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Home , Antonio Cesti, Bassoon sonata, Basso continuo, Christoph Graupner, Francesco Maria Veracini, Galanterie

An Examination of Stylistic Mixture in Four , 1720–1760

A document submitted to

The Graduate School of the University of Cincinnati

in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of

DOCTOR OF MUSICAL ARTS

in the Performance Studies Division of the College-Conservatory of

2017

by

Yi-Chen Chiu

B.A., University of Taipei, 2003

M.M., University of Cincinnati, 2007

Committee Chair: Jonathan Kregor, PhD ABSTRACT

The bassoon sonatas written between 1720 and 1760 reflect a turning point both in the instrument’s construction and in compositional style. The newly invented bassoon replaced the older dulcian with greater virtuosic capability. Thanks to these improvements, began to view the bassoon as a solo instrument and write music specifically for it.

This time period also witnessed a preference for stylistic synthesis, a blending of Italian and

French style as well as the old Baroque and the new style galant. This document discusses the significance of the emerging new baroque bassoon. It examines the elements of the mixed styles in the context of formal structure, texture, tonality, harmonic content, and melodic and rhythmic writing. Finally, it evaluates the idiomatic writing that is still challenging for modern bassoonists.

Sonatas by , , Luigi Merci, and Antoine Dard serve as the main focus for examination. In the end, my document will hopefully shed some light on our understanding of bassoon sonatas in the middle half of the eighteenth century and the stylistic diversity that developed over time.

ii

Copyright © 2017 by Yi-Chen Chiu

All rights reserved.

iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to express my gratitude to my adviser, Dr. Jonathan Kregor, for his guidance and valuable suggestions on organization and writing. I also want to thank Dr. Jeongwon Joe for her thoughtful insights and evaluation. I am particularly thankful to Dr. Adam Shoaff, to whom I owe much of my ability at academic writing, and his expert advice and vigorous support were foundational to the conception and completion of this project.

Additional thanks to my major professor, William Winstead, who has been a mentor and an inspiration throughout the years. I am forever indebted to his invaluable guidance and encouragement for every aspect of my professional development. A special note of appreciation goes to Professor Martin James, whose observations and feedback have been wise and helpful.

Finally, I would like to express my deepest gratitude to my family, whose love was persistent throughout my endeavor. To my parents and my sister, Yi-Hsuan, your tremendous support and unending encouragement have been pivotal along the journey, and for that I am eternally thankful.

iv TABLE OF CONTENTS

Abstract ii Acknowledgements iv Table of Contents v List of Musical Examples vii List of Tables xii List of Figures xiii

INTRODUCTION 1

CHAPTER 1. From Dulcian to Baroque Bassoon 1. Dulcian 9 2. Transitional Period 17 3. The Baroque Bassoon 18 4. Conclusion 21

CHAPTER 2. Stylistic Variety from 1720 to 1760 1. National Styles 23 2. Style Galant 30 3. Conclusion 32

CHAPTER 3. Georg Philipp Telemann, in F minor for Bassoon and (1728) 1. Telemann in the –30s 34 2. Der Getreue Music-Meister (1728–29) 36 3. Sonata in F minor for Bassoon and Basso Continuo 37 4. Conclusion 49

CHAPTER 4. Johann Friedrich Fasch, Sonata in C major for Bassoon and Basso Continuo (c. 1721–22) 1. Fasch’s Early Life to the 1720s 50 2. Sonata in C major for Bassoon and Basso Continuo 52 3. Conclusion 64

v

CHAPTER 5. Luigi Merci, Sonata for Bassoon (Violoncello) and Basso Continuo, Op. 3, No. 4 (1735) 1. Background 65 2. Sonata for Bassoon (Violoncello) and Bassoon Continuo, Op. 3, No. 4 67 3. Conclusion 88

CHAPTER 6. Antoine Dard, Sonata for Bassoon (Violoncello) and Basso Continuo, Op. 2, No. 6 (1759) 1. Background 89 2. Sonata for Bassoon (Violoncello) and Bassoon Continuo, Op. 2, No. 6 92 3. Conclusion 108

EPILOGUE 110

BIBLIOGRAPHY 112

vi LIST OF MUSICAL EXAMPLES

3.1a. Telemann, Sonata in F minor for bassoon and basso continuo, III, mm. 1–2 38 3.1b. Telemann, Sonata in F minor for bassoon and basso continuo, III, mm. 15–16 38 3.2a. Telemann, Sonata in F minor for bassoon and basso continuo, I, mm. 1–12 40 3.2b. Telemann, Sonata in F minor for bassoon and basso continuo, I, mm. 29–38 41 3.3a. Telemann, Sonata in F minor for bassoon and basso continuo, II, mm. 1–10 42 3.3b. Telemann, Sonata in F minor for bassoon and basso continuo, II, mm. 29–31 42 3.4a. Telemann, Sonata in F minor for bassoon and basso continuo, II, mm. 1–2 43 3.4b. Telemann, Sonata in F minor for bassoon and basso continuo, II, mm. 53–54 43 3.5. Telemann, Sonata in F minor for bassoon and basso continuo, IV, motives 44 3.6. Telemann, Sonata in F minor for bassoon and basso continuo, decorative “sigh” figure 45 3.7. Telemann, Sonata in F minor for bassoon and basso continuo, III, mm. 1–7 47 3.8. Telemann, Sonata in F minor for bassoon and basso continuo, III, mm. 13–14 48 3.9. Telemann, Sonata in F minor for bassoon and basso continuo, II, mm. 16–20 48 4.1a. Fasch, Sonata in C major for bassoon and basso continuo, II, statements 53 4.1b. Fasch, Sonata in C major for bassoon and basso continuo, IV, statements 53 4.2. Fasch, Sonata in C major for bassoon and basso continuo, IV, m. 12, bassoon part, bariolage figuration 54 4.3. Fasch, Sonata in C major for bassoon and basso continuo, IV, mm. 25–26, bassoon part 54 4.4. Fasch, Sonata in C major for bassoon and basso continuo, II, mm. 29–32, bassoon part 54 4.5. Fasch, Sonata in C major for bassoon and basso continuo, I, m. 8, bassoon part 55 4.6. Fasch, Sonata in C major for bassoon and basso continuo, III, m. 4 , bassoon part 55 4.7a. Fasch, Sonata in C major for bassoon and basso continuo, III, mm. 1–6 56 4.7b. Fasch, Sonata in C major for bassoon and basso continuo, IV, mm. 1–8 57

vii 4.8. Fasch, Sonata in C major for bassoon and basso continuo, I, mm. 11–13, bassoon part 57 4.9a. Fasch, Sonata in C major for bassoon and basso continuo, I, openings 58 4.9b. Fasch, Sonata in C major for bassoon and basso continuo, III, openings 58 4.9c. Fasch, Sonata in C major for bassoon and basso continuo, II, openings 59 4.9d. Fasch, Sonata in C major for bassoon and basso continuo, IV, openings 59 4.10. Fasch, Sonata in C major for bassoon and basso continuo, I, mm. 7–9 61 4.11. Fasch, Sonata in C major for bassoon and basso continuo, II, mm. 8–14 62 4.12. Fasch, Sonata in C major for bassoon and basso continuo, III, mm. 4–6 63 4.13. Fasch, Sonata in C major for bassoon and basso continuo, II, mm. 30–38 63 5.1. Merci, Sonata for bassoon (Violoncello) and basso continuo, Op. 3, No. 4, II, mm. 1–4, basso continuo part 68 5.2. Merci, Sonata for bassoon (Violoncello) and basso continuo, Op. 3, No. 4, I, mm. 1–11 70 5.3. Merci, Sonata for bassoon (Violoncello) and basso continuo, Op. 3, No. 4, I, mm. 11–26 71 5.4. Merci, Sonata for bassoon (Violoncello) and basso continuo, Op. 3, No. 4, I, mm. 15–22, bassoon part 72 5.5. Merci, Sonata for bassoon (Violoncello) and basso continuo, Op. 3, No. 4, I, bassoon part, motive a, b, and c 73 5.6. Merci, Sonata for bassoon (Violoncello) and basso continuo, Op. 3, No. 4, I, m. 15 74 5.7. Merci, Sonata for bassoon (Violoncello) and basso continuo, Op. 3, No. 4, I, mm. 4–5 74 5.8. Merci, Sonata for bassoon (Violoncello) and basso continuo, Op. 3, No. 4, I, mm. 15–18 75 5.9. Merci, Sonata for bassoon (Violoncello) and basso continuo, Op. 3, No. 4, I, mm. 23–26 75 5.10. Merci, Sonata for bassoon (Violoncello) and basso continuo, Op. 3, No. 4, II, mm. 1–12 77 5.11. Merci, Sonata for bassoon (Violoncello) and basso continuo, Op. 3, No. 4, II,

viii mm. 13–14 78 5.12. Merci, Sonata for bassoon (Violoncello) and basso continuo, Op. 3, No. 4, II, mm. 17–18 79 5.13. Merci, Sonata for bassoon (Violoncello) and basso continuo, Op. 3, No. 4, II, mm. 23–30 79 5.14a. Merci, Sonata for bassoon (Violoncello) and basso continuo, Op. 3, No. 4, I, mm. 15–17, bassoon part 80 5.14b. Merci, Sonata for bassoon (Violoncello) and basso continuo, Op. 3, No. 4, II, mm. 21–25, bassoon part 80 5.15. Merci, Sonata for bassoon (Violoncello) and basso continuo, Op. 3, No. 4, III, mm. 25–28, bassoon part 80 5.16. Merci, Sonata for bassoon (Violoncello) and basso continuo, Op. 3, No. 4, II, mm. 15–16 81 5.17a. Merci, Sonata for bassoon (Violoncello) and basso continuo, Op. 3, No. 4, III, mm. 27–38 82 5.17b. Merci, Sonata for bassoon (Violoncello) and basso continuo, Op. 3, No. 4, I, mm. 19–21, bassoon part 82 5.18. Merci, Sonata for bassoon (Violoncello) and basso continuo, Op. 3, No. 4, III, mm. 41–44, bassoon part 82 5.19. Merci, Sonata for bassoon (Violoncello) and basso continuo, Op. 3, No. 4, I, mm. 23–26, bassoon part 84 5.20. Merci, Sonata for bassoon (Violoncello) and basso continuo, Op. 3, No. 4, II, mm. 17–25, bassoon part 84 5.21. Merci, Sonata for bassoon (Violoncello) and basso continuo, Op. 3, No. 4, I, mm. 15–22 86 5.22. Merci, Sonata for bassoon (Violoncello) and basso continuo, Op. 3, No. 4, I, mm. 10–11 87 5.23. Merci, Sonata for bassoon (Violoncello) and basso continuo, Op. 3, No. 4, III, mm. 6–8 87 5.24. Merci, Sonata for bassoon (Violoncello) and basso continuo, Op. 3, No. 4, III, mm. 12–21 87

ix 6.1. Dard, Sonata for bassoon (Violoncello) and basso continuo, Op. 2, No. 6, III, mm. 25–34 94 6.2. Dard, Sonata for bassoon (Violoncello) and basso continuo, Op. 2, No. 6, IV, mm. 27–40 95 6.3. Dard, Sonata for bassoon (Violoncello) and basso continuo, Op. 2, No. 6, I, mm. 13–18 96 6.4. Dard, Sonata for bassoon (Violoncello) and basso continuo, Op. 2, No. 6, I, mm. 1–8 97 6.5a. Dard, Sonata for bassoon (Violoncello) and basso continuo, Op. 2, No. 6, III, mm. 1–4, bassoon part 98 6.5b. Dard, Sonata for bassoon (Violoncello) and basso continuo, Op. 2, No. 6, IV, mm. 13–14, bassoon part 98 6.6a. Dard, Sonata for bassoon (Violoncello) and basso continuo, Op. 2, No. 6, I, mm. 3–4, bassoon part 98 6.6b. Dard, Sonata for bassoon (Violoncello) and basso continuo, Op. 2, No. 6, I, m. 11, bassoon part 99 6.7a. Dard, Sonata for bassoon (Violoncello) and basso continuo, Op. 2, No. 6, III, mm. 5–8 99 6.7b. Dard, Sonata for bassoon (Violoncello) and basso continuo, Op. 2, No. 6, IV, mm. 9–12 99 6.8. Dard, Sonata for bassoon (Violoncello) and basso continuo, Op. 2, No. 6, IV, mm. 20–28 100 6.9. Dard, Sonata for bassoon (Violoncello) and basso continuo, Op. 2, No. 6, II, m. 1, bassoon part 101 6.10. Dard, Sonata for bassoon (Violoncello) and basso continuo, Op. 2, No. 6, I, m. 11 101 6.11. Dard, Sonata for bassoon (Violoncello) and basso continuo, Op. 2, No. 6, III, m. 8, bassoon part 102 6.12. Dard, Sonata for bassoon (Violoncello) and basso continuo, Op. 2, No. 6, I, mm. 11–16 102 6.13. Dard, Sonata for bassoon (Violoncello) and basso continuo, Op. 2, No. 6, II,

x mm. 12–13, bassoon part 103 6.14. Dard, Sonata for bassoon (Violoncello) and basso continuo, Op. 2, No. 6, II, mm. 8–10, bassoon part 103 6.15. Dard, Sonata for bassoon (Violoncello) and basso continuo, Op. 2, No. 6, II, mm. 16–25, bassoon part 104 6.16. Dard, Sonata for bassoon (Violoncello) and basso continuo, Op. 2, No. 6, II, mm. 10–11 105 6.17. Dard, Sonata for bassoon (Violoncello) and basso continuo, Op. 2, No. 6, I, mm. 17–24 106 6.18a. Dard, Sonata for bassoon (Violoncello) and basso continuo, Op. 2, No. 6, III, mm. 9–12 107 6.18b. Dard, Sonata for bassoon (Violoncello) and basso continuo, Op. 2, No. 6, IV, mm. 17–20 107

xi LIST OF TABLES

3.1. Telemann, Sonata in F minor for bassoon and basso continuo, I, and cadence structure 46 5.1. Merci, Sonata for bassoon (Violoncello) and basso continuo, Op. 3, No. 4, III, key and sectional structure 69 6.1. Dard, Sonata for bassoon (Violoncello) and basso continuo, Op. 2, No. 6, III, formal structure 93

xii LIST OF FIGURES

1.2. Plate X from Theatrum Instrumentorum (, 1620) 14 5.1. Merci, Sonata for bassoon and basso continuo, Op. 3, title page 66 6.1. Dard, Sonata for bassoon and basso continuo, Op. 2, cover page 91 6.2. Dard, Sonata for bassoon and basso continuo, Op. 2, Avertissement 92

xiii INTRODUCTION

Baroque-era repertoire has increasingly captured the interest of bassoonists in recent

years. The most frequently played among these works include a modest number of thirty-seven

by .1 The repertoire, however, remains obscure with

most musicians, as only a few of them are performed or studied. One explanation for this lies in

the general obscurity of the composers themselves. Another reason is the lack of directly related

scholarship. However, the eighteenth-century bassoon sonata repertoire is among the most original and challenging music composed for the instrument at the time.

The purpose of this document is to examine how bassoon sonatas written between 1720 and 1760 reveal the stylistic synthesis of this time. This period represents a turning point in bassoon instrument history as the new four-piece baroque bassoon replaced the older one-piece dulcian to accommodate the thinner ensemble texture with more dynamic range and a new tenor voice.2 With the improved mechanism and virtuosic capability, composers no longer viewed the

bassoon solely as a basso continuo instrument or an alternate for pieces, and they started to

write solo music specifically for bassoon.

This time period also represents a turning point in music history as a new style galant

emerged. Many types and styles of music coexisted, and the merits of each were debated. In

research on the eighteenth century, scholars continuously mention the “mixed style,” that is,

mixtures either of Italian and French style or of old (Baroque) and new (style galant). This idea

of stylistic synthesis inspired me, and I began with numerous questions to investigate: What are

1 Vivaldi composed thirty-nine bassoon concertos RV466–504, but RV468 and RV482 are incomplete.

2 James B. Kopp, The Bassoon (New Haven: Press, 2012), 63. The “thinner texture” refers to a “polarized texture of versus one or two higher voices.” As the number of individual instrumental voices increased during the eighteenth century, the new baroque bassoon could mirror other high voices.

1 the musical idioms of these styles? Do bassoon sonatas of this time period reflect the influence of

these styles? How does each in my project approach the blending of styles? My

document discusses the significance of the emerging new baroque bassoon, and examines the

stylistic features and characteristics of mixed styles in the context of formal structure, texture,

tonality, harmonic language, and melodic and rhythmic writing. I also evaluate the idiomatic

writing that is still challenging for modern bassoonists. This examination of works by Johann

Friedrich Fasch (Sonata in C major for Bassoon and Basso Continuo [1720]), Georg Philipp

Telemann (Sonata in F minor for Bassoon and Basso Continuo [1728]), Luigi Merci (Sonata for

Bassoon or Violoncello and Basso Continuo, Op. 3, No. 4 [1735]), and Antoine Dard (Sonata for

Bassoon or Violoncello and Basso Continuo, Op. 2, No. 6 [1759]), illuminates how the

composers applied new musical idioms to their sonatas.

In this exploration of major musical styles within the sonata genre in the early to mid-

eighteenth century, William Newman’s The Sonata in the Baroque Era (1983) and The Sonata in

the Classic Era (1983) remain two of the most authoritative writings.3 Newman’s books provide a comprehensive concept of the sonata genre in the Baroque and Classic eras by detailing the history of the sonata, the changing structure of the sonata, and sonatas in different regions. The discussion of regional variety provides an overview of distinct style in sonata composition.

To trace the Baroque stylistic traits, I consulted a number of articles. “Bifocal Tonality:

An Explanation for Ambiguous Baroque Cadences” (2001) by Jan LaRue illustrates the

migrating between dual tonality and the requirement of frequent modulations to keep

the shifts in harmonic focus.4 “Sequential Expansion and Baroque Phrase Rhythm” (2009) by

3 William Newman, The Sonata in the Baroque Era, 3rd ed. (New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 1983); Newman, The Sonata in the Classic Era, 3rd ed. (New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 1983).

2 Channan Willner discusses the process of continual phrase growth through sequential expansion

by repetition, extension, figural spinning, and other devices.5 Willner’s article “On Irregularity in

Baroque Phrase Rhythm” (2007) traces the types of irregularity in works by composers including

Bach, Handel, Couperin, Telemann, and others.6 “Baroque Styles and the Analysis of Baroque

Music” (2006) by Willner focuses on the feature of “basic pace”—the steady tonal and

durational progression of soprano and bass—of high, middle, and low styles.7 The high style

refers to the learned, contrapuntal writing. The middle style refers to the style galant and its

“composite pacing,” that is, a pace that alternates between fast and slow, signaling a departure

from Baroque static pacing.8

Other important sources in addressing the traits of the style galant include David

Sheldon’s two articles “The Galant Style Revisited and Re-Evaluated” (1975), “The Concept

Galant in the 18th Century” (1989), and Mark A. Radice’s article “The Nature of the ‘Style

Galant’: Evidence from the Repertoire” (1999).9 Both of Sheldon’s articles provide information

about the etymology and various meanings of the term galant; however, harmony is the only

musical trait of the style galant he examines. Other musical materials of the style galant are not

4 Jan LaRue, “Bifocal Tonality: An Explanation for Ambiguous Baroque Cadences,” The Journal of Musicology 18, no. 2 (2001), 283–94.

5 Channan Willner, “Sequential Expansion and Baroque Phrase Rhythm,” accessed December 28, 2016, http://www.channanwillner.com/pdf/sequential-expansion.pdf.

6 Channan Willner, “On Irregularity in Baroque Phrase Rhythm,” accessed December 28, 2016, http://www.channanwillner.com/pdf/on_irregularity.pdf.

7 Channan Willner, “Baroque Styles and the Analysis of ,” in Structure and Meaning in Tonal Music: Festschrift for Carl Schachter, ed. L. Poundie Burstein and David Gagné (New York: Pendragon Press, 2006), 145–69.

8 Ibid, 151.

9 David Alden Sheldon, “The Concept Galant in the 18th Century,” Journal of Musicological Research 9 (1989–90), 89–108; David Alden Sheldon, “The Galant Style Revisited and Re-Evaluated,” Acta Musicologica 47, no. 2 (1975), 240–70; Mark A. Radice, “The Nature of the ‘Style Galant’: Evidence from the Repertoire,” The Musical Quarterly 83, no. 4 (1999): 607–47.

