Greek Women and Religion, Modern and Ancient: Festivals and Cults Connected with the Female Sphere, a Comparison

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GREEK WOMEN AND RELIGION, MODERN AND ANCIENT: FESTIVALS AND CULTS CONNECTED WITH THE FEMALE SPHERE, A COMPARISON

Evy Johanne Håland Independent researcher (Dr in History), Bergen

The following article is mainly based being lascivious occasions, without perspective, which is very similar to the upon studies in non-Cypriot Greek any particular importance. Western male perspective generally culture, modern and ancient, but The following article argues that applied within Greek studies, has to be despite of regional variation, Greece these statements from Western schol- deconstructed. 3 and Cyprus belong to the same Greek ars need to be nuanced. It is impor- and wider Mediterranean cultural tant to change our approach when Women and the female area. Thus, by way of a comparative working with ancient culture. This sphere theoretical approach, the study seeks may be done, by using a compara- In the so-called patriarchal Mediter- to be a contribution to new perspecti- tive anthropological approach. The ranean society, women are associated ves on the material from the Swedish article demonstrates how this may be with practical religion. Fertility-cult, Cyprus Expedition.1 concretised by conducting fi eldwork healing and death-cult are deeply Many studies have been occupied on religious festivals in present-day’s connected with the domestic sphere, with women and religion in ancient Greece. They are compared with where women are the dominating Greece. Even if women were conduct- similar ancient festivals through an power. “The female sphere” is im- ing important religious festivals and analysis of the fertility-cult, which is portant when studying such personal rituals, most researchers claim that important in the festivals. Based on phenomena in life as ideologies and their activities were performed under the importance of this cult, the article mentalities, represented by religion, male dominance, since women were tries to consider the female part of behaviour, values, customs, faith, wor- circumscribed and constrained by society, since women are the central ship, popular beliefs, etc. We discover domesticity. From the archaic period, performers of the actual cult which is that what we usually call “macro-“ and their religious rituals were curbed of focal importance within the offi cial “micro-society”, i.e. the “public” and or “appropriated”. The male control and male value-system, a value-system “domestic spheres”, in fact have dif- of woman was the cornerstone, the which the festivals and the society that ferent meanings to what is generally social and cultural prerequisite for they refl ect, traditionally have been assumed. In Greece, we do not fi nd the construction of civilization, as considered from, and which therefore the “little” society or “only the family” presented in Aeschylus’, the Orestia.2 has to be supplied by a female point at home; rather, this is where we meet The cult of the dying god Adonis of view. By taking account of the so- the “great” society. Therefore, it is im- and Aphrodite was important both called female sphere, which still exists portant to search out to what extent in Greece proper and Cyprus, but in the Mediterranean society generally the offi cial ideology is dependent on according to Marcel Detienne’s (1989, and in Greece and Cyprus particularly, these cults, and thereby the female originally 1972) ideological patriarchal we may also learn a useful way to try sphere to manifest itself. and puritan view, the Adōnia festival to consider the female part of soci- The “male sphere” is usually con- was celebrated mainly by courtesans, ety. But, by so doing the offi cial male nected with the offi cial world, and the

Medelhavsmuseet 101 with birth, nurturance and the care for the dead; they are feeding and nourishing mothers, and by these encompassing activities they manage and control the fundamental course of life. Many symbols and rituals in the festivals illustrate this. These symbols and rituals are usually regarded as, and are female “domains”. By analysing some of their relevant aspects, the hope is to grasp further into the meaning and importance of the mentioned customs and values related to fundamental principles, within the “ideological entirety” a festival often is perceived as, as well as male texts, since their interest and theme is the male ideology. Women in Greece have a double Fig. . “Female sphere” in public space: the graveyard, a space controlled by women. consciousness about their own exist- (Author’s photograph) ence and about men’s representations of it. Therefore, it is of focal importance to conduct ﬁ eldwork among female with the domestic world, but as circumstances, be blurred. In reality, women and men when working with already stated, this does not imply that the world of the domestic and familial ancient sources, since they with very the female sphere is marginal and the or the world of women, i.e. the female few exceptions are written by men, and other not, as some researchers have sphere, is covering a more extended the goal is to represent a whole and claimed.4 Marginalization is a spatial area and has greater power than gener- not only a limping and partial society. metaphor and depends on where ally assumed. you are standing. This means that the Generally, Greek women and their From the cyclical festivals centre in a Greek village can be both life have been analysed from a West- of the agricultural calendar the central village square, “the man’s ern (male) standard. Based on these world” (cf. Ar. Eccl. 154 f. for a paral- theories, both ancient and modern to fertility-cult lel), and the kitchen hearth or court- Greek women have been categorized The festival is an important means of yard, important spaces that women as unfree, dependent, secluded and communication, an offering or a gift, control. When studying Greek village not living a worthy life. Accounts of most often dedicated to a deceased life, anthropologists have considered women written by men, and many guardian of society, alone or together the two spheres of male and female academic women, may portray them with a god(dess), for instance to the importance in terms of “public” and as passive or subservient. But, if the modern Panagia (the Virgin Mary, cf. “private”, home and outside home, goal is to conduct research from the Fig. 2) or to the ancient goddesses, but there are also public spaces where female sphere in Greece, the picture Demeter (Plut. Mor. 378e–f69, cf. women dominate, one of these is the may change, since Greek women Hymn. Hom. Cer. 273 f.), Athena (Hom. graveyard (Fig. 1). So, when working may have other values. 5 In this way, Il. 2.546–551) or Aphrodite.6 In the with this material, one realizes that the we may get new perspectives on our festivals, we ﬁ nd fertility- and death- division in a male and female sphere ancient texts as well. cult as well as healing (cf. also Håland in Greek society may, under certain In Greece, women are connected 2005 and 2006a).

102 Greek Women and Religion, Modern and Ancient: Festivals and Cults Fig.  During the festival celebrating the Dormition of the Panagia on Tinos, on  August, her miraculous icon (image) of the Annunciation (Euangelistrias) is carried in procession, and also over the sick and women wanting to conceive. (Photograph by Hartmut Müller-Stauﬀ enbe rg)

The analysis of the fertility-cult the fertility of the society through the ensure the harvest. Accordingly, rain- demonstrates how fertility is con- communication with stronger pow- magic dedicated to a heavenly god nected to the deceased and the powers, fi rst and foremost, Mother Earth. is a generally theme in the festivals, ers in the subterranean world where Her importance parallels the woman’s particularly around the most impor- life begins, according to the cyclical who is the central performer of the tant periods during the agricultural symbolism, which is central in Greek cults, which are important in the year: sowing (autumn) and sprouting culture. The deceased mediator also festivals, because they are connected (spring). From this fact follows the receives a blood sacrifi ce, the ritual to the female sphere. The Greeks signifi cance of the Sacred Marriage, slaughter of an animal, which after- conceive the Earth as a woman’s body hieros gamos. As the ploughing is about wards is consumed as a communal and the agricultural year as a woman’s to begin, traditionally a ritualistic meal by the participants of the festi- life. The Earth is also seen as the ploughing takes place accompanied val. The communication is presented female sex organ. But, the Earth rep- or followed by a hieros gamos, the on several levels. The dead receives resents only one of the two parts of purpose of which is to re-enact the the offering in order to provide for the nature, who has to be invoked to union of the Corn Mother or Mother

