Masaryk University Faculty of Arts
Department of English and American Studies
English Language and Literature
Veronika Moulisová
Using Electronic Tools in Translation into English Bachelor’s Diploma Thesis
Supervisor: PhDr. Jarmila Fictumová
2009
I declare that I have worked on this thesis independently, using only the primary and secondary sources listed in the bibliography.
…………………………………………….. Author’s signature
Acknowledgement I would like to thank my supervisor PhDr. Jarmila Fictumová for her patience, support and guidance in the process of writing this thesis. I would also like to thank my boyfriend, friends and family for their support and encouragement.
Table of Contents
Introduction 5 1. Terminology 7 1.1. Terminological Theory 8 1.2. Term 9 1.2.1. Defining a Term 9 1.2.1.1. Traditional Definitions 10 1.2.1.2. Pragmatic Definitions 12 1.3. Terminography 14 1.4. Basics of Terminology Work 15 1.5. Terminological Databanks 16 1.6. Summary 18 2. Electronic Tools 18 2.1. Search Engines 18 2.1.1. Indexing 19 2.1.2. Query Processing 20 2.1.2.1. Boolean Search 20 2.1.2.2. Ranked Retrieval 22 2.1.2.3. Probabilistic Retrieval 23 2.1.3. Machine Translation Systems 23 2.2. Electronic Dictionaries 24 2.2.1. Online Dictionaries 27 2.2.2. CD-ROM Dictionaries 28 2.3. Encyclopaedias 29 2.4. Specialized Websites 31 2.5. Summary 31 3. Glossary 31 3.1. Methodology of Bi-Lingual Glossary Compilation 33 3.2. Summary 35 4. Creation of a Personal Glossary 35 4.1. Subject Field 36 4.1.1. Translation in Czech Motorsport 36 4.2. Using Electronic Tools for Term Translation 36 4.3. Data Storing 40 4.3.1. Ways to Improve the Process of Translation 40 4.4. Summary 41 Conclusion 42 Bibliography 43 Appendix 53
Introduction
The topic of this bachelor thesis, Using Electronic Tools in Translation into
English, reflects the recent trend among the translators of technical texts. With the advent of information technology new translation tools were established.
Due to the never-ending process of technological development, new terminologies arise every day. The purpose of this paper is to create a bilingual glossary of motorsport terminology using electronic tools.
The electronic tools described in this paper are Web-based tools that are used directly during the process of translation. They include search engines, electronic dictionaries, machine translation systems, online encyclopaedias and specialized websites. Although many other electronic tools exist, such as corpora, CAT tools, word processors etc., they are not subject of this study.
The opening chapter of the thesis provides a theoretical overview of terminology. Definitions and concepts of various scholars are offered.
Terminology and terminography are distinguished and also differences between terminology and lexicology, and terminography and lexicography are explained.
Furthermore, the basic terminographic methodology for the production of a terminological product is provided.
Chapter two gives a description of the individual electronic tools. A brief history of each of the tools is given and various functions of the tools are described.
The glossary compilation is described in the last two chapters. Chapter three provides a theoretical overview of the glossary compilation, while chapter four includes practical description of the personal glossary creation. In this
5 chapter, the motivation for the choice of the subject field and the usage of the electronic tools in practice are described. The actual glossary is presented within the appendix. The texts used to retrieve the Czech terms are press releases and a rally guide of Barum Rally Zlín 2008, all are included in the
Primary Sources (pp 43-7).
6 1. Terminology
Terminology is an intersectional and multidisciplinary science and co-operates with a significant number of linguistic sub-disciplines. There are many approaches to the theory and practice but according to Cabré, all of them share a series of basic assumptions. They can be identified on basis of following points of view:
a. For linguists, terminology is a part of the lexicon defined by subject matter and
pragmatic usage.
b. For subject specialists, terminology is the formal reflection of the conceptual
organization of a special subject and a necessary medium of expression and
professional communication.
c. For end-users (either direct or intermediary) terminology is a set of useful, practical
communication units which are assessed according to criteria of economy, precision
and suitability.
d. For language planners, terminology is an area of a language requiring intervention in
order to reaffirm its usefulness and survival and to ensure its continuity as a means of
expression through modernization (Cabré 11).
