DOCSLIB.ORG

The Jeffersonian Era

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
The Jeffersonian Era bbri38559_ch07_184-217.inddri38559_ch07_184-217.indd PPageage 118484 110/15/080/15/08 111:22:331:22:33 AAMM uuserser //Volumes/203/MHSF070/mhbri13%0/bri13ch07Volumes/203/MHSF070/mhbri13%0/bri13ch07 Chapter 7 THE JEFFERSONIAN ERA THE BURNING OF WASHINGTON This dramatic engraving somewhat exaggerates the extent of the blazes in Washington when the British occupied the city in August 1814. But the invaders did set fi re to the Capitol, the White House, and other public buildings in retaliation for the American burning of the Canadian capital at York. ( The Granger Collection, New York) bbri38559_ch07_184-217.inddri38559_ch07_184-217.indd PPageage 118585 99/12/08/12/08 22:33:46:33:46 PPMM uuser-s180ser-s180 //Volumes/203/MHSF070/mhbri13%0/bri13ch07Volumes/203/MHSF070/mhbri13%0/bri13ch07 HOMAS JEFFERSON AND HIS FOLLOWERS assumed control of the national SIGNIFICANT EVENTS government in 1801 as the champions of a distinctive vision of America. 1769 ◗ James Watt patents steam engine They envisioned a society of sturdy, independent farmers, happily free from 1778 ◗ Phillips Academy founded in Andover, Massachusetts 1779 ◗ Universalist Church founded the workshops, the industrial towns, and the city mobs of Europe. They 1781 ◗ Phillips Exeter Academy founded in New Hampshire favored a system of universal education that would 1782 ◗ Unitarian Church founded in Boston T The Jeffersonian Vision 1784 ◗ Judith Sargent Murray publishes essay on rights of introduce all Americans to the scientifi c rationalism of women the Enlightenment. They promoted a cultural outlook that emphasized localism ◗ Methodist Church formally established ◗ and republican simplicity. And they proposed a federal government of sharply 1789 Massachusetts public schools admit female students 1790 ◗ Samuel Slater builds textile mill, fi rst modern limited power, with most authority remaining at the level of the states. factory in America, in Pawtucket, Rhode Island 1792 ◗ Toll road constructed from Philadelphia to Lancaster Almost nothing worked out as they planned, for during their years in power the 1793 ◗ Eli Whitney invents cotton gin young republic was developing in ways that made much of their vision obsolete. 1794–1796 ◗ Thomas Paine’s The Age of Reason published The American economy in the period of Republican ascendancy became steadily 1800 ◗ United States capital moves to Washington, D.C. ◗ more diversifi ed and complex. Growing cities, surging commerce, and expanding Gabriel Prosser’s plans for slave rebellion foiled 1801 ◗ Second Great Awakening begins industrialism made the ideal of a simple, agrarian society impossible to maintain. ◗ John Marshall appointed chief justice The quest for universal education fl oundered, and the nation’s institutions of 1801–1805 ◗ Confl ict with Tripoli 1802 ◗ Jefferson abolishes all internal federal taxes learning remained largely the preserve of privileged elites. American cultural life, ◗ United States Military Academy founded at West far from refl ecting localism and simplicity, refl ected a vigorous and ambitious Point 1803 ◗ Napoleonic Wars escalate in Europe nationalism reminiscent of (and often encouraged by) the Federalists. And although ◗ Louisiana Territory purchased from French American religion began, as the Jeffersonians had hoped, to confront and adjust ◗ Supreme Court establishes power of judicial to the spread of Enlightenment rationalism, the new skepticism did not survive review in Marbury v. Madison 1804 ◗ Aaron Burr kills Alexander Hamilton in duel unchallenged. A great wave of revivalism, beginning early in the century, ultimately ◗ Thomas Jefferson reelected president almost submerged the new rational philosophy. 1804–1806 ◗ Lewis and Clark, and Zebulon Pike, explore Louisiana Territory The Republicans did manage to translate some of their political ideals into 1805 ◗ British defeat French at Trafalgar reality. Jefferson dismantled much of the bureaucratic power structure that the 1806 ◗ Burr charged with conspiracy 1806–1807 ◗ Napoleon issues Berlin and Milan decrees Federalists had erected in the 1790s, and he helped ensure that in many respects 1807 ◗ Fulton and Livingston launch the fi rst steamboat the federal government would remain a relatively unimportant force in American ◗ Burr tried and acquitted for conspiracy life. Yet he also frequently encountered situations that required him to exercise ◗ Chesapeake-Leopard incident with Great Britain ◗ Embargo begins strong national authority. On occasion, he used his power more forcefully and 1808 ◗ Economy plunges into depression arbitrarily than his Federalist predecessors had used theirs. ◗ Madison elected president 1809 ◗ Embargo Act repealed The Republicans did not always like these nationalizing and modernizing ◗ Non-Intercourse Act passed trends, and on occasion they resisted them. For the most part, however, they ◗ Tecumseh establishes tribal confederacy had the sense to recognize what they could not change. In adjusting to the new 1810 ◗ Macon’s Bill No. 2 reopens trade with Britain and France realities, they began to become agents of the very transformation of American life ◗ United States annexes West Florida they had once resisted. 