<<

Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences

Late - multi-proxy record of Asian southwest monsoon intensification: Evidence from Coastal Makran, SE Iran

Journal: Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences

Manuscript ID cjes-2018-0071.R1

Manuscript Type: Article

Date Submitted by the 22-Aug-2018 Author:

Complete List of Authors: Modarres, Mohammad; Iranian National Institute for Oceanography and Atmospheric Science Alizadeh KetekDraft Lahijani, Hamid; Iranian National Institute for Oceanography and Atmospheric Science, Marine Geology Keshavarz Farajkhah, Nasser; Research Institute of Petroleum Industry Lahaye, Yann; Geologian tutkimuskeskus Rehfeld, Kira; Institute of Environmental Physics, Universität Heidelberg Manttari, Irmeli; Geologian tutkimuskeskus Naderi-Beni, Abdolmajid; Iranian National Institute for Oceanography and Atmospheric Science, Marine Geology Ojala, Antti ; Geologian tutkimuskeskus Moradpour, Mehran; Research Institute of Petroleum Industry

Asian Southwest Monsoon, Coastal Makran, Tortonian- Piacenzian, Keyword: Spectral Gamma- Ray, Volume Magnetic Susceptibility

Is the invited manuscript for consideration in a Special Climate Change: Evidence from the geological records in the Middle East Issue? :

https://mc06.manuscriptcentral.com/cjes-pubs Page 1 of 57 Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences

1 Late Tortonian - Piacenzian multi-proxy record of Asian southwest monsoon intensification: 2 Evidence from Coastal Makran, SE Iran

3 M. H. Modarres1 , H. A. K. Lahijani2 , N. Keshavarz3, Y. Lahaye4, K. Rehfeld5, I. 4 Manttari6, A. Naderi-Beni7, A. Ojala8, M. Moradpour9 5 1Iranian National Institute for Oceanographic and Atmospheric Sciences, No.3, Tehran, IR. Iran, 6 [email protected] 7 2Iranian National Institute for Oceanographic and Atmospheric Sciences, No.3, Tehran, IR. Iran, 8 [email protected] 9 3Research Institute of Petroleum Industry, Tehran, IR. Iran, [email protected] 10 4Geological Survey of Finland, P. O. Box 96, 02151 Espoo, Finland, [email protected] 11 5Institute of Environmental Physics, Universität Heidelberg, [email protected] 12 6Geological Survey of Finland, P. O. Box 96, 02151 Espoo, Finland, 13 [email protected] 14 7Iranian National Institute for Oceanographic and Atmospheric Sciences, No.3, Tehran, IR. Iran, 15 [email protected] 16 8Geological Survey of Finland, P. O. Box 96, 02151 Espoo, Finland, [email protected] 17 9Research Institute of Petroleum Industry, Tehran, IR. Iran, [email protected] 18 19 Corresponding author: M. H. Modarres,Draft PhD student at Iranian National Institute for 20 Oceanographic and Atmospheric Sciences, No.3, Tehran, IR. Iran, Tel. +989128431411; Email 21 address: [email protected] 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46

1

https://mc06.manuscriptcentral.com/cjes-pubs Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences Page 2 of 57

47 Abstract:

48 This study presents a long-term, multi-proxy reconstruction of Asian southwest monsoon during

49 the Tortonian to Piacenzian based on a 4.78 Ma record from Coastal Makran, NW Gulf of Oman

50 in SE Iran. Integration of humidity proxies (clay minerals, Th/K, volume magnetic susceptibility

51 and grain size analysis), marine redox- sensitive (Th/U), total organic matter (TOM), carbonate

52 content, 87Sr/86Sr, and spectral-gamma ray conducted here provide valuable information that fill

53 the existing gap in marine palaeoclimate records during the studied period within the region.

54 The results show that a strong winter monsoon condition associated with relatively low

55 precipitation and subsequently low physical and chemical weathering dominated the region during

56 the late Tortonian- late (7.65 to 5.83 Ma). A few episodes of intense physical and

57 chemical weathering related to high precipitation,Draft however, is observed during this period (6.23

58 and 6.01 Ma) consistent with increased organic matter input from continental reservoirs to the

59 Oceans. In addition, latest Messinian (5.82 to 5.33 Ma) to - Piacenzian (5.33 to 2.87 Ma)

60 is indicated with a strong summer monsoon accompanied with a relatively wetter condition and

61 higher physical and chemical weathering that resulted in the high detrital input into the basin. This

62 higher weathering period is associated with the highest rate of Himalayan uplifting that caused the

63 enhanced precipitation. Using Wavelet analysis of spectral gamma-ray, revealed notable

64 periodicities at 750 Ka and 1.7 Ma with significant periodicities centered around 5.75 to 6.03 Ma

65 over the latest Messinian- Zanclean. Comparison with palaeoclimate archives from other sites,

66 points to a teleconnection with respect to precipitation, weathering and productivity especially

67 during Messinian- Zanclean transition.

68 KEYWORDS: Multi-proxy Reconstruction; Asian Southwest Monsoon; Coastal Makran; 69 Tortonian- Piacenzian, Spectral Gamma- Ray, Volume Magnetic Susceptibility 70 71 1. Introduction

2

https://mc06.manuscriptcentral.com/cjes-pubs Page 3 of 57 Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences

72 The Asian Monsoon, an atmospheric circulation pattern, governs the climatic conditions of the

73 entire Asia. It is comprised of the Indian Summer Monsoon (ISM), East Asian monsoon, and Asian

74 southwest monsoon subsystems (Fleitmann et al., 2003; Gupta, 2003; Liu et al., 2003; Wang et al.,

75 2003; Wang et al., 2005; Fleitmann et al., 2007; Wang et al., 2008; Lovett, 2010; Reuter et al.,

76 2013). In the northwest Gulf of Oman where the coastal Makran is located, social and economic

77 growth depends mostly upon Asian southwest monsoonal rains for agriculture and even small

78 climatic variations in this atmospheric circulation can result in severe drought and floods that affect

79 large numbers of people (Webster et al., 1998; Kumar et al., 2005; Cook et al., 2010; Reuter et al.,

80 2013; Hamzeh et al., 2015; Miller et al., 2016). Therefore, it is becoming increasingly necessary

81 to provide a precise record of climate change with respect to variation in southwestern Asian

82 monsoon as a large-scale atmospheric circulationDraft within the region. Late Tortonian - Piacenzian

83 (7.65-2.87 Ma) is the critical times of changing monsoon intensity that is correspondence to the

84 development of the Asian monsoon related to Himalayan uplift dated back to the

85 (Hodell et al., 1991; Prell and Kutzbach, 1992; Prell et al., 1992; Zhisheng et l., 2001). Several

86 records around the world reveal the Asian monsoon intensification in the context of glacial-

87 interglacial oscillations during this time. Late Tortonian-Messinian (7.65 to 5.33 Ma) is marked

88 by the intensification of the Asian winter monsoon possibly due to increased elevation of Tibet-

89 Himalaya, followed by a long-term cooling that is synchronous with strengthening in biological

90 pumping likely occurred between ∼7 Ma until ∼5.5 Ma (Hodell and Kennett, 1986; Jansen et al.,

91 1990; Zhisheng et al., 2001; Prell and Kutzbach, 1992; Warren and Kutzbach, 1992; Zhisheng et

92 al., 2011). In addition, evidence reveals a decrease in sea level associated with glaciations so that

93 it was reached from ∼10 m falling to at least 30 m during 6.14 Ma to 5.26 Ma (Hodell et al., 2001).

94 Instead, Zanclean-Piacenzian (∼5.33 to 2.87 Ma) is known for the intensification of the Asian

3

https://mc06.manuscriptcentral.com/cjes-pubs Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences Page 4 of 57

95 summer monsoon and a generally high weathering condition governed specially during the early

96 Zanclean (Prell and Kutzbach; Warren and Kutzbach, 1992; Suc et al., 1995; Zhisheng et al.,

97 2015).

98 The reversal in monsoon (summer and winter) winds at the end of Messinian and beginning of

99 Zanclean associated with cooler-dried and warmer-humid periods have been reported in some parts

100 of the world using multi- proxy climatic investigations. To reconstruct this reversal in our region,

101 we need robust multi-proxy records for climate to reconstruct the intensity of the Asian southwest

102 monsoon climatic subsystem, which might be varied significantly throughout the Neogene. In

103 order to understand the past variations in the Asian southwest monsoon and amount of monsoonal

104 precipitation, many paleoclimatological investigations have been conducted using different

105 archives and proxies like cave stalagmitesDraft (Fleitmann et a.l, 2007), lake cores (Hamzeh et al.,

106 2015), and marine cores (Gupta et al., 2003; Staubwasser et al., 2003, Miller et al., 2016).

107 However, they all studied the past climate variability at orbital-to-millennial scales during

108 period so that pre-Quaternary monsoon variability and dynamics likely linked to

109 changes in external forcing and internal forcing remain obscure within the region. On the contrary,

110 several investigations have been conducted with respect to both East Asian monsoon and Indian

111 Summer monsoon in the Arabian Sea, Indian sub-continent, semi-arid western Himalaya and

112 Karakoram, and the Tibetan plateau (Enzel et al., 1999; Richards et al., 2000; Ricketts et al., 2001;

113 Owen et al., 2002a; Owen et al., 2002b; Seong et al., 2007; Chen et al, 2008; Ao et al, 2016).These

114 investigations cover both Quaternary and pre-Quaternary periods. Hence, it is increasingly

115 necessary to conduct multi-proxy record of Asian southwest monsoon intensification during pre-

116 Quaternary helping substantially our understanding of Asian monsoon system and its subsystem

117 throughout the Asia within the region during Tortonian to Piacenzian.

4

https://mc06.manuscriptcentral.com/cjes-pubs Page 5 of 57 Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences

118 Volume magnetic susceptibility (VMS) as a reliable climate proxy in both marine and continental

119 sequences indicates the capabilities of minerals within the sample to be affected by a weak

120 magnetic field (Thompson et al., 1975; Snowball et al., 1999; Sandgren and Snowball, 2002; Miller

121 et al., 2016). In several studies, VMS technique is proven to record an influx of detrital magnetic

122 grains into the basin, which can be related to palaeoclimate variations as an evidence for changing

123 in precipitation and subsequent weathering (Bloemendal, 1983; Beer et al., 1993; Heller and

124 Evans, 1995; Evans and Heller, 2001; Deconink et al.,2003; Kumar et al., 2005; Nie et al., 2013;

125 Miller et al., 2016, Liu et al., 2008; Ao et al., 2016).

126 In addition, humid periods, as a consequence of intensity in monsoon precipitation, can also be 127 reconstructed using spectral gamma rayDraft log techniques. Uranium, thorium and potassium content 128 along with the Th/K, Th/U ratios, which are humidity-indicating proxies, have been considered

129 the main data used to infer the variations in climatic systems (Ruffel et al, 2000; Schnyder et al;

130 2006; Hesselbo et al, 2009; Koptikova et al, 2011; Kozlowski et al 2012; Grabowski et al; 2013).

131 During the higher rainfall and increased runoff from the hinterland, which are relevant to the

132 monsoon intensification in areas where monsoon is the dominant climatic system, higher values

133 of Th/K and Th/U are observed due to leaching of K and also U from the clay and other minerals.

134 Higher value of Th/K and Th/U usually match with higher value of VMS, indicating increased

135 supply of detrital material during more humid periods. These proxies along with kaolinite

136 abundances and also high illite /chlorite ratio (I/C) are even stronger than oxygen isotope proxy to

137 reconstruct palaeoclimate in relation to monsoon system (Biscaye, 1965; Ji et al., 2002; Zhao et

138 al., 2005)

139 Furthermore, sediment proxies, namely the total organic matter, calcium carbonate and grain

140 size, are used to reconstruct the palaeoproductivity and precipitation because of variation in

5

https://mc06.manuscriptcentral.com/cjes-pubs Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences Page 6 of 57

141 monsoon intensification (Muller et al, 1979; Fontugne et al, 1986; Howard et al, 1994; Kumar et

142 al, 2005; Miller et al; 2016; Grabowski et al; 2013). For instance, during the low intensity of

143 summer monsoon, the low precipitation and the subsequent low weathering and detrital input into

144 the basin leads to the high amount of TOM and CaCO3 due to high bio-productivity in the basin,

145 associated with smaller sediment particle sizes (decreased sand fraction (fraction <63 µm). Higher

146 amount of TOM and CaCO3, however, can also be expected during the high intensity of summer

147 monsoon brought as detrital organic material into the basin. Lower amount of TOM and CaCO3

148 usually correspond to the higher value of Th/K, Th/U and VMS, indicating more humid periods.