3 discussed. Radice’s article, on the other hand, supplements the details lacking in Sheldon’s articles by investigating the characteristics of the style galant in the Répertoire international des sources musicales. Radice concludes that galant features, such as the flexibility in subdivision of the beat, motivically derived thematic ideas rather than a melodic manipulation of to create periodic structure, etc., reflect a departure from Baroque style and exhibit the Classical style. These articles have been valuable references for understanding the nature of the style galant.

Significant sources on the discussion of national style include Leonard Ratner’s well- known Classic Music: Expression, Form and Style (1980), in which he devotes a chapter to national styles specifically.10 Ratner examines the Italian style in instrumental music in , harmony, and texture. He points out key elements of Italian style, such as the clarity of periodic structure, the expressiveness of Italian melody, the typical Italian cadential formulas, and the devices that served to maintain the rhythmic pulse such as repeated notes, punctuating bass, and figured .11 Ratner, however, does not address details on French style in instrumental music. For the French style, I turned to Christopher Paul Phillpott’s study “The

French Baroque : Context and Style” (2009).12 This study places style within the surrounding musical climate of Paris in the eighteenth century. Phillpott discusses sonatas of the mid-eighteenth century, the influence of the style galant that emerged in Paris, and the growing interest in modern Italian styles. Even though Phillpott’s discussion is on the cello repertoire, his study is an important source for my topic as it provides in-depth examination of stylistic traits of

10 Leonard G. Ratner, Classic Music: Expression, Form, and Style (New York: Schirmer Books, 1980).

11 Ibid., 335–43. “Typical Italian cadential formulas” refers to the regular progression of chord changes on I, IV, and V.

12 Christopher Paul Phillpott, “The French Baroque Cello Sonata: Context and Style” (MM thesis, Texas Christian University, 2009).

4 not only the French Baroque, but also the old Italian Baroque, the new Italian style galant, and a

hybrid style of mixed elements.

Perhaps the most relevant source dealing with the mixture of styles might be “From

Corelli’s Italian Sonata to Couperin’s French Sonade: An Example of Musical Interaction, and

the Origin of the Goûts Réünis in the First Year of the Eighteenth Century” by Jean-Christophe

Maillard (2008).13 Maillard’s investigation of French works by and François

Couperin explores how distinct tonality, characteristic of the Italian style, is clouded by a French

style of modal-tonal ambiguity. Other sources addressing the confluence of national styles and

mixture of old Baroque and new style galant can be found in Michael Talbot’s “Stylistic

Evolution in Corelli’s Music” (1994) and Manuel Pedro Ferreira’s “The ‘French Style’ and

Corelli” (1996).14 Together, these sources supply insight into the device of stylistic synthesis.

Besides understanding the sonata as a genre and the traits of eighteenth-century style, it is

also important to have a general idea of the cultural context that brought about the blending of

national styles. For this, I consulted George B. Stauffer’s article “The Arts and Royal

Extravagance: Music at the French Court” (2006), Mary Oleskiewicz’s article “The Rise of

Italian .” (2006), George J. Buelow’s article “Music and Society in the Late

13 Jean-Christophe Maillard, “From Corelli's Italian Sonata to Couperin's French Sonade: An Example of Musical Interaction, and the Origin of the Goûts Réünis in the First Years of the Eighteenth Century,” in Collected Work: Dzieło muzyczne i jego rezonans. IV. Series: Praca Zbiorowa, no. 26 (Bydgoszcz, : Wydawnictwo Uczelniane, 2008), 33–50.

14 Michael Talbot, “Stylistic Evolution in Corelli’s Music,” in Studi Corelliani V: Atti del Quinto Congresso Internazionale, Series: Quaderni della 'Rivista Italiana di Musicologia', no. 33, ed. Stefano La Via (Firenze, : Leo S. Olschki, 1996): 143–58; Manuel Pedro Ferreira, “The ‘French Style’ and Corelli,” in Studi Corelliani V: Atti del Quinto Congresso Internazional, Series: Quaderni della 'Rivista italiana di musicologia', no. 33, ed. Stefano La Via (Firenze, Italy: Leo S. Olschki, 1996): 379–88.

5 Baroque Era” (1993), and Stephen Rose’s article “The Musical Map of Europe c. 1700”

(2009).15 These articles provided helpful contextual support for my topic.

Valuable background sources on the transition from the dulcian to the new baroque

bassoon and its construction included James B. Kopp’s The Bassoon (2012), Kopps’s article

"The Emergence of the Late-Baroque Bassoon" (1999), and William Waterhouse’s article

“Bassoon.”16 Waterhouse offers context for the dulcian and other precursors; references to the

evolution of construction from the dulcian to the new baroque bassoon and its ensemble usage

are also provided. The Hotteterre family is often credited with the invention of woodwind

instruments, including the new four-piece baroque bassoon; however, this assumption of

invention involving the bassoon lacks evidence. Kopp’s article is essential as it provides detailed

evidence of the Hotteterres in relation to the newly invented baroque bassoon. Kopp further

discusses the usage of the new basson in and in other regions in his book. All these

sources were useful for understanding the evolution of the bassoon.

To date, there is little scholarship on the bassoon sonatas that form the focus of my

project. For background on the Dard sonata, I consulted Dulane Aaberg’s thesis “A Performance

Edition of Sonatas III and IV for Bassoon or ‘Cello’ and Continuo, Opus 2, 1767 by Antoine

15 George B. Stauffer, “The Arts and Royal Extravagance: Music at the French Court,” in The World of Baroque Music: New Perspectives, ed. George B. Stauffer (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2006), 105–21; George J. Buelow, “Music and Society in the Late Baroque Era,” in The Late Baroque Era: from the to 1740, ed. George J. Buelow (Basingstoke: Granada Group and the Macmillan Press Ltd., 1993), 1–38; Stephen Rose, “The musical map of Europe c. 1700,” in Collected Work: The Cambridge History of Eighteenth-Century Music, ed. Simon P. Keefe (Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 2009), 3–25; Mary Oleskiewicz, “The Rise of Italian Chamber Music,” in The World of Baroque Music: New Perspectives, ed. George B. Stauffer (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2006), 48–77.

16 James B. Kopp, The Bassoon (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2012); Kopp, “The Emergence of the Late-Baroque Bassoon,” The Journal of the International Double Reed Society 22, no. 4 (1999): 73–87; William Waterhouse, “Bassoon,” Grove Music Online, Oxford Music Online, Oxford University Press, accessed January 6, 2017, http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/subscriber/article/grove/music/02276.

6 Dard” (1997).17 While Aaberg’s information on this sonata is rather brief, Ricardo Rapoport’s

article “The Six Bassoon Sonatas by MR. Dard” (2009) provides a detailed description and

illustration; he also discusses the original edition and the dating of the sonata.18 William Paul

Schink’s dissertation, “Four Sonatas for Bassoon and Piano by Lewis Mercy: Edition and

Commentary” (1981), is the only source available for Merci’s biography.19 The bassoon sonata

by Telemann is included in Jeanne Roberta Swack’s dissertation, “The Solo Sonatas of Georg

Philipp Telemann: A Study of the Sources and Musical Style” (1988).20 The only available

discussion of Fasch’s bassoon sonata is found in the CD liner notes in Johann Friedrich Fasch,

Trios & Sonatas.21

My methodology has been primarily an examination of the stylistic features and

characteristics of mixed styles in the context of formal structure, texture, tonality, harmonic

language, and melodic and rhythmic writing. To better understand how a turning point in musical

climate influence the evolution of the bassoon, I devote the first chapter to a history of the

emerging new bassoon, showing how developments in construction led to changes in expanded

tessitura and an improved mechanism for dexterity. In chapter two, I establish a framework for

understanding the eighteenth-century preference for mixing styles: old and new, French and

Italian. I also describe the cultural context that gave rise to this preference for stylistic mixing.

17 Dulane Aaberg, “A Performance Edition of Sonatas III and IV for Bassoon or Cello and Continuo, Opus 2, 1767 by Antoine Dard” (DMA thesis, The University of Iowa, 1997).

R 18 Ricardo Rapoport, “The Six Bassoon Sonatas by M . Dard,” trans. David Rachor, International Double Reed Society 32, no. 1 (2009): 67–94.

19 William Paul Schink, “Four Sonatas for Bassoon and Piano by Lewis Mercy: Edition and Commentary” (DMA thesis, University of North Colorado, 1981).

20 Jeanne Roberta Swack, “The Solo Sonatas of Georg Philipp Telemann: A Study of the Sources and Musical Style” (PhD diss., Yale University, 1988).

21 Johann Friedrich Fasch, Trios & Sonatas, recorded with Petr Zeifart, recorder; Alessandro Piqué, ; Sergio Azzolini, bassoon; Veronika Skuplik, ; Ilze Grudule, violoncello; Matthias Spaeter, arciliuto; Christoph Lehmann; and organ, Epoca Barocca CPO777 204-2, 2007, CD.

7 From chapter three to six, I provide biographical sketches of each composer and the background

of each piece, followed by investigations into the music of the four sonatas, and brief evaluations

of their idiomatic writing for the bassoon. The order of these four chapters displays the tendency

toward more idiomatic writing that reflects the improvement of the bassoon mechanism. To be sure, the sonatas will not share all the same traits, but each is representative of a common time period that emphasized stylistic diversity.

My document does not intend to classify the styles. Rather, this is an investigation into the stylistic trends of the early eighteenth century and their reflection in the contemporary bassoon sonata repertoire. By identifying distinctive elements of styles and presenting the music as a stylistic continuum demonstrating a blend of Italian and French, old (Baroque) and new

(style galant), I argue that the eighteenth-century bassoon music can thus be better understood as a reflection of stylistic synthesis. To date, no one has yet studied the bassoon sonatas written between 1720 and 1760 in the context of style. Therefore, this document is the first attempt to explore the mixed stylistic traits of the bassoon sonatas in this period. At the same time, it contributes to our understanding of the bassoon sonatas in the middle half of the eighteenth century and the stylistic diversity developed over time.

8 CHAPTER 1

From Dulcian to Baroque Bassoon

This chapter will provide an historical overview of the development of the bassoon

during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. To help gain an idea of instrumental evolution before the emergence of the baroque bassoon, I will first provide a short survey of the dulcian, precursor of the baroque bassoon, in the context of its early names, construction, use of the dulcian in different regions, and the music for the dulcian. I will then describe the transition of the one-piece dulcian to the four-piece baroque bassoon, the improved construction and mechanism, the debatable evidence in Mersenne’s treatises, and the controversial role of the

Hotteterres.

1. Dulcian

The origins of the baroque bassoon can be found in the older dulcian. The name “dulcian” is derived from the Latin dulc, meaning “soft, sweet,” and refers to the instrument’s timbral character, which was more gentle and subdued than the louder and pommers.1 In addition to “dulcian,” three other historical names for the bassoon have also been

in use since early times. The first derives from the Latin curtus, meaning “short,” and refers to

the instrument’s shortened figure because of the bore doubled back on itself. Regional variants

include the English curtal or curtail, French courtaud, and the German Kortholt. A second

1 William Waterhouse, “Bassoon,” Grove Music Online, Oxford Music Online, Oxford University Press, accessed January 6, 2017, http://www.osfordmusiconline.com/subscriber/article/grove/music/02276.

9 alternative to “dulcian” refers to its bass register: bassoon, basson, bajón, etc. The third recalls

the instrument’s resemblance of a bundle of sticks: Fagot, Fagott, fagotto, Vagot, etc.2

The dulcian was usually made of maple or sycamore. It was probably crafted by boring out a cylindrical long hole in a long billet of wood with a series of augers. This stepped cylinder was then reamed with a sword-like tool to create a long, smoothly conical cavity. The process was then repeated from the other end of the billet. The septum between two bores was cut at the butt end of the workpiece, and the two bores were thus connected to create a continuously expanding tube. Wooden or cork plugs were then inserted to seal the bores at the bottom of the workpiece, creating a U-shaped linkage, and a brass cap was usually fitted.3 The bell was turned

by using a lathe and the bell may be open (offen) or have a perforated cover (gedackt).4 Because

of the thickness of the wall, the finger holes were drilled obliquely. The back side of the dulcian

was drilled with six finger holes and the front side of the body included two holes controlled by

the player’s two thumbs. Two additional open keys were protected by perforated brass boxes. A

brass crook was inserted into the dulcian’s receiver, which was side-by-side with the bell. The

instrument produced a C2 when all tone holes were closed, and the highest note was F4.

The dulcian was often used outdoors for religious and civic processions, royal entries,

and military parades.5 The dulcian was also used indoors, and one of the functions was to support a singer or chorus in Gregorian chant. The bass size of the dulcian is called the fagotto

2 James B. Kopp, The Bassoon (New Have: Yale University, 2012), 5. In this document, I am indebted to Kopp’s book as it provides a comprehensive concept of the history of the bassoon not only chronologically but also geographically.

3 Ibid, 19.

4 Praetorius termed them.

5 Kopp, The Bassoon, 20.

10 corista, Choristfagott, or bajón corista.6 As Kopp notes, the dulcian was a convenient substitute

for male singers in convents. In choral music of soprano-alto-tenor-bass setting, the dulcian also replaced the bass voice in Spanish cathedrals.7

It remains unclear where, when, and how the dulcian emerged. However, recent evidence shows that the dulcian likely originated in Italy as the earliest references to its use are found there. Lockwood’s research (1985) into the Ferrarese court reveals that as early as 1516 the

French musician Gerardo, employed by Ippolito d’Este I, was paid for “uno faghotto da sonare

cum le chiave d’argento” (a faghotto da sonare with silver key).8 A further payment was made

in 1517 to Gerardo’s colleague “per fagotto che sona Janes de pre Michele” (for the fagotto

played by Janes de pre Michele).9 The earliest surviving dulcians are signed “HIERO.S.” This

mark is associated with the famous wind instrument makers of , the Bassano family, also

known as the Piva.10 Today there are eight surviving dulcians signed “HIER.S” and “HIERO.S,”

and they were most likely produced by the Bassano workshop.11

The dulcian was also used in German-speaking lands including today’s , Austria,

Switzerland, Czech Republic, Hungary, Poland, Russia, and the Baltic countries during the time

of Habsburg dominance. Through the trade and communication facilitated by the Spanish Road,

the business of the Fugger family, and the Hanseatic League, musicians traveling from the

6 “Corista” in Italian means “tuning pitch.”

7 Kopp, The Bassoon, 23.

8 Maggie Kilbey, Curtal, Dulcian, Bajón: A History of the Precursor to the Bassoon (St. Albans: M. Kilbey, 2002), 18.

9 Ibid., 18.

10 Kopp, The Bassoon, 24.

11 “Bassoon,” Oxford Music Online.

11 German courts to study and work in Venice and vice versa became possible.12 For instance,

Venetian musicians worked at the Munich court, including both Andrea and .

Other Italian musicians recruited to the Imperial court in included Buonamente, Bertoli,

and Cesti. German musicians studying in Venice included Hassler and Schütz.13

References to the dulcian in German-speaking lands appear later. An alabaster relief memorial carved in Antwerp by Antonius von Zerun to Moritz, Elector of , erected in

1563 in Freiberg Cathedral (Lower Saxony), shows a dulcian. This relief is the earliest known pictorial evidence for the dulcian.14 Other references include the Augsburg depot of Raymond

Fugger II (1528–69), which stored “the largest documented collection of musical instruments in

the sixteenth century, including a dozen fagotti.15 Fugger’s inspiration for projecting wealth,

power, and status through gathering of all kinds of musical instruments probably came from the

weddings of the grand ducal Medici family of Tuscany in the sixteenth century. During the

wedding, a lavish production of theater and music, which included the most recently developed

wind instruments, was displayed to demonstrate wealth and social connections.16

12 Stretching from Northern Italy to the Low Countries, the Spanish Road was a trade and military supply route used from 1567–1620. Because the route crossed through relatively neutral territory, it was Europe's most preferred military route. In France, it was known as "le chemin des Espagnols." The Fuggers were originally a family of weavers and later became international traders and money lenders. Their clients included the Vatican and members of the English Royal Family, and their largest client was the Habsburg empire. The Hanseatic League was a commercial and defensive alliance providing protection of merchant guilds’ economic interests and their market towns. The covered area of the league stretched from the Baltic to the North Sea and inland during the fifteenth to nineteenth centuries. Kopp, The Bassoon, 33.

13 Kopp, The Bassoon, 237, fn. 97.

14 Ibid, 24.

15 See fn. 12 for the explanation of the Fugger family.

16 Kopp, The Bassoon, 26.

12 In 1604, Michael Praetorius became of Wolfenbüttel and visited the court

of Landgraf Moritz of Hessen-Kassel in 1605 and 1609. At that time, Moritz acquired many

instruments, including the Fagotti, and these new instruments were thought to be brought back to

Kassel by Moritz’s disciple Schütz during his study with Giovanni Gabrieli in Venice.17 Between

1614 and 1620 Praetorius published three volumes of Syntagma Musicum, displaying his

encyclopedic and systematic approach towards the theory and practice of contemporary music.

The second volume, De Organographia (Wolfenbüttel, 1618–20), appears to be partly based on

instruments he observed in Kassel.18 The first section includes a description of different sizes of dulcians. According to Praetorius, a consort of dulcians comprised eight instruments, respectively, one quintfagott (quintbass), one quarfagott (quartbass), three Choristfagott (basses), two fagott, and one descant. Of these different sizes, the Choristfagott is the most useful

member of the family. Chapter XI of the first section is entitled Fagotten: Dolcianen with the

terminology, timbre, and physical description given:

Fagotten and Dolcianen (in Italian Fagotto & Dolcesonuo) are generally so named without distinction, however some people would have it that the true Dolcian is the instrument which the English call the Zingel Korthol (single curtal). In register and timbre these resemble the basset , except that the Dolcian and the Fagotten are quieter and have a smoother tone than the shawm. Perhaps it is because of their softness that they are called Dolcianen – from Dulcisonantes. This comes from the fact that whereas the bodies of the shawms are straight for their entire length and are completely open at the lower end, in Fagotten the bore is doubled back so that the opening from which the sound emanates is at the top. In some instances, they have a cover with additional small holes. This is why the sound is less strong, but rather softer and sweeter.19

17 Kilbey, Curtal, Dulcian, Bajón: A History of the Precursor to the Bassoon, 111.

18 Ibid., 112.

19 Langwill explained the confusion of the terms “double” and “single”: The musical scale of sixteenth- century England was based on Guidonian septenaries, which comprise a compass from G to f2. Those below Gamut in the Basses are called double notes. See Lyndesay G. Langwill, The Bassoon and (London: Ernest Benn Limited, 1971), 20–24.

13 The last section of this volume contains the Theatrum Instrumentorum (issued separately), the famous series of illustrated plates showing all the instruments of his day. The members of the dulcian family are illustrated in Plate X (Figure 1.1).

Figure 1.1. Nos. 2–7 are the dulcians in five sizes. (Reproduced by permission of Michael Praetorius and David Z. Crookes, Syntagma Musicum. II: De Organographia, Parts I and II (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1986).

The first known English use of the name curtal occurred in 1574; however, curtals were possibly in use in England before this date. In 1547, an inventory made at the death of Henry

VIII mentioned thirteen dulceuses. These “short instruments…covered in leather” were probably dulcians and possibly manufactured by members of the Bassano family in England or Italy.20

20 Kopp, The Bassoon, 38.

14 Kilbey’s references show that from 1575 onwards curtals were used extensively in various areas,

and these instruments were likely produced by the Bassanos.21 However none of these curtals

nor the music survived in England, possibly because of the Puritan’s ban on instrumental church

music during the Commonwealth (1642–60).22 Curtals did not reappear until the restoration of

the monarchy in 1661 when the Knights of the Garter at Windsor organized two instrumental

parts, each consisting of a double and a double curtal to keep the joined two both

in time and in tune during “the grand procession.”23

Evidence of the dulcian used at the French court is relatively lacking. One possible

reason was that during the dulcian period, France was surrounded by Habsburg rule and thus

politically isolated.24 However, there are a few references to the “Fagot” being used in provincial

schools, for instance, in 1602 when Michael Tornatoris was appointed to play the fagot

(dulcian) at the Church of Notre Dame des Doms in Avignon, and in 1667 when a bassoon was

provided to the parish of Notre-Dame de la Couture de Bernay.25 However, the evidence

regarding the transitional sectioned-dulcian before the emergence of the four-jointed baroque bassoon may be found in France. Marin Mersenne’s treatise Harmonie Universelle (1636) gave descriptions and illustrations of Bassons and Fagots during the transitional period. The discussion of this treatise is given below.

