the Intermarriage Crisis," in The In­ ~ctives and Responses (New York: 8 Sylvia Barack Fishman M. Cohen, "How to Save American 1 )P·47-51. :'ill and Content," in David M. Gordis Negotiating Egalitarianism and Judaism lit and Prognosis (West Orange, N.J.: American Jewish Feminisms and Their Implications for iously as the preface, jointly authored .examining Intermarriage (New York: Jewish Life .d David Wilstein Institute of Jewish W. Smith, What Do Americans Think mittee, 1991), pp. 16,56. ~ish Community (New York: Ameri- Jerica," in Intermarriage Crisis (New • Choice (Hoboken, N.J.: Ktav, 1991), -n Jewish Leaders, Intermarriage, and :r 1990, pp. 1-8, which also raises the Introduction: Jewish Feminisms in a Post-Feminist Age lent? Alternatives to Outreach," in In- Today's American Jewish culture can arguably be said to have reached a postfem­ inist state. During the last quarter of the twentieth century the lives of American os, Practices and Visions" (paper pre­ Jews as individuals, in family groups, and in communal settings have undergone :lion of American Hebrew Congrega- sweeping changes vis-a-vis gender role construction. However, many of these changes have come to seem so commonplace that their revolutionary status and flavor has been virtually lost. Feminism and its impact on American Jewish life York: American Jewish Committee, seems to some observers a nonissue, concerning just those few women who com­ bine fervid Jewish and feminist concerns. Indeed, in the recent Portrait ofAmeri­ '? 1989 National Survey of American 1991), pp. 51-52. can Jews, by a preeminent ethnographer of American Jewish communities, the au­ .: One Leader's Personal Dilemma," in thor dismisses Jewish feminism as affecting only "the minority of those American Jews who chose to be actively Jewish."1 .mmunal Context and Policy Direction Despite the camouflage of familiarity, however, a broad variety of feminisms ), p. 15· flourish in American Jewish life today and continue to produce change across the Ilg the Intermarriage Crisis with Real­ spectrum of mainstream environments. Observing large Jewish organizations and risis, p. 39. the cultural artifacts they produce can provide useful demonstrations of both the grass-roots nature and the diversity of continuing Jewish feminist sensibility in the United States. The national president of Hadassah proudly declares that Hadassah women have "returned to our Jewish feminist roots," and the June/July 1996 issue of Hadassah magazine features the following feminist-influenced po­ litical, cultural, and religiously oriented articles: "Letter from Washington: Syn­ ergy and Harmony," by Hanita Blumfield, described as follows: "Jewish women are finding that the strength they give to the women's movement can provide ben­ efits for the Jewish agenda as well"; "Nice Jewish Girls," by feminist journalist I I ~ 164 • Cohesion and Conflict ~ Marlene Adler Marks, described thus: "Cultural stereotypes run about two gener­ American Jewish women as a personal, social, and political bel ations behind, but the images of American Jewish women are catching up with a I ~ metropolitan areas but even in ill new reality"; "World of Our Mothers," by Rahel Musleah, an illustrated essay on I Jewish women painters who "defied the stereotypes of their generation"; and "Late I sionately in favor of personal and 8 Mitzvas," by Barbara Trainin Blank, about geriatric female prayer leaders and t themselves and their daughters. 1 h'not mitzvah.2 Among the subjects discussed in this most middle-class, middle­ I often portray Jewish women as I brow publication are the Jewish Caucus in Beijing, the importance of grooming a t realities and personal ideals, ethl temporary American Jewish wor new generation of Jewish feminist leaders, the resentments of nursing home resi­ ~ dents toward traditional Jewish restrictions on women, wife abuse in Jewish I girl" has dramatically transformc homes, and the spiritual fantasies of pre-Bat Mitzvah girls. The articles search for t Regardless of which variatiOn! "heroines ... who go beyond the boundaries life sets up for them."3 As one author ish woman, American Jewish fer unequivocally states, "Hadassah has a place at the feminist table."4 sacred values that profoundly afti Diverse varieties of American Jewish feminism are interesting not only in and from radical right to radical left, tJ of themselves but because they provide a useful vantage point from which to view binic law, including but not exc eg~ religious subgroups in American Jewish societies. Both in those areas of life that ence, and (2) commitment to are unique to Judaism and those that Jewish women share with their non-Jewish mations of Judaic aspects of WOI neighbors, feminism has had and continues to have powerful impact. This