Medelhavsmuseet 103 Earth with her own son, the corn- year’s cycle replaces the male period, tically be reproduced, if we only base seed, in order to make the ground because the woman is looked upon as our research on the male ideological fertile. The connection between birth the productive partner in a relation- sphere and a male value-system. Most and death is also symbolised through ship in the Mediterranean area. The of the scholars working with ancient the annual death and resurrection of mid-winter-festivals are celebrated society present similar male values, the lovers of the Mother Goddesses, around solstice and the fi rst sprouting for example Detienne (1989) and F. such as the vegetation god, Adonis. of the grains. The end of winter or the Zeitlin (1984, cf. supra and infra). By The fertility-cult is connected with birth of spring is celebrated around transferring ourselves to the female important life-cycle passages, since spring equinox, following are summer sphere, the picture changes, because the festivals are celebrated at impor- solstice, the “fi rst-fruit”. The offi cial we learn that what seemed peripheral tant passages of the agricultural cycle, ideological rituals are adapted to the from the male sphere, becomes the and the agricultural year is repre- agricultural calendar. centre. We also fi nd other values. By sented in terms of the life of a Mother taking account of both spheres, we Goddess. All the religious festivals are realize that they are complementary. connected with an important passage The “annual calendar”/ Both have an important share in the in the cycle of nature and a passage in “cyclical model” of the processes of sexual reproduction and the life-cycle of a divine person. Today, Kabyles and its relation to agricultural production on which their the Panagia is important. In ancient the Greek context livelihoods depend. Consequently, the Greece it was particularly manifested The yearly cyclic calendar or “synop- one-sided analysis Bourdieu presents through the Homeric Hymn dedicated tic diagram of pertinent oppositions” of the diagram has to be read from to the Corn Mother, Demeter. which Pierre Bourdieu has drawn another approach. Men fear the The cyclical perspective is central up for the Kabyles in North-Africa, power of women in connection with in connection with the festivals of is a Mediterranean cultural pattern the realities of life related to death, the agricultural year. After harvest which may be used comparatively birth and healing, and this knowledge and the threshing of the grain, the on Greek material. The male-female makes her subordinate to man accor- dead period of the grains’ cycle (cf. division, which he presented earlier, ding to the offi cial male ideology of Bourdieu 1980) starts in August. At is now represented as a gendered “honour and shame”. We learn this, by the end of the dog days, by the end of cyclical model, where the elements of analysing the calendar from a chthonic the month, the modern festival dedi- the male-female division or opposed perspective. cated to the Dormition of the Pana- principles are placed in layers.7 The gia marks a turning point towards calendar presents the agricultural year, From the honour of autumn, when the transitional period and the relations between humans masculinity toward a poetics towards the “productive part” of the and nature. It also has importance agricultural year is about to begin for the ideal male “honour and shame”- of womanhood, or a chthonic again. Roughly at the same time, the dichotomy vis-à-vis the actual gende- perspective ancient Panathenaia dedicated to the red relations in society. By studying When reading the works written goddess Athena, was celebrated by the calendar in combination with by most of the Western scholars the end of the fi rst month of the offi - focal aspects in the ancient Athenian describing ancient Greek women, I cial Athenian year. The other festivals and the modern Greek festival calen- recall the downtrodden and reclusive deal with other important passages, as dars, and from a non-androcentric female creatures presented by several the sowing when Panagia’s Presenta- perspective, the result will differ from ethnographers. Earlier male and often tion in the Temple is celebrated, and Bourdieu’s. There is only a male female ethnographers’ writings on the marks the beginning of the winter-pe- dominance (as he claims in his article Mediterranean used to emphasize ne- riod as the Thesmophoria did in an- from 1990 and the book from 1998) gative aspects of women because they cient Greece. Now, the “female”, wet from a dominant androcentric focus, based their analysis on the androcen- and fertile period in the agricultural or male ideology, which will automa- tric ideology of “honour and shame”

104 Greek Women and Religion, Modern and Ancient: Festivals and Cults which are conventional male values, children, performing death-rituals. a woman” in Greece. These topics centred around cultural conceptions Women we meet in modern Greece have relevance to the ancient material of gender and sexuality. Their male are often strong personalities and when we try to change our approach. informants presented them to an active participants in social life. They The female body provides a sig- ideal, which is strikingly similar to the are often stronger and more assured nifi cant source for social symbolism: It ideal found in ancient sources written than women we know from our own plays an important role in the “poetics by men.8 Nevertheless, because of the societies, and far from the suppressed, of womanhood”, because bodies have traditional separation between female downtrodden and reclusive creatures social meanings that may be used in and male spheres in the area, this presented by several ethnographers. public performances. In Greece, the means that they were not very quali- They run their households with a fi rm female body both creates and repre- fi ed to inform us about women. With hand, and exhibit self-confi dence. The sents the family and social relations few exceptions, they were not very topics analysed from the festivals: in a variety of contexts. By wearing interested in women’s tasks either, and the importance of fertility-cult, and black mourning clothes when a family what they eventually said was often thus the female body, motherhood, member dies, women become highly coloured with uncertainty or disdain, sexuality, women’s general activities visible symbols of mourning, hence most often resulting from ignorance. in the religious sphere, are important of the kinship relations between the Therefore, it is important to regard means of manifesting “a poetics of deceased and the living. This impor- our case from another perspective womanhood”, according to which the tance of the women’s black mourning to try to counteract this history of essential thing is to “be good at being clothes is stated in ancient traditional contempt. It may also be possible to dissolve some of the paradoxes and ambiguities in the male-produced texts. While carrying out fi eldwork among women, and considering their own value-system, the picture may change. Even if Greek women may subscribe to the male ideological “honour and shame” model, they have their own values in addition to, or running contrary to the male view, depending of how the male view suits their own thinking. That women experience the world differ- ently from men is diffi cult to discern from ancient male-produced sources. Women also have female knowledge. Based on the values of modern Greek women, it may be called a poetics of womanhood, and the point is how women can present public performances of being good at being a woman,9 for example when performing fertility-rituals in agricultural or Fig. . A mother crawling on her knees to the church dedicated to the procreation contexts, using magic Panagia on Tinos with a sick child on her back in the hope of healing. such as in healing contexts, nursing (Author’s photograph)

