chriskresser.com 1! eBook Part 1: The Evolution of

Do you know what’s really in a bottle of ? Is wine healthy, or a health hazard? In this ebook about wine, I will look at how wine has changed from its traditional form into a commercialized product, go through the benefits and risks of wine consumption, and share how to find high- quality wine. Part one will cover a brief and how wine has evolved into a processed product, not unlike the other processed and refined foods we see today. Is wine Paleo?

Although some speculate that our Paleolithic ancestors did consume “wine” in the form of fermented fruits, the earliest evidence of wine purposefully made from grapes is from the Neolithic period. A drinking vessel with tartaric acid, which only occurs in large amounts naturally in grapes, was found in an ancient village in Iran, dating from 7,000 years ago. (1) From the southern Caucasus region (which includes modern-day Iran), winemaking Image by istock.com/SonerCdem traveled to Palestine, Syria, Egypt, Mesopotamia, and then the Mediterranean. (2)

When Rome conquered Greece more than 2,000 years ago, winemaking was one aspect of Greek culture adopted by the Romans. (3) Southern Europe, which contains regions once in the former Roman empire, still consumes plenty of wine, usually with a meal.

In the 18th century, winemaking expanded to South Africa, Australia, and New Zealand. (4) Europeans brought wine to the Americas, first to Mexico and South America. In comparison to this extensive history, the United States’ large-scale are practically infants, only appearing around 200 years ago.

chriskresser.com 2! What is in a bottle of wine? Aside from water, a bottle of wine contains hundreds of substances, most of which fall into the categories below.

■ . and are the principal found in grapes, which are fermented into during winemaking. What isn’t fermented is called residual sugar.

■ Wine yeasts. Naturally found on grapes, yeast is what ferments the grape sugars. Most today, however, use added commercial yeast instead.

■ Ethanol. Yeasts ferment the sugars into ethanol, generally resulting in an alcohol content of 10 to 13 percent, (2) but this number can be modified by temperature, certain added yeast strains, and .

■ Phenols/polyphenols. Polyphenols affect the appearance, , mouth feel, and fragrance of wine. Found in fruits, vegetables, coffee, and tea, polyphenols are most likely responsible for the positive health outcomes associated with moderate wine consumption. They are present in the seeds, skin, and flesh of grapes but are also increased through fermentation and aging.

■ Methanol. Methanol, a toxic substance, is found in wine in very low levels (0.1–0.2 g/L), (2) but it also occurs naturally in other fruits, vegetables, and their juices.

■ Other alcohols, aldehydes, acids. Grape sugars are also metabolized into higher alcohols, esters, and aldehydes, contributing to the overall complex nature of wine. The stages of winemaking

To understand how wine has evolved over the millennia, an appreciation for the winemaking process is a good place to start. The general steps involved in winemaking are (5):

■ Harvesting the grapes ■ Stemming and crushing the grapes ■ – Time is given for phenolic components of grapes to be leached from the skin, seeds, and stems into what is called the “must” ■ Fermentation – Yeast converts sugar into and ethanol ■ Draining – “Must” is drained without being pressed into barrels ■ Thermovinification – Wine may be heated at 50–80°C to improve color ■ Clarification and stabilization – This may involve filtration, centrifugation, flotation, refrigeration, and/or pasteurization ■ Aging – Wine is transferred to a wooden barrel or metal container ■ Bottling – A dose of sulfite is usually added commercially to help preserve the wine chriskresser.com 3! Commercialization changed wine

Everyone’s heard of wine’s supposed health benefits, but not all wine is created equal. Traditionally, wine was made with mashed grapes left to ferment for an extended period of time, resulting in a polyphenol-rich, relatively low- alcohol-containing beverage. Few additional ingredients were added and intervention was minimal. Today, picturing chemists in lab coats is a more accurate portrayal of winemaking than a casually dressed owner with an oak barrel. Image by istock.com/luiginophoto

Modern processes have changed wine production. Growing grapes closer together increases vine yields, but this overproduction delays fruit maturity, retains excessive acidity, and is associated with reduced wine quality. (2) To grow grapes in such close proximity, irrigation is almost always required. While this can double fruit yield and increase fruit size, over-irrigation can result in lower sugar and increased grape acidity. (2) Traditionally, a “mild water stress” following grape ripening actually improves grape quality. Unfortunately, many of these traditional methods are lost in today’s wine production.

