HUMANIORA VOLUME 14 GrammaticalNo. and 1 Februari Lexical English 2002 Collocations Halaman 53 - 62 GRAMMATICAL AND LEXICAL ENGLISH COLLOCATIONS : SOME POSSIBLE PROBLEMS TO INDONESIAN LEARNERS OF ENGLISH Rio Rini Diah Moehkardi* 1. Introduction meaning started. Even some prepositions, like after, until and before (Thomson and t seems universally acknowledged in Martinet, 1980: 83) may also function as all languages that words often co-occur conjunction. It is obvious that the function of with other word(s) in units. However, they are grammar in conveying meaning is not only not always freely combined nor individually at sentence level, but also at phrase level. analyzable. Their co-occurences are adhered This confirms what has also been suggested to some grammatical principles. The English by Kennedy (1990:216) that to some extent prepositional phrase, at the moment, for collocations are considered as “grammar in example, is subject to grammatical choice terms of vocabulary.” of the preposition at rather than other random Due to the complexity of English prepositions like on or in. Another example, collocation, this paper is going to discuss verbal phrase look forward to is followed by the types of English collocations, their gerund and not infinitive. Therefore, such possible problems to Indonesian learners of phrases are also called lexico-grammatical English and some solutions. units (Nattinger and DeCarrico, 1992:8). These unit are often confusing to learners 2. The definition of collocation not only because of their various semantic and syntactic requirements like the above Nattinger (in Carter and McCarthy, examples, but also the double-function of their 1988:76) suggests that language is basically elements. Many words that combined with a “compositional” process in which many of verbs can be used as either prepositions or its words co-occur together forming single adverbs, for example: above, across, along, units of meanings. He calls these as lexical before, behind, off, on, over, etc.(Thomson phrases or word combinations; and and Martinet, 1980:82) The examples for collocations are among other terms of lexical consideration are: (a) He got off the bus at phrases. However, collocations themselves the corner. Off in this got off verb combination range from “lexico-grammatical unit” to “free is a preposition, and (b) He got off at the combination”. The term “collocation” is corner. Off that goes with the verb got in (b) actually only one among other terms for is an adverb (also called adverbial similar concept: word combination. Nattinger particle).The co-occurence of off following and DeCarrico (1992:21) define collocations got in (a) is expressing predictable direction as “strings of words that seem to have certain and therefore is not as fixed as the one ‘mutual expectancy’, or a greater-than- following got in (b) which expresses new chance likelihood that they will co-occur in * Doktoranda, Master of Arts, Staf Pengajar Jurusan Sastra Inggris, Fakultas Ilmu Budaya, Universitas Gadjah Mada, Yogyakarta. Humaniora Volume XIV, No. 1/2002 53 Rio Rini Diah Moehkardi any text.” In addition to that, the following is (Kennedy, 1990:224): from the outside, inside an explanation by Benson, Benson, and Ilson the cupboard. These prepositional phrases (1986 in Bahns, 1993:57): are considered as free combinations. In English, as in other languages, there are many fixed, identifiable, non- 2.2 Types of Grammatical Collocations idiomatic phrases and constructions. According to Benson,Benson and Ilson Such groups of words are called (1986) in their introduction to their The BBI recurrent combinations, or Combinatory Dictionary of English collocations. Collocations fall into two grammatical collocations fall into the following major groups: grammatical combinations: noun+preposition, noun+to- collocations and lexical collocations. infinitive, noun+that-clause, preposition + noun, adjective+ preposition, predicate Unlike collocations whose meanings are adjective+ to-infinitive, adjective+ that-clause, often unpredictable, ‘free combination’ and the English 19 verb patterns. consists of elements that freely allow substitution. For example, decide on a boat, 2.2.1. noun + preposition combinations meaning ‘choose (to buy) a boat’ contains the collocation decide on, whereas decide Not all noun + preposition combinations on a boat, meaning ‘make a decision while can be considered as collocations due the on a boat’ is a free combination. The possible highly predictable meaning of some combination of ‘decide’ (meaning ‘making a prepositions, such as of and by. So, noun + decision’) is limitless: They decided —after of / by combinations are considered free dinner, immediately, at the meeting, with a combinations. The following phrases are heavy heart, etc. A native speaker will not examples of noun + preposition collocations: say: They decided (meaning ‘choose’) at a blockade against, apathy towards. boat. To them decided at a boat (meaning to ‘choose’ a boat) is not collocable. 