DOCSLIB.ORG

Ritual, Narrative, and Trauma

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Ritual, Narrative, and Trauma Ritual, Narrative, and Trauma Considering the Socio-Psychological Significance of Roman Martial Rituals by ARJEN J. VAN LIL UTRECHT UNIVERSITY RMA-THESIS RESEARCH MASTER IN ANCIENT STUDIES SUPERVISOR: DR. ROLF STROOTMAN SECOND READER: DR. SASKIA STEVENS STUDENTNUMBER: 4157192 Ritual, Narrative, and Trauma Abstract The Roman conduct of war appears to have been a ritualized affair. This thesis is concerned with unfolding this ritual pattern and discussing the socio-psychological significance this may have held for the Roman soldier at war. It investigates the various rituals that the soldier would have been witness or participant of: the lustratio, auspicium, devotio hostium, and passum sub iugum. The comparative analysis and source collection of these rituals may already offer new insights. Its Republican chronological scope results from this. Literary sources form the primary focus of this approach, intermittently supported by the disciplines of archaeology, numismatics, and epigraphy. Accordingly, it attempts to position these rituals in the course of warfare, as it would feature for the soldier. From the vantage point of trauma studies and the principle of narrative understanding, this thesis offers an alternative interpretation of the significance ritual may have had for the Roman soldier’s experience of battle. Thereby, it explores new avenues of study to the experience of ritual and battle. This thesis argues that the various rituals that featured in the preamble and summation of battle had significant potential to shape the individual’s anticipation, experience, and memory of the event. The rituals that the soldier would be witness or participant of, aided him in the creation of a meaningful narrative of events, thereby having the potential to offer psychological relief. 3 Arjen J. van Lil Abbreviations App. Civ. – Appian, Civil Wars App. Mithr. – Appian, Mithridatic Wars App. Pun. – Appian, Punic Wars App. Sam. – Appian, Samnite Wars App. Span. – Appian, Spanish Wars App. Syr. – Appian, Syrian Wars Caes. Gall. – Caesar, Gallic Wars Cass. Dio – Cassius Dio, Roman History Cat. Agri. – Cato the Elder, On Agriculture Cic. Div. – Cicero, On Divination Cic. Nat. Gods – Cicero, On the Nature of the Gods Cic. Pis. – Cicero, Against Piso Dion. Hal. – Dionysius of Halicarnassus, Roman Antiquities Eutr. Sum. – Eutropius, Summary of Roman History Fest. – Festus, Breviarium Fest. Lex. – Festus, Lexicon Flav. Jos. Jew. War – Flavius Josephus, The Jewish War Flor. Epit. – Florus, Epitome of Roman History Front. Strat. – Frontinus, Stratagems Hirt. Afr. – Hirtius, On the African War Hirt. Alex. – Hirtius, On the Alexandrine War Liv. – Livy, The History of Rome Liv. Peri. – Livy, Periochae Macr. Sat. – Macrobius, Saturnalia Oros. His. Pag. – Orosius, History against the Pagans Plin. Nat. His. – Pliny the Elder, Natural History Plut. Aem. – Plutarch, Life of Aemilius Plut. Brut. – Plutarch, Life of Brutus Plut. Cam. – Plutarch, Life of Camillus Plut. Cras. – Plutarch, Life of Crassus Plut. Marc. – Plutarch, Life of Marcellus Plut. Mar. – Plutarch, Life of Marius Plut. Rom. – Plutarch, Life of Romulus Plut. RQ – Plutarch, Roman Questions Poly. – Polybius, Histories Strab. Geo. – Strabo, The Geography Suet. Nero – Suetonius, Life of Nero Tac. Ann. – Tacitus, Annals Var. Lat. Lan. – Varro, On the Latin Language 4 Ritual, Narrative, and Trauma Table of Contents Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 6 I – Ritual, Religion, and the Experience of War – Historiography and Theory ....................... 15 §1.1 The study of Roman ritual ............................................................................................ 15 §1.2 War, trauma, and the ancient world .............................................................................. 20 §1.3 Narrative and trauma: a theoretical framework ............................................................ 25 §1.4 Methodology ................................................................................................................. 30 II – Rituals of Opening: The Transition Towards Battle.......................................................... 32 §2.1 Ritual in the Roman religious and military landscape .................................................. 34 §2.2 Ritual and the soldier – a preliminary analysis ............................................................. 38 §2.3 Purifying the army: the lustratio .................................................................................. 48 §2.4 Predicting victory: the auspicium ................................................................................. 58 §2.5 Conclusion .................................................................................................................... 64 III – Rituals of Closure: The Transition From Battle ............................................................... 65 §3.1 Concluding battle: the devotio hostium ........................................................................ 65 §3.2 Performing victory and defeat: the passum sub iugum ................................................. 75 §3.3 Affirming victory: the triumphus ................................................................................. 83 §3.4 Conclusion .................................................................................................................... 89 IV – Analysis ............................................................................................................................ 