WINE ADDITIVES AND CONTAMINANTS Since wine went commercial, it has evolved into something so different from what it used to be that our bodies no longer handle it well. Today, more than 70 additives are approved in winemaking to increase production, ensure repeatable outcomes, and keep costs low. If you have ever experienced headaches, asthma symptoms, or even diarrhea after enjoying a glass or two of wine, it might actually be due to all that is added to wine rather than the wine itself.

Unlike everything else we eat and drink, nutrition labels and ingredients lists are not required for wine in the United States. Instead of being regulated by the FDA, wine falls under the jurisdiction of the Alcohol and Tobacco Tax and Trade Bureau. As commercial winemakers strive to increase production and lower costs, some questionable and harmful substances have found their way into wine:

Oak chips and sawdust. Those “oak notes” discussed during wine tastings may not actually be the result of oak-aged wine. Commercially, oak chips or sawdust might be used instead to give that oak flavor without the added time of real oak barrel aging.

chriskresser.com 4! Fining agents. To remove unwanted substances in wine before bottling, a variety of agents can be used. Many animal-based ones, including egg white, fish bladder, and casein, might surprise many wine-consuming vegans. Bentonite clay is the most common non-animal-based fining agent.

Mega purple. Natural red wine isn’t really supposed to darkly stain your teeth, gums, and clothing. Mega purple, a super concentrated grape juice additive, is to blame. Ten thousand gallons of this sugary concoction are added to 25 million bottles of wine per year. Mega purple, along with another dye, ultra red, are used to produce wine of consistent color.

Sulfur dioxide. Although low levels of sulfites occur naturally in wine as a byproduct of yeast metabolism, commercial winemakers often add sulfite in the form of sulfur dioxide as a preservative and stabilizer. Because a small portion of the population is allergic to sulfites, a must disclose if the sulfite content is more than 10 parts per million (ppm). White wines typically have more sulfites than red wines. Conventional wines can contain up to 350 ppm in the United States, while organic winemakers limit sulfites to 100 ppm.

In addition to allergic reactions, sulfites are linked to asthma induction, dermatitis, hives, abdominal pain, diarrhea, and hypotension. (6, 7, 8)

Histamines. Histamines are found naturally in many foods, including cheese, wine, seafood, processed meats, fermented foods, and eggs. I have talked about histamine intolerance in a previous post and how it is better understood as a component of mast cell activation syndrome. Histamines are produced by immune cells and are responsible for the swelling and redness you see if you get a bee sting. However, some people produce too much histamine and/or are not able to break it down properly. Histamine overload results in sneezing, headache, diarrhea, skin itchiness, and shortness of breath.

The histamine content of wine varies widely, depending on grapes used, ethanol content, sulfite content, and more. (9, 10, 11) The commercialization of wine may have increased histamine content. Fertilizing grape vines increases the histamine content of wines, (12) and organic wines have lower levels of histamine. (13)

Commercial yeasts. Before 1974, all wines were fermented with their naturally occurring yeasts, but most today in the United States are not. Winemakers instead opt for commercial yeasts to better control the fermentation process for a more reproducible product. Many of these added yeasts are genetically modified. Histamine-sensitive individuals may experience headaches after wine fermented with commercial yeasts, as some bacterial cultures produce more histamine than others. (14)

Sugar. In winemaking, yeasts ferment the sugar found naturally in grapes. Wine is “dry” when the yeasts fully ferment all the sugar into alcohol. Winemakers sometimes will add additional sugar

chriskresser.com 5! before fermentation to increase the alcohol content or flavor. Residual sugars in wine can be masked by tannins and acidity, so you can’t always tell by the taste of wine how much sugar is present.

Pesticides/herbicides/fungicides. Just as in produce, exposes you to fewer pesticides, herbicides, and fungicides. In a study of French wines, only 10 percent were free of pesticide and fungicide traces. Vineyards are only 20 percent of produce volume in France but use 80 percent of the nation’s fungicide. In the United States, Monsanto’s Roundup is the most commonly used herbicide in vineyards. Some of these compounds are linked to cancer and can disrupt hormone function, which I have covered in depth in articles on organic produce and environmental toxins.