By the early seventeenth century, the use of the dulcian began to increase in Italy. In

Venice as early as 1608, Arcangelo Crotti’s first book of sacred concertos already called for

21 Kilbey, Curtal, Dulcian, Bajón: A History of the Precursor to the Bassoon, 33–37.

22 Kopp, The Bassoon, 39.

23 Ibid.

24 Ibid., 43.

25 Ibid.

15 fagotto in one .26 The dulcians were used extensively in sacred concertos at San Marco.

Giovanni Gabrieli called for a dulcian or fagott in the “Jubilate Deo” of his Symphoniae Sacrae

(1615).27 Many uses of the dulcian can also be found in Heinrich Schütz’s Sämmtliche Werke,

Vols. I–XVIII.28 accomplished the earliest operatic use of the dulcian in Il pomo

d’oro (1667–68). While the scoring practice of this period often left parts for wind instruments

unspecified, Cesti clearly indicated his instrumentation. He assigned a fagott (dulcian) to two

ritornelli and to the accompaniment of one vocal solo.29 Beginning with Biagio Marini’s Op. 8

(Venice, 1626), compositions for the dulcian started to appear. In this piece, Marini specified

“Dol Sonati per 2 Fagotti o Tromboni grossi.”30 The earliest known composition for dulcian solo

was published in 1638, Canzoni, Fantasie et Correnti by a Spanish monk Bartolomeo Selma y

Salaverde, also a virtuoso dulcian player. In this work, Selma y Salaverde showcases the

technical potential to be drawn from the eight tone holes and two keys of the dulcian. The

compositions of Giovanni Antonio Bertoli continue to demonstrate the virtuosity of the dulcian.

Bertoli published a set of nine sonatas for dulcian and continuo (Venice, 1645), the first known

collection of solo sonatas for any instrument, and the first to use the word “solo” in the title as

opposed to “a due.”31

26 Kopp, The Bassoon, 25.

27 Langwill, The Bassoon and Contrabassoon, 73.

28 Ibid.

29 Ibid., 75.

30 Will Jansen, The Bassoon: Its History, Construction, Makers, Players and Music (Buren: Frits Knuf, 1978), 2:979.

31 Kopp, The Bassoon, 25.

16 2. Transitional Period

It still remains unclear when or where the one-piece dulcian transformed to the four- jointed baroque bassoon. One reason for the instrumental improvement might have been the demand for an extended tonal range during the seventeenth century. Waterhouse claims that the need for the lower range is to match the contemporary basse de violon, which had the lowest note, down to B♭1, one whole note lower than the dulcian’s C2.32 Kopp, on the other hand, emphasizes the need for the tenor register and dynamic range to accommodate the shift of ensemble musical texture from the consort toward the thinner texture.33 In order to respond expressively with the remodeled and new baroque oboe, the requirement of a dulcian with a wider tonal range and dynamic contrast inspired the constructive reformation.34

Marin Mersenne’s Latin treatise Harmonicorum libri XII (1635) and French treatise

Harmonie universelle (1636) depict four transitional dulcians; all were labeled as fagot and basson variously.35 Mersenne attempted to draw a distinction between these two terms; however, his discussions are vague and inconsistent. Despite his ambiguity on the nomenclature, all four instruments illustrated by Mersenne share the same feature, the longitudinal cleft that extends down from the bocal receiver. This cleft implies the “branches” design, meaning two parallel bores.36 Such a feature is unknown to surviving dulcians, but it may indicate that the instrument

32 “Bassoon,” Oxford Music Online.

33 Kopp, The Bassoon, 63.

34 Ibid.

35 Four transitional dulcians are illustrated in Marin Mersenne and Roger E. Chapman’s book Harmonie Universelle: The Books on Instruments (The Hague: M. Nijhoff, 1957), 372–77.

36 James B. Kopp, “Notes on the Bassoon in Seventeenth-Century France,” The Journal of the American Society 17, ed. Arthur Lawrence (1991): 94.

17 makers of seventeenth-century Paris tried to incorporate the idea of a double-tube or two-piece design into the traditional one-piece design.37 (Of four instruments shown in Mersenne’s

illustration, the last one most closely resembles the baroque bassoon.) The length of the cleft is

unclear as Mersenne did not present a view of the other side of the instrument. In the absence of

a thorough illustration, the two-part design is probably conjecture.38

The most notable feature in the evolution of the dulcian is the joint or socket design. The

traditional one-piece dulcian is constructed by boring a long shaft of wood. The difficulty in such

construction may be possibly lightened with the experiments of the branch design and the joint

(socket) design. Thus, these two logical steps marked a space in the evolution of the one-piece

dulcian. The only specific evidence of the transitional instrument after Mersenne is an illustration

by Randle Holme III, dated c. 1682–88. The drawing shows a double curtaille adjacent to the

fully developed “French hoboy.”39 This three-piece, transitional baroque bassoon has a wing

joint and boot joint characteristic of the baroque bassoon. The remaining joint, however, is a

combination of both the length and the functions of the long and bell joints of the baroque

bassoon.40

3. The baroque bassoon

The traditional view of bassoon (and other woodwind) development during the second

half of the seventeenth century has generally focused on the time of Louis XIV in France and

37 Ibid.

38 Kopp, “Notes on the Bassoon in Seventeenth-Century France,” 91.

39 Kilbey, Curtal, Dulcian, Bajón: A History of the Precursor to the Bassoon, 39.

40 James B. Kopp, “The Emergence of the Late-Baroque Bassoon,” The Journal of the International Double Reed Society 22, no. 4 (1999): 74.

18 members of the Hotteterre family. Among the Hotteterres, Nicolas II Hotteterre l’aîné (c. 1637–

94) seems likeliest to be the bassoon maker during the transitional period.41 Nicolas established a

workshop in Paris in about 1660. By 1668, he played basson in the royal chapel of Louis XIV

and left “iron tools serving to make wind instruments, such as , , bassoon” at his

death in 1694.42 The royal chapel and experimented with a change in performing pitch

during the years 1664–70; the traditional ton de l’écurie was shifted to the ton de l’opéra, a

minor third lower (A4 = c. 390 HZ).43 Nicolas presumably manufactured and played this new

type of bassoon during his employment in the royal chapel.

No bassoon made by Nicolas survives, and the profile can only be imagined. However,

recent research provides significant evidence of the four-joint baroque bassoon, datable to

1685.44 This well-preserved instrument was made by an Amsterdam maker, Richard Haka, who

retired in 1696. Amsterdam at the time had at least three workshops making . This

newly found evidence, also the earliest datable surviving bassoon, provides valuable information

that the Hotteterres were not solely responsible for the evolution of the four-piece bassoon. Non-

French makers are now credited with a comparable achievement as the development of the instrument happened simultaneously—or even earlier—outside France.

The baroque bassoon is constructed with the additional length of the bell and an extra third key; both devices help extend the range an additional whole tone down to B♭1. With the four joints bored and turned separately, the constructional risk created by reaming tools was

41 For a detailed examination of the possible contributions by the Hotteterres, see Kopp’s “The Emergence of the Late-Baroque Bassoon,” 73–87.

42 Ibid., 77.

43 Kopp, The Bassoon, 62–63.

44 Ibid., 84.

19 reduced. The separated joints allowed for a reverse taper in the bore profile to manipulate the

scale and voicing.45 The lengthened crook (bocal) improved acoustics significantly.46 All of this

new construction facilitated flexibility in the upper register and better control in tone in addition

to the extended lower register.

During the time of Louis XIV, the baroque bassoon was used in four ensembles: the royal

chapel, the opera, the royal chamber music, and especially the Grande Écurie.47 Prior to Lully’s arrival at court, wind instruments were mainly heard in opera. It was Lully who started adding wind instruments to the royal violin ensembles.48 He still used the bassoon in a traditional way as

a bass instrument, but his successor in French opera, Jean-Philippe Rameau, utilized the individual tone colors of the bassoon in prominent parts.

The new baroque bassoon was first described and illustrated in England before 1685.49

According to the Englishman James Talbot’s writings (c. 1685–95), the chief use of

with shawms was “left off towards the latter end and gave place to the Fr. basson.”50 In music,

both and wrote bassoon parts in their odes during the 1680s.51

Handel’s often prescribed the bassoons to play colla voce.52 The first solo music for

45 Ibid., 62.

46 Ibid.

47 The Grande Écurie musicians were Louis XIV’s best wind and brass players. They played mostly for military and outdoor ceremonies. They were well paid and had the privilege to not pay tax and to pass their position on to a son. Due to the secure employment, the Grande Écurie was occupied by several important families of woodwind performers, including the Hotteterres. Kopp, The Bassoon, 66.

48 Ibid.

49 Ibid., 71.

50 Kopp, “The Emergence of the Late-Baroque Bassoon,” 74.

51 Kopp, The Bassoon, 73.

52 Ibid.

20 bassoon by an English composer (and the first known sonatas for the four-piece instrument) was written in 1733 by Johann Ernst Galliard, a German who emigrated to London and published six sonatas for bassoon and continuo. Two years later, the Italian-born Luigi Merci (Louis Mercy) published in London six sonatas for bassoon and continuo as his opus 3 (1735).

The French influence in Germany was profound. Documentary evidence reveals that during 1680–1701 French woodwind instruments were imported to Germany. A 1686 ducal decree of Württemberg shows an effort to introduce wind players into the court’s French-style string ensemble.53 Upon becoming Elector in 1694, August I of the Saxon court at

began to refine the court Kapelle with French-style woodwinds. In 1696, the dulcian maker J. C.

Denner of was copying the new French musical instruments, including the bassoons

according to the French pattern.54 The Dresden Kapelle attracted important composers during the early eighteenth century, including Fasch and Telemann, who both composed solo sonatas for bassoon and basso continuo.

4. Conclusion

The dulcian remained unaltered from ca. 1550 until the mid-1660s. With its rather

primitive technique and only eight finger holes and two keys, the dulcian could play in only a

limited number of key signatures. Because of its soft, mild, and delicate tone, it was natural that

it had been assigned an unobtrusive bass role throughout the period of basso-continuo.55

Circumstantial evidence indicates that the baroque bassoon was not a simple modification of the

old dulcian, but a newly invented instrument. This newly invented bassoon extends the range

53 Kopp, The Bassoon, 75.

54 “Bassoon,” Oxford Music Online.

55 Langwill, The Bassoon and Contrabassoon, 72.

21 down to B♭1 and up to G4 or higher. With the expanded tessitura and more tonal and dynamic range, the new baroque bassoon could be viewed as a virtuosic instrument, and it was for this type of instrument that composers such as Antonio Vivaldi, Georg Philipp Telemann, Johann

Friedrich Fasch and others wrote. These significant compositions were written during a turning point in music history as a new style galant emerged while many types and national styles of music coexisted. In the next chapter, I will describe the cultural context that gave rise to the eighteenth-century preference for a synthesis of national styles (French and Italian) and the old

Baroque and new galant.

22 CHAPTER 2

Stylistic Variety from 1720 to 1760

Scholars today apply a variety of labels to describe the early to mid-eighteenth century.

“Late Baroque” or “Early Classic” are commonly used terms. “Age of Reason,” “Age of

Enlightenment,” and “Age of the Galant” are also promoted.1 This collection is due to the fact

that at the beginning of the eighteenth century, Europe displayed a confluence of various musical

styles. Sébastien de Brossard, in his Dictionnaire de musique (1703), described the diverse

musical environment:

All of the forms and methods of style are quite different, according to the measure of the genius of the composer, the country, and the people according to which the material, the place, the time, the subject, the expression, etc. are rendered. . . . The Italian style is sharp, colourful, expressive; the French in contrast, natural, flowing, tender. From these facts result various descriptive phrases in order to stress all of these different characteristics: the old and new style; the Italian, French, German styles . . . the grand, sublime, galant styles.2

Among the most widely discussed are the national styles and the galant style. In this chapter, I

will provide a background of the cultural context and characteristics of the principal national

styles and the galant style.

1. National Styles

Around 1700, the Italian style remained dominant in Europe. Opera had been a popular

genre among aristocrats and then middle-class audiences since early in the seventeenth century.

1 David Alden Sheldon, “The Concept Galant in the 18th Century,” Journal of Musicological Research 9 (1989–90): 102.

2 George J. Buelow, “Music and Society in the Late Baroque Era,” in The Late Baroque Era: from the 1680s to 1740, ed. George J. Buelow (Granade Group and The Macmillan Press Ltd, 1993), 15–16.

23 The forms and styles of permeated the music of all kinds of genres, including

instrumental music. Among the chief characteristics of both opera and instrumental music,

epitomized by the violin music of Corelli and Vivaldi, is the singing melody—the “captivating

suppleness,” according to Türk’s 1789 description.3 Vivaldi in particular was influenced by the

Venetian operatic . Venetian opera at the time was characterized by solo singers’ profuse

ornamentation of slow and their bravura rapid passagework.4 Vivaldi composed his

instrumental music in a similar way. In concerto composition, the solo virtuosity of his fast

movements and the long, richly embellished bel canto solos of his adagios reflect the adoption of

Italian operatic style in the instrumental works.5 The characteristic virtuosity in the allegros

comes from the melodic figures, such as the arpeggiated patterns for themes and “mechanical

figurations in rapid notes for brilliant passage work.”6 The expressiveness of Italian melody

comes from the use of appoggiaturas, trills, mordents, etc. arranged in irregular patterns.7 Ratner

also points out the chord changes among I, IV, and V, a harmonic simplicity that highlights the

sweet features of Italian melody.8 The operatic influence on instrumental idioms is displayed in

the clarity of texture as well. Thinner two-part textures emphasized the prominence of the

melody with a supporting yet bare accompaniment providing rhythmic pulse. The rhythmic

energy gained through a number of devices such as repeated notes and . These

elements were praised by Rousseau and Chastellux, who admired their contribution to the

3 Leonard G. Ratner, Classic Music: Expression, Form, and Style (New York: Schirmer Books, 1980), 335.

4 Mary Oleskiewicz, “The Rise of Italian Chamber Music,” in The World of Baroque Music: New Perspectives, ed. George B. Stauffer (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2006), 76.

5 Buelow, “Music and Society in the Late Baroque Era,” 28.

6 Ratner, Classic Music, 338.

7 Ibid.

8 Ibid., 339.

24 “exactness of time” and rhythmic precision.9 Also characteristic of the Italian style are the clear tonal plans through modulations and the motoric rhythms.10

The dual representatives of Italian music, opera and instrumental concerto, made Italy the musical center of Europe. The region’s musical dominance enticed numerous musicians, aristocrats, and scholars from other countries to travel to the peninsula to learn the Italian style.

Different cities became main destinations for different musical fields, such as Venice for visitors who were interested in the music of Vivaldi, Rome for the Corellian school, and Naples for both and opera buffa.11 Italian musicians also exported their music and styles north of the

Alps, first into Germany, and later in the midcentury into England.12 In France, however, the

dominance of the Italian style was not completely successful. France’s centralized political isolation, established by Louis XIV, cultivated an opposition to foreign influence. This resistance extended to music as well. The French style of music was synonymous with the court music by

Jean-Baptiste Lully. Aspects of the French style included the dotted rhythms of the French , a predilection for dance movements, and the love of specified ornaments. The French also preferred to extend phrases. This was achieved by avoiding regular meters, deferring the cadence rather than achieving it periodically as in the manner of Italian music.13

Even if the French style established by Lully remained strong in France itself, the Italian style gradually made inroads into Paris through travel, including instrumental genres such as

9 Ibid., 343.

10 Oleskiewicz, “The Rise of Italian Chamber Music,” 72.

11 Stephen Rose, “The Musical Map of Europe c. 1700,” in Collected Work: The Cambridge History of Eighteenth-Century Music (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009), 18.

12 William S. Newman, The Sonata in the Baroque Era, 3rd ed, (New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 1983), 30.

13 George B. Stauffer, “The Arts and Royal Extravagance: Music at the French Court,” in The World of Baroque Music: New Perspectives, ed. George B. Stauffer (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2006), 105.

25 Corellian sonata types, the Italian forms of , and the use of Italian markings.14 The

purity of French style had been weakened with the death of Lully in 1687, and some critics

already saw Lully’s music as ancienne, as opposed to the moderne of the Italians.15 Since then the merits of both the Italian and the French styles were debated. It was François Raguenet’s essay Parallèle des Italiens et des François, en ce qui regarde la musique et les opéras (1702) that brought the argument into the open. Raguenet declared that the “modern” Italian operatic style was superior because of the boldness of melody and variety of affections. Raguenet’s promotion of the Italian style attracted wide attention and was soon criticized by Lully’s supporters, represented by Jean Laurent Le Cerf. In his essay Comparaison de la musique italienne et de la musique Françoise (1704), Le Cerf asserted that the French style was superior in that it is simple and moderate, and it has the concept of bon goût (good taste), meaning that the music is shaped by reason rather than by sensuality, as in Italian music.16

While the critics constantly disputed the merits of both styles in print or in the salon,

French composers on the other hand tried to show a happy marriage between the two. François

Couperin (1668–1733) was among the most active proponents of reconciling French and Italian

taste, and he realized his aim in the chamber work titled Les goûts-réünis, published in 1724. In

this collection, Couperin combined French dance movements with Italian preludes, , and

sicilianos, and ended with an Italian Sonate en trio, paying his homage to Corelli.17 In the Sonate en trio, in particular, John Walter Hill points out Couperin’s juxtaposition of the two styles by

mixing French traits, such as the scattered short trills and elaboration on rhythmically extended

14 Julie Ann Sadie, ed. Companion to Baroque Music (New York: Schirmer Books, 1990), 412.

15 Buelow, “Music and Society in the Late Baroque Era,” 18.

16 Rose, “The Musical Map of Europe c. 1700,” 20.

17 Thomas Schmidt-Beste, The Sonata (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011), 52.

26 modules, with Italian sequences, steady eighth-note pulse, and longer melodic contours.18

Couperin’s idea of synthesizing styles lasted to later generations. Jean-Marie Leclair the Elder

(1697–1764) in his also fused French characteristics with Italian color, such as suspensions, motor rhythms, , and binary forms, reflecting Corelli’s long-lasting influence.19

The Italian influence in France proved to be profound. The so-called “Christmas”

Concerto, Op. 6, No. 8, by Corelli was performed in the opening program of the Concert

Spirituel, founded in 1725 by the royal musician Anne Danican Philidor (1681–1728).20 Outside

Italy, Paris became another center attracting Italian musicians seeking to promote their careers;

the Concert Spirituel thus became a major stage to promote their indigenous music and playing.

Notable debuts of Italian music included the 1733 performance of violinist Giovanni Battista

Somis and the 1741 performance of one of ’s violin concertos.21 Also notable was the performance of wind music by the Besozzi brothers; their duets for oboe and bassoon were performed in 1735. Italian instrumental music therefore since the first program of 1725 gained a prominent place and participated in greater part in the Concert Spirituel until the institution ended in 1790.

Despite the Italian influence on French land, the distinctiveness of French culture drew foreign courts to emulate, Germany in particular. In Dresden, the Saxon Elector Friedrich August

18 John Walter Hill, Baroque Music: Music in Western Europe, 1580–1750 (New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 2005), 447–48.

19 Ibid., 449.

20 George J. Buelow, A History of Baroque Music (Bloomington: Indiana University Press), 188. Anne Danican Philidor should not be confused with his younger brother François-André Danican Philidor (1726–95), who was an important figure in the development of opéra comique.

21 Christopher Paul Phillpott, “The French Baroque Cello Sonata: Context and Style” (MM thesis, Texas Christian University, 2009), 11.

27 I (r. 1694–1733) built a residence complex modeled on Versailles. August also adopted the

concept of a high-level string ensemble based on Louis XIV’s Vingt-quatre Violons du Roi, and had his own ensemble play in the French fashion, including performance elements such as agréments, overdotting, and notes inégales.22 The influence of French musical style in Germany

was considerable, and this was reflected in the prominent application of French and

in the works of Bach, Handel, Telemann, and other composers. The Italian

influence in Germany was immense as well. (1687–1755), the foremost

German violinist of his day and the concertmaster of the Dresden court, made a trip to Italy in

1716–17, and this nine-month stay enabled him to study with Vivaldi. Vivaldi’s Venetian style

therefore came to Dresden with Pisendel’s return in autumn 1717. Around the same time, the

Italian violinist (1690–1768), one of younger contemporaries of

Vivaldi, brought his Venetian-style works to the Saxon Elector. August was successfully

convinced, and Veracini joined the court until 1722.23 The Dresden court can therefore be seen

as an important location for the mixed French-Italian style.

