The Globalization and Theories of the State of the Agricultural and Food Sector
Alessandro Bonanno
Introduction The paper investigates the theoretical dislocation between the domestic oriented character of theories of the State and the transnati011al characteroftheories Recenttransfonnations in the agricultural and of socio-economic development. Employing the case food sector have influenced a number of rural of the food and agricultura1 sector, it is argued that the sociologists to argue the emergence of a literature in thi~ area has emphasized the tranmational transnational system of agricultural and food dimension ofcapita.I accumulation and the proc.css of production (Bonanno ct al., 1990, Campbell, by-passing Slale authority at the national level. This 1990; Friedland, 1988; Friedland et al. 1991; situation mandates a re-evaluation of State theories Friedmann and McMichacl, 1989; McMichael in regard to the international dimension of current and Myhre, 1991). In these analyses center stage processes of capital accumulation. Furlhennore, the is occupied by the role of the State vis-a-vis new present analysis suggests panems of "contradictory trends in the economic and political spheres. convergence "in which expansion at the tranmational Epistemologically and withsomeex:ceptions (e.g. level of State action is demanded by transnational corporations and subordinate classes alike. This Campbell, 1990), the theoretical underpinnings demand, however, is contradictory, as it finds its of these works rest upon Marxian interpretations limits in the IIansnational bourgeoisie's desire to of societal development and the relationship avoid State action. Politically, as a resuh of this between the economy and superstructuraJOl situation the locus of emancipatory social action elements in society. The centrality of the Marxian should be increasingly transferred to the international theoretical construction in regard to these issues M~< is made evident by the long standing attention paid by Marxian scholars to the role of the State in society and by the number of Marx.ian studies Alessandro Bonanno is Assistant Professor of analyzing the phenomena of multinationalization Rura1 Sociology at the University of Missouri and transnationalization(2> of the food and Columbia, USA. He has researched among other agricultural system. Indeed, the problematics of topics, the structure of agriculture, regional and multinationalization of food and agricultural international development, aging and the State. He is production and its later transnational ization have the author of numerous journal articles and books, been developed predominantly within the among then Small Farms (1987) Sociology or Marx.ian debate in the sociology of agriculture<3l. Agriculture (l989) Agrarian Policies and Agricultural Systems(l990). He rccived his Ph.D. in Sociology from the University ofKenrucky, USA. (*) I would like to e:\tend my appreciation to Gaiy Green, Rill Friedland, Plul McMichael and Doog Constance fortheircomments on earlier versions of this manuscript lnternallonal Journal ofSodolOI)' of Agriculture and Food I Revisla Internacional de SocioJoala sobre AgrkuJtura 1 Alhm:ntosl Vol.111991 15 ISSN: 0798-1759 This journal is blind refereed. Alessandro Bonanno
The present study would like to contribute to inadequate. Furthermore, itis maintained that the the Marxian scholarship in the sociology of mediation ofthe various fractions ofcapital carried agriculture and sociology ofthe State by analyzing on by the State at the domestic level is unresolved the theoretical implications that the in the international arena. Finally, it is pointed transnationalization of the agricultural and food out that subordinate classes find their power in sector has in regard to the role of the State. The society reduced due to the dislocation between paper opens with a brief review of the major State power and economic activities. The theories of the State: the "instrumentalist," cone! uding portion of the paper illustrates patterns "relative autonomy" and the "mixed approach." of "contradictory convergence" in which In the following section the domestic dimension expansion of the transnational level of State of the relationship between the polity and the action is demanded by transnational corporations economy in Marxian analyses is illustrated. and subordinate classes alike. This demand is Particular attention is paid to the domestic contradictory, as it finds its limits in the dimension of the original work of Marx. In this transnational bourgeoisie's desire to avoid State respect, it is argued that the stage of capitalist action. Political]y, as a result of this situation the development achieved in the middle of the last locus of emancipatory social action should be century, the effort to illustrate the laws ofcapitalist increasing! y transferred to the international arena. development and the emphasis placed on the British case did not allow Marx to transcend the Theories of the State in the domestic dimension of capitalist development. Sociological Literature Furthermore, it is maintained that though Marxian theories of colonialism and imperialism were The role of the State in society has been a developed in the decades following Marx's death, central theme of sociological debate in recent they reflected the multinational development of years (Block, l 980, Domhoff, l 979; Hooks, 1990; capital inamannerwhichemphasized the struggle Offe, 1985, Poulantzas, 1978; Prechel, 1990; of national capitalist States and national capitals Quadagno, 1990). Originally formulated in the to control the international arena. In this context context of political sociology. Marxist sociology the domestic oriented dimension of the capitalist and the sociology of complex organizations, State was maintained. Finally, a discussion on theories of the State have been increasingly the national cultural dimension that the employed to address issues in the area ofsociology reproduction of capitalist rule mandates is also ofagriculture (Bonanno, 1987a, 1987b; Friedland, undertaken. 