Medelhavsmuseet 105 sources from Homer (Il. 24.93), but on her knees to the church with a The ritual and symbols parallels the is criticized by Plutarch (Mor. 608f4). sick child on her back in the hope of tree with offerings of cloth outside of Complaints about suffering are espe- healing, but the action takes validity the catacomb of Agios (Saint) Solo- cially expressed by women lamenting through the sacrifi ce and suffering of moni in Kato Paphos on Cyprus, the their dead. They also suffer in pil- the self on behalf of others (Fig. 3). descent to the cave and the “sacred” grimage. But in relation to problems Through the maternal role, the water at the bottom. As in connec- of everyday life, we meet the same mother’s own body is constantly tion with other Greek sanctuaries, complaints, since they call attention offered as a sacrifi ce, and this sacri- the sick person leaves the illness (i.e. to what they must endure in order fi ce may be dramatized in women’s the cloth) in the tree dedicated to the to carry out their roles as wives and pilgrimage to the shrine dedicated saint, particularly on the feast-day, mothers. All the examples are parts of to the Annunciation of the Pana- thus paralleling the cloth-offerings to the available “cultural material” upon gia on the Aegean island of Tinos. Demeter and Kore after the initiation which women may draw for the crea- Actually, many of them are coming at Eleusis.10 tion of “the poetics of womanhood”. from Cyprus (cf. n.1). Arriving at the It is important to understand the Suffering as expressed through verbal church, it is important to fetch holy cultural meaning of emotion (Hom. complaint, the body, ritual actions, is wonderworking earth and water from Il. 22.33–90; Sappho. Fr. 83), which is an expression of social identity among the chapel dedicated to the “Life- different from the Western ideologi- women. This is illustrated by Sappho giving Spring”, which is formed as a cal focus on suppressing and hiding (Fr. 103) when saying: “The delicate cave. The black pilgrim-clothes are emotions and suffering. In Greece, Adonis is dying, Cythera; what can left as dedications in the next chapel. a suffering mother may therefore we do? Beat your breasts, maidens, present public performances in “being and rend your garments.” good at being a woman”. Her “public” The idiom of suffering is par- audience most often is other women, ticularly important in the context of who share her “public” space, interests women’s roles. For many women, the and value-system, and therefore are points of both tension and fulfi l- interested in competing her per- ment centre around motherhood formance in “being good at being a and familial responsibilities. For woman”, as in other respects, when women, especially the body plays an they display, at home or publicly on important role in these expressions “their tombs” at the memorials at of suffering, whether it is through the the cemetery, when displaying their wearing of black mourning clothes, or cooking abilities through the sumptu- the numerous expressions of the ways ous cakes offered (cf. Fig. 5). They women suffer in the process of bodily may be compared with the selected reproduction. In modern Greece, we women who baked the offering cakes meet the importance of ponō, suf- at the Panathenaia. Women seek to fering or feeling pain as one of the outdo each other in “being good at important ways of expressing the being a woman”. Their “public” audi- “poetics of womanhood”. In ancient ence, competitors and most critical society, ponos described motherly Fig. . A votive off ering (in the form commentators are other women who suffering generally, and for Plutarch of a doll) dedicated to the Panagia (the share the same value-system and (Mor. 496d-e, cf. 771b), and Sappho Virgin Mary) from one of the many interests. We meet the same picture (Fr. 42, cf. 28, 118b). The same word pilgrims arriving from Cyprus to the in ancient society when women Aegean island of Tinos. A “scar” on the signifi es a woman in labour. In con- doll’s head illustrates where the Panagia dedicated offerings on tombs, dis- temporary Greece, a woman makes is begged to heal the wounded child. played their clothes and other objects a public performance when crawling (Author’s photograph) competitively and publicly (Plut. Vit.

106 Greek Women and Religion, Modern and Ancient: Festivals and Cults Sol. 21.4 f., Mor. 142c30; SIG³1218). Their desired audience was not men, but other women who shared their values. Ancient women going on pilgrimage (Plut. Mor. 253f, 953c-d), celebrating the female festival called the Thesmophoria (Mor. 378e69) and other festivals, such as the Adōnia (Theoc. Id. 15; Men. Sam. 35–50; Plut. Vit. Alc. 18.2 f., Vit. Nic. 13.5–7; see also supra and infra) were parallels to the modern women going to Tinos during the Dormition of the Panagia or celebrating the midwife, Babo (Agia/Saint Domenika), in the village of Monokklēsia in Northern Greece (Fig. 6). In the festival dedicated to Babo, sexual objects and obscenities are of greatest importance, thus paralleling ancient similar festivals in which women took the leading roles. A nursing mother demonstrates particularly how to “be good at being a woman”, both in modern and ancient Greece, and she nurses both in life and death.11 Mothers are nursing and feeding in public in a society where she according to the male ideology of “honour and shame” has to cover her body, which is not always the case either now or in ancient Greece. There is a female world-view and language, which differs from men’s (Håland 2006b). Traditionally women have used weaving to tell stories, such as Helena (Hom. Il. 3.125–128) and Penelope (Hom. Od. 1.356–358; ARV² 1300, 2). The rituals surrounding the loom are parallels to those of the Fig. . Women and children rushing to the cemetery with sweets and cakes, in sexual act (marriage), birth, childrear- the village of Olympos on the island of Karpathos. (Author’s photograph) ing, and death, since it is the life-cycle which is represented. We meet a world-frame constituted by women within an ostensibly male-dominated society (cf. Messick 1987). Through women’s laments, festivals (Fig. 6) and

Medelhavsmuseet 107 daily life we fi nd a “female universe”, where female activities exclude men, where the frame of reference is not their male relatives’, but rules and criteria established within this female universe. The importance of women’s central roles does not necessarily imply that women are offi cial priestesses. Some ancient women could hold offi ce as priestesses, but as already stated, the point is the importance of changing our perspective and value- system.12 When dealing with women and religion, we do not necessarily have to refer to priestesses, women do more than that, for example in the home and at the cemetery where they are the performers of the laments, tend the graves and conduct the memorials for the dead. We may get an understanding of the importance of the roles in ancient society through the comparison with modern festivals, where women perform important rituals, for example through the crawling which is important at Tinos to assure the well-being of the family. But also through the other rituals which women only can carry out. Women are still taking care of the cult of the family, both in the home and in connection with the rituals performed at the cemetery and in the church before and after the ceremonies of the priests. By focussing on the meaning of these rituals, we change focus from a man’s world to a woman’s world, considering values and cults, which are important to women, for example Fig. . Women celebrating the midwife, Babo (Agia/Saint Domenika), fertility-cult.13 In a broader perspec- in the village of Monokklēsia, Northern Greece. By washing Babo’s tive we realize that this cult also has hands, each woman anticipates the day when the midwife will assist her in childbirth. (Author’s photograph) importance for the offi cial ideology. On may question the statement that “women participating at festivals are not necessarily representatives