149 So far, integration of geophysical, geochemical and sedimentological proxies with the high

150 sensitivity to monsoon behavior has not been done in the NW Gulf of Oman or the Arabian Sea to

151 reconstruct Asian southwest monsoon throughoutDraft the Tortonian to Piacenzian. However, several

152 studies have reported results of magnetic susceptibility variations altogether with sedimentological

153 and geochemical (elemental and isotopic) proxies in sediments of this region to decipher

154 palaeoclimate and palaoenvironments, mostly focused on period (Clemens 1990; Prins

155 et al 2000; Sarkar et al, 2000; Babu et al, 2004; Kumar et al 2005, Miller et al, 2016). For instance,

156 Miller et al (2016) studied palaeoenvironmental and Oceanographic events during Holocene in the

157 NW Gulf of Oman. They identified paleotsunami deposits in the studied area. Moreover, they

158 recognized two wet periods (2300-1800 cal.yr BP & 1500-120 cal.yr BP) and a dry period (1800-

159 1500 cal. yr BP) due to variability of Asian southwest monsoon during Holocene period indicated

160 by high value of magnetic susceptibility and low amount of TOM and CaCO3. Furthermore, Kumar

161 et al (2005) studied cores of Arabian Sea and applied both geochemical and sedimentological

162 proxies (in conjunction with magnetic susceptibility) to infer the palaeoclimate of the Gulf of

163 Oman during the Holocene. They identified an intensification in Asian southwest monsoon during

6

https://mc06.manuscriptcentral.com/cjes-pubs Page 7 of 57 Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences

164 mid-Holocene indicated by high value of magnetic susceptibility.

165 The purpose of this paper is to reconstruct the palaeoclimate of the Southeast of Iran during the

166 pre-Quaternary (late Tortonian to Piacenzian) in the NW Gulf of Oman. In order to decipher the

167 Asian southwest monsoon system, the substantial climatic system governing over the region, and

168 its variability including occurrence of humid and dried periods, we conduct an integrated study of

169 palaeoclimatic proxies (spectral gamma-ray, magnetic susceptibility, Th/K, Th/U, TOM, CaCO3,

170 and grain size analysis), along with mineralogy of the mudstone- calcareous claystone-marl

171 sequences of the Coastal Makran.

172 2. Geological and Climate Setting

173 2.1. Geology

174 The study area is situated on the CoastalDraft Makran near to Chahbahar Bay, NW Gulf of Oman,

175 (Figure 1). The Coastal Makran stretches from the strait of Hormoz in Iran to the Indus river in

176 Pakistan, (Farhoudi and Karig, 1977; Dolati et al., 2010; Hossein- Barzi, 2010) is part of the

177 Makran Accretionary wedge. This wedge, classified among the largest accretionary wedges in the

178 world, has been generated due to the convergence, initiated during the Late , between

179 the Arabian and Eurasian plates (Stoneley, 1974; Farhoudi and Karig, 1977; Vernant et al., 2004;

180 Grando and McClay, 2007; Dolati et al., 2010). The Wedge is composed of four major tectono-

181 stratigraphic provinces that extend from north to south and includes North-, Inner, Outer and

182 Coastal Makran (Farhoudi and Karig, 1977; Grando and McClay, 2007; Dolati et al., 2010).

183 The Coastal Makran consists of uplifted terraces and include coastal plains that are 5- 20 km wide

184 and form where the ephemeral streams have eroded into siltstone and claystone bedrock of the

185 area. These plains are locally covered by the sand dunes (Page et al., 1979; Dolati et al., 2010).

186 The coring site is located in the southern boundary of the Coastal Makran, zone of Farhoudi and

7

https://mc06.manuscriptcentral.com/cjes-pubs Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences Page 8 of 57

187 Karig (1977), the interface between land and Sea (Figure1).

188 Coastal Makran, between the Chah Khan trust in the north and the coast of the Gulf of Oman in

189 the south, comprises sediments younger than the middle and includes the

190 to Formations. According to Dolati et al., 2010, structural lower boundary of coastal

191 Makran is below sea level. Coastal Makran province represents a shallowing-upwards sequence

192 consists of slope marls to coastal and continental deposits (Kidd and McCall, 1985; McCall, 1996;

193 Gharibreza and Motamed, 2006; Dolati et al., 2010; Hossein- Barzi, 2010).

194 2.2. Climate

195 In terms of present-day climatic setting, the study area is positioned below the northernmost extent

196 of the inter tropical convergent zone (ITCZ). The atmospheric and Oceanic circulation of the

197 region is strongly influenced by the seasonalDraft migration of the ITCZ, a narrow region of wind

198 convergence and precipitation (Figure 1). The position of the ITCZ determines the onset and the

199 termination of the monsoonal systems in the tropical and subtropical regions (Fleitmann et al.,

200 2007). The Coastal Makran climate pattern is characterized by the reversal of monsoonal winds

201 named Asian southwestern monsoon (Figure 1).

202 Southwest Asia monsoon system is composed of both summer monsoon (SW) and winter monsoon

203 (NW), and is one of the most important components of the tropical and subtropical climate.

204 Previous studies show that the intensity of the summer monsoon, upwelling and biological

205 production are related to each other in Arabian Sea and the NW Gulf of Oman (Emeis et al., 1991).

206 The temporal variability of precipitation in coastal Makran, NW Gulf of Oman, produces

207 significant hazards included by both droughts and floods under the influence of monsoon climatic

208 system. The mean annual precipitation and temperature reaches to approximately 34 mm per

209 and 31.5 ° C (Figure 2) within the region (Miller et al., 2016).

8

https://mc06.manuscriptcentral.com/cjes-pubs Page 9 of 57 Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences

210 In the boreal summer lasting from June to September, the ITCZ moves to its northernmost position

211 and two areas of low atmospheric surface pressure over Pakistan, Iran, India and Oman and high

212 atmospheric surface pressure over the Indian Ocean is developed following the differential heating

213 of continental and Oceanic regions (Figure 1). This differential land- Ocean heating results in

214 intense southwest (SW) monsoonal winds. During this time, Somali boundary current induces

215 large upwelling systems of cool, nutrient rich water along the Somali and Arabian coasts (Honjo

216 and Weller, 1997; Zonneveld, 1997a; Webster et al., 1998; Gadgil, 2003a). This cold-water

217 upwelling event with the nutrient inside, enhances levels of primary productivity. Therefore,

218 During the SW monsoon, planktonic activity is highest in the NW Arabian sea and Gulf of Oman

219 (Qasim, 1982). Development of an oxygen minimum zone, extended to 1200 meters water depth,

220 is occurred due to the high level of planktonicDraft activity and limitation of Ocean circulation in the

221 northern Arabian Sea where it is closed to the northernmost part of the Gulf of Oman (Coastal

222 Makran) (Schulz et al.,1996).

223 In contrast, in midwinter the ITCZ moves southwards and the northeast (NE) monsoon is formed

224 lasting from December to February. The Eurasian continent cools and a high pressure region

225 develops on the Tibetan plateau and northeast winds persist over southern Asia and the Arabian

226 Sea as well as Gulf of Oman, cooling the NW Arabian Sea surface temperature to 23° C (Wyrtki,

227 1973; Qasim, 1982; Zonneveld, 1997a). The NE monsoon is relatively dry causing a deepening of

228 the mixed layer in the central and western Arabian Sea. Mixing and cooling of the Ocean near the

229 Gulf of Oman (Makran Coast) driven by the cool winds from the north-east results in extraordinary

230 high bio-productivity within the region (Qasim, 1982; Zonneveld, 1997a; Hongo and Weller 1997;

231 Miller et al., 2016).

232 3. Material and Methods

9

https://mc06.manuscriptcentral.com/cjes-pubs Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences Page 10 of 57

233 3.1. Coring

234 The borehole was drilled in the coastal Makran, southernmost part of Makran zone and northern

235 most part of Gulf of Oman near to the shoreline. The acquisition of the core was performed by

236 Research Institute of Petroleum Industry (RIPI) in 2012. It was continuously cored with a 93.5 %

237 recovery. The total length of drill core is 200 meters. The Coastal Makran core was obtained using

238 a rotary drilling technique. The standard diamond drill core sizes were HQ (63.5mm) and PQ

239 (85.0 mm). Prior to any sub-sampling and analysis, the cores were described after core

240 photography. They were cut into 1-meter sections and each was described based on visible

241 properties. A detailed description was conducted on the core noting bedding variations in

242 lithology, color, sedimentary structure and any other visible characteristics. The cores were then

243 stored in wooden boxes and sub-sampledDraft at 30 cm intervals for sedimentological and geophysical

244 analyses. Finally, the core was enclosed in plastic sleeves for future references.

245 3.2. Spectral Gamma Ray Log

246 Spectral Gamma Ray (SGR) was measured in situ after coring using a portable GMS 310 core

247 logger and in the laboratory. In laboratory, the measurements were carried out using SGR- 740

248 spectral gamma ray core logger with NaI detector available at Research Institute of Petroleum

249 Industry. The contents of radionuclides 40K (expressed in %), 238U, 32Th (expressed in ppm) and

250 core total gamma-ray (expressed count/min) were determined. Measurement were carried out with

251 systematic resolution of 1 sample per 10 cm throughout the core using laboratory data. The whole

252 core was measured and a total number of 2000 of samples were analyzed.

253 3.3. Volume Magnetic Susceptibility

254 Volume Magnetic Susceptibility (VMS) was measured systematically with resolution of 1 sample

255 per 2 cm of the total core length for palaeoclimatic and palaeomagnetic investigation using a

10

https://mc06.manuscriptcentral.com/cjes-pubs Page 11 of 57 Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences

256 Bartington VMS2 magnetic susceptibility system with the VMS2C whole-core logging sensor at

257 Iranian National Institute for Oceanography and Atmospheric Sciences (INIOAS). The magnetic

258 susceptibility of the core was measured as volume susceptibility (SI units) immediately after core

259 photography and description prior to any destructive sampling and analysis. Since the upper 23

260 meters of the core were not suitable for VMS measurement, we established measurements from

261 the depth 23.3 m to depth 200 m.

262 3.4. Carbonate Content, Total Organic Matter and Grain Size Analysis

263 Sequential loss on ignition (LOI) was used to estimate the organic and carbonate content of the

264 core sediments. The Coastal Makran core has been sampled for sedimentological studies

265 (carbonate content and total organic matter) with systematic resolution of 1 sample per 2m and 4

266 g sample size were used for the tests. TheDraft experiment was performed in the INIOAS sedimentology

267 laboratory. Samples were heated in the Nabertherm furnace. In a first reaction, organic matter was

268 oxidized at 500–550 °C for 4 h to carbon dioxide and ash. In a second reaction, carbon dioxide

269 was evolved from carbonate at 900–1000 °C for 8 h, leaving oxide. The weight loss during the

270 reactions was measured by weighing the samples before and after heating which is closely

271 correlated to the organic matter and carbonate content of the sediment. Same as the VMS, the

272 analysis established from the depth 23.3 m to depth 200 m.

273 For the grain size analysis of the Coastal Makran core, representative subsamples with systematic

274 resolution of 1 sample per 2 m were taken and analyzed by a laser scattering particles distribution

275 analyzer LA-950 at INIOAS. Statistical parameters of mean, mode and median, skewness, kurtosis

276 and standard deviation were calculated using Horiba software. Back ground measurements and

277 rinsing were performed between each sample measurement and twenty seconds of ultrasound and

11

https://mc06.manuscriptcentral.com/cjes-pubs Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences Page 12 of 57

278 fast pumping used for each sample. The analysis was established from the depth 23.3 m to depth

279 200 m.

