Icy Worlds of the Solar System Edited by Pat Dasch Index More Information

Cambridge University Press 0521640482 - Icy Worlds of the Solar System Edited by Pat Dasch Index More information

Index

Accretion 130, 173 Asteroid Belt 110, 118 Callisto (satellite of Africa 7 Atmospheres 62, 64, Jupiter) 110, Age dating 84, 149--50 67, comets as 115--16, 117, 120, Alaska 92 major source of liquid water ocean Albedo 15, 16 atmospheres of may lie beneath Maps of Mercury 34, inner planets 67, several hundred 40, 41, 42--3 72, affect of kilometers of icy Pluto and Charon impact erosion on crust 121, Galileo 157, 159 a. of Mars 74, 75, mission ﬁndings South Polar Cap of 76, 178 129--30, surface Triton 161 Pluto 140, bound very heavily Alps 21 atmosphere on cratered 150 Antarctica 14, 18, 21, Pluto 141, 155, 156, Canada 18, 92, 113 22, 26, 29, 32, 80, 158, 159, 161, 162, Canali (martian canals 92, 108 will Pluto’s or channels) 79 Antarctic ice sheet 6, atmosphere Cantaloupe terrain 11, 120, formation disappear? 163 (on Triton) 133 12--14 million years Martian atmosphere Carbonaceous ago 9, 13, 17, 18, 80, 81, 85, 89, 92, chondrites 118 32, 83 93, 104 Cassini, Giovanni Apollo (program) 51 Titan 115, 130, Domenico, Italian Arecibo Observatory 38 131--2 astronomer Radar observations Triton 112, 151, 152, 1625--1712 117 of Mercury 41, 42, 153, 154, 161 Cassini (mission) 110, 44 Australia 7 117, 132, 135, Radar observations 138 of polar regions on Bar-Nun, Akiva 68, 75, Centaur 186, 187 the Moon 52 76 Ceres (largest known Arctic ice sheets 32 Basal sliding 26 asteroid, diameter Ariel (satellite of BepiColombo (mission) 912 km) 141 Uranus) 120, 134, 58, 59 Chao Meng-Fu (crater 136, 137 Bernstein, Max 176 on Mercury) 15 Arizona, University of Big Bang 173 Chaotic terrain 74 Blue ice 31 (on Mars) 95 Asteroid 137, 139, 140, Borelly (comet) (on Europa) 123 142, 168, 180 188 Chapman, Clark 34

Index 191

Charon (satellite of source of grains in 68, 78, Pluto) 115, largest atmospheres of 170 satellite in solar the inner planets Whipple recognized system relative to 60, 71, D/H ratio typical nucleus is its primary 141, in 60, bombardment very small; 1--2 km 3:2 resonance with of Earth 74, 75, 76, in diameter 170, Neptune 144, 114, 116, 117, 137, 174, 175 discovered 1978 Oort Cloud, source Continental shelf 11 156, 157, 185 of long-period Corona (on Miranda) Christy, James 156 comets 142, 168, 136, 137 CHON 181, 187 delivered volatiles Cosmic rays 33, 93, 177 Churyumov/Gerasimenko and stuff of life to Cratered terrain (comet) 76, 78, 189 Earth in ﬁrst half (on Mars) 82 Circumplanetary billion years of the Crevasses 26 nebula 117 planet 168, 170, Cryosphere 17, 92, 106 Clementine (mission) 172, 173, 174, 177, Cryptoendolithic 53, 54, 57 formation at lichens 108 Climate change 21--2, exceedingly low 83, 96--7, 103, temperatures Deep Impact (mission) 108 characteristic of 189 Climatic events interstellar Deep Space 1 (mission) Cooling of Earth medium 177, 178, 188 2.3 billion years 179, comets Deep Space Network ago 8, 15, 33, delivered about 37, 54 seasonal changes 15% of Earth’s Diagenetic zones 23 on Mars 86, 89, water 179, 180, Diapirs 124, 133 current climate on 181, 182, 183, Dione (satellite of Mars 92, clues to Kuiper Belt, source Saturn) Evidence martian climate of short period of past volcanism history 104 comets 184, 187, 21, 118, Coded Long Pulse 188, 189 interactions with technique 38 Comet coma 170, 174, Enceladus 137, 138 Coherent backscatter 175, 178, 180, 187 Dirty snowballs (radar reﬂectivity) Comet dust 180, 181 (Whipple concept 41 Comet showers 184 of comets, 1950) Comet Comet tail 170, 178, 170, 176 Short period 180, 187 Discovery program 54 comets (Mercury- Cometary nucleus 68 Drumlins 29 crossing comets) Temperature of Dust storms (on Mars) 48, 56, major formation of ice 84, 90