108 Greek Women and Religion, Modern and Ancient: Festivals and Cults for women’s daily life situation”. The the continuity of society through the Athenian Acropolis (Paus. 1.21.3) to reason is that it does not seem that reproduction, for example as symbo- keep the enemy away. Herakles, the the festival is “a change of air” for lic votive offerings dedicated to the super-hero, also had a Medusa on women generally confi ned to their sanctuaries of Mother Goddesses, his shield. One way of explaining own sphere within the “private” particularly Aphrodite, also worship- what may seem to be a contradiction houses, living a totally secluded life, as ped as Birth-Goddess, by her aspects is the uncertainty, curiosity but also some researchers have claimed. On as Genetrix (giving birth) and Gene- fear men have in front of the general the contrary, it seems that their daily tyllis (goddess of one’s birth-hour). invisibility around the female genital. life situation is intensifi ed during the Statuettes of Aphrodite showing the It becomes an entity hidden for the festivals. Women are the guardians of goddess raising her dress to display male culture. In this mysterious cave, their family’s spiritual health, given the the pubic hair, a gesture known as ana- a place that is inaccessible to man’s role of prayers and vows in healing syrmene (“exposure”) which empha- sight, life emerges. Accordingly, the and protection. Accordingly, modern sises women’s sexual and reproductive enemies are frightened by the life they women visit the cemetery nearly every role, were often included in dowries, want to conquer. day; they light the oil lamp or candle presumably to symbolize the bride’s We fi nd a physical, ritual coun- in front of the family icons (images), sexual and reproductive maturity. The terpart to the secret place of women, and thus, parallel ancient women also female sex organ also has an apotro- from which their fertility secrets taking care of the household cult. The paic aspect for coping with war and to derive, in the underground “rooms” relations with the divine powers still ward off other dangers. Greek myt- (megara), the entrances to the womb are everyday activities. Religion and hology is haunted by the importance of the earth, which are central in the rituals represented in the festivals of the female body and the female sex several Demetrian festivals, but also and in connection with the life-cycle organ, as when Zeus needs help from in rituals dedicated to other Mother passages are an “overdose”/intensifi ca- his mother to vanquish his father, and Goddesses, such as Aphrodite. She tion of the rituals performed in daily later “swallows” the goddess Metis to is particularly connected with female life.14 Today, this is illustrated by the be almighty, and subsequently gives space and symbolism, as illustrated mother calling her daughter home in birth to Athena from his own head. by the temple of Aphrodite Hierokēpia the late afternoon, and thus loudly and But, Athena also has another birth- of Paphos, the centre and origin of publicly proclaiming what may be a place, at Lake Tritonis. This signifi es her cult,15 and her Athenian peribolos Greek woman’s most signifi cant status, that she is born from or at a meadow. in the sanctuary dedicated to “Aph- that of a mother. Women are also A meadow (i.e. leimōn) symbolizes rodite in the Gardens”, en Kēpois responsible for the general well-being the female sex organ (cf. Motte 1973), (Paus. 1.27,3) also connected with of their families. During the festivals, and represents a parallel to the cult a cave. There is a correspondence their collective ritual performances are of the phallus. Several tales tell about between these grottos and a woman’s important to ensure the food for the brave women exposing their private sex organ. Women may be regarded community. parts to ward off enemies (Plut. Mor. as possessing the “secret” of fertility, 246a, 248b), and those who by other as they “know how” to give birth, a means (“cunning”, cf. Plut. Vit. Thes. process which man inevitably fi nds From fertility-cult towards 19.1) solve crises in society, like a mysterious, because he cannot expe- typical mother at home. This eventual rience it. Feminine anatomy is more an alternative woman- and “vulva-envy” of woman’s proper- “secret” than masculine. That women gender research ties does not necessarily contradict have knowledge of secrets derives Earlier writings on ancient Greek cul- that we most often meet a sort of from their anatomy, from the fact ture have focussed their attention on “vulva-fear”, clearly symbolized by the that they have a “secret place”, the the importance of the phallus (Keuls importance of the head of Medusa, womb, where miraculous things goes 1993). On the other hand, the female i.e. the apotropaic importance of the on, and of course it is assumed that sex organ is also important to secure female sex organ on the walls of the women understand these miraculous

Medelhavsmuseet 109 events better than do men. This idea of ancient women than the negative parallel to the male god needing the is still found in the cliché that “a or ambiguous view we get from their earth to care for his seed: The earth woman always knows”, or “woman’s male contemporaries, a view which cannot bring forth without rain (Paus. intuition”. naturally has been passed down by 1.24,3), as the male seed needs a ma- The female body symbolizes eve- men. From this perspective, many ternal nourishing womb to be placed rything connected with conception, sources get new actuality, especially in. The female functions of reproduc- nourishment and birth. It is assumed when one may fi nd similar meanings tion are important for male thinking. as a container, but also as a micro- between the lines as the ones modern The archaic and later lawgivers cosm. The so-called “standard Greek society presents through the impor- (Plut. Vit. Sol. 12.4 f., 21.4 f.; SIG³1218, representation of fertility” (Pl. Menex. tance of the wombs, the association cf. Plut. Mor. 608f-611b) attempted 238a), puts fertility in the hands of between woman and the “inside”. In to curb women’s rituals where their woman or in her womb, according other words, there were several com- connection with birth and death or to the logic behind the “Life-giving plementary hypothesis of impregna- the mysteries of life was prominent. Spring” (i.e. Zōodochos Pēgē), also one tion/fertilization in ancient society.17 It has also been claimed that ancient of Panagia’s attributes. In antiquity, That the ancient male writers were Athenian Democracy was based the term pēgē (spring/source) was concerned with the importance of the on the appropriation of the female used for goddesses as Hera and womb and its relation to the female combined with the subjugation of Magna Mater. Nevertheless, most body, is indicated by all the explana- women.20 The deprivation was espe- female researchers have regarded tions of womb and menstruation, or cially connected to women’s rituals in the association between woman, jar the factors which distinguish women the sphere of death-cult. Through the or terracotta vessels, womb and the from men, i.e. the way they indicate creation of the Epitaphios Logos, the earth in ancient sources written by the female sex.18 Mētrā, womb, is de- offi cial classical male funeral oration men (Aesch. Eum. 658–666; Pl. Ti. rived from mētēr mother, a term also which focused on praise of the dead 49a, 51a; Arist. Gen. An. 716a6–24, signifying the matrix. Food is identi- and tragedy, the Greek polis or “men’s cf. 765b10–26, 727b31–34; Plut. fi ed with the mother (Eur. Hec. 424) club” appropriated the function of and Mor. 366a, cf. 372e–f, 373f, 374b, as the earth (Hes. Op. 305-307), and condemned the excesses of women’s 368b–d), as demonstrations of male these basic substances are of great- laments.21 Thereby, the importance dominance. The assertions about the est importance for the paternal race. of the polis was manifested, and the central role of man in the procrea- Accordingly, Demeter taught man male polis appropriated an important tion process (Aesch. Eum. 658–666), grain cultivation (Diod. 5.5,2; Paus. female language, the way women have been labelled the “victory of 1.14,2 f., cf. Hymn. Hom. Cer. 473 ff.). In traditionally have addressed the dead. patriarchy”.16 This may be seen from Cyprus the word for harvesting corn But, when men attempt to appropri- a new perspective, while compared (e.g. gather in the fruits of the earth) is ate women’s domains, as illustrated with the importance of the womb in damatrizein (Hsch. s. v.). Thus, it was through the classical tragedy’s (Aesch. Greek culture. a simple step for Demeter and her Cho. 22–31, 327–339) and funeral ora- In modern Greece, we have the daughter to be used as metonyms for tion’s (Thuc. 2.34–46) “appropriation” possibility to discern women’s say- corn and fl our.19 of women’s traditional laments, this ings from men’s, and we learn that The thesis claiming that the demonstrates an acknowledgement coming from the same womb, is as Western philosophy from antiquity to of the importance of women’s ritu- important among women as belong- Lacan has conquered the female body als. Athens (male) attempts to curb ing to the same blood amongst men, through “the sowing of it” (duBois women’s festivals and laments which a clear reference to the fact that only 1988) needs to be modifi ed, because posed a threat to the offi cial society, motherhood is publicly verifi able this “phallocentric” “appropriation” of were probably only partly successful, (du Boulay 1984). Perhaps this view the female body has to be substituted since it has been stated that the same found among modern Greek women by the fact that they need the female process happened in the Byzantine is more conform with the reasoning body to explain everything. It is a and modern periods when new