1988; 1983; Friedmann and McMichael, 1989; In the third section the transnationalization of Mc Michael and Myhre, 1991; Green, 1987; the economic sphere is briefly illustrated, while Gilbert and Howe, 1988). In this debate the State the fourth section of the paper reviews some of has been identified as a) an institution the recent literature on transnationalization and instrumentally controlled by the ruling class; b) its relationship to State action. Focusing on the anentitycndowed with relative autonomy; and c) literature on the State and on that of an institution in which the instrumental dimension transnationalization, the next section provides a and the autonomous dimension are both contained discussion of the dislocation between the global in the State's historical role. dimension of capital accumulation and the The instrumentalist account (Domhoff, 1978) domestic dimension of State action. It is argued views the State in capitalism as either "an that the theoretical underpinnings of current instrument for promoting the common interests theories of the State are becoming increasingly of the ruling (capitalist) class" (Offe and Ronge,
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1979:346) or "a committee of the ruling class structure) (Block, 1980; 1977; Poulantzas, 1978, directly manipulated by the members of this Offe and Range, 1979). class" (Camoy, 1984:214). In essence it is argued that the State reproduces Two types of instrumental theories have class relations not because one class or fraction of emerged. The first calls for an identity between class directly controls it, but because the State is the ruling class and the State officialdom interested in reproducing "the rules and social (Miliband, 1969; 1970; Domhoff, 1979; 1967). relationships that arc presupposed by the class In this case, State bureaucrats tend to belong to rule of the capitalist class" (Offe and Ronge, the same class or classes that dominate society 1979:346). The "instrumentalist" and "relative and are bound to it by common educational autonomy" theories have generally been backgrounds, friends, and family relations. employed in exclusive tenns (for the debate in Though it is possible for members of other classes sociology of agriculture sec Bonanno, 1987a; to enter the upper class, it is the latter which 1987b; Green, 1987, 1989). In other words, it has controls the political apparatus. The second been maintained that the two camps are based on theory, which has also been labeled "State different assumptions. Indeed, in the illustration Monopoly Capital Theory", indicates that the of the instrumentalist and relative autonomy monopolistic-corporate fractions of the lheories attention has been paid to the relatively bourgeoisie exercise direct control over the State diverse theoretical origins of the two positions. (O'Connor, 1973; 1974). Essentially, it is Offer and Ronge (1979:345-347), for instance, maintained that the control that monopolistic while recognizing the Marxian roots of both corporate class fractions exercise over the positions, point out that the "instrumentalist" economy entails, almost automatically, control position is rooted in some passages of the over the State. Manifesto, while the "relative autonomy" The theoretical and empirical bases of the approach finds its origins in the analysis contained instrumentalist approach have been criticized by in The German Ideology. However, it is also studies which have emphasized the complex acknowledged that this distinction is more character ofthe relationship between the economy "heuristic" than real (Green, ":221) and that there and the polity. Moreover, empirically observed are more similarities that differences between the discrepancies between the action of the State and two (Bonanno, 1988:133). that of the ruling class have cast doubts on the An analysis which explicitly rejects the ability of the latter to control directly the fonner. separation between the instrumentalist and Drawing from portions of the work of Marx relative autonomy positions is provided by ( 1964:5-69) and more recent fonnulations William H. Friedland (1988; 1983). Friedland's (Gramsci, 1975, 1971; Habermas, 1975; work assumes more relevance for the present Horkheimer, 1974; Horkheimer and Adorno, discussion as it has been developed within the 1972; Lukacs 1971; Marcuse, 1964) which debate in the sociology of agriculture and emphasize the role that ideology, the polity and represents one of the innovative attempts to adapt lhe superstructure in general play in the process debates in general sociology to issues relevant to of development of capitalism, the relative rural sociology. In essence, for Friedland the role autonomy approach underscores the partial of the State in society is not given, but ralher independence of superstructural elements from depends upon specific historical circumstances. the economic structure. Accordingly, it calls for Indeed, these circumstances are the sources of an the relative autonomy of the State (an element of instrumentalist or autonomous posture of the the superstructure) from the economy (the State in society. Employing the cases of various
