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Parkinsonia Dieback: Investigations Into Its Cause, Ecology and Potential for Biological Control

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Parkinsonia Dieback: Investigations Into Its Cause, Ecology and Potential for Biological Control Parkinsonia dieback: Investigations into its cause, ecology and potential for biological control Naomi Dove Diplock B.App.Sc. (Hort). Hons A thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy at The University of Queensland in 2015 School of Agriculture and Food Science ii Abstract Parkinsonia aculeata, a Weed of National Significance (WoNS) has been observed displaying unexplained mortality within populations across northern Australia since the 1950s. This disorder is commonly referred to as parkinsonia dieback and causes substantial plant death in some areas. In some observed cases, plants suffering from dieback show symptoms starting from the tip of the branch which begins to die back, with phyllodes and pinnae drying up and remaining attached to the plant. A distinct dark, necrotic region on the stem appears to move down the plant as the disease develops. Vascular staining is often evident when the vascular tissue of stems are exposed. It was hypothesised that this disorder is caused by a fungal pathogen or pathogen complex, offering potential for biological control of parkinsonia. Stem samples from dieback affected plants were collected through the use of surveys, totalling 77 samples from across 5 defined climatic areas in Australia. This resulted in 159 fungal isolates representing 41 different species from 13 defined families. Eight species were represented from the Botryosphaeriaceae family and as a group of fungi were present in all of the five climatic regions sampled. A selection of these fungal organisms were used to develop techniques to bring about successful infection of parkinsonia plants, and to determine their capability to cause disease symptoms under field conditions. Five individual field trials were established across northern Australia assessing the use of various wounding methods, inoculation formulation types and fungal species including Phoma sp., P. macrostoma, Fusarium chlamydosporum var. fuscum, F. equiseti, Lasiodiplodia pseudotheobromae, Neoscytalidium novaehollandiae and Macrophomina phaseolina. The development of inoculum formulation indicated that dry solid inoculum grown on French White millet (Panicum miliaceum) seed was the most suitable for the harsh field conditions experienced. Interactions between wounding method and plant health ratings varied across experiments, as did lesion length and interaction with inoculum treatments. This may indicate unmeasured stresses and environmental factors played a role in plant predisposition to pathogen infection and disease expression. On one site, large numbers of trial plant deaths was observed. Transects established through these inoculated plants and non-inoculated plants indicated a direct correlation between distance to nearest inoculated plant and plant health 21 months after inoculation. Dieback movement in a naturally occurring area was studied over a period of seven years. Plant health in two 50m transects was assessed to monitor the movement of parkinsonia iii dieback and to establish a general base line understanding of the time taken for an adult parkinsonia tree to be killed by dieback. Individual plant health generally declined over consecutive years, with 98% of plants dying over the study period and no new seedling recruitment observed. These studies confirmed that a range of fungi, particularly those from the Botryosphaeriaceae family are associated with parkinsonia dieback. Field inoculation trials proved some of these species are capable of causing large lesions on adult plants, and in some instances are able to cause plant mortality when formulated using a dry, solid medium. Transect studies assessing the movement of naturally occurring dieback through a stand of parkinsonia plants provide the first long term study of this phenomenon and its effect on plant health over time. This provides a significant contribution to our understanding of parkinsonia dieback and offers potential for the formulation of biocontrol agents following further investigations. iv Declaration by author This thesis is composed of my original work, and contains no material previously published or written by another person except where due reference has been made in the text. I have clearly stated the contribution by others to jointly-authored works that I have included in my thesis. I have clearly stated the contribution of others to my thesis as a whole, including statistical assistance, survey design, data analysis, significant technical procedures, professional editorial advice, and any other original research work used or reported in my thesis. The content of my thesis is the result of work I have carried out since the commencement of my research higher degree candidature and does not include a substantial part of work that has been submitted to qualify for the award of any other degree or diploma in any university or other tertiary institution. I have clearly stated which parts of my thesis, if any, have been submitted to qualify for another award. I acknowledge