110 Greek Women and Religion, Modern and Ancient: Festivals and Cults attempts to curb women’s laments Adonis appears in Greek literature One may challenge this assertion by became important. The picture from and art from the beginning of the 6th claiming that this “establishment” the Christian era is not very different century B.C. onwards when contacts (actually an elaboration of existing from it’s forerunner: women were still with Cyprus are certain. The death cults) was an offi cial approval of the lamenting, and the female laments of the young Adonis and the laments power of woman for the maintenance continued to our own days, since of Aphrodite was celebrated annually of society, her power over life and women’s laments and other rituals (Ov. Met. 10.725–727) in Asia Minor death, and the signifi cance of women’s remained essential parts of the death- and the Greek cultural area (cf. Luc. rituals for polis’ survival. The grief and rituals of rural Greece. Syr. D. 6). The cult was particularly fury of the Mother Goddess, Demeter, Comparisons with modern society connected with women. According to when her daughter has been married show that the tragedies demonstrate the late Greek lexicographer Photios, off without her consent, threatens the importance of women in other ar- (s.v. Adōnia) the Adōnia festival is said to destroy humanity, since she hides eas than politics, for example in rituals by some to be in honour of Adonis, the corn and the earth cannot send it connected with the life-cycle passag- by others of Aphrodite, and that it back up (Hymn. Hom. Cer. 305 ff., 332, es. The rituals conducted by women is derived from the Phoenicians and 353, 450–453, cf. Paus. 8.42,2). Accord- plays a central role in most tragedies, Cyprians (cf. Pl. Leg. 738c). According ingly, she has to be “softened up” with demonstrating the importance of the to two inscriptions (IG II² 1261.9–11, several festivals during the agricultural Greek household, oikos the domestic 1290.10), thiasos for Aphrodite and year, in order that polis may survive, world, for the polis. One may claim Adōnia-procession were organized and the corn grow (Hymn. Hom. that men have the executive power by Cypriotes (cf. IG II² 1290.3 f.) in Cer. 460-471, cf. 268–274, 292–298, through the offi cial political male Pireus by the end of the 4th and the 470–479). The male society’s wish sphere, but there are also other arenas middle of the 3rd centuries B.C. The to control fertility by using chthonic for power. rituals, which the male society has goddesses in their service is diffi cult That public rituals where women attempted to curb several times dur- to achieve in practical life (cf. Aesch. were the central executors of power ing Greek history, are women’s rituals Eum. 990 f., 1018–1031). have so great importance in the connected with the life-cycle passages In Greece proper, the Adonis cult tragedies does not harmonize with related to weddings and funerals, and was often regarded as “eastern cult” by the alleged reduced “status” of women festivals such as the ancient Adōnia, the male-produced sources, as Plutar- in fi fth-century Athens. Generally thus making obvious the connection ch (Mor. 756c) and Aristophanes (Lys. and based on conventional theories between possession, in the Diony- 387–398). The very feature of the cult about “the logic of rites of reversal”, sian sense, and laments for the dead of Adonis, are the “Adōnidos kēpoi” or one may claim that they are pre- god (cf. Ar. Lys. 387–396 [8]). Along “Adonis gardens”. (Hsch. s.v. Adōnidos sented on the stage, and subsequently with other legislators, Solon (Plut. kēpoi). According to Hesychios the pushed back to their ordinary roles, Vit. Sol. 21.4 f., cf. 12.5) declared that women bring out images, eidōla, and as in later carnival rituals.22 This is women displayed an “excessive” gardens in terracotta vessels and they only the case if the material is read behaviour through their traditional prepare for Adonis gardens with all from a male perspective, according laments for the dead, which induced types of vegetation, such as fennel and to which power is defi ned as govern- “madness”; their grief for the dead lettuce; for they say that he was laid ing polis offi cially. But who governed god was carried to extremes. Several out by Aphrodite among the lettuce. polis? The powerful female characters researchers have also claimed that According to Plato (Phdr. 276b61), as frequently challenge the male polis, the establishment of the Thesmopho- well as several other ancient authors and tragic men often come to new ria and the Eleusinian mystery cults however, the seedlings in the gardens understandings through a feminizing were a calculated compensation for of Adonis do not reach fruition, but process, most often by realizing that women’s lost authority in the ritu- signifi es sterility, they are perishable the male polis depends on the female als of the dead, one, which placed and useless. Ovid (Met. 10.298–739) oikos for its survival and prosperity. their activities under state control.23 also gives an ideological androcentric

Medelhavsmuseet 111 presentation of the Adonis myth. Their viewpoint has been taken at face value by researchers, such as Detienne (1989), claiming that the Adonis myth and ritual has nothing to do with fertility, but, on the contrary, announces seduction and sterility. In other words, these clear evidences of Edward Said’s “orientalism” from ancient sources also parallel modern accounts based upon the male “honour and shame” perspective: The cult was imported from Cyprus, a place famous for the cult of Aphrodite and holy prostitution, general oriental practice (cf. further Hdt. 1.199 and Detienne 1989), thus ignoring that already Solon legalized prostitution and founded a temple of Aphrodite Pandemos (Ath. 13.569d), the one who embraces the whole people as the common bond and fellow-feeling necessary for the existence of any state. It should also be stressed that contrary to Detienne’s claims, the only female Adōnia celebrant attested in ﬁ fth century Athens is a citizen- wife (Ar. Lys. 387-398). As with other festivals, the Adōnia was celebrated by different categories of women (cf. Men. Sam. 35–50). 24 However, in con- trast to the aforementioned sources, Sappho’s fragmentary lines as well as vase-paintings (ARV² 1482,I, ARV² 1482,5) present another reality. From these and other sources (cf. Theoc. Id. 15), we learn that the religious ritual which was performed with the gardens, their ingredients, and all the other aspects, such as plants associated with Adonis, are related Fig. . Lamenting women in front of the Epitaphios (Christ’s funeral), to fertility, puriﬁ cation and healing. Good Friday in the church of Olympos. (Author’s photograph) Thus, one may consider the importance of Aphrodite and the vegetative function of Adonis, without ending up with reproducing a “Frazerian ideol-