Arsenic. Looks like rice may not be the only food with arsenic concerns. The Environmental Protection Agency’s water standard for arsenic is less than 10 parts per billion (ppb). A few years ago, a class action lawsuit was filed against several winemakers for having up to five times the arsenic level acceptable for water in their wines. Included wines were varieties of Trader Joe’s infamous Two-Buck Chuck and some types of Franzia. Although the lawsuit was dropped for a couple of reasons, I would still steer clear of cheaply made wine.

Phthalates. Phthalates are endocrine disruptors linked to cancer and fertility issues. (15, 16) They are common in cosmetics and plastics, but a study of French wines found dibutyl phthalate in almost two-thirds of the wines tested. (17) Only 17 percent of the samples didn’t contain one of the three phthalates tested.

Mycotoxins. Mycotoxins are toxic substances produced by fungi and are linked to diabetes, obesity, and kidney disease. (18) Unfortunately, mycotoxins are widespread in wine and in other processed foods like grains. One study found a certain mycotoxin called fumonisin B(2) in 23 percent of wines tested from 13 countries. (19)

That’s quite an intimidating list! Can the health-boosting polyphenols in wine outweigh these dangerous additives? In the next section, I will go through the health benefits and risks of wine consumption to determine if drinking wine can actually be good for you.

chriskresser.com 6! Part 2: The Health Benefits and Risks

In the first section of this ebook, I discussed how additives and commercialization have turned many wines into unhealthy processed foods. This section will explore whether traditional wine is as healthy as countless headlines today report. I’ll go through the beneficial components of wine, and then I will summarize the literature to see if the benefits of wine consumption outweigh the risks. Polyphenols fight disease

Almost every positive health benefit from consuming wine is attributed to polyphenols, a class of more than 8,000 compounds produced by plants. During winemaking, fermentation, oxygen exposure, and oak barrel aging change the phenolic content of grapes, resulting in a more complex product. (1)

Polyphenols are divided into flavonoids and non-flavonoids, based mostly on chemical structure. Flavonoids include compounds such as catechins, epicatechins, proanthocyanidins, condensed tannins, anthocyanins, and quercetin. In red wine, flavonoids account for more than 85 percent of the phenolic content but less than 20 percent of the phenolic content in . (2) The most talked about non-flavonoid is resveratrol, but this category also includes phenolic alcohols and ellagitannins.

Polyphenols are good for our health for several reasons. First, as antioxidants, they reduce the burden of oxidative stress, which is at the root of many diseases. (3) Second, they neutralize free radicals, which are very unstable and damage body tissues through volatile chain reactions. (4) Furthermore, polyphenols help our guts by increasing beneficial bacterial strains such as Lactobacillus and Bifidobacteria.

A large number of studies have looked at individual polyphenols in lab settings, in rodents, and even in human clinical trials and show favorable outcomes for health issues from obesity and insulin resistance to Alzheimer’s and schizophrenia. I could easily write a separate article for each individual polyphenol. For example, resveratrol, found almost exclusively in red wine because it is contained in grape skins, has been widely demonstrated in clinical trials to improve blood pressure, insulin sensitivity, bone mineral density, cancer outcome, and more. (5, 6, 7, 8)

However, participants in resveratrol trials take up to 500 mg or more daily, which is too high to obtain naturally in the diet. A glass of red wine contains approximately 200 mg of polyphenols, (9) but of that only 0–15 mg is resveratrol. (10, 11) Therefore, you would need to drink more than 30 glasses of red wine daily to reach the resveratrol levels used in the clinical trials! chriskresser.com 7! Polyphenols interact with each other and the gut

Although studying individual polyphenols does give us a general idea of their health benefits, they aren’t in our diets in isolation. A mixture of polyphenol metabolites—which is more equivalent to how we consume them—had a synergistic effect on antioxidant capacity, meaning that the antioxidant activity of a mixture was greater than any one individually. (12) Other studies have supported these results by showing that several red wine polyphenols mixed together had different antioxidant and free radical scavenging potencies compared to individual compounds. (13)

Furthermore, how polyphenols are absorbed and metabolized is highly individual. Low, medium, and high metabolizers of wine polyphenols are well established (14) and may be attributed to variations in intestinal microbiota. (15, 16) More than 90 percent of polyphenols pass through the small intestine and reach the colon, where gut bacteria metabolize them into products that may be more bioactive than their precursors. (17, 18) Polyphenols that make it to the liver undergo phase II conjugation involving glutathione. (19)

