Ornithology Is the Study of Birds

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Ornithology is the study of birds.

Ornithologists may study the behavior, physiology, and conservation of birds and bird habitats. This work often involves surveying, recording and reporting on bird activity. Ornithologists may either generalize, or specialize in a particular species or bird group.

Most ornithologists work for wildlife agencies at the federal or state levels, or conservation organizations. They may also teach or conduct research at universities. Some work at zoos, wildlife parks, or veterinary clinics and research labs. a. Zoologists have long recognized the similarity of birds and reptiles. Birds & Reptiles Mammals  The skulls of birds and reptiles  Mammals have two border against the first neck occipital condyles. vertebra by a single occipital condyle (a small bony knob). Birds & Reptiles Mammals

 The skulls of birds and reptiles  Mammals have two border against the first neck occipital condyles. vertebra by a single occipital  Mammals have three condyle (a small bony knob). middle ear bones, the  Birds and reptiles have a single malleus, incus, and middle ear bone, the stapes. stapes.  Birds and reptiles have a lower  The lower jaw of jaw composed of five or six mammals has one bones. bone (the dentary).  Birds and reptiles excrete their  Mammals excrete nitrogenous wastes as uric their nitrogenous acid. wastes as urea. Birds & Reptiles Mammals  The skulls of birds and reptiles  Mammals have two border against the first neck occipital condyles. vertebra by a single occipital  Mammals have three condyle (a small bony knob). middle ear bones, the  Birds and reptiles have a single malleus, incus, and middle ear bone, the stapes. stapes.  Birds and reptiles have a lower  The lower jaw of jaw composed of five or six mammals has one bones. bone (the dentary).  Birds and reptiles excrete their  Mammals excrete nitrogenous wastes as uric their nitrogenous acid. wastes as urea.  Birds and most reptiles lay  Most mammals do not yolky eggs with similar lay eggs. structure and cleavage  Mammals lack scales. divisions.  Birds have scales on legs. b. Biologists refer to birds as “feathered dinosaurs” because they are believed to have evolved from small, two-legged dinosaurs called theropods. i. Theropods share many derived characters with birds, the most obvious of which is the elongate, mobile, S-shaped neck. Some also had feathers.

c. Fossil Evidence: d. The earliest known bird is Archaeopteryx lithographica (meaning “ancient wing inscribed in stone”) from about 150 million years ago. i. The fossil was approximately the size of a crow and demonstrated the connection between theropods & birds. 1. It had several reptile characteristics such as a long bony tail, clawed fingers, abdominal ribs, and bony teeth. 2. The skull, beak, and feathers resembled that of today’s birds. a. Flight i. Over 150 million years of evolution, birds evolved into flying machines. A bird’s entire anatomy is designed around flight.

Only four groups Bats of animals have Birds ever conquered the air by the ability of flight:

Pterosaurs

Insects b. Feathers i. The single unique feature that distinguishes birds from other living animals is their feathers. ii. Feathers are homologous to reptiles’ scales, both made from the protein keratin. iii. The covering of feathers on a bird is called the plumage. iv. Feathers are lightweight, yet tough. They have 2 primary functions that are essential for flight: 1. They expand the wings’ surface area to provide lift. 2. They insulate and prevent excessive heat loss. v. Accessory functions: 1. Feathers are also important in courtship, incubation, and water proofing. vi. Structure of a feather 1. A hollow quill emerges from tiny pits in the skin called follicles. 2. From each quill develops a shaft, which gives rise to a vane. 3. Each vane has many braches called barbs, which may also branch off into barbules with microscopic hooks called hamuli. 4. These feather structures interlock to keep feathers firm and smooth. vii. Types of feathers: 1.Contour feathers cover and streamline a bird’s body. a.These are also called flight feathers if they extend beyond the body. 2.Down feathers are soft and have no hooks on barbules; used for insulation. 3.Filoplume feathers are hair-like and used for sensory. 4.Powder-down feathers disintegrate as they grow, releasing powder that aids in waterproofing. viii.Preening 1.Birds rub their beak or bill over their feathers, keeps the feathers smooth, clean, and in place. 2.Secretions from the uropygial gland, informally known as the preen gland, at the base of the tail of many birds are spread over the feathers during preening to keep the plumage water repellant ix. Molting 1.All birds periodically shed and replace their feathers in a process called molting. 2.Usually feathers are discarded gradually to avoid bare spots. 3.Flight feathers & tail feathers are lost in pairs to maintain balance. 4.Many water birds, such as ducks, coots, and rails cannot fly during molt periods and will hide in thick marsh grasses.