112 Greek Women and Religion, Modern and Ancient: Festivals and Cults ogy”. The most interesting feature of Pl. Resp. 377c, cf. Leg. 790 and Plut. festival was celebrated, it was held the cult, the “Adonis gardens” enjoyed Mor. 609e), and modern (Gilmore not in Pnyx, it’s normal setting, but a long life in the ancient Mediter- 1987) society. Their experiences from in the theatre (see Winkler 1990, 194 ranean world, and is still a popular early childhood may have caused for IG II² 1006.50–51, cf. Xen. Hell. Easter custom of the Greek Orthodox that their attempts to appropriate 5.2,29). So, the men’s political busi- Church (Pilitsis 1985). The Epitaphios women’s institutions never succeeded: ness was displayed by the women’s (Christ’s funeral)-ritual (cf. Fig. 7) and In present-day’s Athens, the ceremony higher duties to Demeter and her importance of its vegetative decora- of the offi cial male church during grain, to ensure the food. The polis tion also parallels the ancient Adōnia. psychosabbata (All Souls’ Day) is fol- depends on the fertility of its region Both hassili (the “gardens of Adonis”) lowed by women’s rituals on each for its basic food supply of wheat and in modern Serres (Northern Greece), grave (cf. Thuc. 2.34–46). Similarly, barley, so by fi nancing the Thesmo- the candles and fl owers of the Good the offi cial ritual on Good Friday in phoria, the male polis demonstrates Friday service – known as “Christ- the church of Olympos, on the island its interest in the successful conduct candles” and “Christ-fl owers” – and of Karpathos, is followed by the ritual of women’s magical rites (cf. also IG other symbols are believed to become performed by the women during II² 1261.9–11, 1290.10 for the Adōnia), holy during the ceremony in connec- afternoon (cf. Fig. 7). Since all the which have to be performed to ensure tion with the spring festival. They are children are present, the boys learn that the male-dominated sowing and believed to have miraculous power that their mothers perform important reaping will yield an abundant supply and produce the same fertilising effect rituals to ensure the fertility in the of food. Wee meet the importance as the “gardens of Adonis” on the coming year. Neither, the prayers the of the female womb and its parallel, feast of the vegetation god, Adonis. priest says to the icons and the dead the womb of the Earth Mother who So, burying the hassili in the fi elds “is for rain (cf. Håland 2005), nor all the sends up the corn. The celebrations good for the crops”. villagers’ ceremonial walking under of the Demetrian festivals were an In ancient Athens, women cel- the Epitaphios before and after the important way of demonstrating ebrated Adonis in late July, by the procession, is suffi cient. The perform- how to “be good at being a woman”, end of threshing, when the Dog ance of the women’s “afternoon-ritual” since their collective performance of Star Seirios arouse, apparently in an in the church is of greatest impor- the rituals were important to ensure informal way. He may also have been tance, and during this ritual not one fertility for the community. We meet celebrated earlier, before harvest, on single man dares to be present. The the same picture within other festi- the 4th of Mounichion (April-May), ritual is a modern parallel to the ritual vals as well. The Panathenaia was the the day dedicated to Aphrodite, who during the ancient women’s Haloa- most important ideological festival in also was dedicated an offering of a festival when the archons (the magis- classical Athens. In the same way as boar, the animal that killed Adonis, trates) stayed outside of the sanctuary, this festival of All the Athenians was on Cyprus around that date (Lydus, discoursing on their original discov- celebrated through the protecting Mens. 4.65). Thus, these celebrations ery and dissemination of Demeter’s city goddess on the Acropolis, Pana- of the ripening and reaping of the gift, the domesticated foods, to the gia protects present-day’s Greeks, fruits of the earth, parallel the celebra- populace, while the women were since their nation is celebrated on the tions of the Corn Goddesses, Demeter “within”, securing the very food by “Day of Military Strength” (Fig. 8),25 and Kore. their magical rituals. Male-dominated coinciding with the Dormition of the Until puberty, Greek boys are rituals are connected with the offi cial Virgin at Tinos. A virginal mother is still reared in an exclusively female male sphere and in ancient Athens still protecting (cf. Hom. Il. 2.546–551, environment (cf. Plut. Vit. Lyc. 14.1). the relationship between them was Athena rearing Erechtheus). In both They are moulded and socialized by demonstrated with the Thesmopho- festivals, fertility-rituals performed by their mothers, wet-nurses or grand- ria, a gathering of women to ensure women are of focal importance. mothers, who exercise infl uence fertility: If an Assembly was to be Women are the most competent upon them in ancient (Hdt. 6.138; held, during the days this female performers of the rituals connected

Medelhavsmuseet 113 aiming to promote good offspring generally, human, animal and vegeta- ble. Women’s knowledge of fertility magic means that they also have the power to prevent fertility, through their knowledge of the uses of magical plants, and thus, paralleling their mythical model, the Mother Goddess, Demeter (Hymn. Hom. Cer. 305–307) who controls agricultural fertility. So, contrary to Detienne’s (1989) masculinist view, Demeter does not negate, but rather supplements another Mother Goddess, Aphrodite, who is important in connection with the rite of passage undergone by girls at puberty to prepare them for marriage: Young girls were the main performers during the Arrēphoria, and the aim of the ritual descent into Aphrodite’s peribolos and ascent with fertility charms (cf. Paus. 1.27,3 and Schol. Luc. Dial. Meret. 2.1, Rabe 1906, 276.13-18) was to promote the fertil- Fig. . A poster proclaiming ity of both women and agriculture.  August as the A sterile or dead period within the Day of Military agricultural cycle, after harvest and Strength. the threshing, is, in the same way as (Author’s photo- fast, important to ensure the fertility graph) for the approaching “female” period. Even if myrrh has an ambiguous status,26 since it is connected with death with the promotion of fertility in ing the festivals dedicated to Mother and perverse persons, as Detienne society. This is represented through Goddesses was the descent of certain (1989) is eager to assert in his account many of the central rituals in the female participants into underground of the Adōnia, while misrepresenting festivals: Goddesses are dedicated caverns, i.e. the womb of a fertility- the factual events with a phallocratic festivals in connection with important goddess. They bring back fertility- bias, myrrh is also related to weddings phases during the agricultural year. symbols formed as female and male (Sappho. Fr. 66, see also 63), it is good Women are the sole participants, sex organs, which have been thrown for the menses and fertility (Papam- using symbolic plants related to their or carried down into the chasms. ichael 1975, 78). In this connection own fecundity and the earth’s. This When they have absorbed the power seduction is also important, as mani- demonstrates a religious belief in the of fertility from the womb of the fested by Aphrodite’s famous zōnē identiﬁ cation of the fecundity of earth earth, they are mixed on the altar with (i.e. girdle), containing both love and with that of women. Accordingly, they the seed corn to ensure an abundant desire (Hom. Il. 14.198–223).27 are given parallel expressions in the crop. The act of bringing down and Women’s role in the processes cults. The central act of the rites dur- up indicate sowing and reaping, thus of production and reproduction is