192 Index

Early bombardment 74 Earth 130, 147, ongoing volcanic Earth 6, 7, the ‘‘water 149, 159, comets activity 110, 119, planet” 8, lack of brought matter of liquid water layer evidence for ice life and means to up to 100 km thick during early extinguish life to may lie just a few history of 8, Earth 168, kilometers below percentage of extinction of icy surface 111, water currently dinosaurs caused 121, 122--3, 124, frozen 9, present by comet or 125, 140, young climate on 9, orbit asteroid impact surface the result 12, climate 168, 178, about of orbital change on 21, 26, 15%ofEarth’s resonance with 29,30, water could have Jupiter 150 comparisons with come from comets Europe 9, 12 Mercury 33, 34, 36, 179, next return of European Space 38, 41, 43, 46, 50, Comet Halley to Agency (ESA) 58, 57, origin of Earth 2061 184 76, 189 atmosphere and Earth-based Exosphere oceans 60, observations 58 On Mercury 34 Atmosphere 61, 62, Of Mars 79 Planetary 60 64, and origin of Earth--Moon system 57 Extrasolar giant life 61, 64, 65--6, Edgeworth, Kenneth planets 36 67, cometary 140, 184 contribution to Edgeworth--Kuiper Belt Facies 23, 24 atmosphere 67, 69, 139 Firn 21 71, 75, 76, 43, Elias 18 (star) 177 Flagstaff, Arizona 79 composition of Eskers 29 Flowstripes 26 water 73--4, 78, Enceladus (satellite of Frost (on Mars) 80, 85, presence of Saturn) 86, (on Triton) meteorites from Possible ongoing 133--4 Mars 74, volcanic activity Frozen in time comparisons with 118, 120, 134, 135, (outer solar system Mars 79, 83, 85, 137 bodies offer 86, 91, 92, 94, 100, Europa (satellite of opportunity to 103, 104, 105, clues Jupiter) 110, study primitive to origin of life on surface covered by environments) 64 Earth from Mars water layer 113, 109, 114, 119, 122, 116, salty ocean Galileo Galilei, Italian 125, 127, Titan beneath icy crust astronomer compared to early 116, possible 1564--1642 110