By the 1720s, Germany was aware of the merits of foreign influences, and unlike the

debate in France, German musicians embraced both French and Italian performance styles and

forms of compositions. This combination had been pioneered by in his Armonico

tribute (1682). In this composition, Muffat integrated the Corellian texture with

French dance rhythms and forms.24 Muffat had visited Paris and studied with Lully and others

from 1663 to 1669; the French influence on Muffat was therefore profound and can also be seen

22 Stauffer, “The Arts and Royal Extravagance: Music at the French Court,” 120.

23 Oleskiewicz, “The Rise of Italian Chamber Music,” 74.

24 Rose, “The Musical Map of Europe c. 1700,” 13.

28 in his Florilegium primum (1695) and Florilegium secundum (1698). Both works contain French

suites, each is prefaced by a , and the forewords of both discuss Lully’s style for

German musicians in detail.25 Later, in his Auserlesene Instrumental-Music (1701), Muffat

presented the synthesis concept again.

Other German representatives of this stylistic eclecticism include Georg Philipp

Telemann, who in 1729 described his style as a mixture of many: “…first came the Polish style,

followed by the French, church, chamber and operatic style, and the Italian style.”26 Johann

David Heinichen (1683–1729) in his thorough-bass treatise of 1728 suggested that “a felicitous

mélange of Italian and French taste would affect the ear most forcefully and must succeed over

all the taste of the world.”27 A final promotion for this stylistic synthesis came from the flautist

of the Dresden ensemble, (1697–1773). An admirer of Telemann’s

compositions, Quantz recommended the vermischter Geschmack as the highest style in his On

Playing the Flute (1752); he further regarded the mixed style as a desirable universal fashion.28

Quantz even proudly claimed it to be intrinsically German: “If one has the necessary discernment to choose the best from the styles of different countries, a mixed style results that, without overstepping the bounds of modesty, could well be called the German style.”29

25 Stauffer, “The Arts and Royal Extravagance: Music at the French Court,” 120. For prefaces to Florilegium primum and Florilegium secundum, see Oliver Strunk, Source Readings in Music History: The Baroque Era (New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 1965), 82–88.

26 Steven David Zohn, Music for a Mixed Taste: Style, Genre, and Meaning in Telemann’s Instrumental Works (New York: Oxford University Press, 2008), 3–5.

27 Buelow, A History of Baroque Music, 563.

28 Johann Joachim Quantz, On Playing the Flute, trans. Edward R. Reilly, 2nd ed. (Boston: Northeastern University Press, 2001), 341–42.

29 Ibid.

29 2. Style Galant

During the full bloom of the stylistic synthesis in the 1720s and 1730s, the musical scene

in Europe began to change in other ways. The most significant event marking this change was

the operatic aesthetic war known as the Querelle des Bouffons in 1752–54. This spirited debate

was triggered by the sensational success of Giovanni Battista Pergolesi’s intermezzo La Serva

Padrona, performed at the Opéra in 1752. The dispute over the merits of Italian opera involved

many French intellectuals, but the arguments of Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712–1778) were

among the most intense. Rousseau blamed the tragédies lyriques of Lully for being old-

fashioned and artificial; he praised the Italians’ simpler and more pleasing melodic style.

This new musical style during the eighteenth century was commonly termed galant and

referred to music made up of short-breathed or periodic phrases with lightly accompanied,

simple harmony punctuated by frequent cadences. The term galant originated in French literature

in the thirteenth century and derived from the verb ”galer,” meaning “to be merry.”30 Over time, the old French meaning had changed from its associations with bravery in the sixteenth century to a newer emphasis in the early seventeenth century on the nobility’s social behavior of elegance or grace.31 The word does not appear in eighteenth-century French musical writings; it was, however, the Germans who adopted the ideal, style, and mannerisms of this French term in various cultural phenomena beginning before 1700, and this galant movement, as Sheldon terms it, was a reflection of Germany’s passion for French taste.32

30 David Alden Sheldon, “The Galant Style Revisited and Re-evaluated,” Acta Musicologica 47, no. 2 (1975): 241.

31 Sheldon, “The Concept Galant in the 18th Century,” 94–95.

32 Sheldon, “The Galant Style Revisited and Re-evaluated,” 242.

30 An important spokesman on the galant ideal in music was (1681–

1764). In his Das forschende Orchestre (1721), Mattheson enumerated eleven composers as “die

alleberühmtesten und galantesten Componisten in Europa” (the most famous and galant

composers in Europe). Mattheson’s use of the term galant here generally referred to a kind of

new musical style, modern, chic, and current at the time.33 In this he agreed with Johann Joseph

Fux (1660–1741) who admitted that “music too must be accommodated to the times” to keep up

with fashion.34 Mattheson also used the substantive to mean with tasteful

ornamentations, and he preferred pieces with this generic title be played on the rather

than the harpsichord to better display the dynamic nuances.35 He also likened the galanterie to

the theatrical style, as opposed to the contrapuntal or church style.36 C. P. E. Bach in his Versuch

über die wahre Art das Clavier zu spielen (1753) discussed the galant concept as well.

Throughout this treatise, Bach distinguished between the learned and the galant style; a similar

dichotomy is also discussed by Friedrich Wilhelm Marpurg, who in his Abhandlung von der

Fuge (1753) contrasted the galant or leicht (light, free) style with the bearbeitet (contrapuntal, church) or gebunden (strict) style.37

On the discussion of galant traits, the treatment of dissonance was among the most

widely commented. in his Der General-Bass in der Composition (1728)

argued that in the galant style the dissonance of the needs no preparation because

33 Mark A. Radice, “The Nature of the ‘Style Galant’: Evidence from the Repertoire,” The Musical Quarterly 83, no. 4 (1999): 608.

34 Robert O. Gjerdingen, Music in the Galant Style (New York: Oxford University Press, 2007), 6.

35 Daniel Heartz and Bruce Alan Brown, “Galant,” Grove Music Online, Oxford Music Online, accessed February 19, 2016, http: www.oxfordmusiconline.com/subscriber/article/grove/music/10512.

36 Ibid.

37 Sheldon, “The Galant Style Revisited and Re-Evaluated,” 261.

31 the seventh itself is an anticipated passing tone.38 Heinichen also explained the irregular

resolutions of dissonance treatment through voice-exchange.39 Other than dissonance treatment,

Siegmeyer in the Fundamentum des General-Basses stated a certain cadential progression as

6 “modern (gallant)”: ii6–I 4–V–I, commonly used in and known as the cadence galante.40

Heinrich Koch emphasized melodic treatment. He addressed galant melodic traits such as the

elaborations of melody through divisions, simpler harmony to support melodic dominance, and

frequent rhythmic changes as opposed to Baroque Fortspinnung, characterized by motivic

repetition.41 His other stylistic characteristics included slower harmonic change and a reduction

of the elaborate Baroque ornamentation to acquire a natural, comprehensible way of

expression.42

3. Conclusion

The preoccupation with national style at the start of the eighteenth century signified the

diversity of European music. Italy and France developed their own musical styles in the

seventeenth century; however, through international travel and printing, musicians became

interested in foreign colors, and the persistence of distinct national styles eventually yielded. The

public taste, particularly in France and Germany, gradually shifted to a synthetic flavor, a

38 Sheldon, “The Concept Galant in the 18th Century,” 92.

39 Heinichen stated that when the leading note in the bass line progresses to notes other than the resolution, the bass line does not leave unresolved; instead, the resolution appears in the upper part, thus producing the voice- exchange. Heinichen also dealt with the subject of dissonance resolving to dissonance. See Sheldon, “The Galant Style Revisited and Re-Evaluated,” 266–67.

40 “Galant,” Oxford Music Online.

41 Daniel Heartz, Music in European Capitals: The Galant Style, 1720–1780 (New York: W. W. Norton & Company), 19.

42 Sheldon, “The Concept Galant in the 18th Century,” 92.

32 mixture of musical style. Couperin’s goûts-réünis and Quantz’s vermischter Geschmack typified this synthesis phenomenon. Around 1720, the operatic arias of Leonardo Vinci (1690–1730) had made his name the pioneer of a new style known as the style galant. viewed

Vinci as the first to depart from the older style “by simplifying and polishing melody, and calling the attention of the audience chiefly to the voice-part, by disentangling it from , complication and labored contrivance.” 43 Vinci’s lighter and gracious style was praised and followed by Hasse and Pergolesi. Although this fashionable Italian style happened in the realm of opera, instrumental music also felt the influence of this emerging trend. To be sure, the rise of the new galant style did not erase the older Baroque style; they instead coexisted and were blended ingeniously during the first half of the eighteenth century. In this chapter, the identification of distinctive stylistic features has helped us gain an understanding of the influence and progression of musical style, and this foundation will help with the examination of the bassoon sonatas in the following chapters.

43 “Galant,” Oxford Music Online.

33 CHAPTER 3

Georg Philipp Telemann, Sonata in F minor for Bassoon and Basso Continuo, (1728)

The next four chapters will present a background and examination for each of the four bassoon sonatas. I will investigate their early eighteenth-century stylistic elements, including their Italian and French national traits, their Baroque traits, and the newly emerging galant stylistic fashion. I will identify these features by examining aspects of melodic and rhythmic writing, harmonic rhythm, and formal structure. From these chapters, we will see how these four sonatas reflect a synthesis of contemporary stylistic currents.

1. Telemann in the 1720s–30s

An offer from the Hanseatic city-state of in 1721 started Telemann’s musical connection to that port city. Telemann assumed the position of cantor of the Johanneum

Lateinschule (Johanneum Latin School), as well as the of Hamburg’s five main churches. His official duties included instructing the singing, theory, and music history for the schoolboys of the Lateinschule; composing two for each Sunday and a new Passion for

Lent; and organizing music for induction ceremonies and church consecrations.1 In addition,

Telemann was responsible for providing the so-called Kapitänsmusik for the yearly celebrations of the city’s militia officers.2 Outside his official duties, Telemann also gave public concerts. To facilitate these, he revived a and initiated in 1721 a series of weekly public

1 Steven Zohn, “Telemann, Georg Philipp,” Grove Music Online, Oxford Music Online, Oxford University Press, accessed May 4, 2017, http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com.proxy.libraries.uc.edu/subscriber/article/grove/music/27635.

2 Ibid.

34 concerts in every winter season.3 The free, wealthy, and lively musical culture of cosmopolitan

Hamburg helped Telemann to explore the various national musical styles, and this was reflected

in his public concerts. His program notes for the opening of the Collegium series demonstrated

his awareness of the current trends:

The flattering passages contained in Italian movements, the unaffected cheerfulness flowing from the Frenchman’s songs; the sprightly, contrapuntal nature of the British; even what the Poles have sought out for their pleasures, where jest has devoted itself to music: through his pen, his mouth and his hand, the industrious German will here present all this for the glory of his country and the pleasure of his listeners.4

Telemann also assumed the directorship of the Gänsemarkt opera house in 1722. During

the 1720s, Telemann composed either comic or serious operas containing comic elements

for the Hamburg stage.5 This was due to the rise of comic opera in the eighteenth century and its

growing popularity among Hamburg bourgeois audiences. Telemann thus had an opportunity to

gain familiarity with the emerging new Italian style. His best-known opera, (1725), evidently signaled his stylistic shift.6

Beginning in 1725, Telemann also engaged in the music publishing field. His first

publications were mostly of vocal works. However, with the growing number of amateur

instrumentalists among Germany’s urban middle class, Telemann, as a smart businessman who

observed this potential market and recognized it as a supplement for his income, started to

publish instrumental music in 1728 and continued until 1740.7 During these twelve years, he

3 Ibid.

4 Translated by Douglas Brian Stewart in his “Georg Philipp Telemann in Hamburg: Social and Cultural Background and its Musical Expression” (PhD diss., Stanford University, 1985), 109.

5 Ibid., 113.

6 Ibid., 115.

7 Roberta Jeanne Swack, “The Solo Sonatas of Georg Philipp Telemann: A Study of the Sources and Musical Style” (PhD diss., Yale University, 1988), 81.

35 published fifty-three solo sonatas in seven collections, and this total included the Sonata in F

minor, published in the periodical Der Getreue Music-Meister (1728–29).

2. Der Getreue Music-Meister (1728–29)

On November 13, 1728, Telemann published the first issue of his music periodical Der

Getreue Music-Meister. This biweekly journal ran for a period of fifty weeks until November

1729. Brian Douglas Stewart has made a connection between Telemann’s publications and

Enlightenment philosophy.8 Telemann joined Hamburg’s rich intellectual life from his first years

in the city, and he became closely associated with the Patriotische Gesellschaft, a circle of

Hamburg intellectuals. Stewart claims that the tie to intellectuals must have made Telemann

familiar with one of the chief aims of the Enlightenment: to improve society through education.9

This was expressed in the preface to Der Getreue Music-Meister, which Telemann claimed was the first music journal to appear in Germany; its dedicatees were the dilettante public of

Hamburg. In this periodical, Telemann provided his own vocal and instrumental works, but he also included compositions by other musicians such as J. S. Bach, Pisendel, and Zelenka.10

Music by these leading composers helped the journal’s subscribers to distinguish among various

national styles and among church, chamber, and theatrical styles.11 The publication included

pieces for harpsichord as well as , duets, and a complete series of sonatas for every type of

instrument—not only for the violin, flute, and oboe, but also for the newly introduced oboe

8 Stewart, “Georg Philipp Telemann in Hamburg,” 121.

9 Ibid., 122.

10 “Georg Philipp Telemann,” Oxford Music Online.

11 Swack, “The Solo Sonatas of Georg Philipp Telemann,” 88.

36 d’amore, , and bassoon, which Telemann referred to by its Italian name of fagotto.12

The Sonata in F minor “a fagotto solo” was included in issues #11–#14.

3. Sonata in F minor for Bassoon and Basso Continuo

The sonatas of Corelli remained the model in the first decade of the eighteenth century for compositions in the Italian style. Telemann continues this tradition in this sonata by adopting the slow-fast-slow-fast four-movement structure. He also titles each movement except the first

with Italian tempo terminology, a practice modeled on the paradigms

standardized by Corelli. Telemann seems to favor a crossover usage between the church and

chamber sonata types common in Corelli’s time, and he casts the finale in a lively, dance-based

3/8 meter in a balanced binary form.13 Like Corelli’s early sonatas, which generally employed the same key through all movements, Telemann sets this sonata in F minor. The third movement

Andante is noteworthy for opening on a dominant chord and ending on a half cadence within F minor, creating a sense of uncertainty (Example 3.1a). Here Telemann designs the third movement as a bridge linking movements II and IV, and this connective device between movements can also be found in Corelli’s works.14 Furthermore, the ending dominant is

achieved by a Phrygian cadence, a device Corelli frequently employed (Example 3.1b).

12 Telemann: A Fagotto Solo, recorded with Elsa Frank, hautbois et flute à bec; Ruth van Killegem, flute à bec; Stéphanie de Failly, violon; Bernard Woltèche, violoncelle; Jérémie Papasergio, basson et direction, RIC 314, 2011, CD.

13 “Georg Philipp Telemann,” Oxford Music Online.

14 The third movement of Corelli’s Trio Sonata, Op. 3, No. 2, is an example of a half-cadence ending.

37 Example 3.1a. Telemann, Sonata in F minor for bassoon and basso continuo, III, mm. 1–2.

(Reproduced by permission of Amadeus Verlag, Winterthur/Schweiz)

Example 3.1b. Telemann, Sonata in F minor for bassoon and basso continuo, III, mm. 15–16.

(Reproduced by permission of Amadeus Verlag, Winterthur/Schweiz)

During the 1720s, Telemann engaged in writing operas and sacred cantatas. Collections such as the Harmonischer Gottes-Dienst, Lustige Arien aus der Opera Adelheid, and Pimpinone were published around this time.15 It is thus not surprising to see his incorporation of vocal idioms into instrumental works. A glance at the melody of the slow movements of Telemann’s sonatas reveals his penchant for the “singing” style of vocal melodies.16 Example 3.2a shows

15 Steven David Zohn, Music for a Mixed Taste: Style, Genre, and Meaning in Telemann’s Instrumental Works (New York: Oxford University Press, 2008), 400.

16 Swack, “The Solo Sonatas of Georg Philipp Telemann,” 123.

38 aspects of the Affettuoso style Telemann incorporates in the first slow movement: wide melodic leaps; the prevailing dispirited, descending phrase-ending figures typifying the lament; and the downbeat rests in almost every phrase, so especially affective for depicting sorrow. Unlike

Corelli’s slow movements, which are usually accompanied with a steady walking bass to keep the pace, Telemann, on the contrary, scatters chordal accompaniment with rests. This unsteady bass accompaniment creates within the movement a sense of , which can be seen in the opening eight measures, where the main theme is clearly demonstrated. Also characteristic of opera is the echo effect. This is best heard in the slow movements, such as in the ascending and descending chromatic phrases passed between solo and continuo parts near the first movement’s end (Example 3.2b), and in the motivic interplay in the third movement (discussed below).17 All the vocal features together with the descending chromatic lines vividly express Telemann’s designation for this movement: Triste, French for “sad”.18

17 Ibid., 93.

18 Zohn, Music for a Mixed Taste, 403.

39 Example 3.2a. Telemann, Sonata in F minor for bassoon and basso continuo, I, mm. 1–12.

(Reproduced by permission of Amadeus Verlag, Winterthur/Schweiz)

40 Example 3.2b. Telemann, Sonata in F minor for bassoon and basso continuo, I, mm. 29–38.

(Reproduced by permission of Amadeus Verlag, Winterthur/Schweiz)

Telemann couples the recitative-like first movement with the second-movement da capo form; in this he again signifies his operatic manner. Swack states that Telemann prefers to structure sonata movements on the model of the with motto opening, and the

Allegro is a good example.19 In Example 3.3a, we can see that the second movement opens with a double motto. The opening six measures, played by solo bassoon and continuo, present the first motto, which clearly establishes the tonic and dominant; measures 7–8, played by the continuo alone, act as a second motto and function as an interlude.20 The distinction between the two mottos—solo and interlude roles—disappears half way through the A section, where the solo part takes up the interlude motto (Example 3.3b).

19 “Motto” refers to a recurring motif or phrase. Note that the aria Swack mentioned here should refer more explicitly to the overall da capo form.

20 Swack, “The Solo Sonatas of Georg Philipp Telemann,” 126.

41 Example 3.3a. Telemann, Sonata in F minor for bassoon and basso continuo, II, mm. 1–10.

(Reproduced by permission of Amadeus Verlag, Winterthur/Schweiz)

Example 3.3b. Telemann, Sonata in F minor for bassoon and basso continuo, II, mm. 29–31.

(Reproduced by permission of Amadeus Verlag, Winterthur/Schweiz)

Arranging the first and second movements of a sonata as a set of recitative and da capo aria is one of the innovations with which Telemann experiments. However, traditional Baroque elements are still the main ingredients as can be seen in the motivic play in the fast movements.

42 In the second movement Allegro, the seemingly distinctive mottos of both A and B sections are

actually derivative of one rhythmic motif (see Example 3.4a); this motif is subsequently loosely

inverted and becomes the theme of the B section (Example 3.4b). The motif of the fourth movement Vivace does not go through permutation; it is instead transposed intact to the relative major (A♭) in the B section (Example 3.5).

Example 3.4a. Telemann, Sonata in F minor for bassoon and basso continuo, II, mm. 1–2.

(Reproduced by permission of Amadeus Verlag, Winterthur/Schweiz)

Example 3.4b. Telemann, Sonata in F minor for bassoon and basso continuo, II, mm. 53–54.

(Reproduced by permission of Amadeus Verlag, Winterthur/Schweiz)

43 Example 3.5. Telemann, Sonata in F minor for bassoon and basso continuo, IV, motives.

Motif of A section, mm. 1–4

Motif of B section, mm. 23–26

(Reproduced by permission of Amadeus Verlag, Winterthur/Schweiz)

Even though the lyrical slow movements and the motivically driving fast movements sound completely different, it is interesting to see the hidden unity achieved by the common motifs. Among all movements, a decorative “sigh” figure, comprised of three descending notes, appears in the opening measure of the solo part.21 Clothed in varied rhythms—a triplet in the first movement, two eighth-notes plus a quarter note in the second movement, and gradually diminished rhythmic values in the third and fourth movements—Telemann ingeniously achieved thematic unity through this motivic device (Example 3.6). In addition, the decorative “sigh” figure is frequently varied and interplayed between parts in the third movement.

21 Zohn, Music for a Mixed Taste, 403.

44 Example 3.6. Telemann, Sonata in F minor for bassoon and basso continuo, decorative “sigh” figure. I, m. 1, bassoon part.

