HUMANIORA

VOLUME 14 GrammaticalNo. and 1 Februari Lexical English 2002 Collocations Halaman 53 - 62

GRAMMATICAL AND LEXICAL ENGLISH COLLOCATIONS : SOME POSSIBLE PROBLEMS TO INDONESIAN LEARNERS OF ENGLISH

Rio Rini Diah Moehkardi*

1. Introduction meaning started. Even some prepositions, like after, until and before (Thomson and t seems universally acknowledged in Martinet, 1980: 83) may also function as all languages that words often co-occur conjunction. It is obvious that the function of with other word(s) in units. However, they are grammar in conveying meaning is not only not always freely combined nor individually at sentence level, but also at phrase level. analyzable. Their co-occurences are adhered This confirms what has also been suggested to some grammatical principles. The English by Kennedy (1990:216) that to some extent prepositional phrase, at the moment, for collocations are considered as “grammar in example, is subject to grammatical choice terms of vocabulary.” of the preposition at rather than other random Due to the complexity of English prepositions like on or in. Another example, collocation, this paper is going to discuss verbal phrase look forward to is followed by the types of English collocations, their gerund and not infinitive. Therefore, such possible problems to Indonesian learners of phrases are also called lexico-grammatical English and some solutions. units (Nattinger and DeCarrico, 1992:8). These unit are often confusing to learners 2. The definition of collocation not only because of their various semantic and syntactic requirements like the above Nattinger (in Carter and McCarthy, examples, but also the double-function of their 1988:76) suggests that language is basically elements. Many words that combined with a “compositional” process in which many of verbs can be used as either prepositions or its words co-occur together forming single adverbs, for example: above, across, along, units of meanings. He calls these as lexical before, behind, off, on, over, etc.(Thomson phrases or word combinations; and and Martinet, 1980:82) The examples for collocations are among other terms of lexical consideration are: (a) He got off the bus at phrases. However, collocations themselves the corner. Off in this got off verb combination range from “lexico-grammatical unit” to “free is a preposition, and (b) He got off at the combination”. The term “collocation” is corner. Off that goes with the verb got in (b) actually only one among other terms for is an adverb (also called adverbial similar concept: word combination. Nattinger particle).The co-occurence of off following and DeCarrico (1992:21) define collocations got in (a) is expressing predictable direction as “strings of words that seem to have certain and therefore is not as fixed as the one ‘mutual expectancy’, or a greater-than- following got in (b) which expresses new chance likelihood that they will co-occur in

* Doktoranda, Master of Arts, Staf Pengajar Jurusan Sastra Inggris, Fakultas Ilmu Budaya, Universitas Gadjah Mada, Yogyakarta.

Humaniora Volume XIV, No. 1/2002 53 Rio Rini Diah Moehkardi any text.” In addition to that, the following is (Kennedy, 1990:224): from the outside, inside an explanation by Benson, Benson, and Ilson the cupboard. These prepositional phrases (1986 in Bahns, 1993:57): are considered as free combinations. In English, as in other languages, there are many fixed, identifiable, non- 2.2 Types of Grammatical Collocations idiomatic phrases and constructions. According to Benson,Benson and Ilson Such groups of words are called (1986) in their introduction to their The BBI recurrent combinations, or Combinatory Dictionary of English collocations. Collocations fall into two grammatical collocations fall into the following major groups: grammatical combinations: noun+preposition, noun+to- collocations and lexical collocations. infinitive, noun+that-clause, preposition + noun, adjective+ preposition, predicate Unlike collocations whose meanings are adjective+ to-infinitive, adjective+ that-clause, often unpredictable, ‘free combination’ and the English 19 verb patterns. consists of elements that freely allow substitution. For example, decide on a boat, 2.2.1. noun + preposition combinations meaning ‘choose (to buy) a boat’ contains the collocation decide on, whereas decide Not all noun + preposition combinations on a boat, meaning ‘make a decision while can be considered as collocations due the on a boat’ is a free combination. The possible highly predictable meaning of some combination of ‘decide’ (meaning ‘making a prepositions, such as of and by. So, noun + decision’) is limitless: They decided —after of / by combinations are considered free dinner, immediately, at the meeting, with a combinations. The following phrases are heavy heart, etc. A native speaker will not examples of noun + preposition collocations: say: They decided (meaning ‘choose’) at a blockade against, apathy towards. boat. To them decided at a boat (meaning to ‘choose’ a boat) is not collocable. 2.2.2. noun + to + infinitive

