Power, Politics, and the Convergence of Urban Climate Governance
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From Global Cities to Global Governors: Power, Politics, and the Convergence of Urban Climate Governance by David Jeremy Gordon A thesis submitted in conformity with the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Department of Political Science University of Toronto © Copyright by David J. Gordon 2016 From Global Cities to Global Governors: Power, Politics, and the Convergence of Urban Climate Governance David J. Gordon Doctor of Philosophy Department of Political Science University of Toronto 2016 Abstract Cities are increasingly included in discussions of climate governance and lauded as sources of innovation, leadership, and experimentation. But can they succeed where states have failed in producing meaningful collective actions and effects? To respond to this pressing question requires understanding whether cities can achieve more than rhetorical commitment to coordinated action, whether they can come together and coordinate their actions. To answer this question my dissertation addresses the puzzling ability of the C40 Climate Leadership Group to achieve internal coherence. Leveraging a novel dataset of over 4700 discrete urban climate governance actions, I demonstrate empirically that the cities of the C40 have come not only to cohere around a common project, employ common practices of climate governance, but that the C40 has converged around a common set of governance norms: shared ideas as to the role of cities in global climate governance, the ways in which cities can and should engage in governance, and how governance should be practiced. I introduce a novel conceptual framework that interweaves elements of social constructivism and network analysis with Bourdieu’s social field theory, and demonstrate how reconceiving the C40 as a governance field illuminates currents of power that operate beneath the still waters of nominal and voluntary cooperation, and provides a means of explaining how convergence has been pursued, contested, and produced by actors who claim and wield various sorts of power and authority. The dissertation applies this novel conceptual apparatus to demonstrate why contestation was paramount between 2005 and 2010, and how convergence was produced from 2011 on. Put simply, the C40 only achieved convergence once there was an actor with enough power to overcome resistance and secure ii complicity from its members, with such power translated into influence through the mechanism of recognition. iii Acknowledgments I began my PhD with a keen desire to better understand the role that cities might play in the global response to climate change. I quickly came to realize that I had little idea how to actually go about doing so. That I have made it to here, from there, is a testament to the efforts of all those who have helped me along the way. To them I dedicate this dissertation. First and foremost, I want to thank my supervisor, Matt Hoffmann, for his many years of support, encouragement, and advice. Working with Matt has been a pleasure and an honor; he is a source of inspiration, both personal and professional, and his confidence in my abilities, my interests, and my ideas as invaluable as I struggled at times to find my way. Alongside Matt, I have been blessed with a dedicated and devoted committee, comprised by Steven Bernstein and Michele Betsill. Both were crucial to shaping and sharpening my argument and analysis, and each bears a measure of responsibility for engendering in me a desire to undertake a PhD in the first place. A big thanks as well to Sara Hughes, whose careful reading helped enhance the clarity and focus of the dissertation, and to Peter Dauvergne, whose support and encouragement helped to carry me over the finish line. A special thanks is due to those who have helped me along the way, in ways both large and small, intentional or not. I want especially to thank: Michele Acuto, for your enthusiasm, outstanding scholarship, and support; Harriet Bulkeley, for your generosity of spirit and for making me think hard and long about cities, world politics, and sustainability; Doug Macdonald, for bringing me into the world of federalism and climate governance, and showing me your confidence in my abilities when I was lacking in my own; Ole Jacob Sending, for providing the key to a lock I had been struggling with, and being kind enough to share it with me; Susan Park and Teresa Kramarz, for the chance to step back and place my work in a broader context. In the course of carrying out research for this project I have benefitted greatly from the efforts of a great many individuals. First amongst these are my interviewees, who gave freely of their time and energy so as to sit down with me and discuss: the origins and evolution of local climate policy in New York City, Sao Paulo, Johannesburg, London, and Toronto; the inner workings and intricacies of the C40 and CCI; and the broader domain of urban climate governance. I owe a special debt of gratitude to C40 staff, and especially Amanda Eichel and Sarah Potts, who invited iv me to attend the 2014 C40 Summit in Johannesburg. I want as well to extend my thanks to Sue Parnell, Kathryn Hochstetler, Andres Luque, Anna Taylor, Joana Setzer, Lisa McNamara, Rafael Martins, Gordon Falconer, Gustav Brade, Simon Curtis, Adalberto Maluf, Steve Crolius, Stephen Hammer, Sofie Bouteligier, Eduardo Viola, Jose Goldemburg, and Fabiana Barbi for the help they’ve provided in organizing and carrying out my interviews. I want, as well, to acknowledge the generous financial support that I’ve received from the Province of Ontario, Munk School of Global Affairs, Sustainable Prosperity, and University of Toronto Department of Political Science. If those listed above have helped to bring this project to fruition, it is those who come next that have made it possible, and worth doing at all. Over the course of this process I’ve had the great good fortune of working with, and alongside, a number of individuals that I’m privileged to call friends. To Jon, Hamish, Beth, and Troy, who toiled alongside me at various times and for various purposes. To Gabe, whose analytic acuity and aesthetic sensibilities I hold in the highest regard, and who, more importantly, I feel blessed to call a friend. To Esteban and Derek, my brothers, who have walked with me a long way down this road, and for the comfort of knowing that we’ll continue walking together. To Cary, for being a friend for all time, at all times. To Pat and Joe, you have welcomed me as a son, given endlessly of yourselves, and done so at all times with grace, generosity, and good spirits. To my father, for inspiring me to follow my instincts, chase my dreams, and indulge in the occasional impulse. To my mom, for your love, for toiling away to support us, for giving me all the space I needed, and for teaching me the habits of hard work, discipline, and stubborn dedication. My thanks are nowhere near adequate, but I offer them nonetheless. Lastly, and most importantly, this dissertation is dedicated to my family. To Nola, Lleith, and Ellen. Nola, my partner in crime, you came along when I wasn’t sure I was ready for you. How quickly I learned that I couldn’t do without you. You and Lleith are what keeps me grounded and I can only hope to make you both proud. Elle, your love lights my way, always and in all ways. We did this. Together. David Gordon Winnipeg, MB 16 November 2015 v Table of Contents Acknowledgments .......................................................................................................................... iv Table of Contents ........................................................................................................................... vi List of Abbreviations ...................................................................................................................... xi List of Figures ................................................................................................................................ xii List of Appendices ........................................................................................................................ xiv 1. Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 1 2. Global Climate Governance: Friction, Openings, and the Role of Cities .............................. 7 3. Why Cities .............................................................................................................................. 9 4. Why the C40? ....................................................................................................................... 11 5. Theorizing Cities, City-Networks and Global Climate Governance .................................... 15 5.1 The C40 as a Governance Field ................................................................................... 17 6. Objectives and Contributions ............................................................................................... 20 7. The Way Forward ................................................................................................................. 23 Chapter 2 Putting the C40 under the Microscope: Parsing Coherence and Convergence ............ 26 1. Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 26 2. Foundations ........................................................................................................................ 30 2.1 From Practices to Norms ............................................................................................