280 3.5. Dating

281 In order to date the Coastal Makran core, 87Sr/86Sr isotope chronstratigraphy was selected. The

282 electron spin resonance (ESR) technology for dating the cores having inside, is not

283 very well developed and requires more than 150 mg foraminifera for analysis. Moreover,14C dating

284 is used for sediments that are not older than 0.1 Ma. Since, the size of observed foraminifera is

285 small, the U series dating technique also cannot date them precisely. 87Sr/86Sr isotope

286 chronstratigraphy is used for dating foraminifera in the marine sediments (Farrel et al., 1995;

287 McArthur et al., 2001; Hodell et al., 2007). The interval of geological bodies which can be

288 dated using the 87Sr/86Sr isotope chronstratigraphyDraft is 0-509 Ma now.

289 Therefore, for chronostratigraphy, 87Sr/86Sr isotope ratios of five planktonic foraminifera

290 (Globigerinoidessp) samples (Figure3-D) (each 20 milligrams) from marine sedimentary

291 sequences (see Table 1) were prepared and analyzed at the Geological Survey of Finland. The

292 selective clay- mud-marl samples were washed through a US 230 sieve and individual foraminifera

293 (> 63µm) were then picked (clean, translucent, glassy samples that should have been suffered little

294 or no diagenesis) under a binocular microscope. For sample digestion and Sr separation for isotope

295 analyses, hand-picked foraminifera samples (~20 mg) were washed with deionized water (≥18.2

296 MΩ·cm) in an ultrasonic bath for 15 minutes. The water was pipetted away and thereafter the

297 samples were rinsed three times with water. The digestion of samples was done using ultra clean

298 (u.c.) 2 N HCl – an immediate (bubbling) digestion reaction was evident. After that, the covered

299 sample vials were put on a hot plate for 0.5 h. For Sr separation, the samples were further dissolved

300 into 1 ml of u.c. 3 N HNO3 and introduced into custom made pipette columns with ~250−300 μl

12

https://mc06.manuscriptcentral.com/cjes-pubs Page 13 of 57 Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences

301 of Sr-specific resin (Tris Kem Sr Resin, 50−100 µm). After elution of other elements with 3 N

302 HNO3, Sr was eluted with 0.05 N HNO3. Prior to analyses, the sample volume was evaporated

303 approximately to half (2-1.5 ml). A total procedural blank (68 pg) was processed simultaneously

304 with the sample.

305 For Sr isotope measurements, the samples were divided into duplicate samples into disposable

306 2ml beakers and diluted with 2% HNO3. The analyses were carried out by using a desolvator

307 nebulizer, a 50μl PFA MicroFlowTM nebulizer and a Multi-Collector Inductively Coupled Plasma

308 Mass Spectrometer (MCICPMS Nu Instruments TM) at low mass resolution (Δm/m = 400). The

309 isotopic measurements were performed in static mode using five faraday detectors, and 10 blocks

310 of 12 integrations of approximately 5 s. The standard reference material NBS987, diluted down to

311 50ppb Sr, was also used to monitor theDraft precision and accuracy of the measurements at the

312 beginning and the end of every session and every five samples .The obtained mean of 0.710235 ±

313 9 (n=3 ; 1sd) for the 87Sr/86Sr ratio on the unprocessed standard is close to the certificate value

314 87Sr/86Sr=0.71034±0.00026. However, in order to use McArthur regression, we need to normalise our

315 data to his value of NBS987, so we have added the value of 0.000013 to all the data, since our standard

316 value is at 0.710235 and the McArthur value is at 0.710248.

317 3.6. Mineralogy and Elemental Geochemistry

318 In order to identify the minerals that constitute the core, the number of 32 samples were

319 systematically subsampled throughout the core (approximately 1 sample per 5 m) and analyzed

320 using X-Ray diffraction. In addition, we calculated the ratio of illite to chlorite (I/C) that provide

321 a tool to evaluate stronger monsoon condition. Furthermore, we applied X-Ray fluorescence to

322 better understand the oxide compounds including SiO2, Al2O3, Fe2O3, CaO, Na2O, K2O, MgO,

323 TiO2, MnO, P2O5, and SO3that constitutes the sediments. To do this, twelve samples were

13

https://mc06.manuscriptcentral.com/cjes-pubs Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences Page 14 of 57

324 systematically subsampled throughout the core (approximately 1 sample per 15 m) and analyzed

325 using XRF instrument in the RIPI (Table 2 & 3).

326 3.7. Age Model and Wavelet Analysis

327 The age model was constructed using a Monte Carlo algorithm similar to that implemented in

328 COPRA (Breitenbach et al., 2012) for U/Th dated speleothems. Age realization were drawn from

329 a uniform distribution between the minimum and maximum ages possible for the 87Sr/86Sr dates.

330 Then, interpolation from point age depths to proxy depths using piecewise cubic hermite

331 interpolation was carried out. Thereafter, previous steps were repeated 1000 times and 90 %

332 confidence intervals for the ages at the measurement depths were obtained. The age model was

333 constructed in the open source software R (https:// cran.r-project.org, version 3.4.4) with packages

334 base and signal (v.0.7-6). At each proxyDraft measurement depth, the minimum, maximum, and mean

335 ages expected under this age model were determined, making it possible to date approximately the

336 proxy variations and to roughly delineate palaeoclimatic episodes. (Figure 4).

337 As a relatively novel data analysis tool, the wavelet transform is shown to be very useful in

338 detection major tectono-climatic cycles and significant periodicities inside the time series

339 providing information concerning changes of the frequency and pattern of time series with time

340 (Weng and Lau, 1994; Torrence and Compo,1998). We did spectral analysis of the total gamma

341 ray log that are conducted based on cross wavelet analysis (XWT) using modified MATLAB codes

342 from Torrence, 1988. Global power spectra are considered as the substantial periodicities.

343 Normalized by standard deviation, the wavelet spectrum for the SGR Coastal Makran using morlet

344 wavelet was visualized. Autocorrelation for red noise background, wavelet power spectrum, and

345 global wavelet spectrum & significance levels were all calculated.

346 4. Results

14

https://mc06.manuscriptcentral.com/cjes-pubs Page 15 of 57 Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences

347 4.1. Core Description

348 The core lithology (depth of 23.3 to 200 m) generally consists of mudstone, sand, silt and silty

349 mudstone, claystone and argillaceous marl intervals. Based on basic lithologic data, sediment color

350 as well as content, two main units including, A, B have been recognized.

351 Unit (A) constitutes the interval between 23 and 100 m and is mostly composed of bright to gray

352 mudstone and claystone with rare fossil fragments. Unit (A) is also composed of five sub-horizons.

353 Sub-horizon (A1) constitutes the interval between 45 to 51 meters and is composed of grey

354 calcareous claystone with fossil fragments and small bivalves. Sub-horizon (A2) constitutes the

355 interval between the 51 to 55.5 meters and is also comprised of grey silty claystone with rare fossil

356 fragments. Sub-horizon (A3) is composed of grey to green claystone with rare fossil fragments

357 constituting the depth of 59 to 62. Sub-horizonDraft (A4) is characterized by dark grey unconsolidated

358 siltstone to silty mudstone between 77 to 77.7 depth interval and sub-horizon A5is constituted by

359 bright grey silty mudstone from 77.7 to 87 meters’ depth interval.

360 Unit (B) constitutes the interval between 100 to 200 m of the core and is mainly composed of dark

361 grey calcareous claystone and argillaceous marl with available fossil fragments in some parts. In

362 addition, this unit is composed of three sub-horizons. Sub-horizon (B1), with a thickness of 0.6 m,

363 is characterized by green-cream siltstone constitutes the interval between 133.1 to 133.7 meters.

364 Sub-horizon (B2) is composed of cream unconsolidated fine grain sandstone from the 133.7 to 137

365 meters. Sub-horizon (B3) is dominated mostly by green to green-cream siltstone constituting the

366 interval between 137 to 153.2 meters.

367 4.2. Strontium Isotope Chronostratigraphy and Chemostratigraphy 368 369 According to the distributing period of planktonic . Sp ( to recent),

370 Benthic Ammonia Beccarii ( to Holocene), Benthic Elphidium Prosonion

15

https://mc06.manuscriptcentral.com/cjes-pubs Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences Page 16 of 57

371 granosum, ( to Holocene) (Figure3- A, B) observed in the samples, and the mean

372 value of 87Sr/86Sr ratios (0.709004 ± 0.0000114), the fifth-order polynomial of McArthur et al.,

373 2001were adopted for dating the foraminifera in this study. We then defined a minimum, mean

374 and maximum age using the McArthur LOWESS database (McArthur et al., 2001; McArthur et

375 al., 2012) (Table 1). The 87Sr/86Sr results of the samples and standards are presented in tables 1.

376 The number of the foraminifera samples is rather low, but they show 87Sr/86Sr variation indicating

377 ~2.87 to ~7.65 Ma ages according to global models (Shackleton et al., 1995; McArthur et al., 2001;

378 McArthur et al., 2012).

379 In addition, the 87Sr/86Sr values in both unit (A) and (B) are 0.708981667and 0.70903775, 380 respectively. The strontium isotopic compositionDraft increased from depth of 196.94 to depth 124 m. 381 Between 124.6 m and 35 m (Table 1), 87Sr/86Sr ratios increased monotonically so that the steep

382 slope during this interval provides the potential for high resolution strontium isotope stratigraphy

383 across the late Messinian/Zanclean boundary (Figure 5).

384 4.3. Geophysics, Geochemistry and Mineralogy

385 Maximum and minimum value of total gamma ray throughout the core amount to 939.59 and 3.34

386 (count/min), respectively. In unit (A) that comprises interval between 23 to 100 meters of the core

387 and characterized by bright to grey mudstone, total mean gamma ray amount to 387.21

388 (count/min). In unit (B) that characterizes by dark grey calcareous claystone and argillaceous marl,

389 between 100 to 200 meters of the core, it amounts to 602.58 (count/min) (Figure 6- E). In addition,

390 the core indicates relatively low Th/U (2.75 ppm) ratios throughout the section (Figure 6- C). In

391 unit (A), the mean of Th/K (0.0014 ppm) and Th/U (0.36 ppm) ratios are observed. Furthermore,

392 some increases in the amount of potassium and uranium as well as thorium concentrations are

16

https://mc06.manuscriptcentral.com/cjes-pubs Page 17 of 57 Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences

393 indicated. Instead, unit (B) reveals elevated K, U and Th concentrations and decrease in the mean

394 of Th/K (0.0009) and Th/U (0.31) ratios (Figure 6- C&D).

395 Maximum value of volume magnetic susceptibility (VMS) throughout the core amounts to 6.05E-

396 03. The magnetic susceptibility in unit (A) reveals mean values of (0.15*10-3). In contrast, the mean

397 VMS reaches to (0.085*10-3 ) in unit (B), indicating the double decreasing in the value of VMS in

398 this part (Figure 6- A). However, the two-increased peaks are observed through this unit.

399 Furthermore, core intervals with negative values were also observed. An absolute minimum of

400 VMS of -1.27E-02 is seen in unit (B).

401 Furthermore, the results of XRD and XRF analyses can be seen in tables 2 & 3. The XRF results 402 in unit (A), interval between 23 to 100Draft m, indicate a lithology likely composed of calcareous 403 claystone-mudstone and in unit (B), interval between 100 to 200 m, calcareous claystone and

404 argillaceous marl that are almost compatible to core description results. Moreover, the mean of (Fe

405 + Ti) oxides that constitute the major part of ferromagnetic minerals affecting magnetic

406 susceptibility throughout the core in units (A) and (B) are also 4.8 % and 3.5%, respectively. The

407 dominant minerals that constitutes the core in both units (A) and (B) are quartz, calcite, albeit,

408 orthoclase, chlorite, illite, and less frequent hematite, ankerite, hornblende, pyrite, and chrysotile.

409 In depth of 55-85m, 100 to 130 m, and 160 to 185 m, there are some major abundances of magnetic

410 and ferromagnetic minerals (hematite and hornblende) (Table 3). Moreover, in transition depth

411 between 90 to 110 meters that separate units (A) and (B), we observed frequency in ferromagnetic

412 minerals like hematite. The mean of magnetic and ferromagnetic minerals including hematite and

413 hornblende as well as pyrite in units (A) and (B) are 3.7 % and 3%, respectively.