Penguins have more feathers than most other birds, with about 100 feathers per square inch. Most penguin species go through one complete molt each year, usually after the breeding season. x. Feather Color 1.Color patterns are involved in cryptic coloration, species and sex recognition, and sexual attraction. 2.Colors in birds may be due to pigments or structure. a.Red, orange, & yellow are colored by pigments called lipochromes. b.Black, brown, & gray are produced by the pigment melanin. c. Blue is created structurally by the scattering of shorter wavelengths of light by particles within the feather. Himalayan monal Volcano Hummingbird (Lophophorus (Selasphorus flammula) impejanus) c. Skeleton i. A light yet strong skeleton is a requirement for flight. 1.Hollow bones, like the humerus (forearm), have large air spaces and internal strutting (reinforcing bony bars), which helps increase strength. ii. All birds have forelimbs modified into wings (although not always used for flight) iii. All have hind limbs adapted for walking, swimming, or perching; structure of bird feet shows considerable variation. iv. Flying birds have a keeled sternum that provides area for the large well- developed pectoral muscles to attach. v. Fusion of the thoracic, lumbar, and sacral vertebrae helps maintain the proper flight posture, and supports the hind appendages during landing, hopping, and walking. vi. The posterior caudal vertebrae are fused into a pygostyle, which helps support the tail feathers that are important in steering. d. Diet i. The keratinized beaks of birds are strongly adapted to specialized food habits. 1.Short and thick - seed cracking (robin) 2.Long and thin, slightly curved - eating nectar (hummingbird) 3.Strong, chisel like - drilling (woodpecker) 4.Sharp, curved and pointed - tearing flesh (hawk) 5.Long and flattened - straining algae and plants (ducks) 6.Spear shaped - spearing fish (heron) ii. Some birds are euryphagous (generalists), feeding on a wide range of food items. 1. While there is more competition for food, there is less danger of something happening to the food source. iii. Others are stenophagous (specialists), only feeding on one type of food. 1. There is less competition but more danger of losing the food source. iv. Early birds were carnivorous, feeding mostly on insects. 1. Many birds are still insectivores. 2. Other foods include nectar, seeds, berries, worms, crustaceans, mollusks, fish, frogs, small birds, and mammals. e. Digestion i. Birds digest food quickly; they can't afford the extra weight. ii. Birds have specialized bills to help them take bites, but they do not chew as humans do. iii. At the end of the esophagus of many birds is the crop, a stretchy organ used to store excess food so the bird can digest it more slowly. iv. The bird stomach has two compartments: 1. The proventriculus, the first part of the stomach, softens food with gastric acid, mucus and other digestive juices. 2. The second part of the stomach, the gizzard (or ventriculus), has muscular walls and grinds the food into smaller pieces, often with the aid of sand or small stones the bird has swallowed earlier to help this internal ‘chewing’ process. v. Once the food is sufficiently broken down, it moves into the small intestine, where the liver and pancreas help with absorbing nutrients. Most digestion occurs in the small intestine. vi. Next is the large intestine, which is very short for most birds. vii. Where the small and large intestines join are the ceca, two pouches that help absorb any remaining water from the food and finish the digestive process. viii. After digestion, any remaining material, both liquid and solid, food passes through the cloaca to be expelled from the bird's body. 1. For many birds, waste products can also be expelled from the gizzard in the form of pellets. 2. Owls, hawks, eagles and other raptors can’t digest the bones, fur, or feathers of their prey so these materials are bundled together to form a bolus and are regurgitated. Owl pellets can be used to determine what the owls in a particular area have been eating.