Wine is alive with beneficial yeasts

All wines are alive with yeast. During spontaneous fermentation, 829 yeast strains were found in biodynamic Spanish wines. (20) In traditional winemaking, cellars weren’t temperature controlled, causing bacteria to naturally change with the seasons and affect taste. Aging wine often increases yeast population up to hundreds-fold. (21)

Commercially produced wine today does not have nearly as many beneficial yeast strains as natural, . Most wine is fermented using commercial, often genetically modified yeast strains. Furthermore, extreme filtration during processing decreases the overall yeast content. In turn, this affects taste and most certainly impacts how our bodies and guts metabolize wine. Health benefits of wine consumption

Red wine contains more polyphenols than white wine (200 mg per glass vs. 30 mg per glass), since red winemaking also includes the skin of grapes. Although many health benefits have been shown for both types of wine, red wine has consistently proven more beneficial than other types of alcohol.

Antioxidant/anti-inflammatory effects. Antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects of wine consumption, not just of individual polyphenols, are probably at the root of red wine’s health benefits. Red wine consumption significantly increased total plasma antioxidant status in both chriskresser.com 8! younger and older people in a two-week crossover study. (22) Two glasses of red wine every day for a week improved participants’ antioxidant enzyme expression and activity in blood. (23) In healthy women, red wine decreased the levels of several inflammatory markers and cellular adhesion molecules in another crossover study. (24)

Cardiovascular disease. Red wine was hypothesized as one reason for the “French Paradox,” (25) the supposed “contradiction” of lower cardiovascular disease in France despite higher saturated fat intake. (Read more about the diet–heart myth here). But it seems that drinking red wine does have heart benefits. Red wine has been shown to both raise HDL “good” cholesterol (26, 27) and reduce oxidized LDL “bad” cholesterol. (28, 29, 30) In addition, moderate red wine drinkers had lower blood pressure, although other studies have reported the opposite. (31) After consuming Sicilian red wine for four weeks, inflammatory biomarkers of atherosclerosis were lowered. (32) In a large prospective study, red wine drinkers had significantly lower mortality from coronary heart disease than non-wine drinkers. (33)

Cognitive/brain. The brain consumes 15 to 20 percent of the body’s oxygen, despite its relatively small size, which makes it highly susceptible to oxidative stress. (34) Several studies have shown that moderate wine consumption, with its antioxidant properties, can have positive effects on brain health. In a seven-year follow-up study, moderate wine drinkers performed better than people who consumed other types of alcohol on cognitive tests. (35) In women, alcohol abstainers actually scored lower on the tests than wine consumers! Brain function declined more quickly in nondrinkers than in moderate drinkers from a review of studies spanning 19 countries. (36) Prospective studies demonstrate lower risks of dementia, Alzheimer’s, and Parkinson’s disease in those who drink red wine regularly. (37, 38, 39, 40, 41)

Gut/microbiome. I have written before about the prebiotic effects of polyphenols, which extend to wine. Two glasses of red wine per day increased levels of beneficial bacteria such as Bifidobacterium and Enterococcus, compared to gin consumption, which showed no benefits. (42) Bacteroides, another beneficial gut bacteria, were positively associated with red wine consumption. (43) Natural wines that aren’t aggressively filtered or fermented with commercial yeast strains contain their own probiotics, similar to what you find in fermented vegetables and dairy products.

Cancer. Individually, polyphenols found in wine like resveratrol and anthocyanin demonstrate anticancer activity by inhibiting cancer cell proliferation and inducing cancer cell death. (44, 45, 46) Polyphenol-rich wine may offer similar anticancer benefits. Compared to non-wine drinkers, those who regularly consumed moderate amounts of wine had lower overall cancer mortality. (47) In contrast to beer and liquor drinkers, wine consumers had a 40 percent lower risk for both esophageal and gastric cancers, hinting again that there is something special about wine among alcoholic beverages. (48)

Mortality rate. Wine consumption is linked to overall lower mortality. A large study of nearly chriskresser.com 9! 25,000 people from 20 to 98 years old found that those who consumed moderate amounts of wine had lower all-cause mortality compared to non-drinkers. (49) The Copenhagen City Heart Study from Denmark followed more than 13,000 adults for 11 years and found that those who drank three to five glasses of wine per day had a lower risk of dying than both spirit drinkers and alcohol abstainers. (50)

Massive numbers of prospective studies and even some clinical trials demonstrate that moderate wine consumption, especially red wine, has many health benefits, which extend even beyond this list. Wine consumption has also been linked to lower stroke risk, (51) lower risk of type 2 diabetes, (52) and lower incidence of bone fracture in the elderly. (53) Health risks of wine consumption

Now for the bad news. Red wine isn’t all rainbows and sunshine. Ethanol is a poison and poses some serious health risks.