There are five syntactic patterns in which 2.1 Grammatical Collocations noun + to + infitive construction is most frequently encountered: Grammatical collocations consist of a noun, or an adjective or a verb, plus a particle a. It was a pleasure ( a problem, a struggle) (a preposition, an adverb or a grammatical to do it structure such as an infinitive a gerund or b. They had the foresight (instructions, an clause) (Bahns, 1993:57). The followings are obligation, a permission) to do it the examples: at night, extend to, good at, c. They felt a compulsion (an impulse, a fall for, to be afraid that. These examples need) to do it are grammatical collocations which are d. They made an attempt (an effort, a lexicalized as single units whose meanings promise, a vow) to do it. are formulaic and whose co-occurence are highly likely. They are sometimes idiomatic, e. He was a fool (a genius, an idiot) to do it. because their meanings do not reflect the meanings of the elements, such as run out 2.2.3. noun + that-clause of (to reach an end of stock, supplies) or put up with ( tolerate). However, there are similar The noun + that-clause combinations grammatical combinations which do not have that are considered collocational are those such a “strong sense of belonging together” using subject pronouns. For example:

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We reached an agreement that she b. adjectives with real and animate subject, would represent us in court such as She is ready to go; or with He took an oath that he would do his inanimate subject, such as : It (the bomb) duty is designed to explode at certain temperatures; or with either animate or However, when the ‘that-clause’ can be inanimate subject: She was bound to replaced by ‘which-clause’ as that in relative find out or It (the accident) was bound clauses, such a noun + that-clause to happen. construction is not considered as collocational. For example: We reached into an agreement that/ which would go into 2.2.7. adjective + that clause effect in a month. Some adjectives can be followed by that- clause. For example: 2.2.4. preposition + noun combinations She was afraid that she would fail her Any combinations of preposition and examination noun can fall into this category, however the Several adjectives followed by present choice of preposition with certain noun is not subjunctive in formal English are at random. For example: collocational, such as: It was imperative that by accident, in advance, in agony, etc. we be there.

2.2.5. adjective + preposition 2.2.8. Collocational verb patterns combinations English verb patterns have 19 types, Some adjectives are followed by a each is designated here by capital letters A prepositional phrase. The adjective+ to S. preposition combination that is considered a. Shift of an indirect object to a position collocational is the one that occurs in the before the direct object of transitive verbs predicate (verbless clause). However past is allowed. For example: participial adjective followed by preposition by is not considered collocational because He sent the book to his brother - this construction is regular and predictable. He sent his brother the book and For example: He sent the book to him - He sent They are angry at the children, him the book They are hungry for news, If both objects are pronouns the common pattern is: He sent it to him. *The ship was abandoned (by its crew) is not considered collocational. b. Shift of an indirect object to a position before the direct object by deleting to 2.2.6. predicate adjective + to + is not allowed. For example: infinitive They described the book to her ; These adjectives occur in two basic but not * They described her the constructions with infinitives book. a. adjectives with dummy subject “It” such Other common verbs that fit this as It was necessary to work; also category are: mention, return, scream, etc. possible It was necessary for him to work (the insertion of prepositional c. Transitive verb with preposition for allows phrase) the deletion of for and the shift of the