With respect to these points of view, two major user groups of terminology can be identified – “users of terminology for direct communication … and terminologists who write glossaries … or mediate in some other way” (Cabré
11). Both user groups or rather approaches to terminology apply for the purpose of this thesis. The former group includes translators, technical writers and interpreters who need glossaries and specialized dictionaries, the latter includes terminologists, terminographers and information scientists who compile, describe, process and create terms (Cabré 12). Translators become
7 terminologists at certain points of the process of translation, as they need to create their own glossaries and term banks.
Terminology differs from general language significantly. Osimo summarizes the differences in his “Translation Course”:
1) formation of lexicon – terms have artificial origins and their purpose is
to describe objects
2) kind of society – terminology guarantees specifity of information
3) relation to the object – a two-way matching of term and object
4) time factor – terminology is synchronic
5) space factor – terms do not change within any homogeneous linguistic
area
6) sector factor – it happens that the same terms exist in different
disciplines, referring to completely different objects
7) culture factor – not an issue in terminology
8) connotation factor – terms have only denotative value, connotation is
abolished (Osimo).
1.1. Terminological Theory
Terminology is a subject of the 20th and 21st centuries interest. There was certain knowledge of terms in the 18th and 19th centuries but according to
Cabré, “the scholars were not concerned with the nature of concepts nor the foundations for creating new terms” (Cabré 7). In the 1930s three classical schools of terminology – the Austrian, the Soviet and the Czech schools – were established. Each of the schools had a different approach to terminology which were not mutually exclusive. The approach which mostly applies to translators
8 is the one that “considers terminology to be an interdisciplinary but autonomous subject at the service of scientific and technical disciplines” (Cabré 7).
1.2. Term
1.2.1. Defining a Term
There are various ways of defining a term. According to Machová, a term is a basic unit of a scientific and / or technical text. It is a designation of a strictly allotted conception which is repeatedly used in technical texts. Other linguists define a term as a lexical unit with a clearly defined conceptional meaning which is repeatedly used in technical texts, i.e. in interpersonal communication of a certain social group (Machová 138-9).
Other linguists go deeper in defining a term. Osimo gives seven factors which distinguish terms from polysemic words. These factors are: 1) formation of lexicon – terms are decided to become terms in an artificial way, 2) kind of society – terms are used in written culture and education, 3) relation to the object – ideally, “a term is matched by one and only one object, and one object is matched by one and only one term”, 4) time – time factor is not considered, although terminology is also a subject of change, 5) space – terms do not change within homogeneous linguistic area, 6) sector – same terms can exist in different disciplines and refer to different objects and 7) connotations – terms have only single interpretation.
Scholars in the Scientific document offer ways of creating new terms.
They should be either borrowed from ordinary language or from a living foreign language, or a name of the discoverer or inventor should be adopted. The scholars even suggest to pick a word arbitrarily or create a new word from parts
9 of a classical language. The proposed criteria which should be followed when creating (and so defining a term) are clarity, uniqueness of meaning, uniformity, economy, continuity in time, coherence, brevity, beauty and expressiveness
(Scientific 212-13).
Terms are created and established by terminologists, experts in the field, who give the terms their meaning and a place within a set of related terms. The terms are then gathered either in terminological data banks or in dictionaries.
1.2.1.1. Traditional Definitions
Traditional terminologists define term as either a label or linguistic symbol for a concept, or an equivalent of combination of de Saussure’s significant and signifier (Pearson 15). Pearson provides four sources of these definitions.
The first one, Guy Rondeau, defines a term as a “linguistic sign in the
Saussurian sense; it has a signifiant and a signifié” (Pearson 12). According to him, the terminologist must start with a concept and then decide the label.
Rondeau also claims that there is a difference between words and terms but does not offer any such distinctions (Pearson 12).