II, m. 1, bassoon part

III, m. 1, bassoon part

IV, mm. 1–4, bassoon part22

(Reproduced by permission of Amadeus Verlag, Winterthur/Schweiz)

Because of his activity as an opera composer and publisher, Telemann was aware of new musical currents, and we can see this influence in his adoption of the galant style in this sonata.

As shown in Table 3.1, in only thirty-eight measures of the first movement, Telemann already places eleven cadences. The phrases are therefore frequently demarcated by periodic cadences.

The opening eight measures sound galant in that the phrase is balanced with a 4 + 4 structure; however, both sub-phrases are tonally closed, the first in F minor, the second in A♭major.

Telemann’s phrasing reflects the incipient galant style; the antecedent-consequent phrase structure had not yet arrived.

22 Note that the unifying motif in the finale appears ascending at the beginning, and the descending figure is deferred to m. 3.

45 Table 3.1. Telemann, Sonata in F minor for bassoon and basso continuo, I, cadence and key structure.

Measure 4 8 12 14 19 22 24 26 28 34 38 Cadence PAC PAC HC HC PAC IAC IAC V V PAC PAC

23 Fm Cm Cm Fm Fm Key A♭M B♭m A♭M

The phrase structure in the movement III is similar to movement I in its symmetrical plan.

The whole movement shows a 6 + 6 construction with an additional 4-measure dominant pedal prolonged to the end. The first phrase can be subdivided into 3 + 3; however, the second sub- phrase does not carry new material (Example 3.7). Still preserving the melodic contour (m. 1 and m. 4 are the same), this sub-phrase starts on the relative major (A♭) in m. 4, and reaches the destination of B♭minor in mm. 6–7. In hindsight, we can see the stereotypical galant melodic contour starting to take shape, but Telemann does not quite form here a typical “question-answer” pattern.

23 The abbreviation “m” in lower case refers to the minor key, and “M” in capital refers to the major key.

46 Example 3.7. Telemann, Sonata in F minor for bassoon and basso continuo, III, mm. 1–7.

(Reproduced by permission of Amadeus Verlag, Winterthur/Schweiz)

In addition to the triplets that Telemann uses as the decorative sigh figure in movement I, the appoggiatura figure, a nearly ubiquitous characteristic of the galant period, can be seen in movement III. In Example 3.8, the sentimental atmosphere is especially effective when the drooping figures end consecutive phrases, the first time on the third of the dominant chord, the second time on the fifth (see the circles). Telemann perfectly conveys the gradually growing anxiety through this progression. Other typical galant features, such as syncopated rhythm and

47 drum bass accompaniment, appear in the fast movements. The harmonic rhythm is often in a rate of one or two chords per measure, except in places that approach the dominant, where the chords change on almost every beat. In Example 3.9, the regular rate of two chords per measure accelerates to one chord per measure when driving to the half cadence of C minor.

Example 3.8. Telemann, Sonata in F minor for bassoon and basso continuo, III, mm. 13–14.

(Reproduced by permission of Amadeus Verlag, Winterthur/Schweiz)

Example 3.9. Telemann, Sonata in F minor for bassoon and basso continuo, II, mm. 16–20.

(Reproduced by permission of Amadeus Verlag, Winterthur/Schweiz)

The French musical style Telemann cultivated during the 1710s–20s, when he tried to establish the German mixed taste by combining national styles, is not strongly represented in this sonata. Only the ambient title Triste of the first movement of the original edition implies the

French taste.

48 4. Conclusion

Telemann’s interest in the Italian style is certainly present in the bassoon sonata. Its

influence can be tracked in a movement structure modeled on the archaic sonata da chiesa,

within which a through-composed slow Andante with walking-bass accompaniment ends in a

Phrygian cadence. Interwoven with this older Corelli-inspired style, we discover features of the newly emerging Italian style, with which Telemann became fascinated during the late 1720s. The modish galant hallmarks that he applies in this sonata—periodic phrases articulated with frequent cadences, slower harmonic rhythm, and rhythmic variety—exhibit Telemann’s eagerness to embrace new stylistic trends. Telemann’s adoption of the galant style remains, however, in the “early” galant model because of the fact that most of the movements carry only one theme; the seemingly new second theme in the B section of the da capo in movement II is only an extension of the main theme of the A section arranged with motivic play. Thematic contrast and development, characteristic of the newer type of melodic growth, are lacking. For this reason, this sonata retains the traditional Baroque manner in which a single affect dominates each movement. In opposition to the galant style’s increasing use of “polar” key relationships, this sonata still maintains the Baroque practice in which a “solar” type of key scheme is explored, such as the visits to C minor, B♭minor, and A♭major in movement I, and E♭major in the movement II.24 This sonata displays the ongoing influence of earlier Italian practices among

German composers while also incorporating the new galant idiom, presenting a mixture of old and new Italian styles.

24 Leonard G. Ratner uses the term “polar” to describe the contrasting type of key arrangement, such as the original key and its relative minor or major. See his Classic Music: Expression, Form, and Style (New York: Schirmer Books, 1980), 48–51.

49 CHAPTER 4

Johann Friedrich Fasch, Sonata in C major for Bassoon and Basso Continuo (c. 1721–22)

1. Fasch’s Early Life to the 1720s

A contemporary of and , Johann Friedrich

Fasch was one of Germany’s leading composers in the first half of the eighteenth century. Fasch was born on April 15, 1688, in Buttelstedt, near , and died in Anhalt-Zerbst in 1758. He was a boy soprano in the towns of Suhl and Weissenfels. At age 13, ’s ,

Johann Kuhnau, heard his singing and invited him to attend the Thomasschule, where he became friends with the twenty-year-old Georg Philipp Telemann. However, Fasch’s musical training and activity while in Leipzig were not successful. Unable to afford lessons, he taught himself to play the violin and keyboard instruments, and his inspiration to compose came from the influence of his friend Telemann. Fasch once stated that:

Finally I had the audacity, since the Telemann overtures were well-known…I had learned everything at that time from the works of my most esteemed and beloved friend, Kapellmeister Telemann, because for me they, especially the overtures, constantly served as models.1

In 1708, Fasch began his studies in theology at the University in Leipzig. Like Telemann

before him, Fasch also studied law and formed his own ensemble, the “Second Collegium

Musicum,” which included as members Johann David Heinichen, Johann Georg Pisendel, and

Gottfried Heinrich Stölzel.2 As director of this society, Fasch had the chance to study a wide

1 David Alden Sheldon, “The Chamber Music of Johann Friedrich Fasch” (PhD diss., Indiana University, 1968), 18.

2 “Johann Friedrich Fasch,” International Fasch Society, accessed February 15, 2017, http://www.fasch.net/?sprache=en&faschs.

50 variety of music and perform concerts in public. As the membership increased, the range of

instruments broadened. Consequently, Fasch was able to experiment with various arrangements,

and his Collegium Musicum entered into a friendly rivalry with the one formed six years earlier

by Telemann and later taken over by J. S. Bach.

In 1711–13, Fasch wrote his first opera, Comire, for the Peter-Paul Fairs in Naumburg commissioned by the Duke Moritz Wilhelm of Sachsen-Zeitz, and later wrote other two, Lucius

Verus and Die getreue Dido, for the Court of Zeitz during this time.3 From then on, Fasch’s fame

started to grow as the three operas achieved great success. In order to perfect his compositional skills, Fasch asked the Duke to financially support travel to Italy, but he succeeded in obtaining only a trip to the Court of Gotha.4 In 1713 he traveled and performed throughout Germany and

central Europe, finally arriving at in 1714, where he spent nearly three months

studying composition with the Kapellmeister, , and the concertmaster,

Gottfried Grünewald.5 After the trip, Fasch took several jobs, one of them as a violinist in the

Bayreuth court during the Carnival season of 1714. Despite the occasional nature of

this engagement, it provides one of the few pieces of evidence showing Fasch’s ability on this

instrument, and as we will see, he must have had the violin in mind when composing his sonata

for bassoon.6

3 Ibid.

4 Ibid.

5 Gottfried Küntzel and Barbara M. Reul, “Fasch, Johann Friedrich,” Grove Music Online, Oxford Music Online, Oxford University Press, accessed February 11, 2017, http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com.proxy.libraries.uc.edu/subscriber/article/grove/music/09346.

6 Sheldon, “The Chamber Music of Johann Friedrich Fasch,” 22.

51 2. Sonata in C major for Bassoon and Basso Continuo

The composition year of Fasch’s Sonata in C major for Bassoon and Basso Continuo

remains obscure, as does the identity of its dedicatee. In 1717, Fasch married for the first time

and in 1719 moved to Greiz. In 1720, his wife died after giving birth to their second child, who

passed away in the following year. After burying his wife and their second child, and waiting in

vain to be paid for his services as organist and town clerk in Greiz, Fasch left for in 1721

to accept employment as Componist for Count Wenzel von Morzin and his famous orchestra in

Lukaveč, Bohemia.7 He remained at the court until summer 1722. With Count Morzin, a man

whom Vivaldi indicated as the dedicatee of his Four Seasons, Fasch found very refined courtly

musicians to work with and perfect his chamber music. The connection with Count Morzin and

his talented musicians thus makes likely a composition date of 1721–22 for this sonata.8

Continuing the Corellian sonata convention, this work is structured in the sonata da

chiesa format with four movements in the slow-fast-slow-fast order and with abstract movement

titles. Fasch juxtaposes elements of the sonata da chiesa and , as Telemann

does in his sonata, especially in the finale, a binary form in a dancing 3/8 meter. The binary form

is the only form Fasch uses throughout the sonata. While the binary form in Telemann’s sonata is

structured in parallel, with the two halves of each movement roughly of the same length, Fasch

lengthens the second parts, particularly in the fast movements II and IV. This expansion of form

also displays rounded binary form as some or all of the opening material from the first part return

at the end of the movements (see Examples 4.1a and 4.1b).

7 “Fasch, Johann Friedrich,” Oxford Music Online.

8 Johann Friedrich Fasch, Trios & Sonatas, recorded with Petr Zeifart, recorder; Alessandro Piqué, oboe; Sergio Azzolini, bassoon; Veronika Skuplik, violin; Ilze Grudule, violoncello; Matthias Spaeter, arciliuto; Christoph Lehmann; harpsichord and organ, Epoca Barocca CPO777 204-2, 2007, CD.

52 Example 4.1a. Fasch, Sonata in C major for bassoon and basso continuo, II, statements.

Opening statement, mm. 1–3, bassoon part.

Closing statement, mm. 36–39, bassoon part.

Johann Friedrich Fasch, Sonate C-Dur für Fagott und Basso continuo © Copyright 1989 by Universal Edition A.G., Wien/UE 18128

Example 4.1b. Fasch, Sonata in C major for bassoon and basso continuo, IV, statements.

Opening statement, mm. 1–8, bassoon part.

Closing statement, mm. 93–101, bassoon part.

Johann Friedrich Fasch, Sonate C-Dur für Fagott und Basso continuo © Copyright 1989 by Universal Edition A.G., Wien/UE 18128

The melodic style in the fast movements II and IV is designed differently from the slow movements. The fast movements feature Italian violinistic figuration reminiscent of Vivaldi, such as arpeggiated and scalar passages, and alternations between a static note and changing notes similar to the stringed instrument technique bariolage (Example 4.2).9 Other figurations include melodic turns on chord tones. Frequently Fasch notates these figurations in thirty-second notes without slurs, which at a fast tempo requires fast tonguing or even double tonguing to dazzle the audience (Example 4.3). Like Vivaldi, Fasch complicates all these devices by requiring the performer to execute them in passages involving wide ranges. This can be seen in

9 David Schulenberg, Music of the Baroque, 3rd ed. (New York: Oxford University Press, 2014), 331.

53 Example 4.4, where figurations with leaping intervals between notes pose particular challenges even to modern bassoonists.

Example 4.2. Fasch, Sonata in C major for bassoon and basso continuo, IV, m. 12, bassoon part, bariolage figuration.

Johann Friedrich Fasch, Sonate C-Dur für Fagott und Basso continuo © Copyright 1989 by Universal Edition A.G., Wien/UE 18128

Example 4.3. Fasch, Sonata in C major for bassoon and basso continuo, IV, mm. 25–26, bassoon part.

Johann Friedrich Fasch, Sonate C-Dur für Fagott und Basso continuo © Copyright 1989 by Universal Edition A.G., Wien/UE 18128

Example 4.4. Fasch, Sonata in C major for bassoon and basso continuo, II, mm. 29–32, bassoon part.

Johann Friedrich Fasch, Sonate C-Dur für Fagott und Basso continuo © Copyright 1989 by Universal Edition A.G., Wien/UE 18128

Topping off the technical challenge is Fasch’s thorough exploitation of the baroque bassoon’s range. While Telemann’s sonata was written for amateurs, with a limited range and easier manipulation of technique, Fasch’s runs from the lowest note, C2, to the highest note, G4, in fast movements, leaving no time for preparation but demanding exquisite execution. This

Vivaldian manner of composition possibly comes from Fasch’s understanding of the violin’s

54 technical capabilities, yet despite the similarities in writing and the obvious technical demands, the sonata is idiomatic to the bassoon. Fasch’s oeuvre includes only two compositions for bassoon solo. The Sonata in C Major is one of these, and he does not treat it lightly. Instead, his intention to showcase the virtuosic side of the bassoon was already evident.

Compared to the Italianate flavor of the fast movements, the melodies of the slow movements in this sonata are, however, not in the Italian arioso style with florid ornamentation.

Instead, they are mostly motive-derived and decorated with French-style dotted rhythmic figures and trills, abounding conspicuously in the third movement in particular. Fasch not only adopts the typical French dotted rhythm, but varies it with an elaborate dotted thirty-second-note pattern

(Example 4.5). This rhythmic elaboration in small note values is characteristic of the emerging galant style, which tends to ornament the melody with rhythmic variety, as Fasch shows in his sonata. Descending operatic “sighing” appoggiaturas, either written as grace notes or normally sized, are also a galant device (Example 4.6).

Example 4.5. Fasch, Sonata in C major for bassoon and basso continuo, I, m. 8, bassoon part.

Johann Friedrich Fasch, Sonate C-Dur für Fagott und Basso continuo © Copyright 1989 by Universal Edition A.G., Wien/UE 18128

Example 4.6. Fasch, Sonata in C major for bassoon and basso continuo, III, m. 4, bassoon part.

Johann Friedrich Fasch, Sonate C-Dur für Fagott und Basso continuo © Copyright 1989 by Universal Edition A.G., Wien/UE 18128

55 Fasch’s experiment with the new style galant can also be seen in the phrasing. The opening statements of movements III and IV are constructed in periodic sub-phrases. In the third movement, the statement is divided into 2 + 2 + 2: the first sub-phrase slightly hesitates on a i6 harmony in m. 2, the second pauses on V/V in m. 4, and the last stops on the tonicized dominant in m. 6 (Example 4.7a). The fourth movement begins with 4 + 4 phrasing: the first sub-phrase ends on an imperfect authentic cadence in m. 4 and the second ends on a half cadence in m. 8

(Example 4.7b). In a stereotypical galant phrase from later in the eighteenth century, a symmetrical, clearly articulated antecedent-consequent structure would eventually lead to a decisive cadence. However, the melodies in Examples 4.7a and 4.7b still carry on while cadences happen, meaning that there is no clear rest between sub-phrases. In this respect, Fasch’s galant style of phrasing reflects an early-century ideal. Along with Fasch’s periodic phrasing, we find still other galant features such as occasional phrase repetitions in movements I and II (Example

4.8).10

Example 4.7a. Fasch, Sonata in C major for bassoon and basso continuo, III, mm. 1–6.

Johann Friedrich Fasch, Sonate C-Dur für Fagott und Basso continuo © Copyright 1989 by Universal Edition A.G., Wien/UE 18128

10 Sheldon, “The Chamber Music of Johann Friedrich Fasch,” 71.

56 Example 4.7b. Fasch, Sonata in C major for bassoon and basso continuo, IV, mm. 1–8.

Johann Friedrich Fasch, Sonate C-Dur für Fagott und Basso continuo © Copyright 1989 by Universal Edition A.G., Wien/UE 18128

Example 4.8. Fasch, Sonata in C major for bassoon and basso continuo, I, mm. 11–13, bassoon part.

Johann Friedrich Fasch, Sonate C-Dur für Fagott und Basso continuo © Copyright 1989 by Universal Edition A.G., Wien/UE 18128

Except for the galant contour of the short opening statement, the phrasing in movement

IV remains in the style of conventional Baroque Fortspinnung. For example, the first reprise of

the finale comprises four phrases: an eight-measure opening, a twelve-measure sequential phrase,

an eight-measure dominant-pedal phrase, and a fourteen-measure closing phrase. The

imbalanced pattern of a short phrase followed by a much longer phrase without clearly

articulated internal cadences exhibits a Baroque manner of phrasing.

Also reflecting Baroque practice is Fasch’s tendency toward themes lacking topical or

affective variety. Examples 4.9a through 4.9d offer representative examples.11 In movement I,

11 Michael Saffle states that topoi, or “topics,” are one of the key elements that distinguish pre-Classical and Classical compositions from those of the Baroque. He refers specifically to the idea of diversity, and contrast is one of the ways to achieve diversity in emotion, motive, rhythm, texture, etc. While Baroque instrumental compositions generally have a single topic, pre-Classic and Classical compositions contain two or more. See Saffle’s “Of Fasch, Topoi, and pre-Classical Style,” in Nationalstile und Europäisches Denken in Der Musik von Fasch und Seinen Zeitgenossen, ed. Konstanze Musketa (Dessau: Anhaltische Verlagsgesellschaft, 1997): 55–59.

57 the opening melody of the second reprise contains no new topics; it instead retains the downward melodic contour of the opening melody of the first reprise and augments the note values of the phrase’s ending (see Example 4.9a). Similar to movement I, the opening statement of movement

III continues the dotted rhythmic ideas from the first reprise (see Example 4.9b). In the fast movements II and IV, except for key transposition, the syntax of the second reprises’ openings is identical to that of the first reprises (Examples 4.9c and 4.9d). Accordingly, this sonata has only a single topic or affect in each movement.

Example 4.9a. Fasch, Sonata in C major for bassoon and basso continuo, I, openings.

First reprise opening, mm. 1–2, bassoon part.

Second reprise opening, m. 8, bassoon part.

Johann Friedrich Fasch, Sonate C-Dur für Fagott und Basso continuo © Copyright 1989 by Universal Edition A.G., Wien/UE 18128

Example 4.9b. Fasch, Sonata in C major for bassoon and basso continuo, III, openings.

First reprise opening, mm. 1–2, bassoon part.

Second reprise opening, mm. 7–8, bassoon part.

Johann Friedrich Fasch, Sonate C-Dur für Fagott und Basso continuo © Copyright 1989 by Universal Edition A.G., Wien/UE 18128

58 Example 4.9c. Fasch, Sonata in C major for bassoon and basso continuo, II, openings.

First reprise opening, mm. 1–3, bassoon part.

Second reprise opening, mm. 15–18, bassoon part.

Johann Friedrich Fasch, Sonate C-Dur für Fagott und Basso continuo © Copyright 1989 by Universal Edition A.G., Wien/UE 18128

Example 4.9d. Fasch, Sonata in C major for bassoon and basso continuo, IV, openings.

First reprise opening, mm. 1–8, bassoon part.

Second reprise opening, mm. 43–50, bassoon part.

Johann Friedrich Fasch, Sonate C-Dur für Fagott und Basso continuo © Copyright 1989 by Universal Edition A.G., Wien/UE 18128

Fasch employs the key of C major in his two works for bassoon solo, this sonata and the concerto for bassoon. The reason for choosing this particular key is unknown; his preference for major tonality coincides with the galant predilection for the major mode.12 In the C-major movements (I, II, and IV), Fasch frequently visits the relative minor (A minor), the dominant (G major), and the dominant’s relative minor (E minor). He makes less use of the subdominant (F major) and its relative minor (D minor). The key relationships within movements conform to what Ratner calls a “solar” relationship, in which tonality traverses the closely related key areas

12 David Alden Sheldon, “Johann Friedrich Fasch: Problems in Style Classification,” The Musical Quarterly 58, no. 1 (1972): 113. Fasch’s preference for major keys can also be found in other instrumental works, including chamber music and concerti. Excluding FaWV M: a1 and FaWV M: g1, his remaining seventeen sinfonias are also in major keys.