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agricultural commodities, he demonstrates that is paramount for the existence of the State. In the State is simultaneously called upon to organize essence, for all the above mentioned schools various interests ofthe ruling class and to mediate there is an intrinsic relationship between the between the ruling class interests and opposing process of capitalist development and the interests emerging from other classes (relative existence of the State apparatus. autonomy theory). However, he further demonstrates that in specific instances the State Global Development and Theories of the State also operates as an instrument of the ruling class, as the latter directly and effectively controls the The domestic dimension of the relationship action of the former (instrumentalist theory). between polity and the economy. Empirically, he concludes, neither theory is Central to the objectives of this paper is the sufficient to describe the comple,c patterns of common characteristic of the various theories of State involvement in society. Parado,cically ,each the Stale which views the relationship between theory becomes correct under differing the polity and the economy as framed in domestic circumstances. tenns. More specifically, in Marxist analyses the Similar conclusions have been reached by State has been conceptualiz.ed as a predominantly scholars working within both the Marx.ian and domestic entity which regulates the process of the State Center paradigms and examining a reproduction of capital. variety of historical cases ( e.g. Campbell and This posture finds its roots in the historical Lindberg, 1990; Hooks, 1990; Jenkins and Brents, phases of capitalist development in the analytical 1989; Prechel, 1990). importance that the historical context assumes in As underscored by many students (Carnoy, Marxism. In a nutshell, the development of 1984; Bonanno, 1987b; Green, 1987; 0 'Connor, Marxian theories of the State reflected the 1973; 1974), the various theories of the State evolution of capitalism and its interpretations contain a numberofimportant similarities. Among provided by scientific and political circles. Three these are the overall tenets that accumulation of general items are of importance here. capital is not possible without the aid of the State a) The original work of Marx is based on the and that the State cannot e,cist without the analysis ofthe development ofnational capitalism. continuous c,cistence of an accumulation process. More specifically, it is an illustration of the In more specific terms this signifies, first, that establishment and development of the capitalist accumulation of capital and the rule of the mode of production in Great Britain (e.g. Capital). bourgeois class in society depend upon the ability b) Theories of colonialism and imperialism of the State to maintain the conditions necessary first, and Iater theories analyzing the development for the reproduction of capital. Second, of multinational capital considered colonialism accumulation of capital must be legitimized and and imperialism as phenomena which reflect the the State provides legitimation through the mediation ofthe various interests in society. This extension of national interests in the international phenomenon refers to both mediation among arena. members of the bourgeois class and among the c)Thc work ofearlytwenticthcemury Marxists bourgeois class and other classes. Third, the State concerned with the relationship of polity and the obtains its financial resources from the taxation economy emphasized the national cultural of revenue generated through the accumulation dimension necessary for the maintenance of process. Accordingly and historically, the capitalism (e.g. Gramsci, 1975; 1971). continuous e,cistence ofthe accumulation process Let us briefly review each of these points.
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The original work of Marx. of the Political Economy; Marx, 1976), Marx The original Marxist analysis of capitalist never succeeded in elaborating an organic theory development (e.g. Capital; see Sweezy, 1942) of capitalist accumulation on a world scale, even and particularly the discussions on "Primitive in relation to the historical period of colonialism. Accumulation" (Marx, 1977:873-940) and on A limited analysis of colonialism is suggested in the "General Laws of Capitalist Accumulation" a non-systematic way only in some parts of (Marx, 1977:762-853) are based on the analysis Capital and in a series of articles dealing with of a single national case (the British case). In European penetration in China and India that Marx's work references are made to other Marx wrote in the 1853•60periodwhenhewasa "national" cases, such a<; the Prussian and the foreign correspondent for the "New York Daily French, to indicate historical differences form Tribune." In essence, then, both from the view the British example originally discussed. These point of the creation of the capitalist system and examples are introduced to demonstrate the from the point of view of the internationalization generality of the laws of capitalist development of capitalism, Marx's work is domestically which, nevertheless, produced particular centered. In this context, the original Marxian outcomes an individual national levels. In this fonnulation of the relationship between the polity respect, these examples re-captured the stages of and the economy does not represent an exception. capitalist development which historically occurred and which characterized the formation Theories of colonialism and imperialism and consolidation ofnational capitalisms (Brewer, It would be misleading, however, to argue 1980:18; Friedmann and McMichael, 1989:98- that the international dimension of capitalist 99). From its establishment in a few initial development is foreign to the work of Marx and geographical enclaves, capitalism, according to Marxist tradition. Despite the incomplete Marx, expanded to other regions, becoming the character of the classic work of Marx on this "world" dominant mode of production (Marx, subject, the richness of Marx's theory has led 1977:940; Marx and Engels, 1963:25-29). many scholars to undertake the task of analyzing Historically, Marx's analysis could hardly have the diffusion of capitalism on a world scale. been different, as he examined a period Furthennore and from a historical view point, characterized by the emergence of national only a few years after the death of Marx the rapid capitalism in which its international expansion expansion of capitalism made the analysis of the was, heuristically and politically speaking, less international question a scientific and political relevant (Dobb, 1963). imperative. It was in this context that the classic Marx's emphasis on the domestic dimension works ofLenin, Lux em burg, Bukharin, Hilferding of capitalistdevclopment<4>has led many modem and others on colonialism and imperialism scholars to stress the limited original contribution emerged. that the German philosopher provided to Reflecting the stage ofcapitalist development international issues (Brewer, 1980:18-20; Dobb, existing at that time (circa 1910), these classic 1963; Mutti and Poli, 1975:28-29). Despite his studies of colonialism and imperialism focus on the functioning of capitalism in a closed conceptualized these phenomena in tenns of economic system (Mandel, 1977:12; Brewer, "national capitals" which matured into their 1980:27) and his declared intention to study the monopolistic fonn and expanded beyond the international market and uneven capitalist boundaries of theirtcrritories oforigin (Bukharin, development internationally (e.g. see the 1857 1972; Hilferding, 1970; Lenin, 1926; Luxemburg, introduction to A Contribution to the Critique 1971). Indeed, according to Bukharin(1972) and
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Lenin (1926) it was through the establishment of of the capitalist system is reflected in the upward national mooopolies that the phase ofimpcrialism and downward mobility of nations (Dickens and developed. In their view, the growth of capitalism Bonanno, 1988:174-175; Howe and Sica, in Western nations led to the establishment of 1980:235-236). domestic monopolies. In tum, monopolies The unique merit of these theories lies in the captured the nation state's organizational powers establishment of a clear connection between to foster their interests domestically and compete development and underdevelopment across internationally against other national capitals. national boundaries and continents, while The competition among various monopolistic acknowledging the emerging multinational nations created the preconditions for the dimension of capitalist development. Despite imperialist domination of the world. Following their reformulation of classic Marxian analyses, similar considerations, Hilferding (1970) argues however, thedcpcndency theory and world system that monopolies can develop more easily at the theories' understanding of the development of domestic level as barriers to foreign competition capitalism is still centered on the concepts of can be imposed. Once the monopoly stage is national capital and on its international achieved, state protectionism ensures the viabi Ii ty ramifications. Core countries are essentially of national capitals in the world market. Finally, exporters of capital, which penetrates peripheral Rosa Luxemburg (1972) viewed the capitalist and semi -peripheral countries to foster the process solution to crisis of realization (i.e. the inability of exploitation (Brewer, 1980: 158). Dependent of capitalists to spend [realize] all theirprofits) as countries, on the other hand, remain the objects the incorporation of non-capitalist geographical of exploitative mechanisms maintained through areas into the sphere of influence of the domestic the establishment ofa "Dependent State" ( Camoy, capital. 1984:184-192). In this theoretical construction These classic Marxian fonnulations of the the dependent State is of key importance for two expansion of capitalism from a few centers to the fundamental reasons. First, from the international entire world were challenged in the 1960's and point of view the State depends on the process of 1970's by the emergence of the "Dependency multinational accumulation of capital and the Theory" (Frank, 1967a, 1967b,) the "World maintenance of the system's divisionoflaborfor System Theory" (Wallcrstein, 1974, 1979) and its existence. This situation means that the the "Unequal Exchange Theory" (Emmanuel, dependent State acts as a vehicle for the extraction 1972). Remaining within the Marxist of surplus from the peripheral economies to the framewofk, these accounts responded to the advantage of the metropole (Amin, 1980: 135- growth of capitalism and its evolution into the 136; Frank, 1979:5). Second, the process of phase of "multinational capital" (Dickens and mullinational exploitation demands the social Bonanno, 1988: 173; Hoogvelt, 1982). They control of domestic settings, which is achieved maintain that capitalism has been a world system through the action of the State apparatus. since the beginning (circa sixteenth century) and Domestically, the dependent State ensures the that national economies are hierarchically placed class rule of the dependent bourgeoisie in a system of domination in tcnns of three (bourgeoisie compradora) and the subordination unequal statuses: core, semi-periphery and of the working classes to foreign capital (Dickens periphery (Wallerstein, 1979). Domination is and Bonanno, 1988:175-178). In the case of the established through the appropriation by core dependent State, ultimately, the multinationality countries of surplus genemted in periphery and of the development of capital requires the semi-periphery countries, and the cyclical nature maintenance of a national state.
