Christians were as reluctant in their preaching to the Jews to claim that their Lord had suffered rejection and death at the edict of the priests who opposed his Messiahship as they were also abashed to blame the death on the imperial powers to whom they looked increas- ingly for favors and for their continued existence as a cult. The confusion reflects not conflicting historical details, therefore, but the central dilemma of early missionary Christianity. (One may also wish to compare Jesus' stoic silence as the Isaianic suffering servant in the synoptic Gospels to his speechmaking defenses in John 18:19 ff. As to the ensuing events: three gospels suggest that Jesus did not carry his cross, but that a passerby, Choose either, red, yellow, blue, green or black vinyl Simon of Cyrene (the paradigm of suffering apostleship), was with gold ornamentation and convenient label- impressed for the duty; one gospel stresses that Jesus bore the holders front and back. cross for himself (John 19:17). There is no agreement about the day, hour, or location of Each file holds 20 issues (5 years) of FREE INQUIRY the crucifixion, nor about what witnesses were present: The $5.95 each, plus $1.50 for postage and handling synoptics, following Mark, stick to the story that only women watched the events on Golgotha; the Fourth Gospel places the "beloved" disciple (a pseudonym for the author?) at the foot of Please send me files in the cross. Reports about the resurrection, the central datum of red yellow blue green black Christian faith, are even more confused, doubtless because the I enclose my check or money order for $ ancient churches guard their versions of the events of Easter morning rather jealously, and there was proportionately less Name Street chance to bring the tales into alignment. Thus Mark 16 pos- City Slate Zip sessed no story of the appearances of Jesus, ending (in its earliest form) at 16:8, or just after, with the tale of the discovery of the empty tomb by some women (two Marys and Salome); the women see a young man, get the news that Jesus is on his Central Park Station • Box 5 • Buffalo, NY 14215 way to Galilee ahead of them, are told to spread the news to

Spring 1985 55 Luke, dissatisfied with one angel/ young man, decides on two, might want to do what is so often done in the case of the "in dazzling apparel," who tell the women not to go to Galilee Gospels: namely, to declare it all true; to conflate the birth (where the apostles have relocated in Mark and Matthew) but stories, sayings, deeds, and other details to form one grand to Jerusalem, where they have already formed something like picture. Tatian did precisely this when he produced his great an apostolic college in preparation for Pentecost and the coming Diatessaron—the first attempt to make one consecutive gospel of the Holy Spirit (Acts 1:12 ff.). John, to compromise, offers of the four he credited. But in this case we will have enshrined in successive chapters (20, 21) appearances of Jesus both in contradictions and ignored the fact that the "great fourfold Galilee and in Jerusalem, although he cuts the number of gospel" never had any existence except in the minds of Christian women visitors to one and introduces the race to the tomb by apologists and theologians. Peter and the "beloved" disciple. And Paul, reflecting yet The problem for Christianity, in its claim to be a religion another stratum of tradition in 1 Corinthians 15 mentions of supernatural authority based on a historical individual, is appearances of Jesus to Peter (= Cephas), five hundred others, the diversity it has enshrined in its canon of four gospels. Only to James, the other apostles, and then to Paul himself. Later the heretic Marcion, in cutting the number from four to one, apocryphal Gospels also stress the great numbers of those who anticipated the difficulty the new religion would confront in had "seen" the Lord, and by Paul's day at least it had become basing its revelation on a panoply of theological narratives. an indispensable entry on a missionary's curriculum vitae to be Doubtless Luke (1:1 ff.) and perhaps also the author of John able to boast at least one vision of the risen Christ (Gal. 1:13; 2 tried to end the process of tale-spinning and gospel writing by Cor. 12:1 ff.). making their narratives (different as each is from the other) normative for Christian faith; but it was the fate of their 10. In the case of the Old Testament, centuries are reckoned to writings to be assimilated and finally canonized alongside, not have passed between the lifetime of a prophet or patriarch and instead of, the others. Not only did they fail to provide the the recording of his words, yet it is assumed that only about church with an official story—such a feat was never really two generations elapsed between the crucifixion and the time possible given the political dimensions of the second-century of the earliest gospel. Is this not an argument in favor of the church in its struggle with "heretical" as well as with "orthodox" historical accuracy of the Gospels? Eyewitnesses must have communities. But they failed to forestall the process of gospel been around at the time of their composition. writing, a process that continued apace for the next two Christian evangelists are fond of this argument; beginning centuries. Only in the fourth century, with the virtual triumph with the postulate of a historical individual, educed from the of the usage doctrine (canonical gospels being those in use in very texts under examination, they go on to reason that the the "canonical" churches—Rome, Antioch, Ephesus, Constan- individual's actions and deeds have been accurately recorded tinople, etc.) and the rise to power of bishops Athanasius, Cyril because the accounts are chronologically near to the time when of Jerusalem, and Ambrose of Milan) with the political clout the protagonist of the text is supposed to have lived. What to suppress what they considered unappealing, does the process Shaw said of capital punishment—"Hanging the wrong man slow and the paint on the picture of Jesus harden. • will deter crime as easily as hanging the right one"—has a peculiar application here, since texts may as easily reflect an ideal figure—a hero or god—who exists solely in the collective RENEW NOW! mind of the believing community as a real one. It may be of Subscription Rates course that there was a historical Jesus who, in some way we shall never recover, called such a community into existence by One Year $15.00 the strength of his personality or the marvels he performed (in Two Years $27.00 the perception of his followers, anyway) or the success with which his memory survived the circumstances of his death. Three Years $35.00 Such a figure, as Schweitzer recognized at the turn of this Single Issue $3.75 century, is lost to us forever, having been replaced by the Jesus of gospel and church doctrine—a Jesus who never had any Name existence. As to comparing the Old Testament accounts of prophets and patriarchs and the account of Jesus in the Gospels, Address we have but one Book of Genesis (with its three accounts of creation!) and one Book of Jeremiah. Had we four books of City State Zip Code creation and an accordingly larger number of creation stories, we would be better disposed to see the spinning of such myths 0utside U.S.A. add $4.00 for surface mail, $8.00 for airmail. as belonging to the history of culture and unfit matter to be regarded as scientific "theory"; so, too, had we four books of Jeremiah, offering us different stories of his birth, his mission, Free Ineirf) his sayings and prophecies, we would perhaps still believe in prophets but we would have a difficult time arriving at a picture Central Park Station • Box 5 of the historical "Jeremiah"—or the historical Moses, or any Buffalo, New York 14215 biblical figure. Confronted with a multitude of sources, we