2.2.2. noun + to + infinitive There are five syntactic patterns in which 2.1 Grammatical Collocations noun + to + infitive construction is most frequently encountered: Grammatical collocations consist of a noun, or an adjective or a verb, plus a particle a. It was a pleasure ( a problem, a struggle) (a preposition, an adverb or a grammatical to do it structure such as an infinitive a gerund or b. They had the foresight (instructions, an clause) (Bahns, 1993:57). The followings are obligation, a permission) to do it the examples: at night, extend to, good at, c. They felt a compulsion (an impulse, a fall for, to be afraid that. These examples need) to do it are grammatical collocations which are d. They made an attempt (an effort, a lexicalized as single units whose meanings promise, a vow) to do it. are formulaic and whose co-occurence are highly likely. They are sometimes idiomatic, e. He was a fool (a genius, an idiot) to do it. because their meanings do not reflect the meanings of the elements, such as run out 2.2.3. noun + that-clause of (to reach an end of stock, supplies) or put up with ( tolerate). However, there are similar The noun + that-clause combinations grammatical combinations which do not have that are considered collocational are those such a “strong sense of belonging together” using subject pronouns. For example: 54 Humaniora Volume XIV, No. 1/2002 Grammatical and Lexical English Collocations We reached an agreement that she b. adjectives with real and animate subject, would represent us in court such as She is ready to go; or with He took an oath that he would do his inanimate subject, such as : It (the bomb) duty is designed to explode at certain temperatures; or with either animate or However, when the ‘that-clause’ can be inanimate subject: She was bound to replaced by ‘which-clause’ as that in relative find out or It (the accident) was bound clauses, such a noun + that-clause to happen. construction is not considered as collocational. For example: We reached into an agreement that/ which would go into 2.2.7. adjective + that clause effect in a month. Some adjectives can be followed by that- clause. For example: 2.2.4. preposition + noun combinations She was afraid that she would fail her Any combinations of preposition and examination noun can fall into this category, however the Several adjectives followed by present choice of preposition with certain noun is not subjunctive in formal English are at random. For example: collocational, such as: It was imperative that by accident, in advance, in agony, etc. we be there. 2.2.5. adjective + preposition 2.2.8. Collocational verb patterns combinations English verb patterns have 19 types, Some adjectives are followed by a each is designated here by capital letters A prepositional phrase. The adjective+ to S. preposition combination that is considered a. Shift of an indirect object to a position collocational is the one that occurs in the before the direct object of transitive verbs predicate (verbless clause). However past is allowed. For example: participial adjective followed by preposition by is not considered collocational because He sent the book to his brother - this construction is regular and predictable. He sent his brother the book and For example: He sent the book to him - He sent They are angry at the children, him the book They are hungry for news, If both objects are pronouns the common pattern is: He sent it to him. *The ship was abandoned (by its crew) is not considered collocational. b. Shift of an indirect object to a position before the direct object by deleting to 2.2.6. predicate adjective + to + is not allowed. For example: infinitive They described the book to her ; These adjectives occur in two basic but not * They described her the constructions with infinitives book. a. adjectives with dummy subject “It” such Other common verbs that fit this as It was necessary to work; also category are: mention, return, scream, etc. possible It was necessary for him to work (the insertion of prepositional c. Transitive verb with preposition for allows phrase) the deletion of for and the shift of the Humaniora Volume XIV, No. 1/2002 55 Rio Rini Diah Moehkardi indirect object to a position before the Some verbs in this category may have direct object. For example: synonymous construction : He began reading or He began to read are similar in meaning. She bought a shirt for her husband; And some other verbs of this category may also possible: She bought her have different construction and meaning, for husband a shirt or She bought a example: He remembered telling him the shirt for him or She bought him a story and He remembered to tell him the story shirt. are different in meaning d. The verb forms a collocation with a h. Transitive verbs are followed by an specific preposition and an object.