Juan Sager asserts that “the lexicon of a special language tends to provide as many lexical units as there are concepts conventionally established in the subspace” (Pearson 13). He also adds that the lexicon of a special language includes items with special reference (terms) and general reference
(words). According to Sager, the words are not specific to any field and their referential properties are generalized. However, he does not give any examples. He is using words as a category of all lexical terms which do not fit into his definition of terms (Pearson 13-14).
Helmut Felber offers three types of linguistic symbols:
10 1) the word, 2) the term, and 3) the thesaurus word… The word can have a multiplicity
of non-defined meanings and shades of meanings or can be used for naming objects.
The concrete meaning of a word is given by the context; in other words, it is dependent
on context. The term is a linguistic symbol assigned to one or more concepts (defined
meanings). The meaning of a term which is the concept, is dependent on the position of
this concept in the system of concepts concerned. The thesaurus word is a word, for the
most part a term or a name, that is used for indexing and retrieval of information in
information systems (qtd. in Pearson 14).
According to Pearson, these definitions raise a question whether words can be described as linguistic symbols, as it is stated that words can only get a meaning through the context in which they are used. Nevertheless, there are many words which have a defined meaning but they are not terms, e. g. colours or abstract concepts (Pearson 14). Having a defined meaning is thus an insufficient criterion for distinguishing between words and terms.
The last definition of a term provided by Pearson can be found in ISO
1087 Terminology – Vocabulary:
5.3.1.2. term: Designation (5.3.1) of a defined concept (3.1) in a special language by a
linguistic expression
NOTE – A term may consist of one or more words (5.5.3.1) [i.e. simple term (5.5.5) or
complex term (5.5.6)] or even contain symbols (5.3.1.1) (qtd. in Pearson 15).
According to Pearson, this definition is very broad and becomes even more insufficient in comparison with the definition of “word”:
word: smallest linguistic unit conveying a specific meaning and capable of existing as a
separate unit in sentence
NOTE – A written word is marked off by spaces or punctuation marks before and after
(qtd. in Pearson 15).
Pearson is sceptical whether these definitions can be applied in practice.
The above-mentioned definitions cannot be used to decide whether a lexical 11 term is used in text as a general word or a term (Pearson 15). The terminologists are also not in agreement when a lexical item may belong to more than one subject field. Each terminologist offers different ways of treating these items. There is also a tendency to describe special subject fields as individual entities. This is, however, counterproductive for disciplines other than exact sciences. Interdisciplinarity is increasing and there is a considerable overlap between subject fields and therefore some fields share some terms.
According to Sager’s definition, these terms would have to be called “words”
(Pearson 16).
1.2.1.2. Pragmatic Definitions
Pragmatic terminologists do not distinguish between words and terms but look for categories of terms. The notion of term is assumed to be understood. In general, there are two classes of distinctions: known/unknown terms and subject-specific/non-subject-specific terms (Pearson 21). Pearson offers five approaches to the definitions of a term.
The first definition of a term is provided by Lothar Hoffmann. He distinguishes three approaches to what constitutes a term. The first approach suggests that subject-specific terminology alone should be given the status of terms. The second approach constitutes terms as all lexical units used in a particular LSP and the third approach divides terms into three categories – subject-specific vocabulary, non-subject-specific specialized vocabulary and general vocabulary (Pearson 16-17).
Louis Trimble and R. M. T. Trimble also distinguish three categories of terms instead of defining the term itself. The categories are: highly technical
12 terms, a “bank” of technical terms and sub-technical terms. The distinction seems to be similar to that of Hoffmann’s (Pearson 17).
A. J. Herbert provides two categories of terms. The first includes highly technical terms with very specialized meanings. According to Pearson, these are “the subject-specific terms referred to by Trimble and Trimble” (Pearson 18).
The second category includes “semi-scientific or semi-technical words which have a whole range of meanings and are frequently used idiomatically” (qtd. in
Pearson 18). Pearson deduces from Herbert’s definitions that there are general language words which may have different meanings from their general language meanings when used in special subject fields (Pearson 18).