56 FREE INQUIRY tering, juvenile delinquency, neglect of old people, sex discrimination, divorce, and sexual frustration. Each of these problems Books is analyzed through a five-step process, using the findings of the social and behavioral sci- ences. The process includes: (1) establishing Humanist Solutions the core values involved in each of these problems, both historically and cross cul- turally, in theory as well as reality; (2) measuring the actual attainment of goals based on these values; (3) theory testing of the core values; (4) planning further studies; and (5) establishing the means of coping with the problems while they exist. The result is an interesting synthesis of current research on many of the problems of our time, problems that Naroll believes can be solved. To this end he offers what he regards as validated research to document Vern L. Bullough this. Some of the solutions, however, require actions that our society might not want to take, because we put greater value on some The Moral Order: An Introduction to the variety of states with respect to some charac- of the factors that apparently lead to the Human Situation, by Raoul Naroll (Beverley teristics, and one of these states is specified problems than we do on eliminating the Hills: Sage Productions, 1983), 498 pp., cloth as a goal. Nature, he believes, has provided problem. $32.50; paper $14.95. a mechanism for measuring the state of the Naroll is vulnerable to criticism on controlled entity and periodically acts to several other grounds. For example, in his hat is the human situation today change the state if there is a radical depar- section on sexual frustration, he relies on Wfrom the point of view of a humanist ture from the goal. Thus plants ultimately sex theories put forth by Unwin and others social scientist? What do we know about need sun and point toward it, a gyroscope that were, in my opinion, generalizations the world's problems, and what do we need can correct the deviation of an airplane from based upon a misunderstanding of the nature to know? These are the kind of questions its flight pattern, and a compass can be used of sex in a society by several generations of that Naroll explores in The Moral Order: to direct a ship toward a particular goal scholars influenced by the erroneous writings An Introduction to the Human Situation. even though it might not yet be near it. of Kraft-Ebbing. 1 cannot agree upon the Naroll assumes the existence of certain Natural selection is a biological concept that, inevitability of a universal world-order, no values that he feels are important not only he says, applies not only to the evolution of matter how much I might desire one. The to him but to society: (1) peace, i.e., a stable life but also results in the selection and list could go on, but, in defense of Naroll, universal order for all humankind; (2) retention of characteristics that lead to any book that attempts to marshal such a humanism, or the use of scientific empiricism increasing order and to decreasing entropy. massive amount of knowledge to bear on as a way of knowing and a concern for the Self-reinforcement is described as a snow- human problems is bound to contain areas earthly happiness of all; (3) decency, or the ball: The more of something an entity of disagreement. brotherhood and sisterhood of all human- already has, the more it is likely to get. Even though Naroll does not always kind, including justice for the strong and The humanist world order that Naroll persuade me, his arguments force me to compassion for the weak; and (4) progress, envisions is not inevitable. The key is for think. He is also a healthy antidote to writers by which he means the attainment of humankind to take charge of itself, using like Spengler and other prophets of doom increasingly powerful knowledge through the the social and behavioral sciences as a and gloom. Naroll believes there are answers encouragement of individual liberty and cul- means; testing, synthesizing, and ultimately to the world's problems and that scientific tural variety. Naroll argues, and he himself developing a common ideology that would humanist scholars can provide them. In a believes, that ultimately, probably sooner guide world affairs. This would entail a sense Naroll is a kind of new prophet of the than many think, there will be a stable ideo- three-step process: (1) scientific findings, (2) future, relying upon the social sciences to logical, social, economic, political, and cul- successful application and testing of these, examine societal problems and then calling tural world order. Such a world order, he and (3) the development of a universal moral to the reader to listen to what he says. holds, is inevitable because of the processes code. Naroll believes that after this process Though he does tend to coin new jargon, he already at work: namely, servomechanism, occurs some of the reverential rituals now describes his terms, and once the reader natural selection, and self-enforcement. associated with traditional religion would masters them, the book can be read by the Servomechanism is the process by which evolve into those that would be compatible nonspecialist, general reader. His hypothesis an entity has the potential to exist in a with scientific humanism. and predictions about human values might To this end, and through studying the well serve as a guide in our efforts to achieve human situation at large (a process he calls a healthier and happier human condition. Vern Bullough is dean of natural science at "socionomy"), Naroll has isolated ten social Whether Naroll as a prophet of the new age of social science will be listened to is debat- the State University of New York College problems on which he feels there has been enough research to point the way to solution: able, but what he has to say is important, at Buffalo. suicide, alcoholism, mental illness, child bat- provocative, and worth reading. •