414 In addition, Illite and Chlorite are the two clay minerals that were observed throughout the core.

415 The ratio between illite to chlorite (I/C) as a weathering proxy, vary in both units (A) and (B) with

17

https://mc06.manuscriptcentral.com/cjes-pubs Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences Page 18 of 57

416 a high ratio of 2.12 in depth 100 meter. Also, the mean of this ratio in units (A) and (B) are 1.25

417 and 1.02, respectively.

418 4.4 Sedimentology

419 The carbonate calcium content in unit (A), reveals mean amount of 17.04 (%). This reaches to 17.16

420 (%) in unit (B) (Figure 6-F). Furthermore, the two-increased peaks are observed in unit (A) between

421 75m and 85m. The lowest values of CaCO3 occurred in unit (B) with the minimum of 1 % at the

422 depth of 140 meters. Another substantial trough observed at the depth of 55 meters in part A

423 (Figure 6-F).

424 The total organic matter in unit (B) reveals mean amount of 4.37 (%). In comparison to unit (B), 425 the amount increased to 4.69 (%) in unitDraft (A) (Figure 6- H). Moreover, the two-increased peak are 426 observed in unit (B) at the depth of 115 and 145 meters. Another substantial increased peak,

427 however, observed at the depth of 58 meters in the mudstone part. Other substantial decreased

428 trough observed at the depth of 40 meters, in unit (A), respectively (Figure 6- H).

429 Grain size analysis indicates the mean value of 23.64 µm and 20 µm in part A and part B,

430 respectively. Moreover, both units (A) and (B) show little variation in silt and clay percentages,

431 but relatively large changes in sand percentage throughout the core. Sharp peaks in the percentages

432 of sand are also visible at depth of 26, 50.60, 88.27, 98.33, 138.3, and 194.33 meters (Figure 6-G).

433 The percentage of fraction greater than 63 µm (sand fraction) varies from 0 to 30.1 %. This

434 variation is not visible in the core description, where visually the core was described as clay, silt

435 and mud throughout, with no substantial variation in grain size. Furthermore, the mean percent of

436 sand in units (A) and (B) are 7.99 and 6.122, respectively.

437 4.5. Spectral Analysis

18

https://mc06.manuscriptcentral.com/cjes-pubs Page 19 of 57 Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences

438 Spectral power is shown by colors ranging from deep blue (weak) to deep red (strong) (Figure 7).

439 Wavelet power spectrum analysis of spectral gamma ray time series shows that the significant

440 periodicities throughout the core have a period of 1.7Ma and 750ka, of which the strongest period

441 is 1.7 Ma long-term cycle most likely centered around 5.75- 6.03 Ma (Figure 7).

442 5.1. Discussion

443 5.1.1. The period 7.65 to 2.87 Ma and Asian southwest monsoon intensification

444 From the results presented above, it can be understood that the evolution of monsoon climate in

445 the late Tortonian to Piacenzian went through a series of changes in the Coastal Makran, NW Gulf

446 of Oman. The results indicate that the late Tortonian- late Messinian (7.65 to 5.83 Ma) followed

447 by the lower precipitation and subsequent lower physical and chemical weathering resulted from

448 intensification of the Asian southwest winterDraft monsoon, while the latest Messinian (5.82 to 5.33

449 Ma) to Zanclean-Piacenzian (5.33 to 2.87 Ma) is predominantly shown by relatively more humid

450 climate triggering higher physical and chemical weathering as a result of summer monsoon

451 intensification followed by the highest increasing in Himalayan uplift.

452 Comparison our archive with other palaeoclimate records from northern Indian Ocean, and the

453 other parts of the world, point to a teleconnection between intensification of the Asian southeast

454 monsoon, Asian east monsoon and South American monsoon. Several oceanic and continental

455 archives suggest that the Asian monsoon and its sub-systems have been intensified since ~8 Ma

456 (Kroon et al., 1991; Prell et al., 1992; Molnar et al., 1993, Filippelli, 1997), and culminated in the

457 Zanclean as a result of a continues uplifting event in the Himalaya (Figure 8-A) (Prell and

458 Kutzbach, 1992, Filippeli, 1997). This uplifting event that enhanced precipitation, pointed to

459 adirect increased chemical and physical weathering rates. In addition, a similarity between the

460 western Atlantic proxies and the Himalayan uplift in terms of weathering history for the Andes is

19

https://mc06.manuscriptcentral.com/cjes-pubs Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences Page 20 of 57

461 seen, with uplift causing precipitation resulting in greatly enhanced sediment flux to the Atlantic

462 since 8 Ma, culminated in the Zanclean. In order to show the Asian monsoon intensification in our

463 region called Asian southwest monsoon, we presented evidences that indicate this event initiated

464 at ~7.65Ma may have caused a chain of transient but related changes in weathering and oceanic

465 circulation, which has been progressively enhanced through the late Tortonian to Piacenzian.

466 Increasing in chemical and physical weathering from Late Tortonian to Zanclean that was

467 culminated during latest Messinian- Zanclean (5.83 to 3.6 Ma) has been also reported from oceans

468 (Indian, pacific, and Atlantic) (Figure 8- C, D) (Filippelli, 1997; Prell and Kutzbach, 2002). This

469 weathering event is confirmed by the mean87Sr/86Sr isotope values of the planktonic samples in

470 the NW Gulf of Oman that indicates steep slope increasing trend comparable with the other sites

471 in Indian Ocean, Pacific and Atlantic oceansDraft (Figure 5). The higher value of Sr ratio during latest

472 Messinian-Zanclean are attributed to an increase in the dissolved chemical fluxes carried by rivers

473 to the oceans (Brass, 1976; Hess et al., 1986; Hodell et al., 1988; McKenzie et al., 1988; Farrel, et

474 al., 1995; Derri et al., 1996). This, in turn, is relevant to increased chemical weathering on the

475 continents and shelves during latest Messinian-Zanclean. The increase in chemical weathering can

476 itself invokes an intensification of Asian monsoon during the late Messinian- Zanclean transition

477 (Filippelli, 2014) followed by the high precipitation over the land. During the time interval of steep

478 87Sr/86Sr increase (latest Messinian-Zanclean), other proxy changes also occur including an

479 increase in volume magnetic susceptibility, Th/K and Tk/U, magnetic minerals and sand fraction

480 along with a decrease in carbonate content (Figure 6-A-H & 8). VMS variations in the Coastal

481 Makran core are mainly controlled by magnetic mineral concentration and grain size. Moreover,

482 detrital hematite (Table 2) is predominant magnetic mineral throughout the core in both units (A)

483 and (B) which are deposited during latest Messinian to Zanclean-Piacenzian and late Tortonian-

20

https://mc06.manuscriptcentral.com/cjes-pubs Page 21 of 57 Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences

484 late Messinian, respectively. Less frequent magnetic minerals that are sparsely dispersed and

485 responsible for positive VMS in the core are ankerite, hornblende, and pyrite. Higher amount of

486 ferromagnetic minerals during episodes 6.5 and 7.02Ma (see also table 2) is also fairly compatible

487 with the two major picks in VMS (Figure6-A). Negative values of VMS could also be attributed

488 to the abundance of calcite and quartz that are common in both units (A) and (B) (Table 2). The

489 value of VMS during latest Messinian to Zanclean-Piacenzian is approximately double than that

490 of those deposited during late Tortonian to early Messinian. This corresponds with the higher

491 frequency of ferromagnetic minerals that is deposited into basin during latest Messinian to

492 Zanclean-Piacenzian. Since the high VMS values are implicated for the increased physical

493 weathering and subsequent high detrital input into basin (Kumar et al., 2005; Grobowski et al.,

494 2013; Miller et al., 2016; Ao et al., 2016),Draft it can be fairly interpreted that weathering under humid

495 condition was prevailed as a result of Asian summer monsoon intensification during latest

496 Messinian to Zanclean- Piacenzian (Warren and Kutzbach, 1992; Zhisheng et al., 2001; Zhisheng

497 et al., 2011) followed by the Himalayan rapid uplifting. In contrast, the lower value of VMS

498 corresponds with less ferromagnetic minerals during late Tortonian-late Messinian indicate

499 intensification of Asian winter monsoon (Holbourn et al., 2014), resulted in lower weathering and

500 thereby less abundance of magnetic minerals which were transported and deposited in the basin.

501 This lower weathering episode is also synchronous with the long-term global cooling, due to

502 reduction in atmospheric carbon dioxide and solar insolation (Hodell and Curtis, 2001). Summer

503 insolation (65°N) is relatively lower during late Tortonian-late Messinian (mean 506.55 Wm-2 ),

504 while it was slightly increased during latest Messinian to Zanclean-Piacenzian (mean 506.70 Wm-2

505 ) (Figure 6-B) (Hodell and Curtis, 2001). Furthermore, a good agreement is observed between the

506 oscillation of VMS and summer insolation as well (Figure 6-A, B)

21

https://mc06.manuscriptcentral.com/cjes-pubs Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences Page 22 of 57

507 Grain size also affects the VMS (Kumar et al., 2005) and has slightly varied during late Tortonian

508 to Zanclean-Piacenzian in the Coastal Makran samples. Higher VMS values during the latest

509 Messinian to Zanclean- Piacenzian largely correspond to increases in the sand fraction (terrigenous

510 sand size grains) (Figure 6 A, G), which ranges between 0 and 30.1 % and the sand mean of 7.99

511 %, whereas during late Tortonian- late Messinian, the sand fraction was lowered and reached to

512 6.12 % and corresponded with lower VMS. This perfect agreement strongly confirms higher

513 precipitation and weathering during the latest Messinian to Zanclean-Piacenzian due to a summer

514 monsoon intensification followed by warmer climate, relatively higher solar insolation and abrupt

515 Himalayan uplifting (Figure 8-A, B) resulted in high detrital input into basin and strong hydraulic

516 activity. Instead, during the late Tortonian- late Messinian, lower precipitation and weathering due

517 to winter monsoon intensification that wasDraft followed by cooling climate and glaciation resulted in

518 low detrital input into basin and thereby less hydraulic activity.

519 Furthermore, the coastal Makran core reveals higher Th/K ratios deposited during the latest

520 Messinian to Zanclean-Piacenzian than those in late Tortonian- late Messinian. Higher Th/K ratios

521 correspond with the higher VMS value and more sand fraction (Figure 6 & 8). Since variations in

522 Th/K ratio, VMS and sand fraction indicates changes in detrital input of mudstones and other fine-

523 grained sediments into basin (Basu et al., 2009; Ruffell and Worden, Schnyder et al, 2006 ;

524 Hesselbo et al, 2008; Grabowski et al., 2013), it can be noted that higher Th/K, VMS, and sand

525 fraction during the latest Messinian to Zanclean- Piacenzian resulted from leaching of K and U

526 likely from the clay minerals due to chemical weathering of hinterland during more humid periods

527 followed by the Asian summer monsoon intensification. This interpretation is also supported by

528 clay minerals studies which indicated fairly agreement between increasing Th/K as well as the

529 Illite/Chlorite ratio for wetter intervals during the latest Messinian to Zanclean-Piacenzian that

22

https://mc06.manuscriptcentral.com/cjes-pubs Page 23 of 57 Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences

530 were dominated by summer monsoon intensification followed by the Himalayan rapid uplifting

531 generated higher precipitation and subsequent higher chemical weathering (Deconinck et

532 al.,2003). Instead, lower Th/K as well as the Illite/Chlorite ratio during the late Tortonian-late

533 Messinian, point to a lower chemical weathering synchronous with more arid and cooler condition

534 prevailed by winter monsoon intensification.

535 Th/U ratio, an indicator of the oxygenation level, (McRobertset al., 1997; Bond and Zaton´, 2003;

536 Grabowski et al., 2013) in Coastal Makran core is varied slightly. Th/U ratio is generally lower

537 than 2 suggesting suboxic or even anoxic conditions rather than oxic environment (Jones and

538 Manning, 1994; Wignall and Myers, 1988). In addition, Th/U ratios are higher during latest

539 Messinian to Zanclean- Piacenzian (Figure 6- C), which would suggest a slightly stronger

540 oxygenation of the basin followed by Draft the higher detrital input into the basin that resulted in

541 enhanced agitation and caused lower bio-productivity and authogenic organic matter production.