114 Greek Women and Religion, Modern and Ancient: Festivals and Cults clearly illustrated by the meaning of portant phases during the agricultural hood”, according to which the point the same central rituals during the year. The fertility perspective shows is to show how “to be good at being festivals dedicated to Demeter and how peoples’ values are manifested a woman”, for example when perfor- prior to the ideological Panathenaia through religious festivals, and how ming fertility-rituals in agricultural when the young girls, the Arrēphoroi, the fertility-festivals are the funda- or procreation contexts, using magic were performing the ritual connected ment the offi cial male value-system is such as in healing contexts, nursing with Aphrodite. Therefore, the of- based on. The belief in fertility-rituals children. As goddesses, women have fi cial ideology could not exclude the is present both in ancient and modern primary control of the processes of Adōnia, even if it did not become society, and fertility-rituals are con- production and reproduction, and incorporated into the offi cial reli- nected with women. They are the women enjoy relative independence gious calendar of the Athenian polis. most competent performers of the from male performance in the basic We meet a concrete example of the rituals connected with the promotion life processes. central importance of woman in of fertility in society, and their know- From a chthonic perspective, connection with life and fertility. A ledge of fertility magic means that we learn that a male ideological or later parallel is found in the modern they also have the power to prevent system-oriented approach to the re- cult dedicated to Panagia Aphroditissa fertility. The female fertility-rituals lationship between men and women on Cyprus (Blum/Blum 1970, 271 were of great importance to promote becomes too one-sided, because n.1), “the island of Aphrodite”, which the fertility of the ancient polis, and it accepts the male value-system’s may indicate that the puritan division they are still of focal importance in presentation of the actual relation- between eroticism and fertility in De- Greek society. In rituals connected ship. Particularly, the female festivals tienne’s (1989) description, based on with the life-cycle passages, such demonstrate an upheaval of offi cial his analysis of the ideological sources, as birth and marriage, we meet the male roles and male power, and the may have been quite unfamiliar for same relationship both in ancient and fertility-cult may be considered as the ancients. This indicates the real modern Greek society. Men are the the unifying and underlying in all importance and power of Aphrodite, performers of the public rituals, but festivals. Sexuality, reproduction and since she embodies all female aspects. the point is that these rituals can not fertility are central and have explicit take place before the “women-domi- importance in the festivals. Therefore, nated” rituals have fi nished: The of- to examine fertility in Greece is to Conclusion fi cial rituals where men are agents can look at Greek society through female The cyclical festivals follow a ri- not be performed before women have eyes. tual calendar where celebrations are done the preliminary work, and thus performed in connection with im- manifested their “poetics of woman-

notes 1 Regarding ancient sources, I have I would like to add that most of my is a refugee from Cyprus. Since 1985, for example worked on the material own fi eldworks have been carried out I have had several periods of fi eld- connected with the cult of Adonis and on the Aegean island of Tinos, where work in the Mediterranean, mainly in Aphrodite, see infra also for the mod- pilgrim-ships from Cyprus arrive Greece where I have also been con- ern material, cf. Paraskevopoulou 1982. once a week throughout the year, and ducting research on religious festivals Concerning border areas, as discussed up to trice a week during the summer since 1990, cf. Håland 2004. There, in Håland 2004, Peristiany’s (1966b) season, particularly in August, cf. fi g. the topics discussed in the following presentation of Cypriot village-life 4. My main informant in the village article also are examined further. The was still discernible in 1983 in the of Monokklēsia, one of the women in problems and fruitfulness of working Greek Orthodox part of the island. the organizing committee (cf. infra), with anthropological comparative

Medelhavsmuseet 115 approaches (such as using material According to Seremetakis 1991 the 10 Ar. Plut. 844 f. and Schol. to 845. I from modern Greek civilisation as problems with Danforth’s analysis observed the ritual on Cyprus in 1983. models) to ancient society are also derives from his reading of rural Greek One may wonder if the cave once has discussed in my dissertation, cf. further death-rites, a reading which relies on been sacred to Aphrodite? Anyway, Winkler 1990; Holst-Warhaft 1992 and Greek Orthodox liturgy. I agree, but a similar phenomenon is found in Moxnes 1997. But, see Pomeroy 1998 the problem with his reading is also connection with the temple of Athena for a more cautious view, discussed that he as a male ethnographer has no in Pergamon, Turkey in 1999. See also in Håland 1999. For honour and shame possibility to carry out fi eldwork in the Loukatos 1981, 141. and the unity of the Mediterranean, cf. female sphere. 11 Håland 2004, ch. 4 and 6 (also for the Peristiany 1966a; Gilmore 1987. Even 5 Even if Seremetakis 1991 has carried following); Rowlandson 1998, pls. 11 if Herzfeld 1992 is critical to the term out fi eldwork in the female sphere (cf. and 14, cf. Plut. Mor. 375c; Hom. Il. “Mediterranean”, he has made Greece n.4 supra), one may claim that she 22.79-83. a centerpiece of Mediterranen studies. does not focus adequately on women’s 12 Accordingly, this article does not try Cf. Dimen/Friedl 1976 for regional values, as she is still infl uenced by to fi nd out if and eventually how many variation in Greece and Cyprus. Western male ideological values, and ancient women participated at sympo- 2 Zeitlin 1984; Holst-Warhaft 1992; read her material from a male perspec- sia, were educated, participated in the Pomeroy 1995 and 1998, 68–72. tive, cf. therefore Dubisch 1995, who offi cial male political sphere, such as 3 However, the limited space does not unfortunately only work with modern Blomqvist 1995 does. Cf. Håland 2004, permit a detailed demonstration. The Greek society. ch. 6. following argument is therefore only 6 Cf. Sappho. Fr. 103, 136, 25; Theoc. Id. 13 For women and fertility, see Schol. a very roughly suggestion. An earlier 15. See also infra. The sources and the Luc. Dial. Meret. 2.1, Rabe 1906, and somewhat different version of relation between Adonis and Aphro- 275.23-276.28, cf. Plut. Mor. 378d-f69, the following paper was presented at dite are discussed at length in Håland see also 141b-c23; Bourdieu 1980, 359; the seminar on “Gender, religion and 2004, ch. 5 f. Cf. Atallah 1966; Motte Papamichael 1975, 78, cf. 54. change in an historical perspective: 1973. 14 To regard the modern cult as a Women and Religion in the Middle 7 Bourdieu 1966, 222; 1980, 354; cf. “protesting-culture”, is an analy- East and the Mediterranean region”, at 1998, 17, also for the following. See sis conform with Herzfeld’s (1991) the University of Bergen, in 2001. An also 1990. For discussions of the “protest-theory”, cf. also Keuls’ (1993) earlier version was presented at “the similarities of modern and ancient “countermovement”. Their analyses Centre for Women and Gender Re- Mediterranean cultural patterns and neglect the purpose of presenting search”, University of Bergen in 1999. social values, see Håland 2004; Esler society from another perspective than The topic for the lectures was: Gender 1994. usually employed, the Greek woman’s. and Power. A longer version “Greek 8 Cf. ancient male values as in the 15 Strab.14.683-684,4 (also for an indica- women, power and the body: from statements of archaic legislators, the tion to a festival procession from fi eldwork on cults connected with the authors of the tragedies, other authors Neapaphos to Palaepaphos); Tac. Hist. female sphere towards a deconstruc- as Homer, Hesiod, Plato, Aristotle, 2.3–4 (short description of the Paphian tion of male ideologies, modern and Plutarch and late-antique Christian cult and the cult symbol of the god- ancient” (approx. 20 pages, in Norwe- writers, such as John Chrysostom (cf. dess. I would like to thank Danielle gian, with English summary), is forth- infra), with the works of ethnogra- Leibundgut Wieland for providing coming in Tidskrift för genusvetenskap phers, as Campbell 1964; Peristiany me with the Tacitus-reference), cf. (TGV). See also Håland 2003. 1966a and b; Machin 1983. They have Plin. HN. 5.35,130 (but cf. Hdt. 1.105); 4 For example Danforth 1982, also cited been used by several scholars working Apollod. 3.14,3 f. (also for the Adonis by Pomeroy 1998. The main problem with ancient women, as Walcot 1970 myth, cf. Ov. Met. 10.298-739). See with his analysis is that he sees the and 1999. But, by combining ancient Motte 1973, 130 ff. for the sanctuaries Greek world from the male sphere, i.e. and modern male ideological state- dedicated to Aphrodite en kēpois, also a modern counterpart of ancient male ments presenting extremely negative for garden, meadow, marsh, cave, etc. writers? Nevertheless, they were reared bias, the result becomes one-sided. Cf. symbolizing the female sex organ. Cf. in the female sphere and have by Håland 2004, for an extensive discus- n.10 supra. Despite an excellent analy- defi nition childhood experiences (even sion. sis, his regrettable evolutionary state- if these often are distorted in a grown 9 Dubisch 1995. Her presentation is ment about the oriental “womanish” up male context, where social identity similar to my own and other female Aphrodite (137–144) in the “manly” among men is important, cf. Gilmore researchers’ (Seremetakis 1991; Abu- Greek atmosphere, is particularly dis- 1987; McAuslan/Walcot 1996, see Lughod 1988) fi eldwork experiences cussed in Håland 2004, ch. 6 (cf. infra), also infra), Danforth does not have. among women. see also ch. 5 for the following.