Index 193

Galileo (mission) 110, geologically; Greenhouse gases 7, 8, 111, 116 composed more 64, 108 NIMS infrared than 50% of water instrument 116 121, Galileo Hale-Bopp (comet) 73, Magnetometer data mission findings 78, 142, 170, 173, 121 126--9, 150 174, 176, 178, 179, Europa liquid water Gamma ray 180, 183, 187 ocean data 123, spectrometer Halley (comet) 68, 73, 124, 127 On Lunar Prospector 78, 168, 170, 176, Galileo entry probe spacecraft 54 178, 181, 184, 189 69--71 On Messenger and Hayakutake (comet) 73, Galilean satellites BepiColombo 78, 179, 183 (Io, Europa, spacecraft 58 Himalayas 41 Ganymede, On Mars Odyssey Hubble Space Telescope Callisto) 112, spacecraft 93 132 abundant water Gas giant planets 61, Human exploration 109 ice on surfaces of 62, 64, 70, 71, 140, Human habitation all but Io 113, tidal 145 On Mercury 36 heating and Geyers (in the outer On the Moon 57 geologic history solar system) 115, On Mars 81, 105, 119, 121, density (on Triton), 138 107--8 decreases moving Giotto (mission) 73, out from Jupiter 181 Iapetus (satellite of and water content Glacial periods 9, 11, Saturn) 117, 137, increases 121, 13, last on Earth 6, 138 geological 11, 12 Ice Age, the last on complexity Glacial valleys 29 Earth 29, 104, increases toward Glaciation event (first 118 Jupiter 121 on Earth) 8 Iceberg 11, 24, 29 Ganymede (satellite of Gondwanaland 9 Ice-cores, in Antarctica Jupiter) 114, 115, Gravitational field 21, 22, 50, 94 116, 117, evidence Role in composition Ice sheets (on Earth) 7, of past volcanism of planetary 9, 11, 13, 14, 15, 17, 118, 119--20, liquid atmospheres 60, 61 18, 20, 22, 23, 24, ocean may lie Greenland 18, 21, 26, 26, 28, 29, 30, 31, beneath several 41 32 hundred Greenland ice sheet 6 Comparison of ice kilometers of icy Ice cores from 11, 83 sheets on Earth crust 157, Greenhouse effect 8, with ice deposits relatively inactive 64, 89 on Mars 83

194 Index

Ice lenses 94 comets 172, surface amongst Ice rise 29 interstellar gas outer solar system Ice rumples 29 173, interstellar satellites 150, Icy planetesimals 67, ices 176, young surface the 69, 72 interstellar gases result of orbital Impact craters 67, 74, identified in resonance with 79, 84, 90, lobate comets Hyakutake Jupiter 150 craters give and Hale-Bopp 184, Isochrones 23 appearance of deuterium content meteor striking of comets confirms Jet Propulsion mud116,118,124, they consist of Laboratory 37 on Callisto 129, on material frozen Jewitt, David 180, Triton 133, 149, on initially in the 185 Iapetus 138, interstellar cloud Jokobshavn Isbrae 26 ubiquitous feature 179, 187 Jovian satellites on most solid Interstellar medium Complexities surfaced bodies in 52, 172, 178, study revealed by Galileo the solar system of comets Halley mission 111 149, cosmic and Hale-Bopp Tidal configurations impacts implicated consistent with 130 in mass extinction formation in the Smaller moons of species on Earth interstellar display heavily 250 million years medium 178 cratered, ancient ago 168, extinction Institute of Space and surfaces 150 of the dinosaurs Astronautical Large moons display 65 mya 168 Science, Japan variety of crater Impact erosion 74 (ISAS) 58 densities 150 Indonesia 7 Io (satellite of Jupiter) Jupiter 41, atmosphere Inner solar system 36, Discovery of 60, 61, formation early collisional volcanoes by 69--70, 71, 103, environment 36, Voyager spacecraft arrival of Voyager 62, 180, 183 110, 119, only spacecraft 1979 Interglacials (on Earth) galilean satellite 110, 111, radiation 9, 11, 12, 13 with no detected belts 116, 138, 142, Interplanetary Dust water ice 110, 167, 184, 185--6 Particles (IDPs) 180 sulfurous volcanic Jovian satellites (moons Interstellar matter 171, activity 116, of Jupiter) interstellar clouds ongoing geologic Complexities contain main activity 118, 119, revealed by Galileo constituents of 122, youngest mission 111, 130