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The Articulation of Modes of Production private property, individual liberties, theory (Arrighi, 1978; Laclau, 1971; Taylor, individualism, etc.) which legitimize 1979) provides another modem alternative to accumulation of capital (Gramsci, 1975). classic accounts. Though critical of the However, the conditions for the establishment of Depcndentistas and generally considered an legitimizing political and ideological apparati is attempt to re-introduce some of the orthodoxies essentially domestic since it finds its roots in the of Marxism violated by the World System and cultural and historical traditions of that nation. Dependency theories (Blomstrom and Henne, As illustrated by Gramsci (1971, 1975, e.g. see 1984:81-90), it ultimately stresses the national the discussion on historical materialism), the dimension of capitalist accumulation. Proponents dominant class' ability to reinterpret the cultural of the Articulation ofModes of Production theory and historical traditions of one country in its base their accounts on the concept of social favor (i.e. to employ these traditions in its fonnation (society), which constitutes their unit hegemonic project) is one of the fundamental of analysis. Within social formations the conditions for the establishment and success of characteristics of the relations of productions arc its rule in society. Accordingly, the State's attempt examined to assess the extent to which capitalist to legitimize class power depends on it<; ability to and pre-capitalist modes of production exist and/ maintain the ruling class' view of the history and or co-exist (articulation). Accordingly, emphasis culture of the country. is placed on the domestic (social fonnation) character of the relations of production, which The New Phase of Capita/is postulates a limiting analytical dimension, i.e. Development: The Transition the nation. The fact that wage relations transcend from Multinationality to national boundaries and the fact that they are Trans nationality. dominant at the world level are given little theoretical space in this approach. The historical condit.ions which made possible the domestic centered conceptualization of the The national cultural dimension of capitalist State and capital accumulation have been societies gradually altered in recent decades. More In the Marxist tradition the development of specifically, capitalism has abandoned its the capitalist State finds its origins in the "multinational" phase to enter a new dissolution of previous fonns of production (the "transnational" phase. In the multinational phase economy) and in the organization of political and of capitalist development it was possible to ideological apparati which can sustain capital identity corporations with countries of origin accumulation (the polity) (Marx and Engels, (Bonanno, 1987a; Mingione, 1990; Sasscn, 1988) and to argue that the most important segments of 1963:28-30). Essential to the growth ofcapitalism the State were controlled by monopoly capital is that the economy, the polity and the ideological (Poulantzas, 1978). In this context, international spheres be controlled by the bourgeoisie. In the operations were treated as extensions of economic sphere, the control of the bourgeoisie entrepreneurial activities designed and engineered is achieved through direct control of the means of in the home country and supported by the home production. In the political and ideological State apparatus. spheres, bourgeois control is generated through In the transnational phase, economic activities, the establishment of bourgeois apparati (such as identity and loyalty of conglomerates with a
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country are decreasingly visible<6J, The large number of acquisitions of companies by other The Globalization of the international conglomerates, the decentralization of production across national borders and the Agrgricultural and Food Sector and transnationalization of the financial sector arc all its Implications in Regard to the cases in point (Bluestone and Harrison, 1982; Role of the State Bonanno, 1987a; Friedmann and McMichael, 1989; Mingione, 1990; Heffernan, 1990; Sassen, Recent analyses of the agricultural and food 1988). A report in the specialized mediadcscri bes sector have underscored the process of this process thusly: "As cross-border trade and globalization characteri1.ing the present historical invesbnent flows reach new heights, big global phase. Friedmann and McMichael (1989; 1988) companies are effectively making decisions with discuss the development of the "second food little regard to national boundaries. Though few regime," its global, transnational character and companies aretotallyuntethered from their home its implications for the State. According to these countries, the trend toward a form of 'stateless' authors, the first food regime was characterized corporation is unmistakable" (Business Week, by the emergence of national economies which 1990:98). governed the development of national states. In To be sure, the extent and characteristics of this context, agricultural production was the process of transnationalization have been the concentrated in colonies which traded agricultural subjects of debate. In the progressive camp products for manufactured goods, labor and Gordon (1988) challenges the assertions that capital from the European metro pol and in settler there is an increase of movement of productive colonies which were distict forms of economy. capital around the world and that, ultimately, Thesecondfoodregimecmergedinconcomitance interpretations of recent changes in the global with the transnationalization of the agricultural economy have been distorted. In the conservative and food order. Transnationalization indicates camp, accounts dispute the very existence of "(i) intensification of agricultural specialization phenomena which are considered to be among (for both enterprises and regions) and integration the most important reasons for the existence of of specific crops and livestock into agro-food the process of transnationalization (Medoff and chains dominated at both ends by increasingly Strassman, 1985). Regardless of the arguments large industrial capital and (ii) a shift in agricultural presented the transnationalization of the economy products