Barred Owl Regurgitating a Pellet Video

What Are Owl Pellets? Video f. Circulation i. Birds have a four-chambered heart with double- loop blood circulation. Completely separated atria and ventricles prevent any mixing of highly oxygenated blood with less oxygenated blood. ii. Birds have a fast heartbeat. iii. Blood cells of birds are different from mammals i. Bird red blood cells are nucleated and biconvex. Mammals are enucleated and biconcave. g. Respiration i. Birds have a highly adapted respiratory system adapted for the high metabolic demands of flight. ii. It consists of external nares which lead to nasal passageways and the pharynx. iii. Bone and cartilage support the trachea. iv. A special voice box, the syrinx, produces bird vocalizations. v. There is an extensive system of nine interconnecting air sacs that connect to the lungs. 1. Air flows to the posterior air sacs, to the lung, then to the anterior air sacs and out. It takes two breathing cycles to move air through the respiratory system. 2. The result is that there is an almost continuous stream of oxygenated air passing through the highly vascularized parabronchi. a. The bronchi of bird lungs are developed as tube-like parabronchi through which air can flow continuously. This is a huge advantage for breathing, instead of ending in alveoli (“dead end sacs”) like mammal lungs. Airs sacs also help decrease weight for flight. h. Excretion i. Nitrogenous wastes are secreted as uric acid rather than urea. ‘Urine’ is formed in large, paired kidneys, but there is no urinary bladder (stored urine would weigh a bird down). ii. Some birds, including marine birds, have a salt gland to help rid the body of excess salts which are excreted from the nostrils. Birds don't actually produce true urine. Instead they excrete nitrogenous wastes in the form of uric acid, which emerges as a white paste. i. Sensory i. Birds have well developed cerebral hemispheres, cerebellum (important for coordinating movement & balance), and optic lobes. ii. Birds have the keenest eyesight in the animal kingdom and also very good hearing. 1.Like humans, birds can see color, but most (including pigeons) can also see ultraviolet light – part of the light spectrum that humans can’t see. iii.Birds usually have poor sense of smell & taste. j. Thermoregulation i. Birds are endothermic homeotherms. ii. Birds maintain body temperatures between 104- 113 degrees. iii. Birds have a high metabolism and need a lot of energy for flight; therefore most birds have huge appetites. iv. Some birds will allow their body temperatures to drop on cool nights as they enter a state of torpor.

While the exact measurement varies for different bird species, the average bird's body temperature is 105 degrees Fahrenheit (40 degrees Celsius). k. Migration i. Migration refers to periodic round trips between breeding and nonbreeding areas. ii. Most migrations are annual, with nesting in northern regions and wintering in the south. iii. Advantages: 1. Migration provides parents with ample food to rear their young. 2. Predators of birds are not so abundant in the far North, and a brief once-a-year appearance of vulnerable young birds does not encourage buildup of predator populations. 3. Migration increases the amount of space available for breeding and reduces aggressive territorial behavior. 4. Migration allows birds to avoid climatic extremes. l. Reproduction i. Males lack a penis but have paired testes next to the kidneys. ii. In females, two ovaries form, but usually only the left ovary fully develops. iii. All birds are oviparous, which means they lay eggs that develop outside the body. iv. Mating- Two types of mating systems found in birds: Monogamy & Polygamy 1.Monogamy – each individual has one mate. Typically rare in animals, this is common in birds. a. Monogamy can be seasonal or lifelong. b. Monogamy is helpful because both parents usually help with nest building and care of the young. c. One parent incubates and protects while the other finds food. 2. Polygamy – each individual has more than one mate during a breeding season. a.Polygyny – one male, many females. Common in birds. Only females care for young. i. Polygyny tends to occur in species whose young are less dependent at hatching. b.Polyandry – one female, many males. v. Birds often engage in elaborate courtship behavior for mating purposes. 1.Examples of mating behaviors include building nests, dancing and posturing, bringing gifts, bright colorful displays, and singing. i. Nesting 1.The group of eggs laid and chicks produced by a female is called a clutch. a.Birds don’t have to lay as many eggs as fish and amphibians because they provide parental care, increasing the survival rate of offspring. 2.Most birds build nests in which to lay eggs. Often great care is taken to hide the nest, or make it inaccessible to predators. Most birds incubate their eggs. 3. Some birds have a featherless brood patch that helps keep the eggs between 91.4 - 98.6 degrees. 4. Birds turn the eggs to prevent egg membranes from sticking to and deforming the embryo. Adults of some species sprinkle eggs with water to cool and moisturize them. 5. One or two days before hatching, the young bird punctures the air sac in the egg, inflates its lungs, and starts breathing. Hatching occurs as the young bird pecks the shell and frees itself. 6. Some birds are helpless at hatching; others are more independent. a.Precocial young, such as ducks, water birds, fowl and quail are covered with down when they hatch and can walk or swim as soon as their down dries. Most precocial young must still be cared for by the parents for a time but can feed themselves. b.Altricial young are naked and unable to see or walk at hatching. They cannot feed themselves so parents must spend lots of time & energy bringing food to hatchlings. c. There is a continuum with the young of many species falling in between the two extremes. 7. When the young hatch, they usually must be fed by one or both parents. a.The crop of pigeons, doves, and some parrots produces “crop milk”, a cheesy secretion that young birds feed on until they can eat grain. a. Birds are members of Kingdom Animalia, Phylum Chordata, Subphylum Vertebrata, Class Aves. b. There are more than 9,000 different species of birds divided into 28 orders. i. Birds are organized into orders based on characteristic behaviors, songs, anatomical differences, and ecological niches. Order: Answeriformes Group Name: Waterfowl