essay is feminism, this essay explores t concerned with Jewish feminisms that focus on Judaism, rather than on political along the axes of those contiuum or social agendas; thus, the discussion addresses religious, personal, and organiza­ of Jewish feminism reflects the pI tionaVinstitutional areas such as bringing women to the center of synagogue wor­ communities. ship by increasing participatory roles for women in public Judaism, creating woman-centered rituals that celebrate women's life cycle events, creating gender­ neutral and/or woman-affinning liturgies, providing increased levels ofJewish ed­ Two Primary Principles: Egalital ucation for girls and women of all ages, breaking the glass ceilings that keep women out of positions of decision making and power in Jewish communal life, In preemancipation Diaspora Je" and promoting feminist scholarship and literature that reclaims the history of his­ scended religious activity and ww; torical Jewish women and interprets the experiences of contemporary Jewish pects of personal, familial, and cc women. Conservative Jews in the United ~ Notwithstanding the Judaic focus of this essay, it is important first to take note status, at least in theory, although as well of the many Jewish feminisms that are not exclusively Jewish in their con­ daily life than in earlier historical cerns. Some feminisms center on personal aspects of life: women's health issues, men who acknowledge the author] friendship circles, erotic liaisons, marriage, family relationships, fertility, child­ place within halakhic parameters bearing, and child rearing. Others are concerned with professional development: gates the halakhic system to a mor education, vocational choice, and career advancement. While Jewish women boundary for behavior, however, s share these areas of feminist impact with other American women, their attitudes matically achieved, although not, are sometimes influenced by Jewish communal nonns and values. For example, in American Jews are affected no their feminist enterprises, Jewish women can draw on the cultural biases toward but also by American principles aJ competence, articulateness, and assertiveness in women, which were common in and important roots in Americar traditional Jewish societies, rather than docility and decorative value.s Jewish cul­ wake of civil rights efforts and th tural biases favoring women who blend marketplace activism6 with familial pas­ For many American Jews, egalitaJ sion may be reflected in the fact that among Jewish women, unlike women in greater spiritual relevance and pm other religious and cultural subgroups, higher levels of education and occupa­ Ifwe place Halakhah and egali tional achievement are accompanied by higher levels of expected fertility. 7 ifestations in American Jewish sc Fishman/Negotiating Egalitarianism • 165 American Jewish women as a group display a remarkably liberal "package" of stereotypes run about two gener­ 1 personal, social, and political beliefs and attitudes. Not only in the bicoastal major sh women are catching up with a metropolitan areas but even in midwestern communities, Jewish women are pas­ l Musleah, an illustrated essay on ~ sionately in favor of personal and reproductive choice and value independence for Jes oftheir generation"; and "Late I themselves and their daughters.8 Although literature, film, and popular culture still riatric female prayer leaders and often portray Jewish women as militant traditionalists, in terms of demographic n this most middle-class, middle­ t f realities and personal ideals, ethnic boundaries have been relocated among con­ ng, the importance of grooming a temporary American Jewish women. The contemporary normative "nice Jewish "esentments of nursing home resi­ girl" has dramatically transformed expectations from those of her predecessors. n women, wife abuse in Jewish t Regardless of which variations of feminism engage a particular American Jew­ lzvah girls. The articles search for r ish woman, American Jewish feminisms are organized along two continuums of ~ sets up for them."3 As one author I sacred values that profoundly affect many aspects of Jewish experience. Running :Ie feminist table."4 1 from radical right to radical left, these continuums include (I) the authority of rab­ sm are interesting not only in and binic law, including but not exclusively determined by denominational prefer­ vantage point from which to view ence, and (2) commitment to egalitarian principles. Using examples of transfor­ es. Both in those areas of life that j mations of Judaic aspects of women's lives to illustrate diverse forms of Jewish :Jmen share with their non-Jewish feminism, this essay explores the placement of American Jewish feminisms lve powerful impact. This essay is , along the