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Ngoma Memories: a History of Competitive Music and Dance Performance on the Kenya Coast

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Ngoma Memories: a History of Competitive Music and Dance Performance on the Kenya Coast NGOMA MEMORIES: A HISTORY OF COMPETITIVE MUSIC AND DANCE PERFORMANCE ON THE KENYA COAST By REBECCA KATHLEEN GEARHART A DISSERTATION PRESENTED TO THE GRADUATE SCHOOL OF THE UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA 1998 Copyright 1998 By Rebecca K. Gearhart ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I begin by expressing my deep gratitude to God for all of the blessings with which I have been bestowed. Among these has been the opportunity to live among and work with the people on the coast of Kenya, who have shared their time, their memories, and themselves with me. Three of them, Mohammed "Bakamoro" Mzee and Abdulrehman Talo of Lamu, and Ali "Uba" Mzee of Takaungu, have recently passed away. To them, and the many elders who have deeply touched my life, I dedicate this work. Zainab and Saidi El-Mafazy and their children, Munib, Majid, Mid-hat and Miaad, have welcomed me into their family and blessed me with a second home in Lamu. Words cannot express how much their love and encouragement have meant to me over the twelve years I have known them. I want to thank my dear research assistants, whose dedication to this project inspired me immensely. Omari Shee diligently worked with me night after night translating interviews. Ali Fani and Mwanaesha Mzee made great sacrifices to assist me in organizing interviews and documenting ngoma performances, especially during Maulidi. Both Famau Mohammed and Rukia Nashee introduced me to cultural experts, and helped me conduct insightful interviews. Abubakar Kuchi accompanied me on several excursions to various Bajuni communities on the mainland and shared his extensive knowledge of Bajuni cultural traditions with me. Athman Ali graciously escorted me to Vumbe to record the Vave ceremony. Twahiru Ali taught me almost iii everything there is to know about Bajuni drumming. Takaungu Sub-Chief, Rashidi Hamza, welcomed me into his community and introduced me to many of the wonderful people who live there. And finally, Alwi Ahmed Badawy assisted me in every aspect of my research and accompanied me on several trips along the coast. He and his relatives in Lamu and Malindi offered me hospitality and friendship I will never forget. Several of my teachers come to mind when I reflect on the intellectual journey that has led me to this threshold. First of all, I must thank Eugenia Herbert, who I am honored to call my mentor and dear friend. She transmitted her love for Africa to me and many other Mount Holyoke students in a way that continues to inspire me to be a better scholar and teacher. The second person, who has significantly influenced the way that I think about Africa and its past, is Steven Feierman. Other important graduate professors include Peter Schmidt, who gave me confidence when I was ready to quit, and Haig Der-Houssikian, who has been a firm believer in my abilities throughout. Azim Nanji taught me to understand the mystical aspects of Islam, and gave me confidence to explore Sufism in the east African context. My advisor, Allan Burns, has guided my transition into anthropology, as well as toward becoming a fair teacher. Penina Mlama, Olabiyi Yai, Larry Crook, and John Moore have provided me with insight into various aspects of performance at crucial times during my graduate studies. I find myself at the beginning of a new phase of my academic life primarily because I have had the opportunity to work with each of these fine instructors. I am most honored to thank my parents, Thomas and Kathleen, with whom I was blessed to be matched 32 years ago. Since I was a child, they have taught me to follow my dreams, no matter how unattainable they seem. My strength and self-confidence come iv directly from them, and my love and gratitude for them and the way they have raised me are immeasurable. My sister Ann has also been a source of great comfort for me. I admire her for her commitment to her husband Jim and their wonderful children Jimmy, Elizabeth and Tommy. I love them all. I am lucky to have all of my grandparents Avis and Russ Lindquist, and Donald and Helen Gearhart to share my life with. They have been an unending source of joy for me. It is to them and my great-grandmother Irene Anderson, who is one-hundred years old, that this work is also dedicated. Most of my oldest and dearest friends have taken very different paths from mine, yet they have sustained their confidence that I would someday complete my studies and become a professor. I thank Wendy Sundberg, Molly Kinney, Andrea Bouzrara, Karen Bonniwell, Rhonda Robb, Mark Pendergast, and Dale Bloom for sticking with me. Several other friends, who are also my academic peers, include Kim Lanegran, Dan Ottemoeller, Karrie Stewart, Karen Hjerpe and Jim Ellison. They have all helped to boost my morale at critical moments. I especially thank Munib Said El-Mafazy for his companionship over the past two years. Being able to talk with him about his people and the places he calls home has made writing this dissertation especially rewarding. I also want to acknowledge the people who have helped me work on the technological aspects of the electronic version of this dissertation. Don Grossman has been particularly patient and kind in offering his expertise. I am also indebted to James Hardemon, Ryan Williams, and Wiley Ammons for their assistance. This research was funded by Fulbright IIE and administered through the United States Information Agency (USIA) in Nairobi. I am very privileged to have received v several travel grants, large doses of advice, and moral support from Carol Lauriault and Michael Chege at the Center for African Studies at the University of Florida. I am proud to be affiliated with such a wonderful community of Africa-oriented scholars. vi TABLE OF CONTENTS page ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ..............................................................................................iii TABLE OF FIGURES ...................................................................................................ix ABSTRACT...................................................................................................................xi CHAPTERS 1 IN SEARCH OF NGOMA MEMORIES......................................................................1 Introduction...............................................................................................................1 A Three Field Approach ............................................................................................4 An Historical Perspective ..........................................................................................5 Performance Studies ................................................................................................10 Visual Anthropology ...............................................................................................15 A Feedback Method.................................................................................................21 Community Education and Cultural Development ...................................................25 Coastal Women's Ngoma.........................................................................................30 The Lamu Community Cultural Center and Video Library.......................................32 Imag - i – nation: A Conclusion ...............................................................................35 2 NGOMA GROUPS AND THEIR ROLE IN COASTAL SOCIETY...........................39 Introduction.............................................................................................................39 Ngoma Group Organization.....................................................................................41 Performers in Coastal Society..................................................................................45 Ngoma Competition ................................................................................................50 Performance as Socio-Political Control....................................................................53 Ngoma as Socio-Economic Security ........................................................................56 The Politics of Artistic Production...........................................................................63 Conclusion ..............................................................................................................67 3 THE IMPACT OF SUFISM ON COASTAL RITUAL NGOMA ...............................70 Introduction.............................................................................................................70 A History of Ritual Pluralism on the Coast ..............................................................75 The Consequence of Islamic Reform .......................................................................89 Habib Saleh and the Rise of Sufi Ngoma .................................................................95 Rama Origins......................................................................................................... 102 Rama as Nadhiri .................................................................................................... 106 Rama as Competitive Ngoma................................................................................. 108 vii Ngoma's Decline.................................................................................................... 111 Conclusion ............................................................................................................ 114 4 “MTU KWAVO”: VAVE AND BAJUNI IDENTITY.............................................
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