90 §4.1 Battle and the Roman ritual construct .......................................................................... 91 §4.2 Ritual as a narrativizing element .................................................................................. 96 Conclusion .............................................................................................................................. 103 Appendix ................................................................................................................................ 105 Appendix I – The lustratio ................................................................................................. 105 Appendix II – The auspicium ............................................................................................. 108 Appendix III – The devotio hostium ................................................................................... 109 Appendix IV – The passum sub iugum .............................................................................. 111 Appendix V – Images ......................................................................................................... 115 Bibliography ........................................................................................................................... 118 Primary sources .................................................................................................................. 118 Literature ............................................................................................................................ 119 5 Arjen J. van Lil Introduction ‘…our empire was won by those commanders who obeyed the dictates of religion.’ – Cicero (106-43 BCE), On the Nature of the Gods.1 To Cicero, the Roman conduct of war was a religious affair. The Romans owed their military success to their strict religious observance and ‘reverence for the gods’, he surmised. At all times, the consul at war was required to align military decision-making to religious decree, as dictated by custom, the priestly colleges, and the Senate. These dictates would ensure that wars were fought justly and in accordance with divine injunction. In this sense – and in fact, this sense alone – the Romans surpassed all other nations, Cicero modestly posits. Cicero composed his work On the Nature of the Gods in 45 BCE, the year in which Caesar and Pompey competed for power and the Republican status quo faltered. His reference to the gravity of religious observance was no mere historical anecdote, it was a maxim as well – a silent reminder to the military competitors of his time not to stray too far from the dictates of religion. To no surprise, we may see Cicero’s views reflected in the accounts of the ancient authors. In fact, Roman warfare and religion appear to have been closely intertwined – if ‘warfare’ and ‘religion’ can be considered separate categories at all, of course. In the narratives of Livy (64 BCE - 12 CE), for instance, we read how the fetiales, a special college of priests, officially declared the Roman wars by ritually throwing a bloodstained spear into enemy lands.2 Polybius (ca. 200-120 BCE) informs us about the sacramentum, an oath taken by soldiers not to abandon the standards and disobey command, adding a somewhat sacral dimension to the status of the soldier.3 Appian (95-165 CE) notes how the Romans performed the lustratio, an ‘act of purification’, before armies marched out or fleets sailed out.4 Cicero explains how the augurs were consulted before campaigns and battles, to witness the behaviour of birds in search 1 Cic. Nat. Gods 2.3.7. For the translations used for the primary sources in this paper, see the bibliography at the end. The list of abbreviations used for citing these works can be found at the beginning of this thesis. 2 Liv. 1.32.13-14: ‘It was customary for the Fetial to carry to the enemies' frontiers a blood-smeared spear tipped with iron or burnt at the end, and,
Load more

Recommended publications
  • Umbria from the Iron Age to the Augustan Era
    UMBRIA FROM THE IRON AGE TO THE AUGUSTAN ERA PhD Guy Jolyon Bradley University College London BieC ILONOIK.] ProQuest Number: 10055445 All rights reserved INFORMATION TO ALL USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. In the unlikely event that the author did not send a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. uest. ProQuest 10055445 Published by ProQuest LLC(2016). Copyright of the Dissertation is held by the Author. All rights reserved. This work is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code. Microform Edition © ProQuest LLC. ProQuest LLC 789 East Eisenhower Parkway P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 48106-1346 Abstract This thesis compares Umbria before and after the Roman conquest in order to assess the impact of the imposition of Roman control over this area of central Italy. There are four sections specifically on Umbria and two more general chapters of introduction and conclusion. The introductory chapter examines the most important issues for the history of the Italian regions in this period and the extent to which they are relevant to Umbria, given the type of evidence that survives. The chapter focuses on the concept of state formation, and the information about it provided by evidence for urbanisation, coinage, and the creation of treaties. The second chapter looks at the archaeological and other available evidence for the history of Umbria before the Roman conquest, and maps the beginnings of the formation of the state through the growth in social complexity, urbanisation and the emergence of cult places.