1811 ◗ Harrison is victorious in Battle of Tippecanoe 1812 ◗ United States declares war on Great Britain (June 18) ◗ Madison reelected president ◗ Louisiana admitted to Union as a state 1813 ◗ British erect naval blockade ◗ American forces burn York (Toronto), Canadian capital ◗ Perry defeats British fl eet at Put-In Bay on Lake Erie ◗ Harrison defeats British and Tecumseh 1814 ◗ Jackson, at Battle of Horseshoe Bend, slaughters Creek Indians ◗ British troops capture and burn Washington ◗ Francis Scott Key writes “The Star-Spangled Banner” ◗ Americans win Battle of Plattsburgh ◗ Hartford Convention meets ◗ Treaty of Ghent signed 1815 ◗ Jackson wins Battle of New Orleans ◗ Naval war fought with Algiers 1828 ◗ Webster’s American Dictionary of the English Language published 185 bbri38559_ch07_184-217.inddri38559_ch07_184-217.indd PPageage 118686 99/12/08/12/08 22:33:47:33:47 PPMM uuser-s180ser-s180 //Volumes/203/MHSF070/mhbri13%0/bri13ch07Volumes/203/MHSF070/mhbri13%0/bri13ch07 186 CHAPTER SEVEN THE RISE OF CULTURAL schools. In New England and elsewhere, private acade- NATIONALISM mies were usually more secular, many of them modeled on schools founded by the Phil- Private Schooling In many respects, American cultural life in the early nine- lips family at Andover, Massachu- teenth century seemed to refl ect the Republican vision of setts, in 1778, and at Exeter, New Hampshire, three years the nation’s future. Opportunities for education increased; later. By 1815, there were thirty such private secondary the nation’s literary and artistic life began to free itself schools in Massachusetts, thirty-seven in New York, and from European infl uences; and American religion began several dozen more scattered throughout the country. to confront and adjust to the spread of Enlightenment Many were frankly aristocratic in outlook, training their rationalism. In other respects, however, the new culture students to become members of the nation’s elite. There was posing a serious challenge to Republican ideals. were a few schools open to the poor offering education that was clearly inferior to that provided at exclusive schools. Patterns of Education Private secondary schools such as those in New En- Central to the Republican vision of America was the con- gland, and even many public schools, accepted only male cept of a virtuous and enlightened citizenry. Jefferson students. Yet the early nineteenth century did see some himself called emphatically for a national “crusade against important advances in female education. ignorance.” Republicans believed, In the eighteenth century, women had received very Importance of a therefore, in the establishment of little education of any kind, and the female illiteracy rate Virtuous Citizenry a nationwide system of public at the time of the Revolution was very high—at least 50 schools to create the educated electorate they believed a percent. At the same time, how- republic required. All male citizens (the nation’s prospec- ever, Americans had begun to New Educational Opportunities for tive voters) should, they argued, receive free education. place a new value on the contri- Women Some states endorsed the principle of public educa- bution of the “republican mother” tion for all in the early years of the republic, but none to the training of the new generation. That raised an actually created a working system of free schools. A Mas- important question: If mothers remained ignorant, how sachusetts law of 1789 reaffi rmed the colonial laws by could they raise their children to be enlightened? Begin- which each town was obligated to support a school, but ning as early as the 1770s and accelerating thereafter, such there was little enforcement. In Virginia, the state legisla- concerns led to the creation of a network of female acad- ture ignored Jefferson’s call for universal elementary edu- emies throughout the nation (usually for the daughters of cation and for advanced education for the gifted. As late as affl uent families). In 1789, Massachusetts required that its 1815, not a single state had a comprehensive public public schools serve females as well as males. Other states, school system. although not all, soon followed. Instead, schooling became primarily the responsibility Most men, at least, assumed that female education of private institutions, most of which were open only to should serve only
Load more

Recommended publications
  • P.S.: You Had Better Remove the Records: Early Federal Archives