Glutathione depletion. If you have been following my work for some time, you will know that glutathione is crucial for the detoxification of many harmful substances. Because it is required for detoxing ethanol, alcohol consumption can deplete glutathione, making our bodies more susceptible to toxic substances and disease. (54, 55)

Liver damage. When the liver detoxes ethanol, it is first broken down into acetaldehyde, an even more harmful poison that can stick around if your detox capacity is impaired. If you drink too much, your liver (and other body organs) will suffer. Fatty liver disease, hepatitis, and, after long- term heavy drinking, cirrhosis are all downstream effects of chronic alcohol use. (56)

Addiction. Not everyone who drinks will develop a bad habit, but alcohol can be very addictive. Although less addicting that nicotine and crystal meth, alcohol is more addicting than heroin, amphetamine, cocaine, and caffeine.

Depression. Moderate drinking is linked to lower incidence of depression, but heavy drinking increases the risk. (57, 58) Substance abuse in general is correlated with mental health problems. (59)

Gut disruption. Ethanol can further the symptoms of leaky gut. Alcohol damages the gut and causes changes in the gut microbiome, increasing the absorption of pro-inflammatory endotoxins. (60) The polyphenols in red wine may help to offset some of the pro-inflammatory effects imparted by alcohol. Residual sugar, which is found only in very, very low doses in biodynamic, natural wines, is detrimental to gut health. Sugar can feed candida and other pathogens, leading to gut dysbiosis. (61)

Breast cancer. Earlier, I laid out the evidence for lower cancer incidence in those who drank red wine regularly. However, even at low levels of consumption, alcohol consumption increases the risk of breast cancer in a dose-dependent manner. (62) chriskresser.com !10 Myriad other health risks are attributed to or related to alcohol consumption. For example, although drinking alcohol can increase HDL, the so-called “good cholesterol,” it simultaneously increases triglyceride levels, which is a risk factor for cardiovascular disease. (63) Who should avoid alcohol

Now let’s return to the question from the beginning of the article. Is wine healthy, or a health hazard? The answer, I believe, is highly individual and depends on a variety of factors. Alcohol in general, including red wine, may not be a good choice for some people.

Genetics can play a huge role. Alcoholism is a serious illness with a strong genetic component. (64) If there is a history of alcohol abuse in your family, avoiding alcohol altogether is probably the most prudent choice. Those with certain genetic polymorphisms in alcohol and aldehyde dehydrogenases, common in people with East Asian ancestry, may also want to avoid alcohol. These variants put them at higher risks of cancer, liver damage, and more because of their inability to detox aldehyde proficiently. (65)

Sulfur-sensitive people, who are estimated to include 1 percent of the population, (66) shouldn’t be drinking wine due to the sulfites either added or contained naturally. One thing to keep in mind is that dried fruits often have much higher levels of sulfites than wine. So, if you tolerate dried fruit well but have trouble after drinking wine, it might actually not be due to the sulfites.

Those who take any medications, prescription or not, should be cautious about any potential interactions with alcohol. Some medications can enhance the effects of alcohol, some can cause extreme drowsiness when combined with alcohol, and others can interfere with or change a medication’s effectiveness.

This might be a no-brainer, but alcohol should be avoided when trying to conceive or while pregnant. Some evidence shows that alcohol can negatively impact fertility, especially for males. (67) The CDC states that no safe level of alcohol exists for pregnant women. Although traditionally, French women still drink lightly during pregnancy, and some research has suggested that light drinking may not be problematic for the fetus (68), I would play it safe here. A baby’s body metabolizes alcohol much more slowly than an adult’s.