• Aquatic diving birds. • Webbed toes for swimming. • Examples: Ducks, geese Order: Apodiformes Group Name: Hummingbirds & Swifts

• Legs so small they cannot walk on land. • Examples: Chimney Swift, Ruby-throated Hummingbird Order: Caprimulgiformes Group Name: Nightbirds

• Insectivorous and nocturnal. • Examples: Nightjars, potoos Order: Charadriiformes Group Name: Shorebirds

• Inhabit marshes and seashores throughout the world. • Examples: Gulls, Sandpipers Order: Ciconiiformes Group Name: Herons • Long-legged Waders. • Examples: Flamingos, Herons, Storks Order: Columbiformes Group Name: Pigeons

• Compact, plump birds. • Strong fliers and gather in flocks. • Examples: Pigeons, Doves Order: Coraciiformes Group Name: Kingfishers • Stocky, large head and large bill for eating fish. • Examples: kingfishers, bee-eaters, rollers, motmots Order: Cuculiformes Group Name: Cuckoos • Small to medium-sized land birds, with slightly curved and narrow bills that feed primarily on insects and insect larvae. • Examples: cuckoos, anis, roadrunners Order: Falconiformes Group Name: Birds of Prey

• Nicknamed “the lions of the air”. • Strong fliers with keen vision. • Examples: Eagles, Hawks, Falcons Order: Galliformes Group Name: Fowl or Game

• Often only limited flying ability, sometimes called "game birds". • Examples: Chickens, turkeys, pheasants Order: Gaviiformes Group Name: Loons • Can reach depths of 240 feet and stay underwater for 8 minutes. • Examples: Loons, divers Order: Gruiformes Group Name: Marsh birds • Ground-living marsh dwellers with long bills. • Examples: Cranes, Rails Order: Passeriformes Group Name: Songbirds • Largest order; perching feet & well- developed vocal cords. *includes more • Examples: Robins, crows than half of all bird species. Order: Pelecaniformes Group Name: Waterbirds • Medium-sized and large fish-eating waterbirds. • Examples: pelicans, tropicbirds, cormorants Order: Piciformes Group Name: Woodpeckers • Forest birds that nest in holes in trees and have highly specialized beaks. • Examples: Woodpeckers, Toucans Order: Podicipediformes Group Name: Grebes • Freshwater diving birds, some of which visit the sea when migrating and in winter. • Example: Grebe Order: Psittaciformes Group Name: Parrots • Brightly-colored vegetarians of the tropics. • Some can be taught to imitate human speech. • Examples: Parrots, Parakeets, Cockatoos Order: Sphenisciformes Group Name: Penguins • Aquatic, flightless birds • Live almost exclusively in the Southern Hemisphere, especially in Antarctica • Examples: Emperor, Galapagos, Rockhopper, Humboldt Order: Strigiformes Group Name: Owls • Nocturnal carnivores. Extraordinary good hearing and excellent night vision. • Examples: Barn Owl, Snowy Owl Order: Struthioniformes Group Name: Flightless birds