542 Furthermore, there is no substantial difference between the amount of carbonate content and total

543 organic matter during the late Tortonian- late Messinian and latest Messinian to Zanclean-

544 Piacenzian (Figure 6- F- H). However, the amount of carbonate content is lower during the latest

545 Messinian to Zanclean- Piacenzian than in the late Tortonian- late Messinian. Conversly, the

546 amount of total organic matter is higher during the latest Messinian to Zanclean-Piacenzian.

547 Moreover, the simplest interpretation for an inverse relation between the amount of carbonate

548 content on the one hand, and VMS, Th/K, Th/U, sand fraction and abundances of ferromagnetic

549 minerals on the other one, during latest Messinian Zanclean-Piacenzian, is to invokes a

550 productivity variations or dilution of terrigenous flux during intensified summer monsoon that

551 generated enhanced precipitation, capable of transporting a huge detrital input to basin. On the

552 contrary, the higher carbonate content during the late Tortonian- late Messinian point to an

23

https://mc06.manuscriptcentral.com/cjes-pubs Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences Page 24 of 57

553 intensification of winter monsoon, that was followed by global cooling and associated with lower

554 physical and chemical weathering. The amount of TOM, as noted above, is slightly lower during

555 the late Tortonian- late Messinian. However, two episodes of intense physical and chemical

556 weathering resulted from high precipitation is observed during this interval (between 6.23and 6.01

557 Ma) coincides with increased organic matter input from continental reservoirs to the Oceans

558 (Figure 6- H, 8-D). These two episodes are also consistent with some high-productivity episodes

559 resulted from seasonal upwelling that were controlled by the Indian monsoon in the Indian Ocean

560 (Site 721) (Dickens and Owen, 1999; Haass et al., 2006). Previous results indicate that in site 721,

561 within the Indian monsoon circulation area, productivity increased at the beginning of the shift

562 d13C shift (7.6 Ma) and continues to about 6 Ma, which is synchronous with the two peaks

563 observed in our data. In addition, comparisonDraft with palaeoclimate archives from other sites (1146,

564 and 846) in Pacific Ocean with respect to palaeoproductivity and the amount of TOM, point to a

565 teleconnection between increased TOM in Indian and Pacific Ocean and the interior of West Asia

566 during the late Tortonian-middle Messinian (7.6-6.0 Ma) especially at the episodes 6.23 and 6.01

567 Ma (Figure 6- H, 8-D). It is interpreted that seasonal upwelling (Prell et al., 1989; Haass et al.,

568 2006), which brings cool nutrient-rich, oxygen-poor waters from several hundred meters depth to

569 the surface producing high bio- productivity in conjunction with high organic detrital input into

570 basin has been resulted in high organic matter at sites (1146, and 846) during this time.

571 Furthermore, a simultaneous increment in carbonate dissolution consistent with boost

572 remineralization of organic matter has been reported (Berger and Vincent, 1981; Tedford and

573 Kelly, 2004; Diester-Haass et al., 2005; Haass et al., 2006). This is also vividly observed in our

574 TOM and CaCO3 curves so that there is a good agreement between high amount of TOM and low

575 amount of CaCO3 during 6.23-6.01 Ma (Figure 6- F, H & 8-D). This could be attributed to the

24

https://mc06.manuscriptcentral.com/cjes-pubs Page 25 of 57 Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences

576 intensification in monsoon winds over the region, capable of transporting high amount of detrital

577 organic input into basin and associated water agitation resulted in carbonate dissolution in these

578 episodes.

579 5.1.2. The possible reasons of the Asian Southwest monsoon intensification

580 Sensitivity of the Asian southwest monsoon to the various forcing and boundary condition factors,

581 indicates that it is intensified during late Tortonian – Zanclean likely due by Himalayan uplift and

582 in a global context. Major effective factors responsible for Asian winter monsoon intensification

583 during the late Tortonian-late Messinian and Asian summer monsoon intensification during latest

584 Messinian- Piacenzian are considered enhanced Himalayan elevation and solar radiation (Prell and

585 Kutzbach, 1992; Prell et al., Kutzbach et al., 1993; Ruddiman et al., 1997; Zhisheng et al., 2001).

586 In addition to mentioned major factors,Draft concentration of atmospheric CO2 and glaciation-

587 deglaciation oscillations are considered as two types of large-scale forcing or boundary conditions

588 that affect the Asian monsoon intensification. The Asian monsoon response to elevation is shown

589 by the increased precipitation followed by increase in uplifting (Prell and Kutzbach, 1992).

590 Numerous experiments indicate an abrupt increase in uplifting (5 km) during the late Tortonian –

591 Zanclean (Figure 8- A) between 8 to 4 Ma followed by a high constant rate to the end of Piacenzian.

592 This has been resulted in substantial increase in precipitation reaching to the maximum during

593 latest Messinian-Piacenzian that indicates the intensification of the Asian summer monsoon.

594 Furthermore, major cycles (1.7 Ma and 750 Ka) detected in our spectral gamma- ray signal are

595 centered around 5.75 to 6.03 Ma, point out to a connection between mountain- plateau orography

596 (tectonic), along with eccentricity and intensification in Asian southwest summer monsoon at the

597 end of latest Messinian and beginning of Zanclean that caused high precipitation and thereby

598 higher weathering. Comparison our proxy results like VMS, Th/K, Th/U, sand fraction and

25

https://mc06.manuscriptcentral.com/cjes-pubs Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences Page 26 of 57

599 87Sr/86Sr ratio with the percentage of uplifting during Zanclean-Piacenzian, it is observed that the

600 increased precipitation followed by high detrital input into basin is in good agreement with high

601 rate of uplifting caused intensification of Asian southwest monsoon produced higher precipitation

602 (Figure 8).

603 Our results are also in good agreement with the glacial boundary condition forcing. We did not

604 analyze oxygen isotope, however, our results indicate that during latest Messinian to Zanclean-

605 Piacenzian associated with some deglaciation episodes (Figure 8-B), wetter climate, and relatively

606 higher solar insolation (Figure 6-B), the precipitation and detrital input into basin has been

607 increased as a result of summer monsoon intensification. In contrast, the late Tortonian- late

608 Messinian is associated with some major glaciation episodes and cooler climate and experienced

609 lower precipitation due to winter monsoonDraft intensification. However, the link of intensification of

610 summer-winter southwest Asian monsoon to glaciation boundary condition forcing, cannot be

611 fairly done on the grounds that some observations show that the Indian Ocean summer monsoon

612 was stronger during some glacial intervals (Clemens and Prell, 1990; Clemens et al., 1991).In

613 addition, the sensitivity of the Asian southwest precipitation to glaciation conditions and also solar

614 radiation is relatively low (Prell and Kutzbach,1992) resulting in a small contribution to the

615 character of the monsoon history.

616 6. Conclusion

617 In this paper Late Tortonian - Piacenzian climate from NW Gulf of Oman, Coastal Makran, SE

618 Iran has been reconstructed based on sedimentology, mineralogy, geochemistry, spectral gamma-

619 ray, magnetic susceptibility logs. The main findings can be described as follows:

620 1- During the late Tortonian- late Messinian (7.65 to 5.83 Ma), the relatively lower VMS, Th/K,

621 Th/U,87Sr/86Sr, Illite/chlorite, sand size fraction and relatively high amount of carbonate content

26

https://mc06.manuscriptcentral.com/cjes-pubs Page 27 of 57 Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences

622 has been observed in unit (B) of the core. This is concluded that a decrease in the detrital and

623 dissolved chemical fluxes carried by rivers to the Sea had been occurred. This, in turn, implies

624 decreased physical and chemical denudation rates of the continents and shelves followed by Asian

625 southwest winter monsoon intensification during this time.

626 2- During the latest Messinian (5.82 to 5.33 Ma) to Zanclean-Piacenzian (5.33 to 2.87 Ma) the

627 good explain of relatively high VMS, Th/K, Th/U, 87Sr/86Sr, Illite/chlorite, sand size fraction and

628 relatively low amount of carbonate content in unit (A) of the core, is to invoke an increase in the

629 detrital and dissolved chemical fluxes carried by rivers to the Sea. This can be implicated for the

630 Asian southwest summer monsoon intensification that generated high precipitation over the land

631 and thereby increased physical and chemical denudation and weathering rates of the continents

632 and shelves during this time. Draft

633 3- The higher weathering rates followed by summer monsoon intensification during the latest

634 Messinian to Zanclean-Piacenzian is synchronous with some major global deglaciation episodes

635 and a generally warmer condition governed specially during the early Zanclean associated with

636 the highest elevation of Himalaya produced a high precipitation in the region.

637 4- The lower weathering rates followed by winter monsoon intensification during the late

638 Tortonian- late Messinian is synchronous with global cooling and a generally drier condition.

639 However, an observed increase in physical and chemical weathering rates during the latest

640 Messinian (5.5Ma) invokes increased rate of weathering and high detrital and nutrient into basin

641 and accelerated rates of global tectonism (highest elevation of Himalayan producing high rate of

642 precipitation) beginning at 5.5 Ma.

643 5- The sensitivity of the Asian southwest precipitation, as a reason for weathering, to tectonic and

644 eccentricity cycles is relatively high and matches with the accelerated rates of global tectonism

27

https://mc06.manuscriptcentral.com/cjes-pubs Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences Page 28 of 57

645 and the highest Himalayan uplifting, along with slightly variation in solar radiation centered

646 around 5.5 Ma. This, in turn, resulting in a high contribution of tectonic within the region. In

647 addition, the summer insolation (65°N) is relatively higher during the latest Messinian to the

648 Zanclean- Piacenzian in unit (A), (mean 506.70 Wm-2 ), suggesting a contribution to create the

649 more humid condition during this period.

650 Acknowledgment

651 Investigations were carried out as a PhD Thesis project defined at Iranian National Institute for

652 Oceanography and Atmospheric Sciences (INIOAS) in cooperation with Research Institute of

653 Petroleum Industry (RIPI), Iran. Special thanks go to Dr. F. Karell and Dr. H. Obrien from the

654 Geological Survey of Finland (GTK) who made it possible that the Sr isotope analyses were

655 done at GTK. Mrs. L. Järvinen from GTKDraft is thanked for the help in laboratory. We are also

656 especially grateful to RIPI for core and spectral gamma ray log data. Besides, many thanks to the

657 INIOAS for providing me with the instrument for measurement of both sedimentology including

658 both total organic matter and CaCO3 content and volume magnetic susceptibility measurement.

659 Also, thanks to Dr. T. Mohtat in the Geological Survey of Iran (GSI) for helping us in detecting

660 planktonic foraminifera. Finally, K. R acknowledges funding by the Deutsche

661 Forschungsgemeinschaft (code RE3994/1-3).

662 7. References

663 Ao, H., Roberts, A. P., Dekkers, M. J., Liu, X., Rohling, E. J., Shi, Z., & Zhao, X. (2016). Late

664 Miocene– Asian monsoon intensification linked to Antarctic ice-sheet

665 growth. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 444, 75-87.

666 Babu, S. S., Moorthy, K. K., & Satheesh, S. K. (2004). Aerosol black carbon over Arabian Sea

667 during intermonsoon and summer monsoon seasons. Geophysical Research Letters, 31(6).

28

https://mc06.manuscriptcentral.com/cjes-pubs Page 29 of 57 Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences

668 Beer, J., Shen, C., Heller, F., Liu, T., Bonani, G., Beate, D., &Kubik, P. W. (1993). 10Be and

669 magnetic susceptibility in Chinese loess. Geophysical Research Letters, 20(1), 57-60.

670 Biscaye, P. E. (1965). Mineralogy and sedimentation of recent deep-sea clay in the Atlantic Ocean

671 and adjacent seas and oceans. Geological Society of America Bulletin, 76(7), 803-832.

672 Bloemendal, J. (1983). Paleoenvironmental implications of the magnetic characteristics of

673 sediments from deep-sea drilling project site-514, southeast argentine basin. Initial Reports

674 of the Deep Sea Drilling Project, 71(SEP), 1097-1108.

675 Brass, G. W. (1976). The variation of the marine 87Sr/86Sr ratio during Phanerozonic time:

676 interpretation using a flux model. Geochimica et CosmochimicaActa, 40(7), 721-730.