Spring 1985 57 suspected of being cancer promoters. The scientists at the regulatory agencies, Doomsday Environmentalism Efron says, are so taken with the notion that industrial chemicals have violated the and Cancer natural environment that they ignore the substantial evidence that most cancer is due to natural carcinogens in food, methods of Rodger Pirnie Doyle food preparation, heredity, and cultural practices like smoking and drinking. Efron The Apocalyptics: Cancer and the Big Lie. to collective suicide." As a survival formula, claims that those scientists who incriminate How Environmental Politics Controls What he advocated the virtual abandonment of industry rely on two highly controversial We Know About Cancer, by Edith Efron scientific solutions and the substitution of a assumptions: first, that animal tests of (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1984), 589 mystical theology of reverence for the earth. chemicals can predict carcinogeneity in pp., $19.95. Still another member of the movement is humans; and, second, that there is no George Wald, a Nobel prize-winner in threshold for carcinogenic effect, that as little Physiology and Medicine, who predicted in as one molecule of a carcinogenic substance n the first part of The Apocalyptics, Edith 1975 that life on earth might end as early as Efron, a former journalist now with the can trigger the cancer process. Efron sees in I 1985. Somewhat less apocalyptic but also this a major perversion of the scientific Graduate School of Management at the included by Efron among the extremists is University of Rochester, gives a lucid process. By adopting these assumptions, she Ralph Nader, who appears to believe, con- says, scientists are not being objective but account of extremism in the environmental trary to the evidence, that cancer is primarily movement. According to the author, the are acting on the basis of an apocalyptic the result of twentieth-century industrial ideology. The result has been the emergence extremists—the "Apocalyptics" of the activity. title—have promoted the notion that modern of a cancer-prevention establishment that she Efron's description of how 'the dooms- industry has upset the world ecological characterizes as "malevolent." day thinking of these and other environmen- balance and have predicted consequences However, what Efron sees as a massive tal activists came to dominate public atti- that range from the collapse of civilization and fundamental perversion of science may tudes is fascinating and convincing. How- to the extinction of all life on earth. The be nothing more than the normal give-and- ever, for laymen—and this book is written apocalyptics claim that the crucial factors take of scientific controversy. Science thrives for laymen—the discussion may raise several leading to the impending catastrophe have on the clash of disparate views, and in a unanswered questions. Who, for example, been the industrial use of chemicals, particu- field like cancer research, where the funda- are the environmental moderates? What do larly since World War Il, and the inexorable mental disease process is not fully under- they believe is the degree of peril from envi- increase in world population. stood, this is particularly so. In the absence ronmental pollution and population growth? The first apocalyptic of importance was of basic understanding there is likely to be The unwary may be left with the impression Rachel Carson, whose 1962 book Silent intense debate over the best approach to that the problems of rising population and Spring focused on the danger of DDT and preventing cancer, and scientists can in good chemical contamination of the environment other organic chemicals. Carson suggested conscience take opposing views. This is are of only minor consequence. that the human race faced extinction in as evident in the case of animal testing as a The remaining sections of this book are few as twenty years. In The Population means of predicting human cancer. Com- devoted to an examination of the apocalyptic Bomb (1968), Paul Ehrlich predicted that petent scientists disagree over the extent to view of cancer. It is Efron's thesis that this by the early 1980s at the latest there would which such tests are useful and do not rely view has distorted the science of cancer pre- be worldwide famine on an unimaginable on such tests when human data are available. vention. According to Efron, cancer scale. Ehrlich, who was the originator of In the absence of human data, most scientists researchers—or at least those who dominate the Zero Population Growth movement, feel it is prudent to use the results of animal the regulatory process at the National advocated the cutoff of all food aid to coun- tests, despite their limitations, as a guide to Cancer Institute, the Occupational Safety tries like India, whose population problem human risk. and Health Administration, and the Envi- he considered insoluble. Another influential The no-threshold theory is also contro- ronmental Protection Agency—have uncri- voice was that of Barry Commoner, who in versial, but for many researchers it is tically swallowed the notions of the environ- 1969 advocated a constitutional amendment adopted as the most prudent working mental extremists. They have subscribed to to impose at least a temporary moratorium assumption, at least until evidence to the the "Garden of Eden" theory—the theory on most technical research and invention. contrary is produced. that cancer is primarily a product of indus- Efron identifies the bacteriologist Rene Edith Efron is an experienced reporter— trial development, particularly since World Dubos as another member of the apocalyptic she was formerly with the New York Times War Il. As Efron correctly points out, there environmental movement. Dubos, in his Magazine, Time, Life, and Look—and is is no evidence that the age-adjusted incidence 1972 book A God Within, declared that adept at documenting the overzealous state- of cancer has risen in modern times, except economic and technical growth "would lead ments of environmental extremists and for lung cancer, which rose after widespread describing the gullibility of the press in adoption of cigarette smoking beginning in accepting such statements as scientific verity. the 1920s. Efron adds that the validity of But The Apocalyptics is deeply flawed by Rodger Pirnie Doyle is a medical journalist. the Garden of Eden theory is also belied by an unconvincing premise and the tendency His article "Health Superstition" appeared the fact that nature itself is carcinogenic. of the author to ascribe evil intentions to in the Fall 1984 FREE INQUIRY. His most Sunlight and natural radiation from the those whose worst crime may be nothing recent book is The Medical Wars. earth are known carcinogens, while fat and more than mistaken judgment and exaggera- many other constituents of food are tion. •

58 FREE INQUIRY I am convinced that America can be turned around if we will all get serious about the Master's business. It may be late, but it is never too late to do what is right. We need an old-fashioned, God-honoring, Christ-exalting revival to turn America back IN THE NAME OF GOD to God. America can be saved! (Jerry Falwell, in the Moral Majority Report, September 1984)