    [Show full text]
  • Vestal Virgins and Their Families
    Vestal Virgins and Their Families Andrew B. Gallia* I. INTRODUCTION There is perhaps no more shining example of the extent to which the field of Roman studies has been enriched by a renewed engagement with anthropology and other cognate disciplines than the efflorescence of interest in the Vestal virgins that has followed Mary Beard’s path-breaking article regarding these priestesses’ “sexual status.”1 No longer content to treat the privileges and ritual obligations of this priesthood as the vestiges of some original position (whether as wives or daughters) in the household of the early Roman kings, scholars now interrogate these features as part of the broader frameworks of social and cultural meaning through which Roman concepts of family, * Published in Classical Antiquity 34.1 (2015). Early versions of this article were inflicted upon audiences in Berkeley and Minneapolis. I wish to thank the participants of those colloquia for helpful and judicious feedback, especially Ruth Karras, Darcy Krasne, Carlos Noreña, J. B. Shank, and Barbara Welke. I am also indebted to George Sheets, who read a penultimate draft, and to Alain Gowing and the anonymous readers for CA, who prompted additional improvements. None of the above should be held accountable for the views expressed or any errors that remain. 1 Beard 1980, cited approvingly by, e.g., Hopkins 1983: 18, Hallett 1984: x, Brown 1988: 8, Schultz 2012: 122. Critiques: Gardner 1986: 24-25, Beard 1995. 1 gender, and religion were produced.2 This shift, from a quasi-diachronic perspective, which seeks explanations for recorded phenomena in the conditions of an imagined past, to a more synchronic approach, in which contemporary contexts are emphasized, represents a welcome methodological advance.
    [Show full text]
  • The Evolution of the Roman Calendar Dwayne Meisner, University of Regina
    The Evolution of the Roman Calendar Dwayne Meisner, University of Regina Abstract The Roman calendar was first developed as a lunar | 290 calendar, so it was difficult for the Romans to reconcile this with the natural solar year. In 45 BC, Julius Caesar reformed the calendar, creating a solar year of 365 days with leap years every four years. This article explains the process by which the Roman calendar evolved and argues that the reason February has 28 days is that Caesar did not want to interfere with religious festivals that occurred in February. Beginning as a lunar calendar, the Romans developed a lunisolar system that tried to reconcile lunar months with the solar year, with the unfortunate result that the calendar was often inaccurate by up to four months. Caesar fixed this by changing the lengths of most months, but made no change to February because of the tradition of intercalation, which the article explains, and because of festivals that were celebrated in February that were connected to the Roman New Year, which had originally been on March 1. Introduction The reason why February has 28 days in the modern calendar is that Caesar did not want to interfere with festivals that honored the dead, some of which were Past Imperfect 15 (2009) | © | ISSN 1711-053X | eISSN 1718-4487 connected to the position of the Roman New Year. In the earliest calendars of the Roman Republic, the year began on March 1, because the consuls, after whom the year was named, began their years in office on the Ides of March.
    [Show full text]
  • Downloaded from Brill.Com09/27/2021 12:23:27PM Via Free Access 12 Chapter One
    CHAPTER ONE CONSTITUENT CONCEPTS 1. Space Since they were conceptualized as human beings, Roman gods had a place in this world, in which they moved freely. This conclusion is unavoidable, if we consider that all Roman gods could be invoked, and that invocation implied spatial proximity to the invocator.1 Apart from this, at least the major gods were conceptualized as connected to speci c locations, normally marked as such by an altar, a temple, or in some other way. These locations I will call ‘spatial foci’. They are mostly represented by archaeological remains. However, by relying on archaeology, we unduly overemphasize the spatiality of major of cial divine concepts, which were more likely than private cults to be per- manently conceptualized by speci cally marked space. The sacred landscape of Rome was complex, time-bound and noto- riously anachronistic. It was complex because its parameters were not absolute and necessarily recognizable as such. Rather, it was intrinsi- cally relative and existent only within the full semiotic system of the topography of the city. Furthermore, it was time-bound, because the city itself developed rapidly, especially during the peak of urbanization from ca. 200 B.C.–200 A.D. It was notoriously anachronistic because the semiotic system underlying it was highly conservative and did not keep pace with the actual urban development (for instance, the pomerium was still remembered, when it had long become obsolete in the imperial period in terms of urban development; and the festival of the Septimontium was still celebrated separately by the communities that had long since merged into the city of Rome).