from final use to industrial inputs for and new the dimension of the role of the State in manufactured foods" (Friedmann and this process are acknowledged in the debate McMichael, 1989:105). Accordingly, the (Gordon, 1988:63). restructuring of agricultural and food production The changes at the global level have affected greatly diminished, yet did not eliminate, the the internal organization of a numberof productive po~sibility of the national State directing sectors, including the agricultural and food sector. agncultural production to specific ends such as Indeed, it is not a coincidence that the emerging food security, community development, etc. limits of the national State have been a subject of (Friedmann and McMichael 1989:95). debate recently (Friedland, 1988; Friedmann and Similar issues are discussed by William D. McMichael, 1989: 112; McMichael and Myhre, Heffernan and his associates (Heffernan, 1990; 1991). The globalization of the food and 1984; Constance and Heffernan 1989, agricultural sector and the implications that this forthcoming). According to these authors, the phenomenon has in regard to the issue of the State evolution of the food sector has transcended the are discussed in the remaining sections ofthe paper. 22 International Joumal ofSodol"I.Y of Agrtc11ll11n, and Food I Re~lslll lnlemadmal deSoclol"llla sobn Aaric11lh,ra y Allmenlol/ Vol.1119111 ISSN: 0798-1759 This journal is blind refereed. THEGWBAUlATJON AND THEORJESOFTHESTATE
national State arena since there has been a H. Friedland (I 988) who discusses both the concentration of the food sector orchestrated by relationship between the process of a few global conglomerates. The global dimension transnationalization and the State and the of the concentration offood production is based emergence of a transnational State. Employing on these conglomerates' actions to a) increase the case of transnational conglomerates in the economic returns by shifting production from food sector, Friedland contends that the one location to another to reduce economic emergence of the transnational corporation uncertanties and b) avoid State regulations (such implies that the State can control these new as environmental regulations, health regulation, economic fonns only partially. Transnational etc.) which have created additional production corporations, in fact, "can only be partially costs. It is argued that food producing controlled by nation-states because so much of conglomerates are increasingly controlling food their productive, manufacturing, distributing and commodity markets at the global level and that marlceting functions are nationally-dispersed." this control is maintained through by-passing the (Friedland, 1988:4). He concludes that, despite a national State. Though these authors acknowledge push toward the embryonic tendency for the that national agricultural policies and national creation of a transnational State, no legal or agriculture related policies are relevant in tenns political entity at that level has yet emerged. of domestic production, they also stress that the "undesired" effects of these policies can largely The Dilocation of State and be avoided by food conglomerates through Economy: a Discussion operating at the transnational level. Bonanno et al. (1990) also point out the global The ·literature on the State and on the dimension of agricultural and food production globalization of the food and agricultural sector and the inability of national States to mediate the provides us with a body of knowledge from various contradictions emerging at the productive which some general considerations on future and legitimative levels. Employing the cases of trends can be inferred. In fact, if both literatures the US and the European Community in a are correct and the phenomena discussed are comparative fashion, these authors argue that the accurately described, it is obvious that we face a complexity of the pattern of interaction between dislocation between the internationalization of the State and the food producing sector does not the accumulation process and the national allow for a return to a laissez-faire system. More dimension of State action. This dislocation, in specifically, it is argued that the proposal to tum, can have repercussions both at the theoretical "return to the laws of the market" and an and socio-economic levels. Let us examine some elimination of the intervening role of the State is of them. only a theoretical option since in the present a) If the literature on g1obalization is accurate, phase of advanced capitalism it is socially, the theoretical underpinnings of current economically and politically nonviable. Indeed, theories of the State become inadequate. though there would be some advantage in Theories of the globalization of capital eliminating State intervention, the disadvantages accumulation have not been accompanied by a and contradictions that would emerge from a transnationalization of the conceptualization of withdrawal of State action would be much greater State actions, which remain domestically and unacceptable to progressive and regressive centered. Current analyses of the State present a societal forces alike (Bonanno et al., 1990:240- discrepancy between the domestic dimension in 244). A further step forward is taken by William which the State is viewed and the not necessarily
InterMUonal Journal olSodoloaY of Aarlc11lh1re IJld Food I Rniala Internadonal domestic dimension in which capitalist the State in society, thentheprocessofmediation development is analyzed. In essence, the of the various fractions of capital at the assumption of the domestic dimension of State international level is unresolved. It has been action is empirically challenged by the pointed out that in order for accumulation Lo transnational dimension of the economic process. occur, there must be a certain degree of harmony This situation calls for a reformulation of State in society. This situation, which Block (1980) theories vis•a•vis the transnational process called "business confidence," refers to two related through empirical analysis. As indicated by issues. The first refers to the creation ofhannony Friedmann and McMichael (1989:112), the between the ruling class as a whole and nation•state is increasingly untenable as an subordinate classes as a whole. The second refers "organizing