Index 195

Jovian satellites (cont.) Leads 16 Maria (lunar) 34, 149 smaller moons Lecluse, Dominique 73 Mariner (program) 79 display heavily Lewis, John 113 Mariner 10 (mission) cratered, ancient Life, establishment on 33, 34, 36, 42, 49, surfaces 139, 150 Earth 8, role in 58 Jupiter Moons Orbiter composition of Mars (hypothetical atmosphere on Meteorites from mission) 126 Earth 60, 63, 64 18, 32, 33, 41, 43, On Mars 81, 108, 109 carbon dioxide Kasting, Jim 64 Outer solar system dominated Keck Observatory 186 satellites 112, atmosphere 60, 62, Kuiper Airborne Europa 124, 125, 63, 64, cometary Observatory 155 Titan 130, Comets contribution to Kuiper Belt (also and 168, stuff of atmosphere 67, 69, referredtoasthe life delivered to 72, composition of Kuiper Disk) 71, Earth by comets in water 73, 74, 76, 78, 139, 184, 185, ﬁrst half billion best location to contains 70,000 years of planet’s detect origin of bodies larger than existence 168, 189 planetary water on 100 km diameter Life support systems terrestrial planets in nearest parts 106 78, 79, 80, surface 185, 186 Living organisms 63 frost 80, 85, 86, Kuiper Belt Objects Little Ice Age 12 clouds 80, 90, 93,

(KBOs) 132, 152, Low-melting-point ices water and CO2 ice composed mostly 120 89, 90, 91, of water ice 152, Lowell Observatory 156 orographic clouds 185, 186, what Lowell, Percival 79, 81, 82, 90, polar ice distinguishes them 109 deposits 83, 84, from comets? 187 Lunar-A (mission) 58 surface age 85, Gerard Kuiper Lunar Prospector surface (Dutch--American (mission) 33, 58 dramatically astronomer, Luu, Jane 185 different at each 1905--1973) 130, of the poles 86, ice 140, 184 McEwen, Alfred 123 fog 89, 90, McKinnon, Bill 132 geothermal heat Lake Ontario 22 Magellan (mission) 33, 92, 95, permafrost Laplace Resonance 119 49 92, current climate Laser altimeter, Magnetic ﬁeld 92, 93, abundant (on Messenger On Mercury 36 geological evidence mission) 59 On Europa for water 94,

196 Index

valley networks 94, Martian climate 81 detected on the outﬂow channels Martian moons 79 Moon 54, 56, 58 94, 95, 96, Martian seasons 79, 81, Messenger (mission) shorelines 94, lake 85 58--9 deposits 94, role of Matthews, Henry 180 Metamorphism 20, 21, ice in evolution of Mauna Kea, Hawaii 23 martian landscape 186 Meteorites 30, 31, 48, 95, incised Melosh, Jay 74 50, 51, 66--7, 69, channels 95, Melt-water 23, 24, From Mars 72, 74, evidence for liquid 81 76, 79, 116, 118, wateronthe Mercury 179, 180

surface 95, CO2 Possibility of water Meteorite rather than water ice on 33, 34, bombardment 33, could be erosive Mariner 10 ﬂybys 43, 45, 46, 50, 65, agent 95, valley in 1974 and 1975 85, 111, 135, networks on oldest 34, 36, radar 177 terrain suggest experiments 37, Meteor (shooting star) earlier abundant 40, polar features 180 liquid water 96, 43, thin Milky Way Galaxy 183 gullies (recent) 96, atmosphere 43, 60, Mimas (satellite of lobate termini 99, ﬂoors of polar Saturn) 135 100, 101, 102, 104, craters coldest Minnesota, University 106, 107, 108, 109, places on the of 76 life and dramatic planet 43, possible Miranda (satellite of climate change large deposits of Uranus) 108, ice in polar craters Evidence of past 109, 112, 150, 43, 44, 49, surface volcanism 118, 178 area covered by 120, 134, Mars Global Surveyor volatile deposits complexity (program) 79, 44, how can ice discovered by polygonal patterns exist in polar Voyager mission imaged on Mars craters? 45, 135, proximity to 101 temperatures in Uranus may result Mars Odyssey polar craters 46, in heavy asteroid (program) 79, 93 47, 48, 49, 50, and cometary Marsquakes 95 polar crater bombardment Mars Sample Return comparison with 136, may have (mission) 78 the Moon 52, started to turn Martian channels 75, similar polar inside out through 79 inversion signal volcanism 137