    [Show full text]
  • A New Perspective on the Early Roman Dictatorship, 501-300 B.C
    A NEW PERSPECTIVE ON THE EARLY ROMAN DICTATORSHIP, 501-300 B.C. BY Jeffrey A. Easton Submitted to the graduate degree program in Classics and the Graduate Faculty of the University of Kansas in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master’s of Arts. Anthony Corbeill Chairperson Committee Members Tara Welch Carolyn Nelson Date defended: April 26, 2010 The Thesis Committee for Jeffrey A. Easton certifies that this is the approved Version of the following thesis: A NEW PERSPECTIVE ON THE EARLY ROMAN DICTATORSHIP, 501-300 B.C. Committee: Anthony Corbeill Chairperson Tara Welch Carolyn Nelson Date approved: April 27, 2010 ii Page left intentionally blank. iii ABSTRACT According to sources writing during the late Republic, Roman dictators exercised supreme authority over all other magistrates in the Roman polity for the duration of their term. Modern scholars have followed this traditional paradigm. A close reading of narratives describing early dictatorships and an analysis of ancient epigraphic evidence, however, reveal inconsistencies in the traditional model. The purpose of this thesis is to introduce a new model of the early Roman dictatorship that is based upon a reexamination of the evidence for the nature of dictatorial imperium and the relationship between consuls and dictators in the period 501-300 BC. Originally, dictators functioned as ad hoc magistrates, were equipped with standard consular imperium, and, above all, were intended to supplement consuls. Furthermore, I demonstrate that Sulla’s dictatorship, a new and genuinely absolute form of the office introduced in the 80s BC, inspired subsequent late Republican perceptions of an autocratic dictatorship.
    [Show full text]
  • Ritual Cleaning-Up of the City: from the Lupercalia to the Argei*
    RITUAL CLEANING-UP OF THE CITY: FROM THE LUPERCALIA TO THE ARGEI* This paper is not an analysis of the fine aspects of ritual, myth and ety- mology. I do not intend to guess the exact meaning of Luperci and Argei, or why the former sacrificed a dog and the latter were bound hand and foot. What I want to examine is the role of the festivals of the Lupercalia and the Argei in the functioning of the Roman community. The best-informed among ancient writers were convinced that these were purification cere- monies. I assume that the ancients knew what they were talking about and propose, first, to establish the nature of the ritual cleanliness of the city, and second, see by what techniques the two festivals achieved that goal. What, in the perception of the Romans themselves, normally made their city unclean? What were the ordinary, repetitive sources of pollution in pre-Imperial Rome, before the concept of the cura Urbis was refined? The answer to this is provided by taboos and restrictions on certain sub- stances, and also certain activities, in the City. First, there is a rule from the Twelve Tables with Cicero’s curiously anachronistic comment: «hominem mortuum», inquit lex in duodecim, «in urbe ne sepelito neve urito», credo vel propter ignis periculum (De leg. II 58). Secondly, we have the edict of the praetor L. Sentius C.f., known from three inscrip- tions dating from the beginning of the first century BC1: L. Sentius C. f. pr(aetor) de sen(atus) sent(entia) loca terminanda coer(avit).
    [Show full text]
  • Roman Southwark's Ritual Landscape
    Roman Southwark’s Ritual Landscape; a study of sacred places in a Roman urban environment Victoria Ridgeway (Pre-Construct Archaeology; Newcastle University) This paper presents a brief introduction to the long history of religious practices and sacred places across Southwark in the first four centuries AD. It is based on data from various published by Pre- Construct Archaeology and research for an MLitt dissertation on the subject at Newcastle University, which involved an examination of published and archive material from across the borough. As this represents almost four centuries of activity across a broad area, this short paper is limited to consideration of some highlights and of the relationship between Southwark and the landscape. Geographically, this study is limited to the northern part of the modern borough, from about Harper Road northwards. Buried deep beneath alluvial clays, the shape of Roman Southwark was very different from what we see today. Around AD50, Southwark was a low-lying expanse of sandy riverine islands, or eyots, interspersed with braided channels; a shifting landscape with extensive mudflats inundated at high tide (Figure 1). Here two eyots, (most commonly termed the north and south islands) form elements of a landbridge over the Thames, heading towards the main settlement of Londinium on the north bank. Figure 1 Southwark’s island topography c.AD50, showing key sites mentioned in the text The role of water is crucial to an understanding of ancient Southwark; its peculiar situation, indeed its very existence, was defined by and arguably dependent on water. The city was situated not only at a convenient crossing point of the Thames (Watson et al.