677 Breitenbach, S. F., Rehfeld, K., Goswami, B., Baldini, J. U. L., Ridley, H. E., Kennett, D., &

678 Cheng, H. (2012). COnstructingDraft Proxy-Record Age models (COPRA). Climate of the

679 past., 8(5), 1765-1779.

680 Chappell, J., & Shackleton, N. (1986). Oxygen isotopes and sea level. Nature, 324(6093), 137.

681 Chen, F., Yu, Z., Yang, M., Ito, E., Wang, S., Madsen, D. B., & Boomer, I. (2008). Holocene

682 moisture evolution in arid central Asia and its out-of-phase relationship with Asian

683 monsoon history. Quaternary Science Reviews, 27(3-4), 351-364.

684 Clemens, S. C., &Prell, W. L. (1990). Late Pleistocene variability of Arabian Sea summer

685 monsoon winds and continental aridity: Eolian records from the lithogenic component of

686 deep‐sea sediments. Paleoceanography, 5(2), 109-145.

687 Clemens, S., Prell, W., Murray, D., Shimmield, G., & Weedon, G. (1991). Forcing mechanisms of

688 the Indian Ocean monsoon. Nature, 353(6346), 720.

29

https://mc06.manuscriptcentral.com/cjes-pubs Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences Page 30 of 57

689 Cook, E. R., Anchukaitis, K. J., Buckley, B. M., D’Arrigo, R. D., Jacoby, G. C., & Wright, W. E.

690 (2010). Asian monsoon failure and megadrought during the last

691 millennium. Science, 328(5977), 486-489.

692 Deconinck, J. F., Hesselbo, S. P., Debuisser, N., Averbuch, O., Baudin, F., &Bessa, J. (2003).

693 Environmental controls on clay mineralogy of an Early mudrock (Blue Lias

694 Formation, southern England). International Journal of Earth Sciences, 92(2), 255-266.

695 Derry, L. A., & France-Lanord, C. (1996). Neogene Himalayan weathering history and

696 river87Sr86Sr: impact on the marine Sr record. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 142(1-

697 2), 59-74.

698 Dickens, G. R., & Owen, R. M. (1999). The latest Miocene–early Pliocene biogenic bloom: a

699 revised Indian Ocean perspective.Draft Marine Geology, 161(1), 75-91.

700 Diester‐Haass, L., Billups, K., &Emeis, K. C. (2005). In search of the late Miocene–early Pliocene

701 “biogenic bloom” in the Atlantic Ocean (Ocean Drilling Program Sites 982, 925, and

702 1088). Paleoceanography and Paleoclimatology, 20(4).

703 Diester‐Haass, L., Billups, K., &Emeis, K. C. (2006). Late Miocene carbon isotope records and

704 marine biological productivity: Was there a (dusty) link? Paleoceanography and

705 Paleoclimatology, 21(4).

706 Dolati, A. (2010). Stratigraphy, structural geology and low-temperature thermochronology across

707 the Makran accretionary wedge in Iran.

708 Emeis, K. C., Morse, J. W., & Mays, L. L. (1991). Organic carbon, reduced sulfur, and iron in

709 Miocene to Holocene upwelling sediments from the Oman and Benguela upwelling

710 systeVMS. In Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program, Scientific Results (Vol. 117, pp.

711 517-527). Ocean Drilling Program College Station, TX.

30

https://mc06.manuscriptcentral.com/cjes-pubs Page 31 of 57 Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences

712 Enzel, Y., Ely, L. L., Mishra, S., Ramesh, R., Amit, R., Lazar, B., & Sandler, A. (1999). High-

713 resolution Holocene environmental changes in the Thar Desert, northwestern

714 India. Science, 284(5411), 125-128.

715 Evans, M. E., & Heller, F. (2001). Magnetism of loess/palaeosol sequences: recent

716 developments. Earth-Science Reviews, 54(1-3), 129-144.

717 Filippelli, G. M. (1997). Intensification of the Asian monsoon and a chemical weathering event in

718 the late Miocene–early Pliocene: implications for late Neogene climate

719 change. Geology, 25(1), 27-30.

720 Farhoudi, G., &Karig, D. E. (1977). Makran of Iran and Pakistan as an active arc

721 system. Geology, 5(11), 664-668.

722 Fleitmann, D., Burns, S. J., Mudelsee, M.,Draft Neff, U., Kramers, J., Mangini, A., & Matter, A. (2003).

723 Holocene forcing of the Indian monsoon recorded in a stalagmite from southern

724 Oman. Science, 300(5626), 1737-1739.

725 Fleitmann, D., Burns, S. J., Mangini, A., Mudelsee, M., Kramers, J., Villa, I., & Matter, A. (2007).

726 Holocene ITCZ and Indian monsoon dynamics recorded in stalagmites from Oman and

727 Yemen (Socotra). Quaternary Science Reviews, 26(1-2), 170-188.

728 Fontugne, M. R., &Duplessy, J. C. (1986). Variations of the monsoon regime during the upper

729 Quaternary: evidence from carbon isotopic record of organic matter in North Indian Ocean

730 sediment cores. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, 56(1-2), 69-88.

731 Gadgil, S. (2003a). The Indian monsoon and its variability. Annual Review of Earth and Planetary

732 Sciences, 31(1), 429-467.

733 Gharibreza, M. R., &Motamed, A. (2006). Late Quaternary paleoshorelines and sedimentary

734 sequences in Chabahar Bay (Southeast of Iran). Journal of coastal research, 1499-1504.

31

https://mc06.manuscriptcentral.com/cjes-pubs Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences Page 32 of 57

735 Grabowski, J., Schnyder, J., Sobień, K., Koptikova, L., Krzemiński, L., Pszczółkowski, A., ...

736 &Schnabl, P. (2013). Magnetic susceptibility and spectral gamma logs in the Tithonian–

737 Berriasian pelagic carbonates in the Tatra Mts (Western Carpathians, Poland):

738 palaeoenvironmental changes at the Jurassic/Cretaceous boundary. Cretaceous Research,

739 43, 1-17.

740 Grando, G., & McClay, K. (2007). Morphotectonics domains and structural styles in the Makran

741 accretionary prism, offshore Iran. Sedimentary Geology, 196(1-4), 157-179.

742 Gupta, A. K., Anderson, D. M., &Overpeck, J. T. (2003). Abrupt changes in the Asian southwest

743 monsoon during the Holocene and their links to the North Atlantic

744 Ocean. Nature, 421(6921), 354.

745 Hamzeh, M. A., Gharaie, M. H. M., Lahijani,Draft H. A. K., Djamali, M., Harami, R. M., & Beni, A.

746 N. (2016). Holocene hydrological changes in SE Iran, a key region between Indian summer

747 monsoon and Mediterranean winter precipitation zones, as revealed from a lacustrine

748 sequence from Lake Hamoun. Quaternary International, 408, 25-39.

749 Heller, F., & Evans, M. E. (1995). Loess magnetism. Reviews of Geophysics, 33(2), 211-240.

750 Hess, J., Bender, M. L., & Schilling, J. G. (1986). Evolution of the ratio of strontium-87 to

751 strontium-86 in seawater from Cretaceous to present. Science, 231(4741), 979-984.

752 Hesselbo, S. P., Deconinck, J. F., Huggett, J. M., &Morgans-Bell, H. S. (2009).

753 palaeoclimatic change from clay mineralogy and gamma-ray spectrometry of the

754 Kimmeridge Clay, Dorset, UK. Journal of the Geological Society, 166(6), 1123-1133.

755 Hodell, D. A., & Kennett, J. P. (1986). Late Miocene–early Pliocene stratigraphy and

756 paleoceanography of the South Atlantic and southwest Pacific Oceans: a

757 synthesis. Paleoceanography, 1(3), 285-311.

32

https://mc06.manuscriptcentral.com/cjes-pubs Page 33 of 57 Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences

758 Hodell, D. A., Mueller, P. A., McKenzie, J. A., & Mead, G. A. (1989). Strontium isotope

759 stratigraphy and geochemistry of the late Neogene ocean. Earth and Planetary Science

760 Letters, 92(2), 165-178.

761 Hodell, D. A., Mead, G. A., & Mueller, P. A. (1990). Variation in the strontium isotopic

762 composition of seawater (8 Ma to present): Implications for chemical weathering rates and

763 dissolved fluxes to the oceans. Chemical Geology: Isotope Geoscience section, 80(4), 291-

764 307.

765 Hodell, D. A., Mead, G. A., & Mueller, P. A. (1990). Variation in the strontium isotopic

766 composition of seawater (8 Ma to present): Implications for chemical weathering rates and

767 dissolved fluxes to the oceans. Chemical Geology: Isotope Geoscience section, 80(4), 291-

768 307. Draft

769 Hodell, D. A., Curtis, J. H., Sierro, F. J., &Raymo, M. E. (2001). Correlation of late Miocene to

770 early Pliocene sequences between the Mediterranean and North

771 Atlantic. Paleoceanography, 16(2), 164-178.

772 Hodell, D. A., Kamenov, G. D., Hathorne, E. C., Zachos, J. C., Röhl, U., &Westerhold, T. (2007).

773 Variations in the strontium isotope composition of seawater during the and early

774 from ODP Leg 208 (Walvis Ridge). Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems, 8(9).

775 Holbourn, A., Kuhnt, W., Lyle, M., Schneider, L., Romero, O., & Andersen, N. (2014). Middle

776 Miocene climate cooling linked to intensification of eastern equatorial Pacific

777 upwelling. Geology, 42(1), 19-22.

778 Honjo, S., & Weller, R. A. (1997). Monsoon winds and carbon cycles in the Arabian Sea. Oceanus-

779 woods hole mass., 40, 24-28.

33

https://mc06.manuscriptcentral.com/cjes-pubs Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences Page 34 of 57

780 Hooper, P. W. P., & Weaver, P. P. E. (1987). paleoceanographic significance of late miocene to

781 early pliocene planktonic foraminifers at deep-sea drilling project site-609. Initial Reports

782 of the Deep Sea Drilling Project, 94, 925-934.

783 Hosseini-Barzi, M. (2010). Spatial and temporal diagenetic evolution of syntectonic sediments in

784 a pulsatory uplifted coastal escarpment, evidenced from the Plio-Pleistocene, Makran

785 subduction zone, Iran. Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 330(1), 273-289.

786 Howard, W. R., &Prell, W. L. (1994). Late Quaternary CaCO3 production and preservation in the

787 Southern Ocean: Implications for oceanic and atmospheric carbon cycling.

788 Paleoceanography, 9(3), 453-482.

789 Jansen, E., Sjøholm, J., Bleil, U., &Erichsen, J. A. (1990). Neogene and Pleistocene glaciations in

790 the northern hemisphere and lateDraft Miocene—Pliocene global ice volume fluctuations:

791 Evidence from the Norwegian Sea. In Geological History of the Polar Oceans: Arctic

792 versus Antarctic (pp. 677-705). Springer, Dordrecht.

793 Jansen, E., &Veum, T. (1990). Evidence for two-step deglaciation and its impact on North Atlantic

794 deep-water circulation. Nature, 343(6259), 612.

795 Jansen, E., &Sjøholm, J. (1991). Reconstruction of glaciation over the past 6 Myr from ice-borne

796 deposits in the Norwegian Sea. Nature, 349(6310), 600.

797 Ji, J., Balsam, W., Chen, J. U., & Liu, L. (2002). Rapid and quantitative measurement of hematite

798 and goethite in the Chinese loess-paleosol sequence by diffuse reflectance

799 spectroscopy. Clays and Clay minerals, 50(2), 208-216.

800 Keigwin, L. D. (1987). Pliocene stable-isotope record of Deep Sea Drilling Project Site 606:

801 sequential events of 18O enrichment beginning at 3.1 Ma. Ruddiman, WF, Kidd, RB,

802 Thomas, E., et al., Init.Repts. DSDP, 94, 911-920.

34

https://mc06.manuscriptcentral.com/cjes-pubs Page 35 of 57 Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences

803 Kidd, R. G. W., & McCall, G. J. H. (1985). Plate tectonics and the evolution of Makran. East Iran

804 Project, Area, (1), 564-618.

805 Kozłowski, W., &Sobień, K. (2012). Mid-Ludfordian coeval carbon isotope, natural gamma ray

806 and magnetic susceptibility excursions in the Mielnik IG-1 borehole (Eastern Poland)—

807 Dustiness as a possible link between global climate and the carbon isotope record.

808 Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, 339, 74-97.