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indirect object to a position before the Some verbs in this category may have direct object. For example: synonymous construction : He began reading or He began to read are similar in meaning. She bought a shirt for her husband; And some other verbs of this category may also possible: She bought her have different construction and meaning, for husband a shirt or She bought a example: He remembered telling him the shirt for him or She bought him a story and He remembered to tell him the story shirt. are different in meaning d. The verb forms a collocation with a h. Transitive verbs are followed by an specific preposition and an object. For object and to + infinitive. For example: example: They asked the students to They based their conclusions on participate in discussion the available facts We adhered to the plan They permitted the children to watch television However, the following similar constructions are not collocations, but free combinations Many of the verbs in this pattern can be of verb + preposition denoting ‘location’ or followed by infinitive to be. For example, She ‘means’ or ‘instrument’ asked me to be punctual. Furthermore, most of the verbs in this construction can be We walked in the park passivized. They came by train i. Transitive verbs are followed by a direct e. Verbs are followed by to + infinitive. For object and an infinitive without to. Most example: I-pattern verbs cannot be passivized. For They began to speak; example: She continued to write We let them use the car However, verbs + to infinitive meaning We saw them leave the house “purpose” are not included as collocational combination. For example: He was running j. Verbs are followed by an object and a (in order) to catch the bus. verb in –ing. For example: She stopped (in order) to chat I caught him smoking in his bedroom f. Verbs are followed by infinitive without We found the children sleeping on to the floor These verbs, except dare, help, and Some verbs in this category (especially need, are called modals. The verbal verbs of perception, like see, hear, feel)may phrases had better and would rather also have similar constructions with that of fit this pattern. For example: construction in I-pattern. We saw him smoke They must work the cigarette beside We saw him smoking. We had better go now J-pattern verbs usually can be passivized. g. Verbs are followed by second verb in – k. Verbs can be followed by a noun or ing. For examples: pronoun and gerund. For example: They kept talking This fact justifies Bill’s coming late We enjoyed watching television They love his clowning

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I cannot imagine their stealing Some verbs in this category may also apples. be used with M-verb pattern, For example: Please excuse my waking you so We considered her very capable early. However possessive constructions are o. Transitive verbs are followed by two often considered awkward, more common objects. For example: expressions for the same meaning will use The teacher asked the students the following alternative: questions I cannot imagine them stealing apples The police fined them fifty pounds This fact justifies Bill for coming late p. Intransitive /reflexive / transitive verbs Please excuse me for waking you so must be followed by an adverbial (an early adverb/a prepositional phrase/a noun l. Verbs are followed by a noun clause phrase/a clause). For example: beginning with conjunction that. For He carried himself with dignity; but example: not * He carried himself They admitted that they were wrong The meeting will last two hours; but We hoped that the weather would not *The meeting will last be nice Other verbs in this category are: come, Some verbs always take an object noun sneak, weigh, etc. However some of these or pronoun before the that-clause, such as verbs may have senses that do not require For example: an adverbial, for example: They are coming, in addition to They are coming home She assured me that she would arrive on time q. Verb can be followed by an interrogative They convinced us that we should invest word, such as how, what, when, etc. For our money example: Some verbs in this category allow the He always wants what I want insertion of the fact. For example: She knows when to keep quiet He acknowledged (admitted/confirmed/ However, some verbs in this construction etc) the fact that he was guilty need an object, such as m. Transitive verb can be followed by a They told us what to do direct object, an infinitive to be and She asked me why she had come adjective / past participle/ noun/pronoun. For example: r. Dummy ‘it’ is followed by transitive verbs (often expressing emotions) and by to We considered her to be very + infinitive or by that + clause or by capable / well-trained / a competent either. For example: engineer It puzzled me that he never n. Transitive verbs are followed by a direct answered the telephones object and adjective/ past participle or It surprised me to learn of her noun/pronoun. For example: decision

She dyed her hair red s. A small number of intransitive verbs are He found them interesting followed by a predicate noun / predicate