    [Show full text]
  • Magic in Private and Public Lives of the Ancient Romans
    COLLECTANEA PHILOLOGICA XXIII, 2020: 53–72 http://dx.doi.org/10.18778/1733-0319.23.04 Idaliana KACZOR Uniwersytet Łódzki MAGIC IN PRIVATE AND PUBLIC LIVES OF THE ANCIENT ROMANS The Romans practiced magic in their private and public life. Besides magical practices against the property and lives of people, the Romans also used generally known and used protective and healing magic. Sometimes magical practices were used in official religious ceremonies for the safety of the civil and sacral community of the Romans. Keywords: ancient magic practice, homeopathic magic, black magic, ancient Roman religion, Roman religious festivals MAGIE IM PRIVATEN UND ÖFFENTLICHEN LEBEN DER ALTEN RÖMER Die Römer praktizierten Magie in ihrem privaten und öffentlichen Leben. Neben magische Praktik- en gegen das Eigentum und das Leben von Menschen, verwendeten die Römer auch allgemein bekannte und verwendete Schutz- und Heilmagie. Manchmal wurden magische Praktiken in offiziellen religiösen Zeremonien zur Sicherheit der bürgerlichen und sakralen Gemeinschaft der Römer angewendet. Schlüsselwörter: alte magische Praxis, homöopathische Magie, schwarze Magie, alte römi- sche Religion, Römische religiöse Feste Magic, despite our sustained efforts at defining this term, remains a slippery and obscure concept. It is uncertain how magic has been understood and practised in differ- ent cultural contexts and what the difference is (if any) between magical and religious praxis. Similarly, no satisfactory and all-encompassing definition of ‘magic’ exists. It appears that no singular concept of ‘magic’ has ever existed: instead, this polyvalent notion emerged at the crossroads of local custom, religious praxis, superstition, and politics of the day. Individual scholars of magic, positioning themselves as ostensi- bly objective observers (an etic perspective), mostly defined magic in opposition to religion and overemphasised intercultural parallels over differences1.
    [Show full text]
  • Evocatio Deorum As an Example of a Crisis Ritual in Roman Religion
    Graeco-Latina Brunensia 23 / 2018 / 2 https://doi.org/10.5817/GLB2018-2-7 Evocatio deorum as an Example of a Crisis Ritual in Roman Religion Danuta Musiał & Andrzej Gillmeister (Nicolaus Copernicus University in Toruń; University of Zielona Góra) Abstract This work is an attempt to describe the Roman ritual of evocation in the anthropological cat- ČLÁNKY / ARTICLES egory of crisis ritual. The authors, analyzing the evocation of Yahweh carried out by Titus dur- ing the siege of Jerusalem, present this rite as an example of the activity of Roman ‘redemptive hegemony’, and one of the elements involved in the transformation of Roman religion which tried to answer the new calls connected with the transformation of the Roman state. They remain aware however that in this case we are discussing a ritual activity directed towards the Roman citizens themselves. Keywords evocation; crisis ritual; redemptive hegemony; Roman religion; siege of Jerusalem 95 Danuta Musiał & Andrzej Gillmeister Evocatio deorum as an Example of a Crisis Ritual in Roman Religion In Classical Ancient times, war, like all human activities, underwent a process of ritualisa- tion. Cult practices associated with war served above all to assure victory, predictions of which were searched for in signs sent by the gods. The gods authorized or legitimised all stages of conflict from declarations of war to the re-establishment of peace. Outside the realms of myth, they did not take active part in military activities, although they were the beneficiaries of victories and the victims of defeats. Spoils of war and sacrifices made in gratitude enriched the temples, but on the conquered enemy lands places dedicated to the gods were usually destroyed, even against traditionally ascribed rules (Rutledge 2007; Tarpin 2013).