Bible Backs Reagan's Military Budget

Washington—President Reagan, saying "the Church and State Catholic church, to which 97 percent of the Scriptures are on our side," has turned to population belongs... . Jesus for a defense of his military budget As a new presidential term begins and a Although dubbed the "Pill Bill," the request. new Congress comes to Washington, the Family Planning Amendment liberalizes In two appearances Monday, he cited issue of how to properly mix religion and rules covering only contraceptives such as the New Testament passage of Luke 14:31 government remains very much alive. Jan- condoms and spermicides. It would make to shore up his argument for a strong defense uary has already produced [two] notable them available at more locations and elimi- against the Soviets... . incidents related to this theme... . nate a requirement that they be obtained He then described the passage in which The first incident was the discovery that only by married couples with a prescription. Jesus talks to the disciples about a king who the Office of Human Development Services (AP, February 21, 1985) might be contemplating going to war with within the Department of Health and 10,000 soldiers against another king with Human Services had sent suggested sermons 20,000. The king seeks counsel about how promoting adoption to 500 child welfare he might fare, but also considers sending a agencies. Oral Roberts' 1985 Predictions delegation to discuss peace terms... . "How blessed we are to have been Mr. Reagan cited the same text in a chosen before the world was made to become The Lord has shown me very clearly that separate address later in the day to 1,500 adopted children through Jesus Christ, "one 1985 will be a year when more than any members of the National Religious Broad- of the sermons said. "... Let us open our time in your life Satan is going to bring bad casters Conference. minds and our hearts to our Christian and things against you. Worry will be one of "I don't think the Lord, who blessed community responsibility and restore these Satan's bad things he will use to pull your this country as no other country has been children to their rightful place within the spirit down. Fear will come at you like never blessed, intends for us to have to some day family. ".. . before with such stress that disease of stress negotiate because of our weakness, " he told The second incident involved circula- will be a serious threat against your health. the broadcasters.... (News Wire Services, tion—with a cover letter on U.S. Depart- Even worse, I see Satan is going to make February 5, 1985) ment of Education stationary—of a speech his biggest effort to surround you with so in which Thomas Tancredo, regional liason many problems you will feel a sense of hope- to the department's Denver office, described lessness ... an "Oh, what's the use, I can't Legislatures and Daily Prayer America as a "Christian nation" and talked make it anyway. ".. . with nostalgia of the days when "a number One more word the Lord said to me Madison, Wis.—The Wisconsin Senate has of states actually had state religions. ".. . about 1985 for your life: If you neglect to abandoned prayer as a part of its daily He said in the speech that "godlessness pay attention to what he is especially saying opening ceremony, quietly ending a long is now controlling every aspect of our to you, then Satan will take advantage and tradition. society, "and that religion has been replaced hit you with bad things and you will wish Instead of hearing an invocation, sena- by "secular humanism." ... (Jim Castelli, that 1985 had never come. (Oral Roberts, in tors now are called upon to take part in a for the Gannett News Service, January 26, a promotional letter for 33 Predictions for moment of silent meditation after the daily 1985) 1985) roll call and pledge allegiance to the flag.

Dismas Becker of Milwaukee, Demo- Falwell's Master Plan cratic majority leader of the Wisconsin Ireland vs. the Catholic Church Assembly and a former Catholic priest, said ... If we are going to save America and he would not object strongly to elimination Dublin, Ireland—The government, by three evangelize the world, we cannot accommo- of the opening prayer in the Assembly. votes, has won approval of a bill that would date secular philosophies that are diametri- "When we begin to make prayer and allow anyone at least 18 years old to buy cally opposed to Christian truth.... We religion a public function, it loses the respect some types of contraceptives. need to pull out all the stops to recruit and it deserves, " Becker said. "I don't have any- The 83-80 vote Wednesday night by the train 25 million Americans to become thing against people praying or not praying. Dail was the first victory for an Irish informed pro-moral activists whose voices I feel secure in my own faith. "(AP, February government in a toe-to-toe battle with the can be heard in the halls of Congress. 18, 1985)

Spring 1985 59 Look What You've Missed In Past Issues of FREE INQUIRY Use reply card attached to order back issues