    “P.S.: You had better remove the records” Early Federal Archives and the Burning of Washington during the War of 1812 By Jessie Kratz hen British troops began to advance toward And so clerks packed Wthe United States’ new capital of Wash­ such things as the books and ington in the summer of 1814, it was clear that papers of the State Department; government leaders had not prepared an adequate unpublished secret journals of defense for the city and its government buildings. Congress; George Washington’s The British navy already had control of nearby Chesa­ commission and correspondence; peake Bay and some 4,500 troops in the port town of the Articles of Confederation; papers Benedict, Maryland—poised for an attack on the capital. of the Continental Congress; and all the Despite the show of force, the secretary of war, treaties, laws, and correspondence dating John Armstrong, was convinced the British were back to 1789. more interested in the port of Baltimore than in Along with these early records, the clerks Washington, which then had only 8,200 residents. also bagged up the Charters of Freedom—the Secretary of State James Monroe felt differently collective term for the Declaration of Indepen­ and met with President James Madison to discuss dence, the Constitution, and the Bill of Rights. the enemy’s intentions. Then Monroe himself rode And so these three documents began a long jour­ by horse, accompanied by cavalry, into southern ney as the War of 1812 raged. Maryland to scout the situation. The journey would not end until 1952, when Upon seeing the British advancing toward all three were placed together, side by side, in special Washington, Monroe dispatched a note to Presi­ encasements in the Rotunda of the National Archives dent Madison.
    [Show full text]
  • War of 1812 Primary Source Packet Madison
    War of 1812 Primary Source Packet Madison Becomes President Digital History ID 211 Author: John Adams Date:1809 Annotation: Distressed by the embargo's failure, Jefferson looked forward to his retirement from the presidency. "Never," he wrote, "did a prisoner, released from his chains, feel such relief as I shall on shaking off the shackles of power." The problem of American neutrality now fell to Jefferson's hand-picked successor, James Madison. A quiet and scholarly man, who secretly suffered from epilepsy, "the Father of the Constitution" brought a keen intellect and wealth of experience to the presidency. As Jefferson's Secretary of State, he had kept the United States out of the Napoleonic wars and was committed to using economic coercion to force Britain and France to respect America's neutral rights. In this letter, former President Adams notes Madison's ascension to the presidency. Document: Jefferson expired and Madison came to Life last night...I pity poor Madison. He comes to the helm in such a storm as I have seen in the Gul[f] Stream, or rather such as I had to encounter in the Government in 1797. Mine was the worst however, because he has a great Majority of the officers and Men attached to him Survival Strategies Digital History ID 662 Author: Tecumseh Date:1810 Annotation: Told by Governor Harrison to place his faith in the good intentions of the United States, Tecumseh offers a bitter retort. He calls on Native Americans to revitalize their societies so that they can regain life as a unified people and put an end to legalized land grabs.
    [Show full text]
  • War of 1812 Booklist Be Informed • Be Entertained 2013
    War of 1812 Booklist Be Informed • Be Entertained 2013 The War of 1812 was fought between the United States and Great Britain from June 18, 1812 through February 18, 1815, in Virginia, Maryland, along the Canadian border, the western frontier, the Gulf Coast, and through naval engagements in the Great Lakes and the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. In the United States frustrations mounted over British maritime policies, the impressments of Americans into British naval service, the failure of the British to withdraw from American territory along the Great Lakes, their backing of Indians on the frontiers, and their unwillingness to sign commercial agreements favorable to the United States. Thus the United States declared war with Great Britain on June 18, 1812. It ended with the signing of the Treaty of Ghent on December 24, 1814, although word of the treaty did not reach America until after the January 8, 1815 Battle of New Orleans. An estimated 70,000 Virginians served during the war. There were some 73 armed encounters with the British that took place in Virginia during the war, and Virginians actively fought in Maryland, Virginia, and Ohio and in naval engagements. The nation’s capitol, strategically located off the Chesapeake Bay, was a prime target for the British, and the coast of Virginia figured prominently in the Atlantic theatre of operations. The War of 1812 helped forge a national identity among the American states and laid the groundwork for a national system of homeland defense and a professional military. For Canadians it also forged a national identity, but as proud British subjects defending their homes against southern invaders.