    [Show full text]
  • THE PONTIFICAL LAW of the ROMAN REPUBLIC by MICHAEL
    THE PONTIFICAL LAW OF THE ROMAN REPUBLIC by MICHAEL JOSEPH JOHNSON A Dissertation submitted to the Graduate School-New Brunswick Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Graduate Program in Classics written under the direct of T. Corey Brennan and approved by ____________________________ ____________________________ ____________________________ ____________________________ New Brunswick, New Jersey October, 2007 ABSTRACT OF THE DISSERTATION The Pontifical Law of the Roman Republic by MICHAEL JOSEPH JOHNSON Dissertation Director: T. Corey Brennan This dissertation investigates the guiding principle of arguably the most important religious authority in ancient Rome, the pontifical college. Chapter One introduces the subject and discusses the hypothesis the dissertation will advance. Chapter Two examines the place of the college within Roman law and religion, giving particular attention to disproving several widely held notions about the relationship of the pontifical law to the civil and sacral law. Chapter Three offers the first detailed examination of the duties of the pontifical college as a collective body. I spend the bulk of the chapter analyzing two of the three collegiate duties I identify: the issuing of documents known as decrees and responses and the supervision of the Vestal Virgins. I analyze all decrees and responses from the point of view their content, treating first those that concern dedications, then those on the calendar, and finally those on vows. In doing so my goal is to understand the reasoning behind the decree and the major theological doctrines underpinning it. In documenting the pontifical supervision of Vestal Virgins I focus on the college's actions towards a Vestal accused of losing her chastity.
    [Show full text]
  • TRADITIONAL POETRY and the ANNALES of QUINTUS ENNIUS John Francis Fisher A
    REINVENTING EPIC: TRADITIONAL POETRY AND THE ANNALES OF QUINTUS ENNIUS John Francis Fisher A DISSERTATION PRESENTED TO THE FACULTY OF PRINCETON UNIVERSITY IN CANDIDACY FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY RECOMMENDED FOR ACCEPTANCE BY THE DEPARTMENT OF CLASSICS SEPTEMBER 2006 UMI Number: 3223832 UMI Microform 3223832 Copyright 2006 by ProQuest Information and Learning Company. All rights reserved. This microform edition is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code. ProQuest Information and Learning Company 300 North Zeeb Road P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, MI 48106-1346 © Copyright by John Francis Fisher, 2006. All rights reserved. ii Reinventing Epic: Traditional Poetry and the Annales of Quintus Ennius John Francis Fisher Abstract The present scholarship views the Annales of Quintus Ennius as a hybrid of the Latin Saturnian and Greek hexameter traditions. This configuration overlooks the influence of a larger and older tradition of Italic verbal art which manifests itself in documents such as the prayers preserved in Cato’s De agricultura in Latin, the Iguvine Tables in Umbrian, and documents in other Italic languages including Oscan and South Picene. These documents are marked by three salient features: alliterative doubling figures, figurae etymologicae, and a pool of traditional phraseology which may be traced back to Proto-Italic, the reconstructed ancestor of the Italic languages. A close examination of the fragments of the Annales reveals that all three of these markers of Italic verbal art are integral parts of the diction the poem. Ennius famously remarked that he possessed three hearts, one Latin, one Greek and one Oscan, which the second century writer Aulus Gellius understands as ability to speak three languages.
    [Show full text]
  • Segnalazioni Bibliografiche (Ultimo Aggiornamento : 18 Ottobre 2013)
    Segnalazioni bibliografiche (ultimo aggiornamento : 18 ottobre 2013) Guy ACHARD: La communication à Rome p. 300 (22 x 14 / c. bross.) - Paris, Les Belles Lettres («Realia»), 20063 (© 1991) - ISBN 2-251-33821-7 Avant-propos ― AU COMMENCEMENT : PAROLE DIVINE, PAROLE HUMAINE: Lettre après lettre - La force du verbe - Les propos de tous les jours ― LA PAROLE AU POUVOIR: Les progrès de l’écriture - Des conditions nouvelles - Une conquête difficile - L’invincible technique - La communication orale à l’apogée de la République: les discours et les trois formes de la conversation - La communication é- crite: l’information, l’authentification, la diffusion - La communication écrite: la correspondance - La communication indirecte - Romains et étrangers - La conservation de la parole ― UNE COMMU- NICATION À L’ÉCHELLE DU MONDE: Les perfectionnements techniques - Le despotisme de l’écrit - La bataille de l’écrit - Les métamorphoses de la parole - Conversations et rumeurs - Autres modes de communication - La mémoire collective - Rome et le monde ― CONCLUSION ― Notes - Repères chronologiques - Orientation bibliographique - Index Sophia ADAM-MAGNISSALI: Dispensing Justice in Ancient Athens (5th and 4th century BC) [In Greek with English Summary ] p. XX, 274 (24 x 17 / c. bross.) - Athens, Nomiki Bibliothiki Group, 2008 - ISBN 978-960-272-552-8 INTRODUCTION: The notion of the unity of Greek law - The significance of the terms nomos (law) and thesmos (institution) - The historical evolution of justice ― JUDICIAL ORGANS: The Role of the Magistrates in the
    [Show full text]