Summary of major articles: Winter 1980/81 — Vol. 1, no. I: Secular Humanist Declaration. Democratic Robert S. Alley. Madison's Legacy Endangered, Edd Doerr. James Madi- Humanism, Sidney Hook. Humanism: Secular or Religious? Paul Beanie. son's Dream: A Secular Republic, Robert A. Rutland. The Murder of Free Thought, Gordon Stein. The Fundamentalist Right, William Ryan. Hypatia of Alexandria, Robert E. Mohar. Hannah Arendt: The Modern The Moral Majority, Sol Gordon. The Creation/Evolution Controversy, Seer, Richard Kostelanetz. Was Karl Marx a Humanist? articles by Sidney H. James Birx. Moral Education, Robert Hall. Morality Without Religion, Hook, Jan Narveson, and Paul Kurtz. Roy P. Fairfield. Marvin Kohl, Joseph Fletcher. Freedom Is Frightening, Summer 1983—Special 68-page issue — Vol. 3, no. 3: Religion in American The Road to Freedom, Mihajlo Mihajlov. Politics Symposium: Is America a Judeo-Christian Republic? Paul Kurtz. Spring 1981 — Vol. 1, no. 2: The Secular Humanist Declaration: Pro and The First Amendment and Religious Liberty, Sen. Lowell P. Weicker, Jr., Con, John Roche, Sidney Hook, Phyllis Schley, Gina Allen, Roscoe Sam J. Ervin, Jr., Leo Pfeffer. Secular Roots of the American Political Drummond, Lee Nisbet, Patrick Buchanan, Paul Kurtz. New England System, Henry Steele Commager, Daniel J. Boorstin, Robert Rutland, Puritans and the Moral Majority, George Marshall. The Pope on Sex, Vern Richard B. Morris, Michael Novak. The Bible in Politics, Gerald Larue, Bullough. On the Way to Mecca, Thomas Szasz. The Blasphemy Laws, Robert S. Alley, James M. Robinson. Bibliography fói Biblical Study. Marvin Kohl. Does God Exist? Kai Gordon Stein. The Meaning of Life, Fall 1983 — Vol. 3, no. 4: The Academy of Humanism. The Future of Nielsen. Prophets of the Procrustean Collective, Antony Flew. The Madrid Humanism, Paul Kurtz. Humanist Self-Portraits, Brand Blanshard, Barbara Stephen Fenichell. Natural Aristocracy, Lee Nisbet. Conference, Wootton, Joseph Fletcher, Sir Raymond Firth, Jean-Claude Pecker. Inter- Summer 1981 — Vol. 1, no. 3: Sex Education, Peter Scales Thomas Szasz. view with Paul MacCready. A Personal Humanist Manifesto, Vern Bul- Moral Education, Howard Radest. Teen-age Pregnancy, Vern Bullough. lough. The Enduring Humanist Legacy of Greece, Marvin Perry. The Age The New Book-Burners, William Ryan. The Moral Majority, Gerald Larue. of Unreason: A Defense of the Rational Enterprise, Thomas Vernon. Apoca- Liberalism, Edward Ericson. Scientific Creationism, Delos McKown. New lypse Soon, Daniel Cohen. 0n the Sesquicentennial of Robert G. Ingersoll, Evidence on the Shroud of Turin, Joe Nickell. Agnosticism, H. J. Blackham. Frank Smith. The Historicity of Jesus, John Priest, D. R. Oppenheimer, Science and Religion, George Tomashevich. Secular Humanism in Israel, G. A. Wells. Isaac Hasson. Winter 1983/84 — Vol. 4, no. 1: Interview with B. F. Skinner. Was George Fall 1981 — Vol. I, no. 4: The Thunder of Doom, Edward P. Morgan. Orwell a Humanist? Antony Flew. Population Control vs. Freedom in Secular Humanists: Threat or Menace? Art Buchwald. Financing of the China, Vern and Bonnie Bullough. Academic Freedom at Liberty Baptist Repressive Right, Edward Roeder. Communism and American Intellectuals, College, Lynn Ridenhour. Special Feature on the Mormon Church: Joseph Sidney Hook. A Symposium on the Future of Religion, Daniel Bell, Joseph Smith and the Book of Mormon, George D. Smith; The History of Mor- Fletcher, William Sims Bainbridge, Paul Kurtz. Resurrection Fictions, monism and Church Authorities: Interview with Sterling M. McMurrin. Randel Helms. Anti-Science: The Irrationalist Vogue of the 1970s, Lewis Feuer. The End of the Galilean Cease-Fire? James Hansen. Who Really Killed Goliath? Winter 1981/82 — Vol. 2, no. 1: The Importance of Critical Discussion, Gerald A. Larue. Humanism in Norway: Strategies for Growth, Levi Fragell. Karl Popper. Freedom and Civilization, Ernest Nagel. Humanism: The Con- science of Humanity, Konstantin Kolenda. Secularism in Islam, Nazih N. Spring 1984 — Vol. 4, no. 2: Save 0ur Children from Faith Healers: Chris- M. Ayubi. Humanism in the 1980s, Paul Beattie. The Effect of Education tian Science Practitioners and Legal Protection for Children, Rita Swan; on Religious Faith, Burnham P. Beckwith. Child Abuse and Neglect in Ultra-fundamentalist Cults and Sects, Lowell Streiker. The Foundations of Religious Liberty and Democracy: A Sym- Spring 1982 — Vol. 2, no. 2: A Call for the Critical Examination of the posium, Carl Henry, Paul Kurtz, Father Ernest Fortin, Lee Nisbet. Joseph Bible and Religion. Interview with Isaac Asimov on Science and the Bible, Fletcher, Richard Taylor. Biblical Views of Sex: Blessing or Handicap? Paul Kurtz. The Continuing Monkey War, L. Sprague de Camp. The Jeffrey J. W. Baker. Moral Absolutes and Foreign Policy, Nicholas Capaldi. Erosion of Evolution, Antony Flew. The Religion of Secular Humanism: A The Vatican Ambassador, Edd Doerr. A Naturalistic Basis for Morality, Judicial Myth, Leo Pfeffer. Humanism as an American Heritage, Nicholas John Kekes. Humanist Self-Portraits, Matthew les Spetter, Floyd Matson, E. Gier. The Nativity Legends, Randel Helms. Norman Podhoreti s Neo- Richard Kostelanetz. Puritanism, Lee Nisbet. Summer 1984—Special 68-page issue — Vol. 4, no. 3: School Prayer, Paul Summer 1982—Special 72-page issue — Vol. 2, no. 3: A Symposium on Kurtz, Ronald A. Lindsay, Patrick J. Buchanan, Mark Twain. Science vs. Science, the Bible, and Darwin: The Bible Re-examined, Robert S. Alley, Religion in Future Constitutional Conflicts, Delos B. McKown. God and Gerald Larue, John Priest, Randel Helms. Darwin, Evolution, and Crea- the Professors, Sidney Hook. Armageddon and Biblical Apocalyptic, Paul tionism, Philip Appleman, William V. Mayer, Charles Cazeau, H. James Kurtz, Joseph Edward Barnhart, Vern L. Bullough, Randel Helms, Gerald Birx, Garrett Hardin, Sol Tax, Antony Flew. Ethics and Religion, Joseph A. Larue, John Priest, James Robinson, Robert S. Alley. Is the U.S. Fletcher, Richard Taylor, Kai Nielsen, Paul Beattie. Science and Religion, Humanist Movement in a State of Collapse? John Dart. Michael Novak, Joseph L. Blau. Fall 1984 — Vol. 4, no. 4: Humanist Author Attacked, Phyllis Schlafly, Sol Fall 1982 — Vol. 2, no. 4: An Interview with Sidney Hook at Eighty, Paul Gordon. Humanists vs. Christians in Milledgeville, Georgia, Kenneth S. Kurtz. Sidney Hook: A Personal Portrait, Nicholas Capaldi. The Religion Saladin. Suppression and Censorship in the Seventh-Day Adventist Church: and Biblical Criticism Research Project, Gerald Larue. Biblical Criticism Ellen White's Habit, Douglas Hackleman; Who Profits from the Prophet? and Its Discontents, R. Joseph Hoffmann. Boswell Confronts Hume: An Walter Rea. Keeping the Secrets of the Dead Sea Scrolls, John M. Allegro. Encounter with the Great Infidel, Joy Frieman. Humanism and Politics, Health Superstition, Rodger Pirnie Doyle. Humanism in Africa: Paradox James R. Simpson, Larry Briskman. Humanism and the Politics of Nostal- and Illusion, Paul Kurtz. Humanism in South Africa, Don Sergeant. gia, Paul Kurtz. Abortion and Morality, Richard Taylor. Winter 1984/85 — Vol. 5, no. 2: Are American Educational Reforms Winter 1982/83 — Vol. 3, no. I: 1983—The Year of the Bible. Academic Doomed? Delos B. McKown. The Door-to-Door Crusade of the Jehovah's Freedom Under Assault in California, Barry Singer, Nicholas P. Hardeman, Witnesses: The Apocalypticism of the Jehovah's Witnesses, Lois Randle; Vern Bullough. The Play Ethic, Robert Rimmer. Interview with Corliss The Watchtower: The Truth that Hurts, Laura Lage. Sentiment, Guilt, and Lamont. Was Jesus a Magician? Morton Smith. Astronomy and the "Star Reason in the Management of Wild Herds, Garrett Hardin. Animal Rights of Bethlehem," Gerald Larue. Living with Deep Truths in a Divided World, Re-evaluated, James Simpson. Elmina Slenker: Infidel and Atheist, Edward Feyerabend, Martin Sidney Hook. Anti-Science: The Strange Case of Paul D. Jervey. Symposium: What Is Humanism?: Humanism Is a Religion, Gardner. Archie J. Bahm; Humanism Is a Philosophy, Thomas S. Vernon; Spring 1983 — Vol. 3, no. 2: The Founding Fathers and Religious Liberty, Humanism: An Affirmation of Life, Andre Bacard.