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adjective. Including the verb make, used which in fact troublesome. The transfer intransitively, belongs to this group. For of the L1 prepositions may cause example: mistakes because of the differrent concept between the L1 prepositions to She will make a good teacher the English. For example, the She was enthusiatic Indonesian expression ‘tertarik dengan However larger group of intransitive verbs ‘ is literary transferred to English can be followed only by a predicate adjective, ‘interested with’; whereas ‘interested in’ for example: will be difficult to remember because preposition ‘in’ is equivalent to The flowers smell fragrant or The food Indonesian ‘di’. So, it is a learning tastes awful. burden to Indonesian learners to decide which English preposition/particle to 2.3. Possible Problems of Grammatical transfer di or dengan. Collocations to Indonesian Learners c. Moreover, it is sometimes difficult to Among the above collocation patterns, decide whether the verbs of phrasal verbs the problems of verb transitivity and phrasal are transitive or intransitive before they verbs seem overwhelming. In relation to can decide whether the phrasal verbs English verb transitivity, learner may get can be separated (such as, call your confused to decide (a) which verbs are dog off) or not (take in lodgers). Learners always transitive or always intransitive, and will likely generalize the rule of which ones can occur in both types, and (b) separating the transitive verb from its which structure (infinitive with or without to, preposition and insert the object. For gerund or that-clause) can follow certain example : It was too late to call in an transitive verbs. It takes time for learners to electrician can also be expressed – It memorize which verbs require which structure was too late to call an eletrician in or It or which alternative structure are possible. was too late to call him in. This sentence The other problem in grammatical pattern of phrasal verb “call in” will be collocation is that of pattern 2.2.8.d. verb + over-generalized in the inseparable adverbial particles combinations. The phrasal transitive verb, such as “call on” combinations are confusing to English (ask to speak) The chairman called on learners, including Indonesian students, due Mr. Sudjana to give report. The chairman to the following problems as observed by Side called on him to give report (which is (1990: 144-5): still correct); Learners may also produce a. Many English verb + adverbial particle The chairman called him on to give report combinations (also called phrasal verbs) (which is incorrect) (Thomson and have more than one meaning, such as Martinet, 1980: 102). Wallace (1987: make up (‘to decide’ ‘to invent’ and ‘to 120-1) distinguishes phrasal verb from put on cosmetics’ and the ‘cosmetics prepositional phrase, in which the latter itself) and are often idiomatic. The is definitely inseparable. Compare the seemingly endless list of such following examples: He turned down the combinations with their various offer (a phrasal verb or verb-adverb meanings is indeed threatening. combination) and He turned down the b. Adverbial particles, whose forms are road (prepositional phrase or verb- similar to preposition, of the phrasal preposition combination). “Turn down” in verbs seem to be random. Therefore, the first sentence is separable whereas learners tend to transfer the prepositions that in the second is not ( Stageberg, of their L1 phrasal verbs to English ones 1971: 225).

58 Humaniora Volume XIV, No. 1/2002 Grammatical and Lexical English Collocations d. To give more confusion, the fact that The co-occurence of two or more words there is sometimes no direct equivalent in a lexical collocation has two important in the L1, some phrasal verbs can give features. Firstly, there may be a constant learners more difficulties in collocational relationship between the two understanding their meanings, such as words that collocate although several words “I am done in.” go in between them. For example, collocation “collect stamp” can be separated as :They collect stamps; They collect foreign stamps; 2.4. Lexical Collocations They collect many things, but chiefly In contrast to grammatical collocations, stamps, (Greenbaum, 1970 in Carter and lexical collocations do not contain McCarthy, 1988:34). Secondly, lexical grammatical elements. Benson, Benson, collocation does not seem to depend on and Ilson (1986 in Bahns, 1993) list various grammatical types. So, collocation ”strong combinations of lexical collocations: verb + argument” can be expressed, for example: noun (start a family; keep a secret); adjective He argued strongly; or The strength of his argument: or His argument was strengthened + noun (good work, strong tea); adverb + (as exemplified by Halliday, 1966 in Carter adjective (heavily influenced, amazingly and McCarthy, 1988:35). gorgeous); verb + adverb (walk slowly, laugh nervously). In lexical collocations, too, there are 2.4. Types of Lexical Collocations fixed and loose combinations. Especially in The following are types of lexical verb + noun combinations, the combinations collocations as categorized in Benson, et al are fixed in which the choice of words that The BBI Combinatory Dictionary of English collocate each other is definite, such as: (1986: xxiv – xxviii): commit a murder, or break the law and these combinations: do a murder, or damage the 2.4.1. verb (usually transitive) + noun/ law are unlikely. This fixed structure are pronoun (or prepositional phrase) idiomatic, however their meanings are still predictable from the elements of the Most of 2.4.1 collocations are called CA combination. In comparison, in loose collocations because they consist of a verb collocations the collocates are freely denoting creation or activation and a noun/ a combined, such as: analyze/study/witness pronoun. For example: a murder and practice/study law. The meanings of these loose collocations can still (denoting creation) come to an be derived from their individual words. In agreement, compose a music, etc contrast, there are fixed combinations (denoting activation) set an alarm, launch consisting of several lexical items which are a missile, etc relatively frozen expressions and whose However, not all verbs denoting creation meanings are sometimes hardly derivable and activation can be considered collacable from their component words, such as to to any nouns. Combinations of verbs, such scream blue murder (‘to complain very loudly’) as build, cause, cook, make, prepare, etc + or get away with murder (‘someone who can nouns are limitless, their meanings are do whatever they like) (Nattinger, 1987:949); predictable. Therefore these combinations and lay down the law (“give other people order are not considered collocations. For in a bossy way”) or take the law into example: build a house (a bridge, roads), someone own hand (‘deliberately break the cause damage (death, deafness). Similarly, law’) (ibid: 817). These fixed structures and there are some nouns with polysemous meanings collocations are called idioms. meanings, such as line needs different verbs