If you suffer from asthma, have a blood disorder, or have liver or detoxification issues, avoiding all alcohol is probably the best choice.

chriskresser.com !11 How to maximize the benefits and minimize the risks

If you aren’t a wine drinker, I see no real reason to start. Instead, eat a variety of richly colored fruits and vegetables to get a wide mixture of polyphenols. Try to include other fermented foods, like sauerkraut and kefir, into your diet. Cooking with red wine is also an option. The alcohol will evaporate, but beneficial polyphenols will remain to an extent.

If you are a wine drinker, try taking it out of your diet for 30 days. Then, add back in natural, organic wine at moderate levels to see how you feel. If your sleep and mood are unaffected, then moderate wine consumption is probably doing you more good than harm, in terms of health benefits and enjoyment.

chriskresser.com !12 Part 3: The Paleo Guide to Wine

The first two sections of this ebook explored the health benefits of wine consumption but also discussed how commercialized wine today often contains many not-so-healthy additives and contaminants. If you want to enjoy a glass or two of wine guilt free, this section is your guide for finding the healthiest, most Paleo wine. What’s on a wine label

Let’s start with the basics. Wine labels at first can seem intimidating, but here is a simple guide adapted from Wine Folly to what information is usually on a label in the United States. Many countries have their own requirements on what to include and how.

■ Wine producer or name. This is who made the wine. ■ Region. This refers to the region the grapes are from and can range from a general geographic region to a specific location on a vineyard.

■ Variety or appellation. Variety is the type of grapes in the wine. Appellation is the country or region where grapes in the wine were grown.

■ or non-vintage. Vintage is the year the grapes were harvested and not necessarily the year the wine was bottled. Non-vintage wines combine grapes from multiple years.

■ ABV. Alcohol by volume.

■ Estate wine. Estate wine was grown, produced, and bottled on the wine estate, a practice that is rarer than you might think. In French, this reads as “Mis en Bouteille au Château.” ■ Reserve. Reserve wines could have received extra aging at the winery before being released, but there aren’t really any rules about using this terminology.

■ Old vines or “vielles vins.” Wines from older vines may have a more concentrated flavor.

■ Contains sulfites. This text is required to alert those with sulfite allergies and sensitivities. ■ Surgeon General’s warning. Wine sold in the United States is required to print this text to inform the consumer about potential health problems with alcohol.

chriskresser.com !13 Buzzwords explained: organic, biodynamic, and natural

If you are striving to find truly , biodynamic or organic wines are the ideal option. Let’s talk about what each of these buzzwords means and how to identify them when shopping.

ORGANIC USDA-certified organic foods must follow strict federal guidelines, including rules regarding soil quality, absence of most synthetic fertilizers and pesticides, and limited or prohibited use of additives. In the United States, a label that states “Made from organic ingredients” means that at least 70 percent of the ingredients were organically produced. Printing just the word “Organic” means that the percentage increases to 95. “100% Organic” means what it says—that 100 percent of the ingredients were produced organically.

In addition to lower pesticide residues and the absence of additives, organic food has a different nutrient profile from conventional food. In a previous article, I summarized the results from two widely cited studies that found organic produce to have higher micronutrient, polyphenol, and flavonoid contents than conventional produce. (1, 2)

In winemaking, organic doesn’t necessarily mean “natural.” After grapes are harvested, all bets are off. Additives like clarifiers and factory-grown yeasts can still be used while legitimately obtaining a USDA Organic seal of approval. A wine labeled as “organic” will definitely have some advantages over most that aren’t labeled as such, but you won’t know the whole story unless you contact or visit the vineyard.

Another thing to note is that the organic certification process is pricey. Some small farms that produce natural, great wine can’t afford it. The organic label is a helpful starting point, but it’s not always reliable on its own.

BIODYNAMIC Biodynamic farms recognize the soil, animals, and crops as an integrated system. Focusing on the health and maintenance of all three components, biodynamic farms will often incorporate crop rotation, natural solutions for pest control, and strict adherence to processing techniques. A true biodynamic wine will have sulfite levels below 100 ppm at bottling, will not have used GMO commercial yeasts, and will have only used fining and clarifying agents from a short, approved list. Adding commercial yeasts has been linked to higher histamine content in wine. (3)