    [Show full text]
  • Soldier Illness and Environment in the War of 1812
    The University of Maine DigitalCommons@UMaine Electronic Theses and Dissertations Fogler Library Spring 5-8-2020 "The Men Were Sick of the Place" : Soldier Illness and Environment in the War of 1812 Joseph R. Miller University of Maine, [email protected] Follow this and additional works at: https://digitalcommons.library.umaine.edu/etd Part of the Canadian History Commons, Military History Commons, and the United States History Commons Recommended Citation Miller, Joseph R., ""The Men Were Sick of the Place" : Soldier Illness and Environment in the War of 1812" (2020). Electronic Theses and Dissertations. 3208. https://digitalcommons.library.umaine.edu/etd/3208 This Open-Access Thesis is brought to you for free and open access by DigitalCommons@UMaine. It has been accepted for inclusion in Electronic Theses and Dissertations by an authorized administrator of DigitalCommons@UMaine. For more information, please contact [email protected]. “THE MEN WERE SICK OF THE PLACE”: SOLDIER ILLNESS AND ENVIRONMENT IN THE WAR OF 1812 By Joseph R. Miller B.A. North Georgia University, 2003 M.A. University of Maine, 2012 A DISSERTATION Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy (in History) The Graduate School The University of Maine May 2020 Advisory Committee: Scott W. See, Professor Emeritus of History, Co-advisor Jacques Ferland, Associate Professor of History, Co-advisor Liam Riordan, Professor of History Kathryn Shively, Associate Professor of History, Virginia Commonwealth University James Campbell, Professor of Joint, Air War College, Brigadier General (ret) Michael Robbins, Associate Research Professor of Psychology Copyright 2020 Joseph R.
    [Show full text]
  • Guide to the War of 1812 Sources
    Source Guide to the War of 1812 Table of Contents I. Military Journals, Letters and Personal Accounts 2 Service Records 5 Maritime 6 Histories 10 II. Civilian Personal and Family Papers 12 Political Affairs 14 Business Papers 15 Histories 16 III. Other Broadsides 17 Maps 18 Newspapers 18 Periodicals 19 Photos and Illustrations 19 Genealogy 21 Histories of the War of 1812 23 Maryland in the War of 1812 25 This document serves as a guide to the Maryland Center for History and Culture’s library items and archival collections related to the War of 1812. It includes manuscript collections (MS), vertical files (VF), published works, maps, prints, and photographs that may support research on the military, political, civilian, social, and economic dimensions of the war, including the United States’ relations with France and Great Britain in the decade preceding the conflict. The bulk of the manuscript material relates to military operations in the Chesapeake Bay region, Maryland politics, Baltimore- based privateers, and the impact of economic sanctions and the British blockade of the Bay (1813-1814) on Maryland merchants. Many manuscript collections, however, may support research on other theaters of the war and include correspondence between Marylanders and military and political leaders from other regions. Although this inventory includes the most significant manuscript collections and published works related to the War of 1812, it is not comprehensive. Library and archival staff are continually identifying relevant sources in MCHC’s holdings and acquiring new sources that will be added to this inventory. Accordingly, researchers should use this guide as a starting point in their research and a supplement to thorough searches in MCHC’s online library catalog.
    [Show full text]
  • Tennessee State Library and Archives WINCHESTER, JAMES
    State of Tennessee Department of State Tennessee State Library and Archives 403 Seventh Avenue North Nashville, Tennessee 37243-0312 WINCHESTER, JAMES (1752-1856) PAPERS, 1787-1953 Processed by: Manuscript Division Archival Technical Services Accession Number: THS 27 Date Completed: October 11, 1967 Location: I-D-3 Microfilm Accession Number: 794 MICROFILMED INTRODUCTION These papers for the years 1787-1953, relating primarily to the career and activities of General James Winchester, U.S. Army, were given to the Tennessee Historical Society by Mr. George Wynne, Castalian Springs, Tennessee. The materials in this collection measure 1.68 linear feet. There are no restrictions on the materials. Single photocopies of unpublished writings in the James Winchester Papers may be made for purposes of scholarly research. SCOPE AND CONTENT The papers of General James Winchester, numbering approximately 1,100 items and two volumes, contain accounts (bills, notes, receipts), personal and military; correspondence; land records including claims, records, deeds, grants, papers dealing with Memphis land surveys and commissions, court minutes, summonses, etc. Correspondence, mainly James Winchester’s incoming (1793-1825) and outgoing (1796-1826), comprises about half the collection. In addition to the military correspondence, a great portion deals with land speculation. The largest number of letters from any one man to Winchester is that of Judge John Overton, who, apart from being Winchester’s confidant and friend, was his partner in land dealings. There are 116 pieces of correspondence with Overton, and these are primarily on the subject of Memphis lands as Winchester, Overton, and Andrew Jackson were extensively involved in the establishment and early growth of the community.