principle of the world economy." to the hannonization of competition and conflict However, as indicated by Friedland (1988), among the various fractions of the ruling class. the emergence of a transnational State is presently Currently at the international level, competing embryonic and contingent upon the fractions of the bourgeoisie do not seem to have transnationalization of the economic sphere. an organizing entity such as that present at the Nevertheless, the process oftransnationalization domestic level (i.e. the national State). Put in a of the economic sphere does not necessarily different manner, the transnational bourgeoisie involve the transnationalization of other does not have an organizing State which mediates constitutive comIXJnents of the State such as the its action vis-a•vis opposing classes. These culturaJ and ideological spheres. It can be argued organizing and mediating actions are necessary following an orthodox Marxist posture that the as bourgeois fractions compete among themselves transnationalization ofthe culturaJ and ideological in the pursuit of profit enhancement. apparati would automatically follow the Paradoxically, the globalization of capital transformation of the ecooomic sphere. However, accumulation developed as a partial response to and drawing from other Marxian theoretical the increasingly intervening role of the State at currents, it is possible to reject this hypothesis to the domestic level (Bonanno, 1987a, Friedmann argue that the relative autonomy of superstructural and McMichael, 1989; Sasscn, 1988). However, elements does not involve an automatic limiting the intervention ofthe State in the process transformation of the ideological and cultural of accumulation carried on by transnational spheres. On the contrary, the relative autonomy corporations has hampered the ability of the State of superstructuraJ elements could prolong the to organize economic activities in a situation in simultaneous existence of an increasingly which the transnationalization of the economy transnational oriented economic system and a demands more (State) coordination (Sassen, still nationally based system of social consensus 1988: 135). After all, historically the State played and legitimation. In this respect, cultural, ethnic a fundamental role in previous phases of the and regional political movements can represent international expansion ofcapital (Murray, 1971; relevant forces against the emergence of a Rowthorn, 1971). In essence, then, the transnational State. Regardless of these and other bourgeoisie's need fororganization finds its limits hypotheses, the relationship among the in the bourgeoisie's desire to avoid State action. constitutive components of the State vis•a•vis the It can be argued at this point that transnational process of transnationalization should occupy corporations actually attempt to coordinate their analytical center stage. actions and, as such, overcome the lack of a b) If the theories of the State are correct in coordinating State. In fact, these attempts are not their description of the historical "functions" of new patterns as indicated by the case of the 24 Internallonal Jo111"1U.I ofSodology ot Agrtc111t11re and Food I Revl•I• Inten,adonal de Sodologla sobre Agricult11n. y Albnentosl Vol. I/ 1991 ISSN: 0798-1759 This journal is blind refereed. THEGWBAL/7.ATION AND THEORIES OF Tl/ESTATE Trilateral Commission, which was established of the interests of subordinate classes point to a over two decades ago. It should be stressed, convergence of interests on the part of these however, that organizations such as the Trilateral two groups in preserving the intervention of Commission can never obtain all the various the State in socio-economic affairs. However, powers associated with a State apparatus. this convergence of action is contradictory. The Col'JX)rations do not have the monopoly of power interests of transnational companies and that the State has and cannot directly legislate subordinate classes in maintaining State action and/or execute legislation. They can influence are motivated by opposing reasons and, more legislation and political action in general but, as importantly, they tendcncially undennine each illustrated by the literature on the State group's essential objectives. (Poulantzas, 1978:179-185), they are not the State. While it is undeniable that attempts to Transnational capital is interested in State organize themsel vcs at the global level are action which fosters accwnulation. If this action undertaken by transnational col'JX)rations, these is opposed, counter actions are taken. In recent attempts have not historically replaced the years the latter have assumed, primarily, the fonn mediating and organizing functions perfonned of by-passing the coordinating and mediating by the State. role of the Statetogether action which protects their well-being vis-a-vis with a repressive role, the State can in some economic problems (inflation, declining wages) circumstances perfonn a progressive role (i.e. the and social problems (limitations in the provision fact that sulx>rdinate classes through political of health care; declining education, etc.). The action force the State to protect some of their transnational restructuring of the economy - interests) (Offe, 1985; Poulantzas, 1978). accomplished primarily through the shifting of However, the interests of sulx>rdinate class are production across national borders, reliance on protected only in so much as the State maintains low wage labor, and concentration of capital nonnative control over the production process. has severely limited the national State action to Once this control is reduced or eliminated, the protect the social and economic gains of protection of the interests of subordinate classes subordinate classes obtained in previous periods is also reduced or eliminated. Accordingly, (Bonanno, 1989; 1988). legislation passed to establish wages levels, safety and health regulations, and regional and The International Arena community development has been avoided The national dimension of State action and through economic maneuvers such as the migration of capital and production outfits across the globalization of capital accumulation could national borders and other fonns of by-passing be overcome by the establishment of an entity State authority (Sasscn, 