60 FREE INQUIRY (Letters, continued from p. 3) more alarming dimensions (more than 2,000 theologians is just this: Humanists believe woman raped in Sicily a few years ago prisoners of conscience, mostly Albanians in altruism, and altruism is by definition received international attention when she not and Croatians) than the current trial in impossible without an unnecessary evil to only refused to marry the person but brought Belgrade indicates. aim it at. charges against him. In this case, the biblical teaching was used to force a woman to Dr. Marijan Leshin Steven B. Harris marry because she was such "damaged Member, Croatian Committee Long Beach, Calif. goods" no one else would want her. The for Human Rights other case follows the biblical prohibitions Los Angeles, Calif. Seventh-day Adventism against adultery except that the woman is not punished. It is almost assumed, however, Abortion I was disappointed with the crop of letters that she is party to the act. chosen for publication in the Winter 1984/ One interesting historical consequence The editorial by Marvin Kohl entitled 85 issue of FREE INQUIRY responding to the of the failure to deal effectively with rape "Abortion and the Ideal of Tolerance" (FI, Fall 1984 articles on the Seventh-day occurred among the Puritan settlers in New Winter 1984/85) caused me considerable Adventist church. In my opinion, they do England who tried to govern their seulement distress. I felt that it was full of fallacious not reflect the wide diversity of viewpoints according to biblical teachings rather than and illogical argument and added nothing and beliefs that exist in our church on Ellen English common law. One of their first to our knowledge and understanding of the G. White and the plagiarism issue. stumbling blocks was the lack of biblical problem. I object to the assertion that pro- The Seventh-day Adventist church was prohibitions against rape. I stand by the ponents of "free choice" are as intolerant as founded on certain interpretations of proph- editorial. the "right-to-lifers." Free-choicers hold that ecies that emphasized the importance of reli- no pregnant woman should be forced to have gious liberty and the freedom to hold alter- What is Humanism? an abortion or to have a baby, and that, I native views. One of the main foundations Archie J. Bahm is right: Religion is not believe, is, by definition, tolerance. Right- of all Protestantism (though it is rarely lived necessarily theistic or even supernaturalistic to-lifers hold that every pregnant woman up to today) is the belief that reach indi- ("Humanism Is a Religion," FI, Winter should be prevented from having an abortion vidual stands before God "on his own," and 1984-85). However, secular humanism is not and should be forced to have a baby, and therefore has the right and privilege to read a religion. If "religion is concern for the that, I believe, is, by definition, intolerance. and interpret scripture for himself, to seek ultimate values of life as a whole" (a rather God in his own individual way—or not at cryptic statement), then everyone is religious. Philip S. Kearney all. I cannot say how well each Seventh-day Everybody has concern for the ultimate Sacramento, Calif. Adventist lives up to this principle, but I values of life, however they choose to define On Prayer know that in S.D.A. outreach this is such values. impressed upon people to free them from Religion is faith, and faith does not get In the debate between Ron Lindsay and the tyranny of views of God and religion along well with science. Science is the only Eleonore Stump (Letters, FI, Fall 1984), imposed by the church or the state. human enterprise that is admittedly self- Stump argued the Leibnizian view that all It is sad to see my S.D.A. brothers and correcting and tentative. Its proponents quite existant suffering is necessary for a greater sisters unable or unwilling to apply this prin- candidly proclaim its inability to offer good, and Lindsay argues that this view ciple to themselves and their own church. Truths. Like science, secular humanism is a raises questions regarding the rationale for Have we not learned anything from the very logical outgrowth of rational thought. As petitionary prayer. Stump correctly states things we seek to teach? I, for one, appre- more information is gathered about the that her view is difficult to disprove, but I ciate the work of Walter Rea and others in universe and humanity, secular humanism think it should be pointed out that the bringing forth items we need to face. While will continue to evolve and acknowledge theorem has other corollaries as interesting I may not agree with all his conclusions or such evolution. as the prayer one. For instance, what shall with what seems at times to be a harsh spirit, we say about the rationale for compassionate I am grateful that his work has helped to A. P. Tubbesing action in a world where each evil is a neces- debunk the mythologies about Ellen G. Broadview Heights, Ohio sary one? If the amount of suffering which White. It has revealed what many Adventists Political Repression each person bears is already optimum for need to know: that she was no more than his or her Greater Good, then why should a human, sometimes right, sometimes wrong, The editorial "Defending Sakharov and wise Christian seek to tinker with somebody and as far from perfection as the rest of us. Djilas" (FI, Fall 1984) described the increas- else's balanced load? The whole idea of com- I know I am not alone in my views; many ing oppression in the Yugoslav police state. passion itself must be modified: If Stump is Adventists feel the way I do. The six dissidents in Belgrade are now in right, the godlike way to regard someone court. However, we should not forget the suffering a painful disease is with the same Rynne Saunders innocent dissidents who have already been sort of amused forbearance ordinarily Silver Springs, Md. sentenced, for example, Professor Marko reserved for unwilling .ten-year-olds who are A Salute to Diderot Veselica—eleven years for giving an inter- made to practice the violin. Of course it can view to a foreign journalist; Dr. Ante be (and has been) argued that Christians Nineteen eighty-four was inaugurated with Kovacevic—nine years for a "wrong" Ph.D. are good samaritans because they are com- an enormous fanfare that was inspired by thesis; Professor Ivan Pletikosie—six years manded to be, and by so being receive the memorable book of that title by George for possession of a "forbidden" book; Dr. spiritual benefit. But these are not altruistic Orwell. The year 1984 should not be allowed Izetbegovic—fourteen years for his religious motives. A major philosophical difference to pass into memory without taking notice beliefs. The terror in Yugoslavia has far between secular humanists and orthodox that it is the bicentennial of the death of