Index 197

Miranda (cont.) Mt. Fuji 120 1951 Kuiper possibly locked in M-type giant stars 180 suggests source transient orbital Mumma, Michael 176, region for short resonances with 178 period comets just Umbriel or beyond Neptune another outer National Aeronautics 184 satellite in the past and Space Gravitational action of 137, slightly tilted Administration Neptune extracts orbit (remnant of (NASA) 37, 54, 58, comets from the earlier orbital 155, 167 Kuiper Disk 184 resonance?) 137 National Radio Neutron spectrometer Moon Astronomy On Lunar Prospector Meteorites from Observatory 37 spacecraft 54, 32, possible National Space identiﬁes existence of water Development signature for water ice 33, surface Agency, Japan ice in lunar polar characteristics (NASDA) 58 craters 55 compared with Natural History On Messenger and Mercury 34, 36, Museum, Paris 73 BepiColombo 58 radar signature in Natural resources 50 On Mars Odyssey cold polar craters Neptune 37, 112, 114, spacecraft 93 differs from that 115, 132, 139 New Horizons (mission) for Mercury 43, 50, Not formed in 167 Apollo data present orbit 141, New Mexico 37 suggested no ice at 142--3 Noble gases 66, 72, 75, lunar poles 51, Orbital migration 76 case for water ice 143 Non-protic ices 168, 176 deposits in lunar Orbital resonance North America 9 polar craters 52, with Pluto 143 Northern Hemisphere 53, 54, Lunar Orbital resonance (Earth) 17, 18 Prospector 54, 56, with Triton 139, Northern Hemisphere 57, use of 145, 147 ice sheets 13 Earth-based Characteristics of observations for Neptune’s regular Oceanic circulation 9 future study of satellites Olympus Mons 120 polar deposits 58, consistent with Oort Cloud 78, 142, atmosphere 60, 61, disruption of an 182, 183, 184, 185, 138, 148, 149 early, more typical 186 Moonquakes 119 system of moons Oort, Jan 182 Moraines 29 145, 147, 150, Ortho water 178

198 Index

Outer solar system Planetesimals 142, 143, 162, will Pluto’s Most abundant gases 172, 173, 185, 186 atmosphere 60, 63, 110 Planet formation 67 disappear? 163, Much more dynamic Pluto 60, 63, 64, 115, 166--7, new than previously 117, atmosphere so Horizons mission believed 110 thin it wasn’t 167, 185 Possible detected until Polar caps (on Mars) 81 environments 1989 140, 141, has Northern 82, 86 conducive to a bound Southern 82, 84, formation of basic atmosphere 141, 87 elements of life orbital resonance Frost caps (on 112, 114, 118 with Neptune 143, Ganymede) 127 Water and ice orbit transformed Polar cold traps (on abundant 117, 141 by resonance with Mercury) 48, polar Owen, Toby 7, 178 Neptune 143, 147, deposits (on Mars) density difference 81, 83, 84, 85, 88, Paleoclimate 9, 22 between Pluto and 105, 106, consist of

Para water 178 Triton key to buried CO2 89, Pathﬁnder (mission) 79 different layered deposits Pangea 9 formation histories 83, 85, 104, water Peale, Stan 119 151, impact that abundant at north Pennsylvania, formed Charon polar deposit 105, University of 64 melted all the ice (on Earth) 19, Pepin, Robert 76 in Pluto 151, 152, Antarctic 23 Permafrost (on Mars) 155, research from Polar hood 91 92 2002 occultations Polar layered terrain (on Earth) 94, 95, show a very (on Mars) 81 104, 106, ice-laden different Polar winter (on Earth) 99, ice-cemented atmosphere from 16 100, 104, 106, 107, that observed in Polarization inversion 108 1989 consistent 40, 42--3, 44, 54 Permian Period 168 with idea of strong Poynting, John Henry Phoebe (satellite of seasonal variation 79 Saturn) 138 156, 157, 158, 159, Protic ices 176 5145 Pholus (centaur) complex Proto-planetary disk 186, 187 ice-atmosphere 140, 141, 143, 145, Photosynthetic plants system 159, 160, 147 62 161, 162, Protoplanets 117 Pine Island Glacier 26 atmosphere may Proto-solar nebula 139, Pingo 94 be ephemeral 161, 140