809 Kumar, K. K., Hoerling, M., & Rajagopalan, B. (2005). Advancing dynamical prediction of Indian

810 monsoon rainfall. Geophysical Research Letters, 32(8).

811 Kutzbach, J. E., Prell, W. L., &Ruddiman, W. F. (1993). Sensitivity of Eurasian climate to surface

812 uplift of the Tibetan Plateau. The Journal of Geology, 101(2), 177-190.

813 Liu, Z., Trentesaux, A., Clemens, S. C., DraftColin, C., Wang, P., Huang, B., & Boulay, S. (2003). Clay

814 mineral assemblages in the northern South China Sea: implications for East Asian monsoon

815 evolution over the past 2 million . Marine Geology, 201(1), 133-146.

816 Liu, X., Liu, T., Paul, H., Xia, D., Jiri, C., & Wang, G. (2008). Two pedogenic models for

817 paleoclimatic records of magnetic susceptibility from Chinese and Siberian loess. Science

818 in China Series D: Earth Sciences, 51(2), 284-293.

819 Lovett, R. A. (2010). Tree rings map 700 years of Asian monsoons. Historical rainfall across the

820 region documented for the first time. Nature News.

821 Mercer, J. H., & Sutter, J. F. (1982). Late Miocene- earliest Pliocene glaciation in southern

822 Argentina: implications for global ice-sheet history. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology,

823 Palaeoecology, 38(3-4), 185-206.

824 Miller, K. G., & Katz, M. E. (1987). Oligocene to Miocene benthic foraminiferal and abyssal

825 circulation changes in the North Atlantic. Micropaleontology, 97-149.

35

https://mc06.manuscriptcentral.com/cjes-pubs Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences Page 36 of 57

826 Miller, J. D., Immerzeel, W. W., & Rees, G. (2012). Climate change impacts on glacier hydrology

827 and river discharge in the Hindu Kush–Himalayas: a synthesis of the scientific

828 basis. Mountain Research and Development, 32(4), 461-467.

829 McCall, J. (1996). The post-tectonic fanglomerates of the Makran accretionary prism,

830 Iran. Geoscientist, 6, 11-13.

831 McArthur, J. M., Howarth, R. J., & Bailey, T. R. (2001). Strontium isotope stratigraphy: LOWESS

832 version 3: best fit to the marine Sr-isotope curve for 0–509 Ma and accompanying look-up

833 table for deriving numerical age. The Journal of Geology, 109(2), 155-170.

834 McArthur, J. M., Howarth, R. J., & Shields, G. A. (2012). Strontium isotope stratigraphy. In The

835 (pp. 127-144).

836 Draft

837 McKenzie, J. A., Hodell, D. A., Mueller, P. A., & Mueller, D. W. (1988). Application of strontium

838 isotopes to late Miocene-early Pliocene stratigraphy. Geology, 16(11), 1022-1025.

839 Müller, P. J., &Suess, E. (1979). Productivity, sedimentation rate, and sedimentary organic matter

840 in the oceans—I. Organic carbon preservation. Deep Sea Research Part A. Oceanographic

841 Research Papers, 26(12), 1347-1362.

842 Nie, J., Song, Y., King, J. W., Zhang, R., & Fang, X. (2013). Six million years of magnetic grain-

843 size records reveal that temperature and precipitation were decoupled on the Chinese Loess

844 Plateau during~ 4.5–2.6 Ma. Quaternary Research, 79(3), 465-470.

845 Owen, L. A., Finkel, R. C., &Caffee, M. W. (2002a). A note on the extent of glaciation throughout

846 the Himalaya during the global Last Glacial Maximum. Quaternary Science

847 Reviews, 21(1-3), 147-157.

36

https://mc06.manuscriptcentral.com/cjes-pubs Page 37 of 57 Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences

848 Owen, L. A., Finkel, R. C., Caffee, M. W., & Gualtieri, L. (2002b). Timing of multiple late

849 Quaternary glaciations in the Hunza Valley, Karakoram Mountains, northern Pakistan:

850 defined by cosmogenic radionuclide dating of moraines. Geological Society of America

851 Bulletin, 114(5), 593-604.

852 Page, W. D., Alt, J. N., Cluff, L. S., &Plafker, G. (1979). Evidence for the recurrence of large-

853 magnitude earthquakes along the Makran coast of Iran and Pakistan. In Developments in

854 Geotectonics (Vol. 13, pp. 533-547). Elsevier.

855 Prell, W. L., Niitsuma, N., &Emeis, K. C. (1989). Oman Margin/Neogene Package. In Proc. ODP,

856 Init.Repts (Vol. 117).

857 Prell, W. L., &Kutzbach, J. E. (1992). Sensitivity of the Indian monsoon to forcing parameters and

858 implications for its evolution. Nature,Draft 360(6405), 647.

859 Prell, W. L., Murray, D. W., Clemens, S. C., & Anderson, D. M. (1992). Evolution and variability

860 of the Indian Ocean summer monsoon: Evidence from the western Arabian Sea drilling

861 program. Synthesis of results from scientific drilling in the Indian Ocean, 70, 447-469.

862 Prins, M. A., & Postma, G. (2000). Effects of climate, sea level, and tectonics unraveled for last

863 deglaciation turbidite records of the Arabian Sea. Geology, 28(4), 375-378.Shackleton, N.

864 J., Hall, M. A., & Pate, D. (1995). 15. Pliocene stable isotope stratigraphy of Site 846. In

865 Proc. Ocean Drill. Program Sci. Results (Vol. 138, pp. 337-355).

866 Qasim, S. Z. (1982). Oceanography of the northern Arabian Sea. Deep Sea Research Part A.

867 Oceanographic Research Papers, 29(9), 1041-1068.

868 Rea, D. K. (1992). Delivery of Himalayan sediment to the northern Indian Ocean and its relation

869 to global climate, sea level, uplift, and seawater strontium. Synthesis of results from

870 scientific drilling in the Indian Ocean, 70, 387-402.

37

https://mc06.manuscriptcentral.com/cjes-pubs Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences Page 38 of 57

871 Reuter, M., Kern, A. K., Harzhauser, M., Kroh, A., &Piller, W. E. (2013). Global warming and

872 South Indian monsoon rainfall—lessons from the Mid-Miocene. Gondwana

873 Research, 23(3), 1172-1177.

874 Richards, B. W., Benn, D. I., Owen, L. A., Rhodes, E. J., & Spencer, J. Q. (2000). Timing of late

875 Quaternary glaciations south of Mount Everest in the KhumbuHimal, Nepal. Geological

876 Society of America Bulletin, 112(10), 1621-1632.

877 Ricketts, R. D., Johnson, T. C., Brown, E. T., Rasmussen, K. A., &Romanovsky, V. V. (2001).

878 The Holocene paleolimnology of Lake Issyk-Kul, Kyrgyzstan: Trace element and stable

879 isotope composition of ostracodes. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology,

880 Palaeoecology, 176(1-4), 207-227.

881 Ruddiman, W. F., Kutzbach, J. E., &Draft Prentice, I. C. (1997). Testing the climatic effects of

882 orography and CO 2 with general circulation and biome models. In Tectonic uplift and

883 climate change (pp. 203-235). Springer, Boston, MA.

884 Ruffell, A., & Worden, R. (2000). Palaeoclimate analysis using spectral gamma-ray data from the

885 Aptian (Cretaceous) of southern England and southern France. Palaeogeography,

886 Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, 155(3), 265-283.

887 Sandgren, P., & Snowball, I. (2002). Application of mineral magnetic techniques to

888 paleolimnology. In Tracking environmental change using lake sediments (pp. 217-237).

889 Springer Netherlands.

890 Sarkar, A., Ramesh, R., Somayajulu, B. L. K., Agnihotri, R., Jull, A. J. T., & Burr, G. S. (2000).

891 High resolution Holocene monsoon record from the eastern Arabian Sea. Earth and

892 Planetary Science Letters, 177(3), 209-218.

38

https://mc06.manuscriptcentral.com/cjes-pubs Page 39 of 57 Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences

893 Schnyder, J., Ruffell, A., Deconinck, J. F., &Baudin, F. (2006). Conjunctive use of spectral

894 gamma-ray logs and clay mineralogy in defining late Jurassic–

895 palaeoclimate change (Dorset, UK). Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology,

896 229(4), 303-320.

897 Schulz, H., Von Rad, U., & Von Stackelberg, U. (1996). Laminated sediments from the oxygen-

898 minimum zone of the northeastern Arabian Sea. Geological Society, London, Special

899 Publications, 116(1), 185-207.

900 Seong, Y. B., Owen, L. A., Bishop, M. P., Bush, A., Clendon, P., Copland, L., ... &Shroder Jr, J.

901 F. (2007). Quaternary glacial history of the Central Karakoram. Quaternary Science 902 Reviews, 26(25-28), 3384-3405.Draft 903 Snowball, I., Sandgren, P., &Petterson, G. (1999). The mineral magnetic properties of an annually

904 laminated Holocene lake-sediment sequence in northern Sweden. The Holocene, 9(3), 353-

905 362.

906 Staubwasser, M., Sirocko, F., Grootes, P. M., &Segl, M. (2003). Climate change at the 4.2 ka BP

907 termination of the Indus valley civilization and Holocene South Asian monsoon

908 variability. Geophysical Research Letters, 30(8).

909 Stoneley, R. (1974). Evolution of the continental margins bounding a former southern Tethys.

910 In The geology of continental margins (pp. 889-903). Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg.

911 Suc, J. P., Violanti, D., Londeix, L., Poumot, C., Robert, C., Clauzon, G., ... &Cambon, G. (1995).

912 Evolution of the Messinian Mediterranean environments: the Tripoli Formation at

913 Capodarso (, Italy). Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology, 87(1), 51-79.

39

https://mc06.manuscriptcentral.com/cjes-pubs Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences Page 40 of 57

914 Tedford, R. A., & Kelly, D. C. (2004). A deep‐sea record of the late Miocene carbon shifts from

915 the southern Tasman Sea. The Cenozoic Southern Ocean: Tectonics, Sedimentation, and

916 Climate Change Between Australia and Antarctica, 273-290.

917 Thompson, R., Battarbee, R. W., O'sullivan, P. E., & Oldfield, F. (1975). Magnetic susceptibility

918 of lake sediments. Limnology and Oceanography, 20(5), 687-698.

919 Torrence, C., & Compo, G. P. (1998). A practical guide to wavelet analysis. Bulletin of the

920 American Meteorological society, 79(1), 61-78.

921 Vernant, P., Nilforoushan, F., Hatzfeld, D., Abbassi, M. R., Vigny, C., Masson, F., ... &Tavakoli,

922 F. (2004). Present-day crustal deformation and plate kinematics in the Middle East

923 constrained by GPS measurements in Iran and northern Oman. Geophysical Journal

924 International, 157(1), 381-398. Draft

925 Wang, B., Wu, R., & Li, T. (2003). Atmosphere–warm ocean interaction and its impacts on Asian–

926 Australian monsoon variation. Journal of Climate, 16(8), 1195-1211.

927 Wang, P., Clemens, S., Beaufort, L., Braconnot, P., Ganssen, G., Jian, Z., &Sarnthein, M. (2005).

928 Evolution and variability of the Asian monsoon system: state of the art and outstanding

929 issues. Quaternary Science Reviews, 24(5-6), 595-629.

930 Wang, Y., Cheng, H., Edwards, R. L., Kong, X., Shao, X., Chen, S., & An, Z. (2008). Millennial-

931 and orbital-scale changes in the East Asian monsoon over the past 224,000

932 years. Nature, 451(7182), 1090.

933 Webster, P. J., Magana, V. O., Palmer, T. N., Shukla, J., Tomas, R. A., Yanai, M. U., &Yasunari,

934 T. (1998). Monsoons: Processes, predictability, and the prospects for prediction. Journal of

935 Geophysical Research: Oceans, 103(C7), 14451-14510.

40

https://mc06.manuscriptcentral.com/cjes-pubs Page 41 of 57 Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences

936 Weng, H., & Lau, K. M. (1994). Wavelets, period doubling, and time–frequency localization with

937 application to organization of convection over the tropical western Pacific. Journal of the

938 atmospheric sciences, 51(17), 2523-2541.