59 in an orbit around the principal key of C major (or A minor in movement III), as opposed to the

Classical “polar” key relationship, which emphasizes main two keys, the major tonic and its

dominant (or, less commonly, relative major when the tonic is minor).13 Fasch’s sonata still

reflects the Baroque manner regarding its key relationships. Concerning the harmonic

progression, the French style of ambiguous tonality clouded by a sense of modality is not found

in this sonata; it is instead in the Italian style with a clearly defined emphasis on I, IV, and V

chords.14 Furthermore, when there are modulations, there are clear cadences announcing the

ending of the previous tonality. The transitional keys are also explicitly addressed with cadences

as well.

While Fasch’s key relationships reflect a generally conservative, Baroque approach, we

do find a few galant mannerisms in his freer handling of dissonance. In Example 4.10, the viiº6

chord in m. 8 does not progress as expected to the tonic chord of A minor, but to a VI6 chord that

proceeds to the dominant; the feeling of suspension created by the viiº6 chord sustains until the

resolution on the downbeat of the next measure.15

13 Leonard G. Ratner, Classic Music: Expression, Form, and Style (New York: Schirmer Books, 1980), 48– 50.

14 Jean-Christophe Maillard, “From Corelli’s Italian Sonata to Couperin’s French Sonade: An Example of Musical Interaction, and the Origin of the Goûts Réunis in the First Years of the Eighteenth Century,” in Collected Work: Dzielo Muzyczne I jego rezonans. IV. Series: Praca Zbiorowa, no. 26 (Bydgoszcz, Poland: Wydawnictwo Uczelniane, 2008): 37.

15 Sheldon, “The Chamber Music of Johann Friedrich Fasch,” 206.

60 Example 4.10. Fasch, Sonata in C major for bassoon and basso continuo, I, mm. 7–9.

Johann Friedrich Fasch, Sonate C-Dur für Fagott und Basso continuo © Copyright 1989 by Universal Edition A.G., Wien/UE 18128

This novel way of treating dissonance is also apparent in the second movement (Example

4.11). Here Fasch has the bassoon play the same melodic pattern three times, changing only the note B to B♭, and leaving the ear to catch the harmonic change happening in the continuo. This effect is intensified by the rests placed on beats 2 and 4. The change of chords is clearly presented. We can hear that the G-major chord goes to the surprising E♭major. This borrowed sixth chord from the parallel G minor is foreign to the G-major key system, which has been firmly established by a circle-of-fifths harmonic progression. Fasch’s audacity continues as this

♭VI chord proceeds to the secondary diminished-seventh chord. Here, we expect Fasch to resolve to according to the traditional harmonic rule. What happens instead is that Fasch avoids the D major chord and turns instead to a D7 harmony, made even more unstable with the seventh (C) in the bass. This dominant-seventh chord properly resolves to a tonic, G-major chord in on the next beat and achieves a satisfactory perfect authentic cadence in m. 14.

Within the context of simple, diatonic harmonies, this fleeting harmonic surprise truly reflects

Fasch’s galant practice.

61 Example 4.11. Fasch, Sonata in C major for bassoon and basso continuo, II, mm. 8–14.

Johann Friedrich Fasch, Sonate C-Dur für Fagott und Basso continuo © Copyright 1989 by Universal Edition A.G., Wien/UE 18128

Another of Fasch’s galant traits is a particular cadential form, known as the cadence galante.16 Heartz introduces two types of cadences frequently found in eighteenth-century galant

6 music; among them the cadence galante is familiar to the ear, with a I6–IV (or ii 5)–V–I ending, usually adorned with the treble part descending.17 There are two places in Fasch’s sonata to find this typical galant cadence, and he treats them differently. In Example 4.11, the bassoon’s descending line (m. 14) is dressed in a sixteenth-note triplet figure, another galant idiom, and in

Example 4.12, it is adorned with a dotted rhythmic figure (m. 6).

16 Daniel Heartz, Music in European Capitals: The Galant Style, 1720–1780 (New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 2003), 23. Robert O. Gjerdingen also discusses the galant cadence in detail along with other varieties. See his “Clausulae” chapter in Music in the Galant Style (New York: Oxford University Press, 2007), 139–76.

17 Heartz, 23.

62 Example 4.12. Fasch, Sonata in C major for bassoon and basso continuo, III, mm. 4–6.

Johann Friedrich Fasch, Sonate C-Dur für Fagott und Basso continuo © Copyright 1989 by Universal Edition A.G., Wien/UE 18128

Fasch presents two styles of harmonic rhythm in this sonata. The slow movements I and

III have a faster harmonic rhythm accompanied by an active, stepwise, and melodic walking bass typical of the Baroque. The fast movements II and IV, on the other hand, have a slower harmonic rhythm. Movement II contains mostly one to two chords per measure except in places having a drive-to-the-cadence tendency, either in chains of dominant harmonies (see m. 9–10 in Example

4.11) or non-modulating (see m. 31 and mm. 33–35 in Example 4.13). The ratio slows even more in the finale, which generally contains only one chord per measure. The slower harmonic rhythm in the fast movements displays the galant style.

Example 4.13. Fasch, Sonata in C major for bassoon and basso continuo, II, mm. 30–38.

Johann Friedrich Fasch, Sonate C-Dur für Fagott und Basso continuo © Copyright 1989 by Universal Edition A.G., Wien/UE 18128

63 3. Conclusion

In 1902, brought the first modern attention to the musical importance of

Fasch. He regarded Fasch as “one of the most important pioneers of the new manner of writing with which Haydn and Mozart entirely replaced the old.”18 Riemann’s statement concerning

Fasch’s style came from his impression of Fasch’s overture composition; it is, however, a misrepresentation and over-generalization. Seventy years later, David Sheldon reinvestigated

Fasch’s instrumental works and presented his conflicting opinions to Riemann’s conclusion.

Sheldon argued that, even though Fasch showed his galant concept in compositions predating

1720, Fasch was “basically a Baroque composer,” and this is the case in this sonata.19 Indebted to the Italian style, this sonata exhibits a simple and clear tonality and Vivaldian bravura, mixing these features with a touch of French elements, such as dotted rhythms in combination with trills in the slow movements. At times the galant sense emerges, as when appoggiaturas, rhythmic variety, short phrases in balanced structure (although fragmented), harmonic novelty, and the galant cadence catch our attention. But the broader picture, including irregular phrase lengths,

Fortspinnung, and the lack of contrasting Affekte places this sonata in the ground of the Baroque.

18 Quoted in Sheldon, “Johann Friedrich Fasch: Problems in Style Classification,” 98.

19 Ibid., 116.

64 CHAPTER 5

Luigi Merci, Sonata for Bassoon (Violoncello) and Basso Continuo, Op. 3, No. 4 (1735)

1. Background

A celebrated recorder player, Luigi Merci (ca. 1695–ca. 1750) was probably of French origins but was considered by some of his contemporaries to be English. The uncertainty of his family history has caused difficulty in identifying his nationality. Records show that on July 26,

1708, Merci played his second performance in public after he arrived in England.1 From that time, Merci recognized himself as sharing British nationality, and a statement from Sir John

Hawkins’s A General History of the Science and Practice of Music (1776) seems to corroborate this:

Lewis, Mercy or Merci, an Englishman by birth, though his name imparts him to have been of French extraction…He seems to have been fearful of being mistaken for a Frenchman, for in the title page of one of his publications he styles himself ‘di Nazione Inglesa.’2

1 David Lasocki, “Mercy, Luis,” Grove Music Online, Oxford Music Online, Oxford University Press, accessed February 11, 2017, http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com.proxy.libraries.uc.edu/subscriber/article/grove/music/18437.

2 William Paul Schink, “Four Sonatas for Bassoon and Piano by Lewis Mercy: Edition and Commentary” (DMA thesis, University of Northern Colorado, 1981). The ambiguity surrounding Luigi Merci’s nationality likely contributed to the many alternative spellings of his name in different regions: Lewis/Louis/Luidgi/Luigi/Luis and Merci/Mercy. Because the title page of this set of sonatas, Opus 3, No. 4, shows his name as “Luidgi Merci” (see Figure 1), throughout the document, I will use “Luigi Merci (“d” is omitted for modern spelling) as the primary spelling.

65

Figure 5.1. Merci, Sonata for bassoon (violoncello) and basso continuo, Op. 3, title page. (Reproduced by permission of Medici Music Press, St. Cloud, MN)

In 1718, Merci joined the service of James Brydges, Earl of Caernarvon (later the first

Duke of Chandos) at Cannons, Middlesex, and became a musician of the Cannons Concerts.3

Brydges, best remembered as a patron of George Frederick Handel, used to hire young servant- musicians in his Palladian palace at Cannons.4 Brydges offered these servants, in addition to the housekeeping duties, music study both with the musical director of Cannons, Johann Christoph

Pepusch, and Handel.5 Merci’s contact with Handel continued even after he left Brydges’s service a month later, after playing “a concerto and solo” for the recorder in a benefit concert at

Hickford's Room in February 1719.6 His refined skill on the recorder must have caught Handel’s attention, and for this reason, the latter composed the part for treble recorder in the air

3 Ibid., 2.

4 Ibid.

5 Ibid.

6 David Lasocki, “Mercy, Luis,” Oxford Music Online.

66 “O ruddier than the cherry” in the masque Acis and Galatea, which was premiered at Cannons in

1720.7

Merci lived at a time when the transverse or German flute gradually replaced the recorder

in England.8 Still fascinated by the older instrument’s easier technical manipulation and

intonation control, Merci joined the project of designing a tenor recorder with the renowned

London wind-instrument maker James Stanesby, and he composed two sets of solos (Op. 1 and

Op. 2) for recorder, published in 1718 and 1720, respectively.9 His Op. 3 contained two

collections of sonatas, one for the flute and another, interestingly, for the bassoon. Published

around 1735, the sonatas for bassoon were probably written for Mr. Weston, bassoonist in the

Cannons Concerts, “or that Merci himself doubled on bassoon, a common custom for woodwind

players at the time.”10

2. Sonata for Bassoon (Violoncello) and Basso Continuo, Op. 3, No. 4

Unlike the sonatas by Telemann and Fasch, which both follow the conventional four-

movement scheme of the sonata da chiesa, this sonata is structured in three movements with a

fast-slow-moderate order, an arrangement gradually popularized among eighteenth-century

composers and patterned after the three-movement concerto.11 The organization of the

movement shows a similar modern freedom. Abstract titles are replaced by dance and descriptive

7 Notes from the score’s preface. Luigi Merci, Six Sonatas for Bassoon or Violoncello and Basso Continuo, Opus 3, ed. George Langazo (St. Cloud, MN: Medici Music Press, 1982).

8 CD liner notes. Luigi Merci (1695 ca–1750 ca): Sei sonate per fagotto e basso continuo - op. III (1735), recorded with Paolo Tognon, fagotto solista; Pietro Bosna, violoncello; Paola Frezzato, fagotto continuo; Pietro Prosser, tiorba e chitarra; Roberto Loreggian, clavicembalo, TACTUS TC691301, 1999, CD.

9 Schink, “Four Sonatas for Bassoon and Piano by Lewis Mercy,” 3.

10 Ibid., 4.

11 William S. Newman, The Sonata in the Baroque Era, 3rd ed. (New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 1983), 72.

67 titles, Allemanda, Cantabile, and Minuetto; the Cantabile exhibits the style of a , thus

casting this sonata in a mixture of dance forms. All three movements are in G minor. It is not

unusual to see the moderate-tempo Minuetto being placed in the finale; this practice parallels the

use of a to end contemporary . While the binary form in the Allemanda

remains conventional, the slow Cantabile exhibits Merci’s manipulation of convention. The 3/2

meter and agogic accents on the second beat imply the style of a sarabande (Example 5.1). Yet

the dance’s binary form is not seen here; instead it displays a da capo form. This form often

suggests a contrasting key in the second section, offering a sense of departure, but this is not the

case in this sonata. The beginning of the second section remains in the home key (G minor), and

an opposing key is deferred until quite late, six measures before the end, where the dominant

minor key (D minor) is eventually confirmed.

Example 5.1. Merci, Sonata for bassoon (violoncello) and basso continuo, Op. 3, No. 4, II, mm. 1–4, basso continuo part.

(Reproduced by permission of Medici Music Press, St. Cloud, MN)

The treatment of the tonal structure of the Minuetto finale is rather conventional. In Table

5.1, we can see that the finale is formed in two parts, minuet and trio, each of them a binary form:

||: A :||: BA :||: C :||: DC :||. Tonally, the second A returns to the home key (G minor), although the opening melody does not return. The same thing happens in the second C section of the trio.

68 Table 5.1. Merci, Sonata for bassoon or violoncello and basso continuo, Op. 3, No. 4, III, keys and sectional structure.

Minuet Trio

● ● ● ● ● ● ● Sign ● ● ● ● ● ● ● Measure 1 8 9 20 21 28 29 36 37 44

Tonality12 PAC PAC HC HC PAC Gm GM GM Gm B♭M Section A B A C D C

The lack of melodic return at the end of a binary form was common in the early eighteenth century, and so is the switch between parallel major and minor modes that happens between the minuet and trio. For example, J. S. Bach employed modal mixture frequently in his suites. His

Cello Suite No. 1, sets the Minuet I in G major; Minuet II changes to the parallel minor, which is then followed by a Gigue in G major. Handel also practiced it in his Music for the Royal

Fireworks; an Overture in D major is followed by a Bourrée in D minor, and then La Paix returns to D major. He switches to D minor for the first minuet but finishes in D major with the second. The parallel major key Merci used in the trio section of the finale may have sounded unsurprising to Baroque ears; however, we do not see the use of parallel major or minor keys in

Telemann’s and Fasch’s sonatas. In this regard, Merci’s employment of the tonal areas is freer compared to the other two composers.

While Merci’s tonal structure shows unaccustomed treatment to a certain degree, conventional Baroque traits still prevail regarding the phrasing. In the Allemanda (see Example

5.2), the first reprise opens with a short four-measure phrase that stops at a half cadence in the home key of G minor at m. 4. This D-dominant chord then starts a seven-measure circle-of-fifths progression that eventually winds its way back to a D-dominant chord, which remains

12 The abbreviation “m” in lower case refers to the minor key, and “M” in capital refers to the major key.

69 unresolved and ends the phrase at m. 11. This non-modulatory second phrase is, in essence, a prolongation of the half cadence determined earlier in m. 4. The first reprise is thus made up of two imbalanced phrases, four measures and seven measures long, respectively.

Example 5.2. Merci, Sonata for bassoon or violoncello and basso continuo, Op. 3, No. 4, I, mm. 1–11.

(Reproduced by permission of Medici Music Press, St. Cloud, MN)

The phrasing of the second reprise is, on the contrary, quite regular (see Example 5.3).

The five-measure opening phrase starts in B♭major and ends in the dominant key (D minor) at m. 17. Similar to the first reprise, the D-minor chord activates a succeeding circle-of-fifths harmonic progression, this time modulatory, to the D-major chord at m. 21, which acts as the

70 dominant of the home key. The last phrase, also five measures long, brings the D-major chord back to the tonic.

Example 5.3. Merci, Sonata for bassoon or violoncello and basso continuo, Op. 3, No. 4, I, mm. 11–26.

(Reproduced by permission of Medici Music Press, St. Cloud, MN)

Despite this regularity, the second reprise gives the impression of irregularity because of its metrical displacement. Rothstein states that, while the differentiation of metrical function is

71 common to the modern sense (e.g., the third beat in quadruple meters is less accented than the

first), this distinction was, however, reduced in the Baroque period.13 The modulatory second

phrase in the second reprise offers a good example of this type (see Example 5.4). The phrase is

divided into four units, and each of them starts on a metrically weaker beat: unit 1 on the second

beat, unit 2 on the pick-up to the third beat, and units 3 and 4 both on the third beat. Units 2–4

are particularly prominent in that each phrase starts on the third beat and continues over to the

second beat of the next measure; that is, every first beat of mm. 19, 20, and 21 (the middle part

of each unit) is metrically weaker than the third beat of mm. 18, 19, and 20 (the beginning of

each unit). The metrical displacement blurs the sense of regular meter and breaks the regularity

of the five-measure phrase length. This inconsistency, however, generates a sense of continuity

typical of the Baroque. In addition, the duple-meter design with phrase groupings in odd numbers of measures, such as the seven-measure second phrase of the first reprise and the five-

measure phrases in the second reprise, is also common in Baroque style.14 Thus the irregular,

odd-numbered phrase groupings together with the metrical displacement make the Allemanda

still in the Baroque style.

Example 5.4. Merci, Sonata for bassoon or violoncello and basso continuo, Op. 3, No. 4, I, mm. 15–22, bassoon part.

(Reproduced by permission of Medici Music Press, St. Cloud, MN)

13 William Nathan Rothstein, Phrase Rhythm in Tonal Music (New York: Schirmer Books, 1989), 126–27.

14 Channan Willner, “On Irregularity in Baroque Phrase Rhythm,” accessed December 28, 2016, http://www.channanwillner.com/pdf/on_irregularity.pdf.

72 Merci continues with irregular phrase grouping in the Cantabile. The first reprise is

comprised of a four-measure continuo introduction followed by an eight-measure solo line; the second reprise contains a tonally hesitant twelve-measure phrase and a six-measure return.

Despite the even number of measures in the phrases, their imbalanced lengths disrupt any feeling of regularity in the triple meter. The phrasing in the Minuetto is organized in 4 + 4 groups throughout with periodic cadences, typical of phrase structure.

Also Baroque is Merci’s application of motive. In Example 5.5, the first movement is built mainly on the motives a (two sixteenths and an eighth note), b (four sixteenth-notes), and c

(two eighth-notes with a slur—the abgezogene Strich, or “draw line,” as Gottfried Küntzel called it).15 Note that motive c does not occur until the second reprise. At times the motives are found

in the continuo with a varied pattern, such as in m. 15 (Example 5.6). This passage represents a

combination of motives a and b.

Example 5.5. Merci, Sonata for bassoon or violoncello and basso continuo, Op. 3, No. 4, I, bassoon part, motive a, b, and c.

(Reproduced by permission of Medici Music Press, St. Cloud, MN)

15 Although it is discussed in Fasch’s works, we can see this feature in Merci’s sonata. See David Alden Sheldon, “Johann Friedrich Fasch: Problems in Style Classification,” The Musical Quarterly 58, no. 1 (1972): 105.

73 Example 5.6. Merci, Sonata for bassoon or violoncello and basso continuo, Op. 3, No. 4, I, m. 15.

(Reproduced by permission of Medici Music Press, St. Cloud, MN)

Not only does Merci frequently utilize the motives to craft the solo or continuo, there are

places where motivic interplay is displayed between the two parts. In Example 5.7, the first two

beats (motive a + b) of the solo line provide an echo to the bass line. In Example 5.8, Merci

presents a repetition of an inverted motive a, the first and second time announced by the

continuo, the third time by the solo bassoon. To emphasize this major event of the first

movement, the use of motive, the last five-measure concluding phrase offers a series of motives

a + b (varied forms are included). While proceeding to the final measure, the bass reaffirms the motive with an inverted statement for the very last time as the solo recalls the last measure of the first reprise (Example 5.9).

Example 5.7. Merci, Sonata for bassoon or violoncello and basso continuo, Op. 3, No. 4, I, mm. 4–5.

(Reproduced by permission of Medici Music Press, St. Cloud, MN)

74 Example 5.8. Merci, Sonata for bassoon or violoncello and basso continuo, Op. 3, No. 4, I, mm. 15–18.

(Reproduced by permission of Medici Music Press, St. Cloud, MN)

Example 5.9. Merci, Sonata for bassoon or violoncello and basso continuo, Op. 3, No. 4, I, mm. 23–26.

(Reproduced by permission of Medici Music Press, St. Cloud, MN)

The motivic event continues to the second movement Cantabile. A brief glance through this movement discloses the ubiquitous “draw line” motive (motive c), which originated in the first movement. With longer note values (the eighth note becomes a quarter note) and a slower tempo, the “draw line” motive turns to an expressive effect, particularly in its downward motion, similar to appoggiatura sighs. Living in a time when the galant was the mainstream, Merci must have been aware of this characteristic. His use of these appoggiaturas can be seen right away in the opening phrase. Here the figure is incorporated as passing chromatic embellishments into the

75 main notes G–F–E♭–D, a descending tetrachord that foreshadows the lamenting emotion of the

movement (Example 5.10). The addition of a sigh figure on top of the descending tetrachord, an

emblem of lament, strongly enhances the tragic tone. This accompaniment, which will carry half

way through the movement, is joined in m. 5 by a broad melodic contour that sings with the

“draw line” motive. Although not always appearing as a downward sighing motion, the two-note

slur figure still reflects the depressed ambience. Moreover, the impassioned lyricism of the

bassoon line conflicts with the regular agogic accents of the accompaniment, producing a

dramatic effect as if the soloist is lamenting her misfortune against a relentless judge. This theatrical impression may come from the operatic influence on instrumental music, typical of the

Baroque.