Index 199

Protostar W33A 176 Rosetta (mission) 76, See also proto-solar Proxima Centauri (star) 189 nebula 182 Solar radiation 31, 46, Sahara 9 47 Quaoar (largest known Saturn 112, 117, 185 Solar system formation Trans-Neptunian Saturnian satellites 36, 111, 143 object) est. Water ice detected Solar wind 56, 60, 74, diameter 1,100 km on major satellites 140 141 by 1984 114, 115, South Africa 7 117, 121, 135, 150 South Polar Basin Race to the Moon 52 Saturn’s rings 110, (on Mars) 82 Raging ﬁfties 18 135 South Polar Cap (SPC) Rampart craters 101, Scandinavia 113 (on Triton) 161--2 103 Schenk, Paul 123 South Pole (Earth) 17, Regolith 33, 46, 48, Schiaparelli 79 18 55 Sea level 9, 13, 15, 26, Southern Hemisphere Resonant orbit 29 (Earth) 17 Mercury in 3:2 Selene (mission) 58 Space age 110, 112 resonance with Shackleton crater (on Stardust (mission) 181, the Sun 34 the Moon) 54 188 Pluto in 3:2 Siberia 92 Sublimation 46, 80, 81, resonance with Viable 3 million year 84, 86, 87, 90, 94, Neptune 143, 144 old bacteria in 102, 104, 106, 107, Trans-Neptunian Siberian 157, 158, 159, 160, Objects in permafrost 109 161, 162--3 resonant orbit Side Aperture Radar Sun 7, 8, 13, 32, 33, with Neptune 144 (SAR) 38 Distance to Triton in 1:1 Smart-1 (mission) 58 Mercury 33, 37, 45, resonance with Snow cover blanket, 46, 47, 64, 65, 68, Neptune 145 global 17 and martian Young surfaces on Io Snowﬂakes 6, 20 seasons 79, 114, and Europa due to Snow pack 24 139, 162, 163, 168, resonances with Solar Composition Icy 170, 172, 184 Jupiter 150 Planetesimals Surface lander Rhea (satellite of (SCIPS) 69, 71, 72 (on BepiColombo Saturn) 110, 138 Solar nebula 36, 61, 65, mission) 59 Roaring forties 18 68, 69, 70, 71, 73, Robert, Francois 73 78, 114--15, 117, Tectonic plates Robot explorers 111 151, 172, 173, 178, (on Earth) 8, 9 Rock glacier 99 179, 186 Tectonic processes 73