939 Wyrtki, K. (1973). Teleconnections in the equatorial Pacific Ocean. Science, 180(4081), 66-68.

940 Zhao, L., Ji, J., Chen, J., Liu, L., Chen, Y., & Balsam, W. (2005). Variations of illite/chlorite ratio

941 in Chinese loess sections during the last glacial and interglacial cycle: Implications for

942 monsoon reconstruction. Geophysical research letters, 32(20).

943 Zhisheng, A., Kutzbach, J. E., Prell, W. L., & Porter, S. C. (2001). Evolution of Asian monsoons

944 and phased uplift of the Himalaya–Tibetan plateau since Late Miocene

945 times. nature, 411(6833), 62.

946 Zhisheng, A., Clemens, S. C., Shen, J., DraftQiang, X., Jin, Z., Sun, Y., ... & Cai, Y. (2011). Glacial-

947 interglacial Indian summer monsoon dynamics. science, 333(6043), 719-723.

948 Zhisheng, A., Guoxiong, W., Jianping, L., Youbin, S., Yimin, L., Weijian, Z., ... & Hai, C. (2015).

949 Global monsoon dynamics and climate change. Annual Review of Earth and Planetary

950 Sciences, 43, 29-77.

951 Zonneveld, K. A. (1997a). Dinoflagellate cyst distribution in surface sediments from the Arabian

952 Sea (northwestern Indian Ocean) in relation to temperature and salinity gradients in the

953 upper water column. Deep Sea Research Part II: Topical Studies in Oceanography, 44(6-

954 7), 1411-1443.

955

956 957

41

https://mc06.manuscriptcentral.com/cjes-pubs Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences Page 42 of 57

Table 1. Samples, standards and 87Sr/86Sr ratios and 2σ errors alongside with minimum, maximum and mean age using McArthur LOWESS database

87 86 Lab Id Sample Depth Sr/ Sr ± 2σm Age (Ma) Age (Ma) Age (Ma) min max mean 5#1 23.3 0.709068 0.000012 2 3.75 2.87 5#2 23.3 0.709083 0.000010 4#1 35.39 0.708992 0.000012 5.5 6.05 5.77 4#2 35.39 0.709008 0.000011 3#1 94.5 0.708996 0.000012 5.7 5.9 5.8 3#2 94.5 0.709001 0.000015 2#1 124.6 0.708989 0.000011 5.05 6.15 5.6 2#2 124.6 0.709023 0.000008 1#1 196.94 0.708935 0.000011 6.9 8.2 7.55 1#2 196.94 0.708946 0.000012 NBS978-50ppb-1 0.710225 Draft0.0000011 NBS978-50ppb-2 0.710237 0.000011 NBS978-50ppb-3 0.710243 0.000008

1

https://mc06.manuscriptcentral.com/cjes-pubs Page 43 of 57 Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences

Table 2. XRF Results of the Coastal Makran samples

Sample Depth SiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3 CaO Na2O K2O MgO TiO2 MnO P2O5 SO3 (m) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) MZY-1 25 48.86 8.93 5.50 9.83 2.51 1.81 3.48 0.53 0.06 0.13 4.34 MZY-2 40 48.90 11.31 6.02 5.10 2.92 2.40 4.97 0.46 0.07 0.09 0.00 MZY-3 65 54.09 8.04 3.70 15.41Draft1.09 1.24 2.69 0.41 0.09 0.12 1.11 MZY-4 80 54.26 7.12 3.62 16.75 1.36 1.15 2.35 0.42 0.12 0.07 0.00 MZY-5 95 52.61 6.46 3.04 18.59 1.07 1.21 2.19 0.29 0.12 0.10 0.00 MZY-6 110 54.65 6.22 2.91 17.03 1.16 1.07 2.49 0.30 0.13 0.08 0.00 MZY-7 125 37.75 4.37 2.20 30.37 0.90 0.80 1.17 0.18 0.10 0.12 0.00 MZY-8 140 36.43 4.89 2.85 29.32 0.72 0.99 1.79 0.23 0.20 0.11 0.00 MZY-9 155 51.43 5.17 4.06 20.08 0.74 0.85 2.46 0.89 0.14 0.14 0.00 MZY-10 170 54.05 7.03 3.55 17.29 1.58 1.06 2.13 0.48 0.11 0.06 0.00 MZY-11 185 56.63 6.39 3.01 16.74 1.10 1.11 2.12 0.33 0.10 0.16 0.00 MZY-12 198 36.87 4.45 2.19 30.14 0.83 0.84 1.40 0.22 0.05 0.09 0.14

2

https://mc06.manuscriptcentral.com/cjes-pubs Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences Page 44 of 57

Table 3. XRD Results of the Coastal Makran samples

Draft

3

https://mc06.manuscriptcentral.com/cjes-pubs Page 45 of 57 Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences

Sample Depth Quartz Orthoclase Albite Calcite Dolomite Ankerite Illite Chlorite Kaolinite Smectite Hematite Hornblende Pyrite Chrysotile (m) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) MZY-1 25 36 8 15 13 15 11

MZY-2 30 49 4 12 12 9 11 1 MZY-3 35 36 11 2 14 15 3 MZY-4 40 40 2 13 12 17 14 MZY-5 45 39 16 13 2 15 13 MZY-6 50 29 3 16 14 17 13 7 MZY-7 55 31 4 14 12 18 15 4 MZY-8 60 38 4 15 13 14 10 4 MZY-9 65 34 3 11 12 2 18 15 4 MZY- 75 34 6 17 12 12 14 3 10 MZY- 80 39 14 14 2 15 13 2 11 MZY- 85 32 2 16 14 19 12 3 12 Draft MZY- 90 38 3 15 13 15 14 13 MZY- 95 40 4 13 15 17 8 14 MZY- 100 30 3 15 14 3 17 13 3 15 MZY- 105 35 2 16 12 18 15 16 MZY- 110 30 3 16 12 2 17 17 17 MZY- 115 29 2 18 13 2 17 15 2 18 MZY- 120 30 2 16 12 18 16 4 19 MZY- 125 47 3 14 12 14 15 3 20 MZY- 130 24 13 17 13 2 15 12 3 21 MZY- 135 40 36 18 14 16 10 3 22 MZY- 140 43 3 16 12 2 16 13 23 MZY- 145 40 3 15 13 3 12 12 24 MZY- 155 42 3 16 14 16 17 3 4 25

4

https://mc06.manuscriptcentral.com/cjes-pubs Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences Page 46 of 57

MZY- 160 33 16 3 14 2 12 14 4 26 MZY- 165 27 3 18 13 2 14 14 3 3 27 MZY- 170 70 33 2 20 18 2 14 28 MZY- 175 35 40 5 13 14 12 13 1 29 MZY- 180 31 3 14 12 2 17 16 3 30 MZY- 185 28 5 11 12 2 19 18 3 31 MZY- 190 43 5 17 12 10 11 1 32

Draft

5

https://mc06.manuscriptcentral.com/cjes-pubs Page 47 of 57 Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences

LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1. Elevation map showing location of the study site, Coastal makran, NW, Gulf of Oman

marked with red rhomb, and schematic position of major synoptic systems over West and

Southwest Asia (The Indian Ocean Summer Monsoon (IOSM), Siberian Anticyclone, and Mid-

latitude Westerlies). The (IOSM) is shown with the red dots from the south that brings moisture

to SW Asia during the summer. In addition, approximate current location of the Intertropical

Convergence Zone (ITCZ) is shown.

Figure 2. Air temperature (°C), shown as red line, and precipitation (mm), shown as blue line,

data averaged monthly for 47 years at Chahbahar weather. Data accessed from the Iran

meteorological organization, 1963-2010. (http://www.chaharmahalmet.ir/iranarchive.asp). The

maximum monthly mean air temperatureDraft reaches to 31.4 (°C) in June and the minimum monthly

mean air temperature decline to 19.9 (°C) in January. In addition, maximum and minimum mean

monthly precipitation reaches to 33.6 (mm) in January and decline to zero in May, respectively.

Figure3. A) planktonic foraminifera Globigerinoides, sp, left and benthic Elphidium

Prosononion Granosum, right. B) Another benthic foraminifer observed under binocular

microscope, Ammonia Beccarii.

Figure 4. The age/ depth model was constructed using a Monte Carlo algorithm for 87Sr /86Sr

similar to that implemented in COPRA (Breitenbach et al., 2012) for U/Th dated speleothems.

For each measurement, there is an equivalent date.

Figure 5. Monotonically increasing in the 87Sr/86Sr ratios and the steep enhanced values across

the late Messinian/Zanclean boundary and comparison with the global trend.

Figure 6. Graphs showing Multi-proxy sediment record from coastal Makran, SE Iran. (A)

volume magnetic susceptibility (VMS). (B) Summer insolation (65° N). (C) Th/U ratio. (D) Th/K

1

https://mc06.manuscriptcentral.com/cjes-pubs Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences Page 48 of 57

ratio. (E) SGR(c/m). (F) Carbonate content (CaCO3)%. (G) Size greater than 63 µm (sand fraction). (H) Total organic matter (TOM)%. The main features are the relatively higher value of

VMS, Th/K, Th/U ratios, TOM and sand fraction and the lower value of CaCO3 in part (A) of the core aging from 2.87 to 5.3 Ma and the relatively lower value of VMS, Th/K, Th/U ratios, TOM and sand fraction and the higher value of CaCO3 in part B of the core aging from 2.87 to 5.3 Ma.

There is also a fairly coincidence between the VMS and summer insolation.

Figure 7. The wavelet spectrum for the spectral gamma ray time series using the morlet wavelet and modified MATLAB codes from Torrence, 1988. The thick contour is the 95% confidence level. The Global power spectrum with the most significant peaks of spectral power are shown on the right panel and dashed line is referred to 1σconfidence level. Spectral power is shown by colors ranging from deep blue (weak) toDraft deep red (strong).

Figure 8. Periods of enhanced and declined weathering as an implication for summer and winter monsoon intensification from coastal Makran compared with uplifting rate of Himalaya, strontium isotope of marine, oxygen isotope and sediment flux into Indian oceans accounts of monsoon intensification in south west Asia during the late Miocene-Pliocene. (A)uplift history of

Himalaya. (B) δ 18O of benthic foraminifera (Miller et al., 1987). (C) Normalized sediment flux in northern Indian Ocean (Rea, 1992) (D) Phosphorus accumulation rates in equatorial Pacific

(Filippelli and Delaney, 1996). It can be seen that late Tortonian/Zanclean transition indicates significant changes in sedimentological, geophysical, and geochemical signatures examined in our study area that is synchronous with global changes in Asian monsoon during this time. The substantial increase in Himalayan uplift, sediment flux into sea and Phosphate accumulation rate between 6 to 4 Ma suggests an enhanced in precipitation and weathering followed by the summer monsoon intensification.

2

https://mc06.manuscriptcentral.com/cjes-pubs Page 49 of 57 Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences

Draft

3

https://mc06.manuscriptcentral.com/cjes-pubs Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences Page 50 of 57

Draft

Figure.1

4

https://mc06.manuscriptcentral.com/cjes-pubs

C Page 51 of 57 Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences

Figure.2 Draft

A B

Figure.3

5

https://mc06.manuscriptcentral.com/cjes-pubs Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences Page 52 of 57

Draft

Figure.4

6

https://mc06.manuscriptcentral.com/cjes-pubs Page 53 of 57 Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences

Draft

Figure.5

7

https://mc06.manuscriptcentral.com/cjes-pubs Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences Page 54 of 57

H

G

F

E Draft

D

C

B

A

A

Figure.6 Unit (A) of Core 8 Unit (B) of Core https://mc06.manuscriptcentral.com/cjes-pubs Page 55 of 57 Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences

Draft

Figure.7

9

https://mc06.manuscriptcentral.com/cjes-pubs Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences Page 56 of 57

D

C

Draft

B

A

A

Higher Th/K, Th/U

VMS, TOM Lower Sand fraction

Figure.8

10

https://mc06.manuscriptcentral.com/cjes-pubs Page 57 of 57 Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences

Draft

11

https://mc06.manuscriptcentral.com/cjes-pubs