• Terrestrial flightless birds without a keeled breastbone. • Examples: Emus, Kiwis, Ostriches and Rheas a. Birds provide insect, rodent, and weed control. i. Insect outbreaks can annually destroy hundreds of millions of dollars of agricultural and forest products. Purple Martins have long been known as one of the most affective mosquito repellents and can substantially reduce the insect pest population without the health and environmental costs (not to mention the economic costs) of harmful pesticides. b. They distribute seeds and pollinate flowers. i. Birds have a good system for spreading seeds. They eat berries and then when they dispose of their waste, the berry seeds are disposed along with it. Bird feces provide good fertilization for the seeds with which they are dropped, giving seeds very good conditions with which to grow. c. They scavenge carcasses and recycle nutrients back into the earth. d. Food- An important part of the food web for many animals, including humans. i. Domestic fowl have been selectively bred for massive amounts of muscle (white meat). This is good for food, but poorly adapted for bird flight because it doesn’t have enough mitochondria for energy. e. Birds and their eggs are recognized as bioindicators of the state of the environment. i. Changes in bird populations are often the first indication of environmental problems. ii. DDT was used in the 1950s to kill mosquitoes/ malaria. DDT doesn't just kill bugs... it's harmful to all kinds of creatures, especially birds. By the 1960s DDT has worked its way up the food web (biomagnification) and resulted in thin egg shells of birds so when birds sat on them the eggshell broke, and there were no young produced, so the populations declined. DDT was banned in 1972. f. Birds are also used as symbols of freedom, strength, wisdom, and joy. i. In the U.S., every state has its own state bird. ii.Our national symbol, the Bald Eagle, invokes a level of pride that inspires many. Peregrine falcon - Falco peregrinus i. Known as the world’s fastest animal! ii.Hunts medium-sized birds, strikes prey at 180 mph, dropping down on them from high above in a spectacular stoop. iii.Falcons also have the best vision. The peregrine falcon is believed to be able to spot a pigeon from a distance of more than 5 miles under ideal conditions. iv.They were virtually eradicated from eastern North America by pesticide poisoning in the middle 20th century. After significant recovery efforts, Peregrine Falcons have made an incredible rebound and are now regularly seen in many large cities and coastal areas. Smallest bird: Male bee hummingbirds (Mellisuga helenae) • Live in Cuba • Weigh 0.056 ounces • Are 2.75 inches in length. • The bill and tail account for half of this length. Largest and strongest: North African ostrich (Struthio camelus) • Males can be up to 9 feet tall and weigh 345 pounds. • This bird also has the largest eyes of any land animal. Each eye can be up to 2 inches in diameter. • It is also the fastest running bird; the ostrich can run at speeds of up to 45 mph if necessary. • Lastly, ostriches lay the largest egg currently known (3.3 pounds). Longest Bill: Australian pelican (Pelicanus conspicillatus) • The bill of the Australian pelican is 13-18.5 inches long. Largest wingspan: Wandering albatross (Diomedea exulans)

• The wandering albatross has the largest wingspan of any living bird. As a result, it is an expert glider and it is capable of remaining in the air without beating its wings for several hours at a time. • The largest known specimen was an extremely old male with and 11 ft. 11 in. wingspan. It was caught in the Tasman Sea in September 1965. • It has also been known to sleep while it flies! Created by Melissa Abrams of Biology Zoology Forensic Science https://www.teacherspayteachers.com/Store/Biology-Zoology-Forensic-Science Copyright © June 2012 – present. All rights reserved by author.

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