Humaniora Volume XIV, No. 1/2002 59 Rio Rini Diah Moehkardi to collocate: form a line (meaning to line up) 2.4.5.b. the specific, concrete, small unit and drop smb a line (meaning write smb a of something larger, more letter) general. For example: a bit of advice, an article of 2.4.2 verb (meaning eradication and or clothing, etc nullification) + a noun

This lexical combination is called EN 2.4.6. adverb + adjective (eradication and nullification) collocations. For example: The meaning of most adverbs in this combination is “very”. For example: reject an appeal, revoke a license, annul a marriage, withdraw an offer deeply absorbed, closely acquinted, hopelessly addicted,etc Some verbs denoting similar meaning and that can be used with large number nouns 2.4.7. verb + adverb are considered as free combination. For For example: example the verb destroy can combine with almost any nouns denoting physical objects: appreciate sincerely, argue heatedly, etc village, school, document, etc. 2.5. Possible problems of Lexical 2.4.3 adjective + noun Collocations to Indonesian learners

In some instances, more than one Although lexical collocations seem more adjective (or more than one form of the same flexible, its greater possibility of formation adjective) can collocate with the same noun. may make learners feel they have the most For example: freedom in combining words. Therefore collocational errors the learners are likely to strong / weak tea; kind /kindest / best commit are the transfers of L1 elements in regards their combinations which unfortunately are not always acceptable collocations. The 2.4.4. noun + verb following are possible L1 transfers The verb names an action characteristic a. Learners will transfer L1 verbs in English of the person/things designated by the noun. verb + noun collocation. For example: For example, Indonesian learners will alarms go off; bees buzz; bomb explode think ‘make a conclusion’ is the only Predictable combinations, such as acceptable word combination because boxers box, dancers dance are considered in BI ‘membuat kesimpulan’ is an free combinations acceptable collocation. They will hesitate to adopt ‘to draw a conclusion’. 2.4.5. noun + noun Moreover ‘membuat persetujuan’ has its acceptable English equivalent: ‘make an This type of collocations indicates the agreement’. Therefore learners transfer unit that is associated with a noun the verb ‘membuat’ as ‘make’ which is not always acceptable verb for certain 2.4.5.a. larger unit to which a single nouns, or avoid using ‘make’ + noun member belongs. For example: because in BI structure other verbs are a herd of buffalo, a bouquet of more likely used. For example: English flowers, etc. ‘make the bed’ requires different use of