    [Show full text]
  • The Burning of Washington by Dolly Madison
    The Burning of Washington by Dolly Madison "Dolly Madison," (Dorothea "Dolly" Payne) was born on May 20th, 1768 in Guilford County, North Carolina to John Payne and Mary Coles. On September 15, 1794 she married James Madison, Jr. He became the fourth President of the United States in 1808. The passage below is taken from a letter by First Lady Dolley Madison to her sister, Anna, written the day before Washington, D.C. was burned by British forces during the War of 1812. The letter describes the abandonment of the White House and Mrs. Madison's famous actions saving Gilbert Stuart's priceless portrait of George Washington. As Mrs. Madison fled she rendezvoused with her husband, and together, from a safe distance, they watched Washington burn. My husband left me yesterday morning to join General Winder. He inquired anxiously whether I had courage or firmness to remain in the President's house until his return on the morrow, or succeeding day, and on my assurance that I had no fear but for him, and the success of our army, he left, beseeching me to take care of myself, and of the Cabinet papers, public and private. I have since received two dispatches from him, written with a pencil. The last is alarming, because he desires I should be ready at a moment's warning to enter my carriage, and leave the city; that the enemy seemed stronger than had at first been reported, and it might happen that they would reach the city with the intention of destroying it. I am accordingly ready; I have pressed as many Cabinet papers into trunks as to fill one carriage; our private property must be sacrificed, as it is impossible to procure wagons for its transportation.
    [Show full text]
  • September 29, 1813
    September 29, 1813 Americans, under Harrison, reclaim Detroit October 5, 1813 Battle of the Thames (Battle of Moraviantown) Death of Tecumseh November 11, 1813 Battle of Crysler's Farm/Williamsburgh, (Ontario) December 10, 1813 Burning of Niagara,(Ontario) December 19, 1813 Capture of Fort Niagara, New York December 19, 1813 Burning of Lewiston, New York, December 31, 1813 Burning of Buffalo & Black Rock 1814 March 4, 1814 Longwood Battle March 27, 1814 Battle of Horseshoe Bend/Sehopiska, Alabama March 28, 1814 HMS Phobe & Cherub vs. USS Essex & Essex Junior (Pacific, off coast of Chile) July 3, 1814 Capture of Fort Erie (Ontario July 5, 1814 Battle of Chippewa (Ontario July 20, 1814 Siege of Prairie du Chien, Wisconsin July 25, 1814 Battle of Lundy's Lane, August 1 - September 19, 1814 Siege of Fort Erie August 4, 1814 Unsuccessful American Invasion of Mackinac island August 9 -12, 1814 Battle of Stonington, Connecticut August 14, 1814 HMS Nancy destroyed, Lake Huron August 15, 1814 Battle of Fort Erie, Ontario August 24, 1814 Battle of Bladensburg, Maryland August 25, 1814 Burning of Washington, September 6-11, 1814 Battle of Plattsburgh, New York September 13, 1814 Bombardment of Fort McHenry, National Anthem composed October 15, 1814 Skirmish at Chippewa, November 7, 1814 Occupation of Pensacola,Florida, US) December 24, 1814 Treaty of Ghent signed 1815 January 8, 1815 Battle of New Orleans with General Andrew Jackson February 16, 1815 U.S. Senate unanimously ratifies & President Madison signs Treaty of Ghent, officially ending War
    [Show full text]
  • First Invasion: the War of 1812
    STUDY GUIDE The American Revolution delivered to the world not only a new nation but the firm promise that the United States would provide an example of independence, freedom, equality, and sovereignty. Yet just thirty years after independence from Great Britain was won, the War of 1812 signaled that the tests the United States would face, both internally and externally, were severe. Tension between the United States and England persisted in the years after the revolution. A complex set of concerns, including the impressments of American citizens into the British navy and the ongoing efforts of the British to control commerce on the high seas, thrust the two nations into war. What has been termed America’s “second war of independence” was authorized by Congress in June of 1812 in response to the pleas of a reluctant yet determined President James Madison. In what would become a three-year odyssey fought on many fronts, these two nations challenged each other in Canada, at sea, and in the heart of the nation’s capital. First Invasion: The War of 1812 is a dramatic and engaging introduction to the many phases of this war, from its declaration through the climactic Battle of New Orleans in 1815. Several battles and skirmishes took place in the first two years of the war as an ill-prepared U.S. military suffered few victories and ample defeats. Just as the conflict seemed destined to decline in intensity, however, the British resolved their war with France, freeing up their resources for a new drive to seize control of the North American economy.