76 Example 5.10. Merci, Sonata for bassoon or violoncello and basso continuo, Op. 3, No. 4, II, mm. 1–12.

(Reproduced by permission of Medici Music Press, St. Cloud, MN)

Merci’s acquaintance with woodwinds’ lyrical quality is clearly revealed by his use of the bassoon’s tenor register. As discussed in the previous chapter, the high notes in Fasch’s sonata are for virtuosic display. These notes, found in fast passages involving large leaps between

77 registers, show Fasch’s understanding of the bassoon from the ’s standpoint.

(Fasch himself played violin.) Merci, on the other hand, presents the expressiveness of the bassoon from the wind instrument’s standpoint. The effective short slurs, sighing appoggiaturas, and longer melodic lines are sung in the tenor register, which perfectly conveys a subtle sentimentality.

In the Cantabile’s second reprise, the tragic effect is made more prominent by a series of devices, shown in Example 5.11. The first device involves the harmonically more volatile start of the bass tetrachord from the third of the tonic chord, with a leaping diminished-5th interval in the solo. The second device features successive appoggiaturas in the bassoon part, decorated with passing tones (Example 5.12). After Merci introduces the sigh figure at the beginning of the movement, it shows no further occurrence until six measures before the end. This time is quite effective as the continuo joins below, mostly in thirds and sixths, crying together as if for the last time (see the bracket in Example 5.13).

Example 5.11. Merci, Sonata for bassoon or violoncello and basso continuo, Op. 3, No. 4, II, mm. 13–14.

(Reproduced by permission of Medici Music Press, St. Cloud, MN)

78 Example 5.12. Merci, Sonata for bassoon or violoncello and basso continuo, Op. 3, No. 4, II, mm. 17–18.

(Reproduced by permission of Medici Music Press, St. Cloud, MN)

Example 5.13. Merci, Sonata for bassoon or violoncello and basso continuo, Op. 3, No. 4, II, mm. 23–30.

(Reproduced by permission of Medici Music Press, St. Cloud, MN)

Merci’s use of theme and motive also extends to inter-movement connections. One notable instance features a phrase with near note-for-note repetition. Merci reproduces the closing notes of a phrase from movement I in an augmented form in movement II, suggesting a unity between the two movements (Examples 5.14a and 5.14b). In another case, the two-note

79 slur (motive c) seen in the first movement is also the main motive of the finale. Motive a comes back in this movement as well, sometimes with an inverted upward motion or in its original downward contour yet rhythmically contracted (Example 5.15). The motivic unity therefore keeps the sonata strongly connected to the style of Baroque music.

Example 5.14a. Merci, Sonata for bassoon or violoncello and basso continuo, Op. 3, No. 4, I, mm. 15–17, bassoon part.

(Reproduced by permission of Medici Music Press, St. Cloud, MN)

Example 5.14b. Merci, Sonata for bassoon or violoncello and basso continuo, Op. 3, No. 4, II, mm. 21–25, bassoon part.

(Reproduced by permission of Medici Music Press, St. Cloud, MN)

Example 5.15. Merci, Sonata for bassoon or violoncello and basso continuo, Op. 3, No. 4, III, mm. 25–28, bassoon part.

(Reproduced by permission of Medici Music Press, St. Cloud, MN)

In addition to his many Baroque characteristics, Merci frequently enriches his sonata with the galant touch. Traits such as syncopation to add rhythmic variety are found in the second

80 movement (Example 5.16).16 Merci’s use of a drum bass in the Cantabile’s descending tetrachord is another obvious galant trait as is the dynamic contrast found in every movement.17

While Fasch, in his sonata, indicates no dynamic markings, and Telemann’s are sporadic, Merci not only provides three gradations of dynamics, p–mf–f, but he also contrasts these in similar phrase patterns, such as the 4 + 4 phrase in the trio section of the finale (Example 5.17a). At other times, dynamic contrast accompanies articulation contrast, such as with the slurred and non-slurred eighth notes in Example 5.17b. Equally noticeable is the employment of ornamentation. Besides trills, which Telemann and Fasch also used, Merci includes one more type, the mordent. Merci further deliberately notates the incessant trills with written-out small notes before and after the trills (Example 5.18). This even more florid embellishment with turns is reminiscent of Couperin.

Example 5.16. Merci, Sonata for bassoon or violoncello and basso continuo, Op. 3, No. 4, II, mm. 15–16.

(Reproduced by permission of Medici Music Press, St. Cloud, MN)

16 John Rice, Music in the Eighteenth Century (New York: W. W. Norton & Company), 21.

17 Perikle Tryphon discussed the idea of contrasts in Fasch’s symphonies, and dynamic contrast is one of the devices Fasch used. This idea also applies to Merci’s sonata. David Alden Sheldon, “Johann Friedrich Fasch: Problems in Style Classification,” The Musical Quarterly 58, no. 1 (1972): 100.

81 Example 5.17a. Merci, Sonata for bassoon or violoncello and basso continuo, Op. 3, No. 4, III, mm. 27–38.

(Reproduced by permission of Medici Music Press, St. Cloud, MN)

Example 5.17b. Merci, Sonata for bassoon or violoncello and basso continuo, Op. 3, No. 4, I, mm. 19–21, bassoon part.

(Reproduced by permission of Medici Music Press, St. Cloud, MN)

Example 5.18. Merci, Sonata for bassoon or violoncello and basso continuo, Op. 3, No. 4, III, mm. 41–44, bassoon part.

(Reproduced by permission of Medici Music Press, St. Cloud, MN)

82 The harmonic progression in Merci’s sonata generally displays a simple yet tonally clear

Italian style. Except in places where modulation takes place, regular chord changes involving

tonic, subdominant, and dominant chords to define the tonality are the primary progressions

found in this piece. It is especially recognizable when this Italian-style progression combines with a symmetrical phrase structure; in this case, the Minuetto offers a good example. The 4 + 4 phrase groupings carried throughout are all articulated with either a PAC or an HC at every phrase ending (see Table 5.1), and each of them are approached by tonic, subdominant, and dominant harmony.

Yet even with this strong Italian tonal tendency, we still find places where the French sense of tonality prevails. Let us review the opening phrase of the second movement Cantabile

again (see Example 5.10). The G-minor tonality is clearly presented in the long-range 1(G)–

4(C)–5(D)–1(G) ground bass progression of mm. 1–4. However, the leading tone, F#, is only a

passing note to F-natural, the subtonic, which proceeds to the E♭and D. We now hear a

tetrachord, G–F natural–E♭–D, interpolated in the cadential progression, and this produces a G

“natural” minor sequence: G–F–E♭–D–C–D–G. Instead of the commonly expected G-minor tonality with F#, a modal sense is thus brought to the tonality. Moreover, the G-natural minor descending scale stated at the end of movement I (see the circle in Example 5.19) again demonstrates Merci’s penchant for inter-movement unity. The modal-tonal ambiguity is characteristic of French style, and we can hear another type in the following example.18 In

18 Jean-Christophe Maillard, “From Corelli's Italian Sonata to Couperin's French Sonade: An Example of Musical Interaction, and the Origin of the Goûts Réünis in the First Years of the Eighteenth Century,” in Collected Work: Dzieło muzyczne i jego rezonans. IV. Series: Praca Zbiorowa, no. 26 (Bydgoszcz, Poland: Wydawnictwo Uczelniane Akademii Muzycznej im. F. Nowowiejskiego, 2008), 37.

83 Example 5.20, the melody eventually reaches a D-minor tonality after starting in G minor. The E

natural in m. 19 and m. 21 is the supertonic of D minor, but in m. 20, Merci places an E♭, the submediant of G minor, creating a momentary hesitation between the two tonalities, a technique seen in French Baroque music.19

Example 5.19. Merci, Sonata for bassoon or violoncello and basso continuo, Op. 3, No. 4, I, mm. 23–26, bassoon part.

(Reproduced by permission of Medici Music Press, St. Cloud, MN)

Example 5.20. Merci, Sonata for bassoon or violoncello and basso continuo, Op. 3, No. 4, II, mm. 17–25, bassoon part.

(Reproduced by permission of Medici Music Press, St. Cloud, MN)

The harmonic rhythm in general is similar to Fasch’s and Telemann’s sonatas in that a

ratio of one to two chords per measure dominates the sonata. What differentiates Merci’s from

the other two happens in the second movement. While Telemann and Fasch employ a faster

harmonic rhythm, with mostly two to four chords per measure in their walking bass

, Merci moves much more slowly, often with only one chord per measure (see

Example 5.10). The slower harmonic pacing accompanied by the inactive drum bass not only has

19 Ibid., 38.

84 the purpose of the operatic effect discussed earlier, its rather monotonous tone helps distinguish

the roles between the melody and the accompaniment, giving the melody prominent attention. In

this, we may consider the homophonic texture a product of the galant idiom.

Regarding tonality, Merci makes fewer visits to related key areas when compared to

Telemann and Fasch. Except for the finale, which contains three keys, Merci mostly makes use

of two main keys: G minor and D minor in movement II, and G minor and B♭major in

movement I. Although we see the briefly tonicized dominant key (D minor) and subdominant

key (C minor) in the first movement, these two keys, however, are not firmly established because

the melody keeps rolling to the next keys (see Example 5.21). Measures 17–21, in fact, constitute

a dominant prolongation, traveling from the tonicized D minor in m. 17, passing through C

minor and an F dominant-seventh chord of B♭major in mm. 17–20 before the bass moves to

E♭and then steps down to D for a half cadence in m. 21. The brief D-minor and C-minor cadences in mm. 17 and 19 are therefore not developed; they are only starting and stopping points. In this regard, the first movement adheres to a “polar” type of key structure, implying a tendency departing from the Baroque that we have not seen in Telemann’s and Fasch’s sonatas.20

We may conclude that Merci is progressive in terms of key.

20 Leonard G. Ratner, Classic Music: Expression, Form, and Style (New York: Schirmer Books, 1980), 51.

85 Example 5.21. Merci, Sonata for bassoon or violoncello and basso continuo, Op. 3, No. 4, I, mm. 15–22.

(Reproduced by permission of Medici Music Press, St. Cloud, MN)

Other traits reflecting Merci’s progressive side can be seen in the cadential design. For

example, Merci favors the more dramatic sound of the Italian augmented-sixth chord as opposed to the older Phrygian cadence commonly found in Baroque music. We can see his frequent use of this type of cadence in the first movement and in the finale (Example 5.22). Merci also displays his progressivism in his use of a particular galant cadential formula. While Telemann did not use this gesture, and Fasch wrote only one brief and compact galant cadence, Merci presents a full and classic example with a bass line that follows the scale degrees 3–4–5–6, 3–4–

5–1 (Example 5.24).21

21 John Rice, Music in the Eighteenth Century (New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 2013), 27.

86 Example 5.22. Merci, Sonata for bassoon or violoncello and basso continuo, Op. 3, No. 4, I, mm. 10–11.

(Reproduced by permission of Medici Music Press, St. Cloud, MN)

Example 5.23. Merci, Sonata for bassoon or violoncello and basso continuo, Op. 3, No. 4, III, mm. 6–8.

(Reproduced by permission of Medici Music Press, St. Cloud, MN)

Example 5.24. Merci, Sonata for bassoon or violoncello and basso continuo, Op. 3, No. 4, III, mm. 12–21.

(Reproduced by permission of Medici Music Press, St. Cloud, MN)

87 3. Conclusion

Like the two German composers discussed in previous chapters, Merci certainly practiced

the stylistic synthesis current at the time, although his music shows more progressiveness than

the other two sonatas, and we can see it in every aspect. The older Italian four-movement sonata

da chiesa structure with abstract titles has now been replaced by a freer and modern three-

movement structure with dance and descriptive titles. The tonal design stays in conventional key

areas, but the tendency toward a “polar” key relationship, the use of parallel major, and the

exercise of colorful Italian augmented-sixth chords not seen in Telemann and Fasch imply a

steady departure from the former Baroque toward the emerging galant. At times we do see

irregular groupings of phrases frequently found in the music of Baroque style; however,

symmetrical phrases with periodic cadences signaling the style galant are equally presented.

Like the other two composers, Merci’s “all-in-one pot” must include some French ingredients, and we see that he adds larger portions of embellishments and French tonal treatment. Motivic events, including motivic unity and interplay, represent an important part of the sonata, but the slower harmonic rhythm, the imposition of appoggiatura figures upon the old descending tetrachord, the operatic effect, the more nuanced use of dynamic contrast, and the mature galant

cadential formula all manifest Merci’s attempts to fuse the old and the new. Last but not least,

Merci’s exploitation of the tenor register of the bassoon and the lyrical writing suitable for expression only by the advanced baroque bassoon demonstrate the later composition of this piece.

88 CHAPTER 6

Antoine Dard, Sonata for Bassoon (Violoncello) and Bassoon Continuo, Op. 2, No. 6 (1759)

1. Background

Born on November 2, 1715, in Chapaize, close to the town of Tornus in modern-day

eastern France, Antoine Dard was a bassoonist, author, and composer active during the mid-

eighteenth century.1 He died on August 13, 1784. Records show that he married in Dijon in

February 1734 and moved to Paris between 1754 and 1759.2 When he received his early musical

training, or when he began playing the bassoon, remains unknown. A late developer musically,

Dard began his career at the Académie Royale de Musique (the Paris Opera) in 1760 at age 45.

His first three years in the Académie, Dard was the fifth bassoonist. He eventually became the

principal bassoonist and played until his retirement in 1780–81. In 1763, Dard started a position

as the section bassoonist of the Grand hautbois de la chambre et Écuries du roi, and a year later,

he joined the Musique du roi de Paris. This ensemble focused on religious music; members were

drawn from the soloists of each section of the opera.3 Dard’s name remained on the list until

1782. The Almanach musical in 1775 provided his name as the bassoonist, and from 1776 to

1783 Dard was also described as “maître de composition vocale” and first bassoon of the opera.4

R 1 Ricardo Rapoport, “The Six Bassoon Sonatas by M . Dard,” trans. David Rachor, International Double Reed Society 32, no. 1 (2009): 68.

2 Ibid.

3 Rapoport states that the name “grand hautbois” had been used to refer to the bassoon since the reign of Louis XIII (r. 1610–43).

R 4 Rapoport, “The Six Bassoon Sonatas by M . Dard,” 69.

89 Dard’s surviving works include the Six sonates pour la flûte, Op. 1; Six sonates pour le

basson, Op. 2; several cantatilles; and airs.5 In addition to his musical compositions, Dard also

wrote a comprehensive pedagogical work, published by Mlle. Girard in Paris in 1769, Nouveaux

Principes de musique, qui seuls doivent suffire pour l’apprendre parfaitement. This encyclopedic

treatise consisted of a solfège method as well as significant supplemental material covering

topics of music history, a list of Parisian operatic repertoire, musical exercises, and songs to learn

word-setting.6 .On the cover page of the original edition of the Six sonatas, Op. 2, Dard listed the

dedicatee as Mr. Duvaucel, an “advisor to the King,” and the publisher as Mme. Bérault (Figure

6.1). Although the composer did not provide a date of composition or publication, Rapoport notes that an advertisement for the work, pressed on January 11, 1759, and containing information matching the cover page, suggests that 1759, the year before Dard entered the

Académie royale, may be viewed as the likely printing year. The 1759 advertisement reads as follows:

6 Sonatas for the bassoon, composed by Mr. Dard and very useful to those who desire to play this instrument well. Available at the composer's residence in the town of Rennes and at the usual addresses. They say that these sonatas are unique in their genre and can also be played on the violoncello.7

Besides the cover page and six sonatas, Dard provided his own advertisement (Avertissement) in

the original edition (Figure 6.2). In his remarks, Dard stated that these sonatas were mainly

written for the bassoon. He also mentioned the encouragement he received from a few

5 CD liner notes, Antoine Dard: Sonates pour le Basson, recorded with Ricardo Rapoport, bassoon: Pascal Dubreuil, harpsichord; Ramée RAM0702, 2007, CD.

6 Score preface notes, Antoine Dard, Six Sonates pour Basson (Violoncello) et Basse Continue, Opus 2 (Warngau, Germany: Accolade, 2010).

7 “6 SONATES pour le basson, composés par le Sr. Dard & trés utiles à ceux qui désirent bien jouer de cet instrument. Chez l’auteur, rue des 2. Ecus, à la ville de Rennes; & aux adresses ordinaires. Ces sonates sont, dit-on, uniques en leur genre, & peuvent aussi s’exécuter au violoncelle.” Rapoport, “The Six Bassoon Sonatas by MR. Dard,” 70–71.

90 foresighted musicians to write music containing expression and difficulties for advanced bassoonists wanting to “acquire a perfect knowledge of the bassoon.”8 Considering the relative paucity of contemporary solo works for the bassoon and the precisely notated articulations and ornaments here by the composer, rarely seen in eighteenth-century music, these sonatas hold an important place in the .

Figure 6.1. Dard, Sonata for bassoon (violoncello) and basso continuo, Op. 2, cover page. © with kind permission of ACCOLADE MUSIKVERLAG, Warngau (Germany)

8 Ibid., 74.

91

Figure 6.2. Dard, Sonata for bassoon (violoncello) and basso continuo, Op. 2, Avertissement. © with kind permission of ACCOLADE MUSIKVERLAG, Warngau (Germany)

2. Sonata for Bassoon (Violoncello) and Bassoon Continuo, Op. 2, No. 6

Structurally, the sonata juxtaposes the old Baroque and new galant, as the archaic four-

movement paradigm incorporates titles that are abstract, descriptive, and dance-like: Andante,

Allegro, Aria grazioso, Minuetto di Tempo. Individual movements also display formal variety: a through-composed first movement, a binary second movement, a da capo third movement, and a

minuet and trio finale. While the second movement adheres to the traditional Baroque two-part

binary form, the other three movements exhibit interesting formal features. We have already seen

a through-composed form in the first movement of Telemann’s sonata. Despite the declamatory melodic style of both opening movements, Dard interpolates a cadenza-like passage in his conclusion, producing an improvisatory, prelude- or fantasia-like first movement. This free form without repeat or reprise resembles the Italian arioso, a form not used in French music.9 The

9 Score preface notes.

92 third movement aria is presented as a da capo form, but an extra repeat of the A section is

indicated after the B section by a dal segno sign. What follows then is a transitional passage to

prepare the return of the A section. The resulting form can be represented as A-B-A-trans-A (see

Table 6.1). Dard thus hearkens back to an earlier form but adapts it for his own sonata. His manipulation of a traditional formal frame is again seen in the finale where the minuet and trio also has internal repeats indicated by dal segno directions. From a formal point of view, Dard shows himself to be multifaceted through his novel incorporation of a cadenza-like passage in the first movement, his respect for tradition in the second movement, and his molding of tradition in the third and last movements.

Table 6.1. Dard, Sonata for bassoon (violoncello) and basso continuo, Op. 2, No. 6, III, formal structure.

Sign ● ● Measure 1 8 16 17 26 27 34 6 Tonality10 HC PAC PAC ii 5 HC

Am Am CM CM Dm Dm Section A B Transition

Regarding tonality, Dard’s sonata, compared to the three works examined in previous

chapters, is by far the most prominent example of the Classical style’s “polar” type, with a focus

on two opposing keys. All movements are in A minor. The relative C major is developed in each

movement as well. Although the subdominant key (D minor) is seen in the third movement’s second reprise, it is not firmly established because its only cadence (downbeat of m. 30) is an imperfect authentic cadence with the third of the chord in the uppermost voice (Example 6.1).

This uncertain sense of closely related keys is also seen in the fourth movement, where the

10 The abbreviation “m” in lower case refers to the minor key, and “M” in capital refers to the major key.

93 dominant minor (E minor) also never finds a fully satisfying perfect authentic cadence (Example

6.2). Even though the approach to the cadence of the B section (mm. 39–40) suggests an

impending perfect authentic cadence, the sixteenth-notes in the bass continue immediately after the cadence, destroying any sense of repose. The Picardy third of m. 40 also transforms this final chord into a dominant preparation for the return to A minor, a move that further cancels the sense

of a PAC. In this way, the E-minor tonality does not settle, and so the movement maintains a

priority for its two main keys, A minor and the relative C major.