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verb, “membersihkan/merapikan tempat grammatical collocation of phrasal verbs or tidur”. Lower level learners will likely use prepositional phrases as lexical units, ‘clean’ or more acceptable verb ‘tidy up’ however when it comes to lexical to express the same meaning, but will collocations, they might be introducing a part hesitate to use ‘make the bed’ of the combination or do not emphasize the collocationality of the word combination. It b. The transfer of L1 adjectives that is very important for teachers to raise their collocates with nouns advance-level students’ awarenes and sensitivity of word collocationality Because in BI, an expression ‘kopi Besides, when students look up new kental’ is acceptable, learners will likely words in their dictionary (the most commonly find the equivalent of the adjective ‘kental’ used is the Oxford Student’s Dictionary of : ‘thick’ or ‘heavy’, whereas ‘strong Current English), they should be encouraged coffee’ is the acceptable English to also look at words that usually go with the collocation. Adjectives with similar and word in question. Dictionary may or opposite meanings are also often immediately help for receptive task, such as confusing to learners when they have to reading comprehension, but when it comes combine them with particular nouns: to the learners’ need to use collocation in a should they choose ‘light coffee’ or ‘mild productive fashion, for instance in writing task, coffee’ ? Should they choose ‘weak dish’ they need a dictionary which provides good or ‘mild dish’ when their intention is that coverage of collocation, such as The BBI the food is not spicy ? Combinatory Dictionary of English or Collins Cobuild English Dictionary . Dictionaries are c. The transfer of L1 adverb ‘ sangat’ in supposed to be useful resources, but very most ‘adverb + adjective’ combinations often learners cannot make much use of Most English adverbs that precede them, especially when it comes to adjectives have the same meaning of collocation. First, the learners often do not ‘sangat’ in BI which is equivalent to know how to use the dictionary to meet their English ‘very’, therefore learners will need; secondly, they do not know which likely play safe by avoiding using adverb collocation are most useful for productive but will overuse adverb ‘very’ with most purposes; thirdly, they do not know where to start to find the collocation they need, whether adjectives. the first part or the second part of the collocations. A good bilingual dictionary can 3. Some possible solutions help but the learners should always be The above brief description of the nature encouraged to check the expression in the of the English collocations seems so monolingual L2 dictionary with good bewildering and unpredictable; furthermore, collocational entries. their numbers are endless. Many Indonesian English teachers may think this aspect of 4. Conclusion vocabulary is indeed intimidating. Therefore, many of them prefer addressing them when English collocation is divided into they meet these word combinations as by- grammatical and lexical collocations. product of other skills they are teaching. Grammatical collocations consist of noun, When this is the case teachers should not verb, or adjective plus a particle, adverb, or a forget to introduce the combinations as grammatical structure, such as an lexical units, not as individual word. Usually infinitive, gerund or clause. Lexical teachers are very well aware of giving the collocations are combinations of adjective +

Humaniora Volume XIV, No. 1/2002 61 Rio Rini Diah Moehkardi noun ; adverb + adjective; verb + noun, etc. Nattinger, J. (ed). 1987. Collins Cobuild Each type of collocation may impose English Language Dictionary. London: difficulty or confusion on learners of English. Collins This is due to the fact that there is hardly Nattinger, J.R. and DeCarrico, J.S. 1992. clear-cut guideline for non-native learners to Lexical Phrases and Language Teaching decide which combinations are exactly London: Longman acceptable and whose co-occurence are highly predictable; or which ones are possibly Side, R. 1990. “Phrasal verbs: sorting them acceptable for creative purpose, or which one out” in ELT Journal 44(2): 145 - 152. are simply unacceptable. The only way to Oxford: Oxford University Press. get better grasp of English collocations is Stageberg, N.C. 1971. An Introductory building up awareness of it and experiencing English Grammar. New York: Holt, it receptively and productively. Rinehart and Winston, Ltd. Thomson, A.J. and Martinet, A.V. 1980. A REFERENCES Practical English Grammar.Oxford: Oxford University Press. Bahns, J. 1993.”Lexical collocations: a contrastive view” ELT Journal 47(1):56- Wallace, M. 1987. Teaching Vocabulary. 63. Oxford :Oxford University Press. London: Heinemann. Kennedy, G. 1990. “Collocations: where grammar and vocabulary teaching meeet” in Language Teaching Methodology for the Nineties, RELC, Anthology Series 24.

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