200 Index

Tel Aviv, University of Most geologically Nitrogen-dominated 68 complex of the icy atmosphere 153, Tempel 1 (comet) 189 satellites 133 154 Thermal IR mapping 49 Cantaloupe terrain Surface/atmosphere Thermal radiation 46 133 interaction 158, 159 Thermokarst 95 Geysers 133 Complex Tholins 116, 187 Geologically active ice-atmosphere Tidal heating (in the 80 system 159, 160, outer solar system) Water could 161, 162 119, 130, 132, 150, constitute 30% of 151 interior 133 Umbriel (satellite of Titan 60, 112 Similar in size to Uranus) 137 Atmosphere 63, 64, Pluto 139 United States 18, 113 72, 115, 117, Formed in solar U.S. Naval Observatory, 130 orbit, not present W. 156 Trans Alaskan Pipeline orbit 141 Uranus 112, 136, 141, 108 In 1:1 resonance 142, 185 Trans-Neptunian with Neptune 145, Uranian satellites Kuiper-Edgeworth 146, 147, 150, Water ice detected Belt 111 151 on major satellites Trans-Neptunian Formed in a circular by 1984 114, 115, Objects 139 orbit around the 117, 121, 136, 137, Typically diameter Sun 147, 148 150 more than 100 km Almost complete U-shaped valley 11 145, water rich, lack of impact 146 craters indicates Vega (mission) 181 Classical TNOs 144 surface is very Venus Scattered TNOs 144, young 149, 150 Bulk density similar 147, New Horizons Density difference to Earth and mission 167 from Pluto key to Mercury 33 Triton 60, 112 different Magellan mapping Atmosphere 63, 64, formation history mission 39, 43 117, 118, 120 151 Carbon dioxide Retrograde inclined Constant change dominated orbit 132, 139, 145 ongoing in atmosphere 60, 62, KBO captured by seasonal cycles 63, 64 Neptune 132 and surface- Cometary Surface possibly less atmosphere system contribution to than 100 million 152, 153, 154, atmosphere 60, 67, years old 133 157 72, 178

Index 201

Very Large Array (VLA) water-containing at lunar poles 33, 37, 39 minerals in 50, 52, Vesta (asteroid) 32 Martian meteorites Mechanisms for Vickery, Ann 74 74, 80, abundant delivery to Viking (program) 79 reservoir on Mars terrestrial planets Landers 100, 81, 82, 89, 90, 94, 36, possible 101 where is the presence at poles Volcanism 110, 113, martian water of Mercury 37, 48, 122, 125, 129, 130, today? 85, 94, 95, 49, 50, 131, 133, 135, 137, 97, 102, Reexamination of 138, 149, 150 underground case for water ice Vonnegut, Kurt 163 reservoirs on Mars on the Moon 52, Vostok Station 97, 103, 106--7, 108, Clementine (Russia’s, in 109, (outer solar spacecraft attempt Antarctica) 22, 32 system) 110, liquid to detect water ice Voyager (missions) 37, water layers on the Moon 54, 110, 111, 117, 119, discovered on Lunar Prospector 122, 123, 126, 133, some ice-rich 55, 56, 57, (on 134, 135, 148, 154, satellites in the Mars) Northern 159, 161 outer solar system residual ice cap on 112, 113, 120, 121, Mars 86, 88, 86, Water, percentage 123, Europa 128, 89, 90, 91, in currently frozen Titan, Ganymede permafrost 92, on Earth 9, 11, and Callisto could 104, (in outer solar percentage have deep water system) abundant contained in ice oceans 132, 137, on Callisto, Europa sheets on Earth objects beyond and Ganymede during last glacial Jupiter rich in 113, outer solar period 11, 17, 20, water (primarily as system satellites in lunar polar soil water ice) 140, 146, composed mostly 33, 41, 48, 50, 170, abundant of water (and volume of water water 168, 172, other) ices 114, on Moon implied first water in 115--16, 120, 133, by Lunar comets positively 147, Pluto and Prospector data 55, identified 1985 Triton have outer 58, 63, 72--3, 78, 176, 177 layers of water ice (on Mars) interior Water ice, on Earth 6 approx 300 km rocky water (on Mercury and thick 147, 148, reservoir on Mars the Moon) 33, Water ice 74, D/H in possible presence identified on the

202 Index

surfaces of 2 KBOs positively detected Weidenschilling, Stuart 152, (in comets) 35 years after his 173 Water ice a 1950 prediction Whipple, Fred 170, dominant ice in 176, 177, 178, 188, 175--6 comets 175, Water ice found Wild 2 (comet) 181 Whipple predicted on centaur 5145 Wind patterns 84 water ice would be Pholus 186 most abundant ice Water planet 6, 8 1993 SC (KBO) 186

in comets. This Waterworld (Earth) 110 1996 TO66 (KBO) 186