Demeter is the organization that certifies biodynamic farms and products in more than 50 countries. Named after the Greek goddess of fertility, Demeter was established in 1924. In France, instead of Demeter, Biodivin certifies biodynamic wines. Look for the certification label on the bottle. chriskresser.com !14 Research comparing biodynamic to organic or conventional wine is still in its infancy. One interesting study followed a vineyard that converted from organic to biodynamic practices. (4) After two years of biodynamic practices, the polyphenol content of the was greater than before the transition. Another study, however, found no differences in polyphenol content among conventional, organic, and biodynamic wines. (5)

Just as with organic certification, biodynamic certification isn’t cheap. Although a vineyard may strictly adhere to biodynamic practices, the wine may not yet be certified due to cost constraints. Without intensive inquiry at the vineyards, in a local wine store you wouldn’t be able to tell the difference between a wine that was produced in line with nine out of 10 Demeter standards and a wine that follows none of them.

NATURAL This term is thrown around a lot, but it isn’t standardized. Some biodynamic or organic vineyards may put “natural” on their label and really mean “biodynamic” or “organic,” but others could stick it on just to increase sales when nothing about their winemaking is “natural.” The only way to truly know is to call or visit the winery and ask a lot of questions. Characteristics of biodynamic, organic wines

As I mentioned above, many wines might be organic and/or biodynamic (or at least most of the way there), but the vineyards cannot afford the certification or cannot receive it for various reasons. You wouldn’t know without a lot of further research, and you could be missing out on some great-quality wines. If the wine label doesn’t have a Biodynamic or Organic certification but you are able to inquire at the vineyard, below are some of the criteria I would look for:

■ Dry-farmed, never irrigated. Irrigation allows grapes to be grown closer together to increase production, but the result is diluted flavor, increased sugar content, and artificially high alcohol content. In California, using fracking water (waste water from oil and gas drilling) is a big concern.

■ Low sugar, less than 1 g per liter. When sugars are fermented to completion, the resulting wine is low in sugar.

■ Low sulfites, less than 75 ppm. And no sulfites added.

■ No pesticides/herbicides. No pesticides or herbicides used on the vine, after harvesting, or during winemaking.

■ No chemical additives. The United States approves more than 70 additives for winemaking, but you should look for wines with few or none of them.

■ No added coloring. Avoid Mega Purple and Ultra Red.

chriskresser.com !15 ■ Mycotoxin- and mold-free, less than 2 ppb. The United States doesn’t have clear regulations for mycotoxin content, but international standards are below 2 ppb.

■ No sawdust or wood chips. Any oak notes should come from the barrel.

■ Low alcohol, 12.5 percent or less. When grapes aren’t irrigated and sugar isn’t added to the fermentation processes, wines are generally at around 12.5 percent or lower alcohol by volume.

■ Fermented with native wild yeast found on grapes. This means no GMOs and no added cultures.

■ Minimal filtering. Wine with minimal filtering may have some sediment, but this avoids using some questionable clarifying and fining agents.

If you think this can get complicated, you’re right. It’s not always feasible to visit the wineries and talk to the vineyard owners. If you want healthy wine but don’t want to get into all the research, you might want to do what I do—trust the experts.

Enter: Dry Farm Wines

Dry Farm Wines takes the commercialism out of wine and returns to traditional, natural winemaking. They do the work for you by selecting wines from vineyards that adhere to all the criteria listed above and are often biodynamic certified. Dry Farm Wines preferentially curates wines from small family farms, which so far span 15 countries worldwide.

Historically wine has been like kryptonite for me. As much as I enjoy it, I always wake up feeling worse the next morning—even after as little as a half a glass. This is particularly true with red wine.

I first encountered Dry Farm Wines at a party in San Francisco, after the UCSF Paleo Symposium that I spoke at last March. After talking to a rep from the company about its wines, I decided to throw caution to the wind and give it a try.

I noticed right away that something was different; it didn’t have the same aftertaste as most wines do, and both the red and white that I tried were smooth and delicious. But the biggest and most welcome change was the next morning: I didn’t wake up with the typical mild headache or rundown feeling that always plagues me after I drink wine. My wife, who also tends to react to wine, had exactly the same experience.

I’m not sure what it is—the lower sulfite and sugar content, the absence of mycotoxins or mold, or something else. I’ve tried other organic/biodynamic wines, so I know it wasn’t just that. Whatever it is, I’m happy to be able to enjoy the occasional glass of wine again.

chriskresser.com !16