116 Greek Women and Religion, Modern and Ancient: Festivals and Cults 16 Arthur 1977 and 1994. Loraux 1984 the audience to thunderous applause. bibliography and 1996; Zeitlin 1995. Cf. supra. Thus, he was repeating the priests, A note on Ancient Sources 17 Plut. Mor. 373f-375c. He tells that the praying the Panagia to resolve the Goddess needs to participate with the relations on Cyprus. One may also Abbreviations for ancient authors and ﬁ rst God and to be associated with mention, that in front of the miracu- titles follow: him in love, i.e. the importance of two lous icon on Tinos, is a votive offering principles to make a third, 373f-374a, depicting Cyprus in gold, bearing Hammond, N.G.L. & H.H. Scullard, eds. 374f–375a. The “Furrowed Field witness of what many pilgrims ask the 1976. Theory”: Aesch. Eum. 658 ff.; Eur. Or. Panagia to receive back. The Oxford Classical Dictionary. 2nd Ed. 552–556; Pl. Ti. 91d. The “Dual Seed 26 Cf. Adonis’ birth from the myrrh Oxford. Theory”: Hippoc. Genit. 1, 6, 8; Gal. tree, Myrrha, following an incestu- UP. 14.6 f. Cf. Boylan 1984. ous relationship between the Myrrh In addition, the following abbreviations 18 Menstruation is the female analogous Maiden and her own father, Ov. Met. are employed: to the semen in males and with- 10.311–518, cf. nevertheless Apollod. Fr. Fragment out generative power according to 3.14,4 discussed in Håland 2004, Gal. UP. De usu partium Arist. Gen. An. 727a2–30, 728b17–31, ch. 5 f. Hippoc. Genit. Peri gonēs 765b8–22. Nevertheless, both the fe- 27 When Hera begs from Aphrodite the Plutark, Vit. Nic. Vitae Nicias male womb and body are important to zone with which she can seduce Zeus, SIG Sylloge Inscriptionum Graecarum nourish the male seed Gen. An. 765b10 she says: “dos nyn moi philotēta kai ff., cf. 716a14–24, 727b31–33. Cf. Plut. himeron, (…)”. (“give me love and Works cited: Mor. 365a. According to Richlin 1997 sexual desire”), and the same terms Abu-Lughod, L. 1988. the claim that the ancient model was are used to describe what the love Veiled Sentiments. Honour and Poetry in a “one-sex” and the “two-sex” model charm contains, Hom. Il. 14.198, 216. Bedouin Society, Berkeley, Los Angeles, is a new invention (18th century, see Cf. Hymn. Hom. Ven. 5.2, 45, 53, 57, 73 London. Laqueur 1990), is wrong. where the essential nature of the god- 19 Burkert 1985, 159. See also Håland dess is the power to arouse himeros, a Alexiou, M. 1974. 2006a, for other examples. power that threatens Zeus. Accord- The Ritual Lament in Greek Tradition, 20 Loraux 1989. A more comprehensive ing to Soph. Fr. 941.1-4, Aphrodite’s Cambridge. version of the following argument is unassailable personality is that she is Arnott, W.G., trans. 2000. given in Håland 2004, ch. 6. both Cypris and Hades, the indelible Menander 3. The Loeb Classical Library,

21 Loraux 1981; Holst-Warhaft 1992. power. London. 22 See Håland 2004, ch. 6 (cf. also ch. 4) for a critical discussion of explanations Arthur, M. 1977. based on Gluckman’s 1991 analysis of ‘Politics and Pomegranates: An Interpre- inter-human relations, based on the tation of the Homeric Hymn to Demeter’, social. There, I argue for the “chthon- Arethusa 10, 7–47 (reprinted in Foley, ed. ic” perspective which goes deeper 1994, 212–242). than Gluckman’s. From the chthonic Atallah, W. 1966. perspective, laughter and ritual licence Adonis dans la littérature et l’art grecs. are connected with fertility and power, Études et Commentaires LXII, Paris. important factors in agricultural societies. Babbitt, F.C. et al, trans. 1928–1961. 23 Alexiou 1974, 21, cf. Holst-Warhaft Plutarch, Moralia 2, 3, 5, 7, 9, 12. The Loeb 1992, 117. Håland 2004, ch. 6, for a Classical Library, London. comprehensive version of the follow- Beazley, J.D. 1963. ing. Attic Red-Figure Vase-Painters 1–2. 2nd ed., 24 Cf. also Anth. Pal. 9.332 votive offering Oxford. to Aphrodite from a prostitute and Anth. Pal. 9.605 votive offering from a Blomqvist, K. 1995. ‘Chryseïs and Clea, non-prostitute. Eumetis and the Interlocutress. Plutarch 25 In 1996 the crisis with the Turks on of Chaeronea and Dio Chrysostom on Cyprus was the main theme for the speech given to the crowd of pilgrims by the Minister of Defence, rousing

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