Spring 1985 61 (Letters, continued from p. 61) bicentennial of one of its leading lights to learning from us and to joining us in the declare that we are now launched on the New Enlightenment. one of the most articulate and brilliant New Enlightenment. Everyday we are wit- figures of the eighteenth century Enlighten- ness to striking evidence of the expansion Lawrence Cranberg ment, one whose life and achievements have of the bounds of human knowledge and to Austin, Tex. very special relevance to our times, Denis the opening up of new horizons in science Diderot. and technology. Near the top of the There was so much in the work of Denis Enlightenment's list of unfinished business, Humanist Diderot and of his fellow philosophes to and more acute than it ever was in the time in Canada command admiration that one hesitates to of what we may now call the Old Enlighten- criticize. But to fail to do so would be incon- ment, is the problem of world peace. And Explores contemporary sistent with the critical spirit that was itself while this is a problem of staggering dimen- issues from a rational. at the heart of the Enlightenment. It must sions, particularly as it concerns our relations humanistic point of view be said that if there was one battle they with the Soviet Union, it is timely to recall fought too hard and too well, it was the a contribution to its solution made by Denis The Canadian quarterly battle against religion. From the point of Diderot. view of our own day, which is an Age of One indication of Diderot's wide influ- for questioning minds Ecumenism and of a reconciliation and ence in his own time was that he was rapprochement between science and religion, patronized by Catherine the Great and at Price: $2.50 per copy it seems evident that the attacks on religion her invitation spent five months at her court. Subscriptions: $10.00 per year by the philosophes went so far as to fail to The time was spent in many wide-ranging (US and foreign add $2.00) make proper assessment of the enormous conversations between the two, but perhaps achievements of the church in its moral the most enduring mark of Diderot's influ- Box 2007, Station 'D' teaching and in its good works. They include ence was a plan for Russian education that Ottawa, Ontario KIP 5W3 spreading the fruits of the Enlightenment in Catherine put into effect and that has had the form of scientific knowledge, health care, an abiding effect on Russian education. The and the educational base for the worldwide leaders of contemporary Russia do not diffusion of technology. approach us today as Catherine approached Perhaps we can best do justice to the Diderot, with an open-minded eagerness to CLASSIFIED Enlightenment, and at the same time recog- learn and a willingness to acknowledge cul- Rates nize that it is time to put its shortcomings tural intellectual debt which, if appreciated, Per word (single insertion) behind us, by taking the occasion of the might make them much more amenable to 10-word minimum 40 cents 10% discount for placement in 3 con- secutive issues Box numbers available $1.00 ANIMALS. DO they matter? Payment for insertion must accom- An exciting new awareness is unfolding about our pany copy. relationship with animals and the rest of the All classified ads are accepted at the natural world. Human 'progress' has taken its discretion of the publisher. toll on our fellow creatures and a movement is being burn to challenge this reckless attitude. For additional information and rates for classified display advertising, write: You can be a part of this rapidly-growing movement - by reading THE ANIMALS' FREE INQUIRY AGENDA, the independent magazine of the Classified Dept. animal rights movement. Box 5, Central Park Station Buffalo, N.Y. 14215 THE ANIMALS' AGENDA gives you news. views FIRST ISSUE FREE! and articles about animal rights, welfare and protection, and about the people who are making animal rights one of the major issues of the 'S(l's. A ASSOCIATIONS WHOLE MOVEMENT IN ()NE MAGAZINE PLUS What RIGHTS you can do. The J0HN ALLEGR0 S0CIETY offers: Intro- ANIMALnfo Out of the duction $1, Synopsis Booklet $4 autographed:

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Spring 1985 63 The Academy of Humanism

The cademy of Humanism was established to recognize distinguished humanists and disseminate humanistic ideals and eliefs. The members of the Academy, listed below, are nontheists who are (I) devoted to free inquiry in all fields of human endeavor, (2) committed to a scientific outlook and the use of the scientific method in acquiring knowledge, and (3) upholders of humanist ethical values and principles. The Academy's goals include furthering respect for human rights and freedom and the dignity of the individual, tolerance of various viewpoints and willingness to compromise, commitment to social justice, a universalistic perspective that transcends national, ethnic, religious, sexual, and racial barriers, and belief in a free and open, pluralistic and democratic society.

Humanist Laureates: Isaac Asimov, author; Sir Alfred J. Ayer, fellow of Wolfson College, Oxford University; Brand Blanshard, professor emeritus of philosophy, Yale University; Sir Hermann Bondi, professor of applied mathematics, King's College, University of London; Mario Bunge, Frothingham professor of foundations and philosophy of science, McGill University; Bernard Crick, professor of politics, Birkbeck College, University of London; Francis Crick, Nobel Laureate in Physiology, Salk Institute; Joseph Delgado, professor and chairperson in the Department of Neuro- psychiatry, University of Madrid; Milovan Djilas, author, former vice-president of Yugoslavia; Sir Raymond Firth, professor emeritus of anthropology, University of London; Joseph Fletcher, theologian, former professor of medical ethics, University of Virginia Medical School; Stephen Jay Gould, Museum of Comparative Zoology, Harvard University; Albert Hidalgo, president of the Sociedad Asturiana de Filosofiá, Oviedo, Spain; Donald Johanson, Institute of Human Origins; Franco Lombardi, professor of philosophy, University of Rome; Jole Lombardi, organizer of the New University (laic) for the Third Age; Paul MacCready, Kremer Prize winner for aeronautical achievements; Ernest Nagel, professor emeritus of philosophy, Columbia University; Jean-Claude Pecker, professor of astrophysics, College de France, Academie des Sciences; Sir Karl Popper, professor emeritus of logic and scientific method, University of London; W. V. Quine, professor of philosophy, Harvard University; Carl Sagan, astronomer, Cornell University; Andrei Sakharov, physicist, Nobel Peace Prize winner; Thomas Szasz, professor of psychiatry, State University of New York Medical School (Syracuse); V. M. Tarkunde, chairman, Indian Radical Humanist Association; Richard Taylor, professor of philosophy, University of Rochester; G. A. Wells, professor of German, Birkbeck College, University of London; Edward O. Wilson, professor of sociobiology, Harvard University; Lady Barbara Wootton, Deputy Speaker, House of Lords. *Deceased: George O. Abell, George Olincy, Chaim Perelman.

Secretariat: Vern Bullough, dean of natural sciences, State University of New York College at Buffalo; Antony Flew, professor of philosophy, Reading University, (England); Sidney Hook, professor emeritus of philosophy, New York University; Paul Kurtz, professor of philosophy, SUNY at Buffalo, Editor of FREE INQUIRY; Gerald Larue, professor emeritus of archaeology and biblical studies, University of Southern California at Los Angeles. Religion and Biblical Criticism Research Project The Religion and Biblical Criticism Research Project was founded to help disseminate the results of biblical scholarship— studies in comparative religion, folklore, scientific archaeology, and literary analysis. It investigates the claim that the Bible is divinely inspired, the historical evidence for Jesus and other Bible personalities, the role of religious myth, symbol, and ritual, and the possibility of basing morality upon reason and experience instead of biblical doctrine. The Research Project's goals include compiling bibliographies of the best sources of information about the Bible, publishing articles and monographs about different facets of biblical research, and convening seminars and conferences.

Steering Committee: Gerald Larue (Chairman), emeritus professor of biblical history and archaeology, University of Southern California; Robert Alley, professor of humanities, University of Richmond; Randel Helms, professor of English, Arizona State University; R. Joseph Hoffman, associate professor of biblical studies, University of Michigan; Paul Kurtz, professor of philosophy, SUNY at Buffalo; John F. Priest, professor and chairman, Department of Religion, Florida State University; James Robinson, director, Institute for Antiquity and Christianity, Claremont College. Associates: Michael Arnheim, professor of ancient history, University of Witwatersrand; Paul Beattie, president, Fellowship of Religious Humanists; Fred Berg; H. James Birx, chairman of Anthroplogy/ Sociology Department, Canisius College; David B. Buehrens; Joseph Fletcher, theologian, former professor of medical ethics, University of Virginia Medical School; Sidney Hook, professor emeritus of philosophy, New York University; Robert Joly, professor of philosophy, Centre Interdisciplinaire d'Etudes Philosophiques de l'Universite de Mons (Belgium); William V. Mayer, director, Biological Sciences Curriculum Study, University of Colorado; Delos McKown, professor of philosophy, Auburn University; Carol Meyers, professor of religion, Duke University; Lee Nisbet, associate professor of philosophy, Medaille College; George Smith, president, Signature Books; Morton Smith, professor of history, Columbia University; A. T. Steegman, professor of anthropology, State University of New York at Buffalo; Richard Taylor, professor of philosophy, University of Rochester; G. A. Wells, professor of German, Birkbeck College, University of London.