Example 6.1. Dard, Sonata for bassoon (violoncello) and basso continuo, Op. 2, No. 6, III, mm. 25–34.

© with kind permission of ACCOLADE MUSIKVERLAG, Warngau (Germany)

94 Example 6.2. Dard, Sonata for bassoon (violoncello) and basso continuo, Op. 2, No. 6, IV, mm. 27–40.

© with kind permission of ACCOLADE MUSIKVERLAG, Warngau (Germany)

While the sonata stays mostly in A minor and C major, we see much less use of Italian-

style sequential modulations between tonalities, as we saw in Fasch’s sonata. Example 6.3 shows

the only transitional action by the circle-of-fifths harmonic progression, which does not function here to transpose tonality. The beginning and ending remain in C major, and between these posts, the bass travels to notes A, D, and G. This progression is therefore non-modulatory; it is rather a passage to prolong the same harmony. Another feature of this sonata’s “polar” keys is that they are played without transition. This quick shift of tonalities was commonly practiced in the

French Baroque.11 Thus in tonality as in form, Dard presents a progressive side while at the same

time preserving elements of tradition.

11 Jean-Christophe Maillard, “From Corelli's Italian Sonata to Couperin's French Sonade: An Example of Musical Interaction, and the Origin of the Goûts Réünis in the First Years of the Eighteenth Century,” in Collected

95 Example 6.3. Dard, Sonata for bassoon (violoncello) and basso continuo, Op. 2, No. 6, I, mm. 13–18.

© with kind permission of ACCOLADE MUSIKVERLAG, Warngau (Germany)

The melodic fabric, on the other hand, evokes a thoroughly galant flavor with a

symmetrical, antecedent-consequent phrase structure. This melodic profile is the most salient

characteristic that removes this sonata from Baroque practice. Most often, phrases are formed by

a pair of four-measure sub-phrases. These 4 + 4 phrase structures are further fragmented into a

series of short clauses punctuated by cadences and rests. This is especially noticeable in the

opening of the first movement (Example 6.4). The pause on a dominant chord, decorated with

appoggiaturas and triplet figures in m. 2, is answered by a full cadence in m. 4, imparting a

syntactic tendency of two-measure units. Such hesitant thematic material calls to mind the

sentimental first movement of Telemann’s sonata. Answering the intermittent opening four-

Work: Dzieło muzyczne i jego rezonans. IV. Series: Praca Zbiorowa, no. 26 (Bydgoszcz, Poland: Wydawnictwo Uczelniane Akademii Muzycznej im. F. Nowowiejskiego, 2008), 39.

96 measure phrase, made up of mostly one-measure statements, is a linear, broader, and more continuous gesture (see mm. 5–8 in Example 6.4). In this way, the second phrase offers a level of contrast that was praised as the galant ideal by the ensuing Classical era.

Example 6.4. Dard, Sonata for bassoon (violoncello) and basso continuo, Op. 2, No. 6, I, mm. 1–8.

© with kind permission of ACCOLADE MUSIKVERLAG, Warngau (Germany)

Another melodic feature that reflects the galant style can be seen in the abundance of appoggiaturas. Similar to Merci’s use of this device, Dard sets it in both downward and upward directions. Dard makes this figure even more flamboyant by incorporating it into a triplet figure, as seen in m. 2 in Example 6.4, or by tying it to the trill, frequently found in the third movement

(Example 6.5a). Moreover, the appoggiatura is itself embellished by adding notes (Example

6.5b). In this way, the original “sighing” character of the figure is lessened; the notes instead become his personal device for garnishing the melody.

97 Example 6.5a. Dard, Sonata for bassoon (violoncello) and basso continuo, Op. 2, No. 6, III, mm. 1–4, bassoon part.

© with kind permission of ACCOLADE MUSIKVERLAG, Warngau (Germany)

Example 6.5b. Dard, Sonata for bassoon (violoncello) and basso continuo, Op. 2, No. 6, IV, mm. 13–14, bassoon part.

© with kind permission of ACCOLADE MUSIKVERLAG, Warngau (Germany)

Dard’s galant taste is also found in his melodic lyricism. To enhance the effect of its singing quality, the melody at times broadens the intervallic range between notes, such as the span of a minor ninth between two sixteenth-notes (Example 6.6a), or even a distance of a twelfth within a phrase (Example 6.6b).12 In addition, the melodic harmonization in parallel thirds or sixths is also a standard feature of the galant style.13 Dard’s use of this melodic reinforcement can be seen in the parallel sixths proceeding to the half cadence (m. 7 in Example

6.7a) and in the parallel sixths emphasizing the high point of the phrase (m. 11 in Example 6.7b).

Example 6.6a. Dard, Sonata for bassoon (violoncello) and basso continuo, Op. 2, No. 6, I, mm. 3–4, bassoon part.

© with kind permission of ACCOLADE MUSIKVERLAG, Warngau (Germany)

12 Christopher Paul Phillpott, “The French Baroque Cello Sonata: Context and Style” (MM thesis, Texas Christian University, 2009), 116.

13 Leonard G. Ratner, Classic Music: Expression, Form, and Style (New York: Schirmer Books, 1980), 337.

98 Example 6.6b. Dard, Sonata for bassoon (violoncello) and basso continuo, Op. 2, No. 6, I, m. 11, bassoon part.

© with kind permission of ACCOLADE MUSIKVERLAG, Warngau (Germany)

Example 6.7a. Dard, Sonata for bassoon (violoncello) and basso continuo, Op. 2, No. 6, III, mm. 5–8.

© with kind permission of ACCOLADE MUSIKVERLAG, Warngau (Germany)

Example 6.7b. Dard, Sonata for bassoon (violoncello) and basso continuo, Op. 2, No. 6, IV, mm. 9–12.

© with kind permission of ACCOLADE MUSIKVERLAG, Warngau (Germany)

Alongside its prominent galant characteristics, the melodic material also possesses a taste of old Italian style. Example 6.8 illustrates this trait. After the fermata on the half cadence in m.

20, the continuo part holds the dominant chord for four measures. Above the bass, the bassoon plays a solo line with a winding and wandering feeling created by a series of appoggiatura

99 figures. This sighing gesture, together with the use of chromatic descending motion in m. 24, sounds searching and aimless, but a sudden leap to A4 in m. 25 veers in the direction of the expected tonic resolution. A deceptive cadence merely delays the settlement that is finally achieved three measures later. This very dramatic and soloistic performance with minimal motion in the continuo resembles cadenza-like passages that are the norm in the Italian instrumental concerto. Dard, as a bassoonist, might not necessarily have known the vast volume of bassoon concertos by Vivaldi, but he probably heard other Italian compositions circulating around at that time.14 His take on the Italian style reflects the fact that Dard, a Frenchman, still embraced the foreign style.

Example 6.8. Dard, Sonata for bassoon (violoncello) and basso continuo, Op. 2, No. 6, IV, mm. 20–28.

© with kind permission of ACCOLADE MUSIKVERLAG, Warngau (Germany)

14 The precise dates for the majority of Vivaldi’s bassoon concertos are difficult to assign. It is generally assumed that they were written between 1728 and 1737.

100 The rhythmic disposition in the sonata stays in the realm of the style galant. Greater rhythmic diversity is exhibited through devices such as triplet rhythmic figures, rhythmic elaboration, and syncopation (Example 6.9).15 Although Dard does not incorporate fashionable

Lombardic rhythms, he scatters the characteristic triplet rhythmic figure throughout the first movement. Dard also treats the triplets quite rhapsodically; they are combined into sixteenth- note sextuplets (see Example 6.9) or even into thirty-second nonuplets (Example 6.10). In the same example, the triple-grouping nonuplet further juxtaposes the duple grouping of eighth notes in the bass, creating a sense of hemiola. This complex rhythmic device was not found in the sonatas of the other three composers; Dard’s employment of it here shows his progressiveness in rhythmic versatility.

Example 6.9. Dard, Sonata for bassoon (violoncello) and basso continuo, Op. 2, No. 6, II, m. 1, bassoon part.

© with kind permission of ACCOLADE MUSIKVERLAG, Warngau (Germany)

Example 6.10. Dard, Sonata for bassoon (violoncello) and basso continuo, Op. 2, No. 6, I, m. 11.

© with kind permission of ACCOLADE MUSIKVERLAG, Warngau (Germany)

15 William S. Newman, The Sonata in the Classic Era, 3rd ed. (New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 1983), 121.

101 Along with the sonata’s Italian traits, Dard also writes ornamentation that clearly reflects

French influence. Trills abound, especially in the third movement, and Dard indicates cadential

trills with a cross sign. Also French are the tremblements liés appuyés, trills that are preceded by

a slurred appoggiatura (Example 6.11).16 In addition to embellishments indicated by symbols, we

also find the writing of port de voix (written small notes), such as the rolling downward scale in

m. 12 or the winding passage in m. 15 of the first movement (Example 6.12).17

Example 6.11. Dard, Sonata for bassoon (violoncello) and basso continuo, Op. 2, No. 6, III, m. 8, bassoon part.

© with kind permission of ACCOLADE MUSIKVERLAG, Warngau (Germany)

Example 6.12. Dard, Sonata for bassoon (violoncello) and basso continuo, Op. 2, No. 6, I, mm. 11–16, bassoon part.

© with kind permission of ACCOLADE MUSIKVERLAG, Warngau (Germany)

Notwithstanding their marked French character, the ornamentation also shows a definite

Italian impact, and through it, Dard displays the virtuosic capabilities of the bassoon, especially

in the Allegro. Contrary to the arpeggiation and scalar figuration used profusely by Vivaldi, Dard

breaks the direction of the scale by inserting repeating figurations that re-trace the pattern of each scalar fragment. Example 6.13 clearly illustrates this phenomenon. We can see a scale ascending

R 16 Rapoport, “The Six Bassoon Sonatas by M . Dard,” 76.

17 Score preface notes.

102 from G3 to G4 (circled notes), but the scale is ornamented and somewhat concealed by extensive

thirty-second-note figuration. Dard also uses repeating figuration to embellish and accompany

the main notes of the melodies. For instance, in Example 6.14, we can see the primary melodic

notes are bouncing around above and below the repeating B–A–B figuration. Particularly

challenging to bassoonists is that these figurations continue for six measures without even a tiny

opportunity to breathe or rest (Example 6.15). While the technical challenges of the bassoon writing here often resemble those of string writing, such as the large leaps between notes and the passing between high and low registers, as in the case of Fasch’s sonata, Dard’s sonata presents a new boundary here—the endurance challenge.

Example 6.13. Dard, Sonata for bassoon (violoncello) and basso continuo, Op. 2, No. 6, II, mm. 12–13, bassoon part.

© with kind permission of ACCOLADE MUSIKVERLAG, Warngau (Germany)

Example 6.14. Dard, Sonata for bassoon (violoncello) and basso continuo, Op. 2, No. 6, II, mm. 8–10, bassoon part.

© with kind permission of ACCOLADE MUSIKVERLAG, Warngau (Germany)

103 Example 6.15. Dard, Sonata for bassoon (violoncello) and basso continuo, Op. 2, No. 6, II, mm. 16–25, bassoon part.

© with kind permission of ACCOLADE MUSIKVERLAG, Warngau (Germany)

Regarding the harmonic rhythm, the sonata generally keeps to a rate of one or two chords per measure. This slower pacing of harmony reflects the galant style. Often, the slower harmonic change is accompanied by phrase repetition, which is also a galant feature; together these factors tend to dampen harmonic momentum.18 In order to avoid stagnancy, galant composers utilized devices to enliven the relatively inactive harmonic motion. The drum bass accompaniment is the

18 Phillpott, “The French Baroque Cello Sonata,” 125.

104 most common one, and Telemann, Fasch, and Merci all used it to some degree.19 The way Dard keeps up the harmonic rhythmic pulse is otherwise different than the three composers. He instead employed broken octaves or arpeggiations to impart activity to the slower rate of harmonic pace, particularly in places where there is only a simple alternation of tonic and dominant harmonies, and we can see its use prevailing in both the first and second movements (Example 6.16). The bass motion in the third and fourth movements, however, shows traces of Baroque practice in that this part is more melodically active and even forms a lyrical to the bassoon line.

Example 6.16. Dard, Sonata for bassoon (violoncello) and basso continuo, Op. 2, No. 6, II, mm. 10–11.

© with kind permission of ACCOLADE MUSIKVERLAG, Warngau (Germany)

Concerning the harmonic vocabulary, Dard, similar to Merci, favors the aurally more dramatic Italian augmented-sixth chord in place of the Phrygian chord typical of the Baroque.

Let us return to the dramatic cadenza-like passage of the first movement, shown in Example 6.17.

What makes this passage even more effective is Dard’s installation of the Italian augmented- sixth chord right before the cadenza. Using this juicy chord to introduce a surprising cadenza thus creates a remarkable impression in anticipation of the movement’s ending. In addition, Dard adds harmonically colorful effects in other places through his use of secondary dominant and diminished chords. He especially seems to like the rich aural effect of the latter. In addition to

19 Ratner, Classic Music, 342.

105 the diminished-seventh chord, which typically functioned as an expressive dissonance in the

Italian style, he also applies many diminished triads in the music. Equally effective is the augmented-fourth or diminished-fifth interval between the bassoon and continuo parts. The dissonance strikes the listener in the context of a lyrical moment (Examples 6.18a and 6.18b).

Compared to the other three sonatas, Dard’s sonata reveals a richer harmonic language by exerting more chromatic and varied harmony.

Example 6.17. Dard, Sonata for bassoon (violoncello) and basso continuo, Op. 2, No. 6, I, mm. 17–24.

© with kind permission of ACCOLADE MUSIKVERLAG, Warngau (Germany)

106 Example 6.18a. Dard, Sonata for bassoon (violoncello) and basso continuo, Op. 2, No. 6, III, mm. 9–12.

© with kind permission of ACCOLADE MUSIKVERLAG, Warngau (Germany)

Example 6.18b. Dard, Sonata for bassoon (violoncello) and basso continuo, Op. 2, No. 6, IV, mm. 17–20.

© with kind permission of ACCOLADE MUSIKVERLAG, Warngau (Germany)

Another noteworthy aspect of Dard’s sonata pertains to the presence of extensive articulation markings. Sonatas of the early eighteenth century, including those by Telemann,

Fasch, and Merci, seldom indicated articulation and left the performers at liberty to decide.

According to Rapoport, Dard’s detailed articulation is different from the common notational practice of the period.20 In this sonata, the composer meticulously marked the articulation of every note with his intention. These include slurs, dots to indicate détaché, and vertical dashes

R 20 Rapoport, “The Six Bassoon Sonatas by M . Dard,” 81.

107 (shorter than the détaché) to indicate staccato; the latter are used only in the Allegro to display the stark contrast.21 Compared to the three other sonatas, Dard’s refinement of articulation reveals him as progressive in this respect.

As a bassoonist, Dard shows his expertise in the idiomatic writing. A French writer of his time had depicted the bassoon’s expression as analogous to the human voice.22 This description suits Dard’s sonata, as his portrayal of lyricism can be seen in the lingering melodic line and in the tuneful and charming melodic gestures in the slow movements. These qualities may have come from the influence of his career playing in the opera orchestra. Similar to Merci’s sonata,

Dard’s also ventures into the upper limit of the bassoon’s tessitura (G4 in Merci’s and A4 in

Dard’s). His incorporation of leaping intervals of an octave or more is idiomatic to the bassoon as well.

3. Conclusion

This sonata is the most galant of the four featured in this document. Although constructed in a traditional four-movement framework, the movement titles embrace modern descriptive types. The departure from tradition is further embodied in the formal variety of the movements: through-composed form, the simple binary form, the da capo form, and the minuet and trio are all integrated in this sonata. Dard further showed a willingness to manipulate these forms, including a cadenza-like passage in the first movement and internal extensions through dal segno signs in the third and fourth movements. The melody displays a strong galant fashion in its periodic phrases articulated by frequent cadences and the symmetric, antecedent-

21 Score preface notes.

22 Dulane Theodore Aaberg, “A Performance Edition of Sonatas III and IV for Bassoon or Cello and Continuo, Opus 2, 1767 by Antoine Dard” (DMA thesis, The University of Iowa, 1997), 4.

108 consequent phrase design. Further reinforcement of the galant sense is found in the rhythmic variety and in a rich harmonic vocabulary using striking sounds such as the Italian augmented- sixth chord and the diminished chord. Yet for all its progressive traits, Dard still showed some lingering characteristics of Baroque style. While the detailed agréments varnish the music with vintage French color, the figuration writing in the fast movement to display the bassoon’s dexterity shows traces of Italy. At times the rather active bass pacing evokes the Baroque spirit.

The technical and the expressive demands idiomatic to the bassoon reflect Dard’s acquaintance with the instrument. Finally, the operatic-like lyricism, with sentimental rests, leaping intervals, improvisatory-like embellishment resembling the bel canto style, and the full exhibition of the tenor voice of the bassoon, makes this sonata an important work within the early modern bassoon repertoire.

109 EPILOGUE

This examination of four bassoon sonatas contributes to our understanding of the

synthesized musical idiom that was fashionable during the first half of the eighteenth century.

Each work illustrates its composer’s unique musical language and their attempt to conceive their

own stylistic integration. These sonatas also reflect the goûts réünis spirit that was praised in the

1720s by composers such as Couperin, Quantz, and Telemann, to name just a few. Yet at the heart of these trends, we also see strong Italian associations among these German, English, and

French compositions, and this southern influence persists from the Baroque into the emerging style galant. The Italian impact is especially evident in splendid passages showcasing virtuosity in the style of Vivaldi or other Italian composers. Meanwhile, the sonatas’ emotional depth comes as a consequence of Italian opera, which significantly influenced instrumental compositions during these decades.

To fully render these works would not be possible without the refinement of the instrument taking place around the turn of the eighteenth century. The most remarkable changes happened especially in the full exploitation of the tenor voice of the bassoon, which gradually escaped its limited role of supplying the continuo part in ensemble music. The baroque bassoon became established as an equal partner among the woodwinds, and composers of the late seventeenth century began to assign important and prominent obbligato and solo lines to the bassoon. Its supple tenor voice eventually made it a mainstay of the Classical style of orchestration. No longer merely an alternative to the violoncello, the bassoon gained a much more distinguished reputation and a growing repertoire with ever-increasing technical and expressive demands, as we have observed in these four works.

110 The four sonatas examined here occupy an important place in the bassoon literature

because they fall squarely within a context of transformation, both of the peripheral musical

environment and of the instrument’s own history. The stylistic amalgamation displayed among

these compositions represents an artifact of early- to mid-eighteenth-century aesthetics. They also convey the increasing expectations for a newly created instrument.

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Recordings

Antoine Dard: Sonates pour le Basson. Recorded with Ricardo Rapoport, bassoon; Pascal Dubreuil, harpsichord. Ramée RAM0702, 2007. CD.

Johann Friedrich Fasch, Trios & Sonatas. Recorded with Petr Zeifart, recorder; Alessandro Piqué, oboe; Sergio Azzolini, bassoon; Veronika Skuplik, violin; Ilze Grudule, violoncello; Matthias Spaeter, arciliuto; Christoph Lehmann; harpsichord and organ. Epoca Barocca CPO777 204-2, 2007. CD.

Luigi Merci (1695 ca–1750 ca): Sei sonate per fagotto e basso continuo - op. III (1735).

116 Recorded with Paolo Tognon, fagotto solista; Pietro Bosna, violoncello; Paola Frezzato, fagotto continuo; Pietro Prosser, tiorba e chitarra; Roberto Loreggian, clavicembalo. TACTUS TC691301, 1999. CD.

Telemann: A Fagotto Solo. Recorded with Elsa Frank, hautbois et flute à bec; Ruth van Killegem, flute à bec; Stéphanie de Failly, violon; Bernard Woltèche, violoncelle; Jérémie Papasergio, basson et direction. Ricercar RIC 314, 2011. CD.

Scores

Dard, Antoine. Six Sonatas for Bassoon (Violoncello) and Basso Continuo, Opus 2. Warngau: Accolade, 2010.

Fasch, Johann Friedrich. Sonata in C major for Bassoon and Basso Continuo. Vienna: Universal Edition, 1989.

Merci, Luigi. Six Sonatas for Bassoon or Violoncello and Basso Continuo, Opus 3. Edited by George Longazo. St. Cloud, MN: Medici Music Press, 1982.

Telemann, Georg Philipp. Sonata in F minor for Bassoon or Violoncello and Basso Continuo. Edited by Winfried Michel. Winterthur, Schweiz: Amadeus Verlag, 1977.

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