1988). which would continue the role of the State at the international level (Friedland, 1988). Conclusion Empirically, tendencies toward the emergence ofa multinational State arc found in the expansion and consolidation of the European Community Contradictory convergence (EC), the creation of a Free Trade Agreement State action in favor of transnational (FfA) between the US and Canada with the companies and the simultaneous State protection proposed inclusion of Mexico, political attempts International Journal olSodoloa, of A11rtcullure and Food I Revllta Internaclonal de Sociol"llla -obre Agrkultura y Alimenlolll Vol. I I 1'91 25 ISSN: 0798-1759 This journal is blind refereed. Alessandro Bonanno by Japan to organire a multistate organization of countries in the Orient and OECD regulatory 2. The 1erm transnationali7.ation is often replaced with the term globalizaiion. Though som differences between the patterns in the agricultural and food area, etc. two concepts do exist, for the pmposcs ofthis paper they will Among these attempts, the EC is indeed the most be considered synonyms. advanced one with its thirty years of history and a proposed schedule for economic and eventually 3. See for example the programs of in1ernational and political unification (Bonanno, 1990:3). domestica conferences by the Sociology of Agriculture Research CommitteoftheISA in the las1decade. Particualrly, The attempts to create a multinational State see the programs of the X, XI and XII World Congress of represent, however, only a partial solution to the Sociology wich took place respectively in 1982, 1986 and dislocation between the arena of State power and 1990. See also the program of the VII World Congress of the arena of capital accumulation. In fact, this Rural Sociology and of the 50th annual American Rural dislocation might well continue to exists since Sociological Socity Meetings held respectively in 1988 and the EC as well as the other examples of multistate 1987. organizations incorporate only a limited number 4. It should be noted that the domes ti ca centered analysis of nations and do not constitute global political of capitalism developed by Marx is also the outcome of the entities. If this reasoning is correct, the terrain of heuristic task to create a model wich would reflect the confrontation between opposite social forces in essen1ial characteristics of capitalism. Marx's emphasis on the method of "abstraction" mandales the undersocring of society could be increasingly shifted to the aspects pf the social whole wich qualify the essential international arena. In tum, the lack of a clearly characteristics of socie1y (see, Sweezy. 1942:31-44). established State entity could provide the Accordingly, Marx's methodological poslure re.quiered a opportunity for creating a system in which simplified and close capitalist system, wich was provided, equitable and democratic ends could be then, by Great Bri1ain. established. Equally, this "State vacuum" could 5. The s1atmen1 thal theses theories were elaborated be transformed into an increasingly repressive within a Marxian framework of analysis has been challenged global system. Though both outcomes are by proponents of the oo-calles "Articulation of Modes of possible, neither will result from the mechanical Porduction Theory" (see, Laclau. 1971 and Taylor, 1979). reproduction of ongoing trends. It is in the socio, According to his theory the Dependentistas (i.e. proponents economic and political arenas that future of dependency, World System and Exchange tehories) operale outside Marx.ism as they base their definition of directions of the global society will be decided. capitalism on a system of exchange rather than on one of Finally, increased attention to the international produc1ion. In his work. articulationisJs argue, Marx defines arena should not be confused with disregard for capitalism on the basis of relations of production, i.e. wage action at the local level. Disregard for events at relations. the local level for exclusive action at the The resolution of this dispute is nm among the goals of this contribution. However, it is relevant to stress that international level and vice versa could signify despite the alteration of some of the orthodoxies of Marxian forfeiting the possibility of generating scholarship, Dependentislas wrole in the spirit of the anlytic emancipatory changes in the new transnational and political content of the work of Marx. For this reason order. aloine they should be considered within the Marxian framework of analysis. Not,s 6. Though difficult in practice, lhe identification of a company with a country is oflen used ideologically as a I . Theconceptof"superstructure"refers to the political, commercial strategy. For example, American garment ideological and cultutral components of a society. In the companies often appeal to their domestic clientele by Marxian lradition. the political. ideological and cultulral sttessing !heir American origin. However, many of !heir spheres are called superstructural since they are opposed to products are licensed to be produced overseas. Furthermore, the economy, wich constitutes the structure of society. as in the case of car manufacturing companies, domestic lnlem.allooat Journal of Sodoloa:, or Agriculture and Food/ Rnlsla Internacional de Sodoloafa sobre Agrlcullura y Alimento. I VnL 111991 ISSN: 0798-1759 This journal is blind refereed. THE GWBALJZA.TION AND TIIEORIES OF THE STATE productionoftensignifies joint ventures with foreing capilal or simply foreign product masked as domestic. In all this 1988 ''Theories of the state: theca.seofland reform in process it is increasingly problematic to mantain a distinction Italy, 1944-1961."The Sociological Quarterly between foreing and domestic capital. 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Desde el York; Oxford University Press. punlode vista politico, come resu.ltado de esta situacibn el espacio de la accibnsocial emancipadora debe lraslada;se, TAYWR, John cada vez mds, a la escena internacional, 1979 From Modernization to Modesof Production: A Critique of the Sociologies or Development and Underdevelopment. London: Macmillan. Ales. ■ 3-0 lnterutloaal Journ•l ol"Sodolo&Y of A&rl~ltuu.nd Food I Reviota lnliernacional dt Sodolo&f• sobn Aarlcullura y AllmentOII/ V8'. I I 1991 ISSN: 0798-1759 This journal is blind refereed.