    [Show full text]
  • Note to Teachers: This War of 1812 Unit Was Originally Created For
    Note to Teachers: This War of 1812 Unit was originally created for a 5th grade class in Baltimore, Maryland. The activities may be edited to meet the needs of your classroom. The War of 1812 Due: Student Name _________________________________________________ Homeroom Teacher ___________________________________________ Task 1: CAUSES (Due: ) 1. In Your own words describe the various causes of the War of 1812. _________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________
    [Show full text]
  • Key Events & Causes: War of 1812
    Key Events & Causes: War of 1812 Burning of Washington, D.C. (Library of Congress Memory Collection) Event Date Location Significance Napolean excludes British goods from "fortress American ships caught in middle as British respond with 1806 Europe Europe" blockade. British seize 1000 U.S. ships, French ca. 500. British captains took over 10,000 American citizens to man British impress American sailors 1803-1812 High seas ships. 3 miles off Chesapeake fired on by Leopard after refusing to be boarded. 3 Chesapeake -Leopard fight June 1807 Norfolk, Americans killed, 18 wounded. Virginia December Washington, Jefferson's attempt at "peaceful coercion" resulted in economic Embargo Act 1807 D.C. disaster for merchants. Calhoun, Clay, others bothered by insults to U.S. and Indian War Hawks elected to Congress 1810 U.S. presence Ohio River Tecumseh's brother (the Prophet) led attack on Harrison's army Battle of Tippecanoe 1811 Valley of 1000. June 18, Washington, Pushed by War Hawks, Madison asked for declaration. All Congress declares "Mr. Madison's War" 1812 D.C. Federalists oppose it. August British capture Ft. Mackinac Michigan U.S. lost fort as British invade American territory. 16, 1812 U.S.-- Invasion attempts of Canada 1812 Canadian 3 attempts of U.S. to invade Canada all fail. border Atlantic Victory by U.S. ship ("Old Ironsides"). Other privateers Constitution vs. Guerriere 1812 Ocean captured or burned British ships. January Kentucky troops repelled by British and Indians in bloody Battle of Frenchtown Michigan 1813 fighting. American survivors killed in Raisin River Massacre. April Toronto, U.S. troops took control of Great Lakes, burn York.
    [Show full text]
  • Northern Virginia in the War of 1812 by SHERMAN W PRATT
    Northern Virginia in the War of 1812 BY SHERMAN w PRATT Almost all Americans, by the time they pass through high school, know that in the War of 1812 the British entered and burned Washington, the National Capital. War with Great Britain had been declared on June 18, 1812. Most of the early confrontations with the British were not very con­ clusive and were concentrated on or around the Great Lakes or involved isolated clashes at sea between naval ships of the two countries. With Brit­ ish victories over their French adversary in Europe in 1813 and early 1814, especially in the Peninsula campaign, sizeable British land and sea forces were then available for use against the Americans in the New World, where­ upon they changed the emphasis of their military operations in America from mainly sea and Great Lakes efforts to joint sea/land operations. In August of 1814 British naval forces in America under the command of Rear Admiral Sir George Cockburn were joined by a fleet under the com­ mand of Vice Admiral Sir Alexander Cochrane with several thousand troops under the command of General Robert Ross. The combined forces, under the overall command of Admiral Cochrane, were assembled in the Chesa­ peake Bay by August 15th. 1 The British flotilla sailed up the Patuxent River to the town of Benedict, Maryland, about thirty miles southeast of Washington, which was as far upriver as the larger ships could go. Smaller draft vessels sailed further up the river in pursuit of Joshua Barney, newly bestowed with the rank of commodore, with his barge-gunboats that were blockaded by the arrival of the British.
    [Show full text]