that an electronic copy of my thesis must be lodged with the University Library and, subject to the policy and procedures of The University of Queensland, the thesis be made available for research and study in accordance with the Copyright Act 1968 unless a period of embargo has been approved by the Dean of the Graduate School. I acknowledge that copyright of all material contained in my thesis resides with the copyright holder(s) of that material. Where appropriate I have obtained copyright permission from the copyright holder to reproduce material in this thesis. v Publications during candidature Conference proceedings (Appendix B) Diplock, N, Galea, V, Westover, C, van Klinken, R & Wearing, A 2005. ‘Parkinsonia dieback: a Ph.D. project’. In: WD. Vogler 8th Queensland Weed Symposium Proceedings, Townsville, QLD, Australia, 19-22 June 2005. Diplock, ND. Galea, VJ, van Klinken, R & Wearing, AH 2006. ‘A preliminary investigation of dieback on Parkinsonia aculeata’. In: C. Preston and J.H. Watts and N.D. Crossman, 15th Australian Weeds Conference Proceedings. 15th Australian Weeds Conference, Adelaide Convention Centre, Adelaide, South Australia, (585-587). 24-28 September 2006. Diplock, N, Galea, V and van Klinken, RD 2008. ‘Movement of dieback through a stand of parkinsonia - a time series study’. In: R.D. van Klinken, V.A. Osten, F.D. Panetta and J.C. Scanlan, 16th Australian Weeds Conference Proceedings. 16th Australian Weeds Conference, Cairns, QLD, Australia, (186-186). 18-22 May 2008. Diplock, N, Galea, V, van Klinken, R.D and Wearing, A 2007. ‘Parkinsonia dieback: a new association with potential for biological control’. In: M. H. Julien, R. Sforza, M. C. Bon, H. C. Evans, P. E. Hatcher, H. L. Hinz and B. G. Rectgor, Proceedings of the XII International Symposium on Biological Control of Weeds. XII International Symposium on Biological Control of Weeds, La Grande Motte, France, (247-247). 22-27 April 2007 Toh, R, Galea, VJ., Diplock, N & van Klinken, RD 2008. ‘Evaluation of fungal isolates for potential use a mycoherbicides for bank reduction of Parkinsonia aculeata’. In: van Klinken, R.D., Osten, V.A., Panetta, F.D. and Scanlan, J.C., 16th Australian Weeds Conference Proceedings. 16th Australian Weeds Conference, Cairns, (284-286). 18-22 May 2008. Patent (Appendix C) Diplock, N & Galea, V 2015, Control of Weeds, AU2009201231, University of Queensland, patent, Australia. Publications included in this thesis No publications included. vi Contributions by others to the thesis No contributions by others Statement of parts of the thesis submitted to qualify for the award of another degree None. vii Acknowledgements I would like to dedicate this thesis to Linda Fielding, the most supporting, patient and loving mum anyone could ever ask for, and to my grandparents Pamela and Jack Hatchman who inspired my love of nature and outdoors. Completing this would not have been possible without the support of my amazing friend and partner Kyle McLean. I can never thank you enough for giving me such a magic space to complete my writing, surrounded by such beauty and your smile. Special thanks to my supervisor Dr Vic Galea for your enthusiasm, sparking my interest in plant pathology. Thank you for your continued support and encouragement, for your constant backing and faith in me. Thank you for crawling around on your hands and knees in 45°C in the middle of nowhere, being scratched to pieces, having parkinsonia plants fall on your head, preparing inoculum late into the night in our hotel ‘lab’ and laughing with me the whole way through. My project wouldn’t have been possible without financial support. Thank you to The University of Queensland for my Australian Postgraduate Award Scholarship, the School of Land, Crop & Food Sciences and Weeds CRC for my top up scholarships. Thank you to CSIRO, Colleen Westover at Barkly Landcare and Conservation Association (through an EnvironmeNT Grant), Victoria River District Conservation Association and Roper River Landcare Group (through the National Landcare Programme) for your added financial support for my project. During this project I have had help and guidance from such an amazing team. Allan Lisle with your mind boggling statistics brain- thank you for being able to make sense of my data, and your unwavering patience. Dr Ken Goulter and Dr Rieks van Klinken for your advisory support and Heidi Robertson for your assistance in the laboratory. Thank you to Professor Richard Williams and Professor Steve Adkins for your encouragement and support. Thanks to the various properties, owners and managers that allowed for me to run my field trials, without you this project would not have been possible. Newcastle Waters Station, Hayfield Station, Peter Quin and Rhys Collins at Taemas Station, Beth and the late Tony Kendall at Koon Kool Station. Thanks to all the hard working helpers in the field, both in setting up and assessing trials. Colleen Westover (Barkly Landcare Conservation Association) for sending in the first sample of dieback and assisting with trial establishment. Nathan March for a steady supply viii of samples and sharing your vast knowledge of parkinsonia. Dr Shane Campbell, John McKenzie and everyone else from the Tropical Weeds Research Centre.
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