Another distinction of terms in Pearson’s work is offered by Arthur
Godman and E. M. F. Payne. They also provide two types of terms – technical terms and non-technical terms. Technical terms are:
those for which there is a congruity of concept between all scientists, whatever the
language used …. In each case, the properties or characteristics can be enumerated to
define the object in an unambiguous manner (qtd. in Pearson 18).
These are possibly the subject-specific terms referred to by the above mentioned authors. The non-technical terms are divided into:
1) terms of the general language: for example logical terms such as coordinators,
subordinators, determiners, quantifiers, adjuncts, and 2) terms that can be described as
a basic list for usage in science. The functions of the logical terms of the general
language remain unaltered in scientific statements (qtd. in Pearson 18).
Godman and Payne are the only ones to offer a general category for all words that are not technical terms. However, calling this category “non-technical terms” suggests that they are all terms, which only some of the words are
(Pearson 18).
13 The last terminologist mentioned by Pearson is H. Z. Yang. He also divides terms into two categories – subject-specific terms and sub-technical terms, which “represent notions general to all, or most of, the subject fields”
(qtd. in Pearson 19).
1.3. Terminography
The purpose of terminography is to gather, systematize and present terms from specialized fields. Its relationship to terminology is parallel to that between lexicography and lexicology (Cabré 115, Schwartz 21). Lexicology is a linguistic discipline which explores lexical items of a certain language according to their semantic and pragmatic properties, lexicography is a practical linguistic discipline which deals with theory, methodology and practice of creating dictionaries.
Lexicography and terminography differ not only in the scope of language they work with but also in their approaches to processing lexical items. The approach of lexicography is semasiological. This means that the analysis starts from a lexeme, i.e. a form, for which a meaning, i.e. a concept, is searched.
Contrary to this, terminography is based on an onomasiological approach. The analysis starts from a concept for which a form, i.e. a term, is searched
(Schwarz 21, Antia 1). An overview of main differences between lexicography and terminography according to Antia is summed up in the following table (1):
Lexicography Terminography focuses on general language focuses on specialized language forms vocabulary of a language forms terminology of a field formal unit is a word formal unit is a term explains meaning of words explains referents (objects/concepts)
14 semasiological approach onomasiological approach looks for all senses of a lexeme looks for terms that are assigned to a concept alphabetical structure systematic structure
Table 1. Differences Between Lexicography and Terminography
1.4. Basics of Terminology Work
Specialized terminology can be presented in various forms. Schwarz describes four types of outcomes of terminology work – a terminological entry, a terminological database, a terminological databank and a terminological dictionary (22). A terminological entry includes terminological data. The term terminological databank is more general than a database. A terminological dictionary is a set of terminological entries of a certain subject field (Schwarz
22). Machová gives more detailed information on terminological dictionaries.
She divides them into seven groups – monolingual explanatory, bilingual explanatory, multilingual explanatory, translation bilingual, translation multilingual and historical terminological dictionaries and glossaries (142).
Further description of a glossary and the methodology of a glossary compilation is given in Chapter 3.
Cabré suggests six stages of terminological search which are characterized by two general criteria – the number of languages involved, and whether the search is systematic or not. The stages are:
1) definition and delimitation or task
2) preparation of search
3) preparation of terminology
4) presentation of work
15 5) revision of work
6) treatment and resolution of problematic cases (129).
Schwarz gives more specific steps in terminology work:
1) assembly of the terminographic team
2) setting aims and methodology
3) determination of subject area
4) extraction and identification of concepts and terms
5) creation, revision and editing of terminological entries (23).
The terminological entries may include various kinds of supplementary information. Schulz suggests the following characteristics: definitions, contexts, field and system references, synonyms, grammatical data, and source and quality data (218-20). The number and scope of these characteristics are usually defined by the requirements of the prospective users. The entries are stored in terminological dictionaries or terminological databanks.
1.5. Terminological Databanks
Terminological practice expanded to the whole world from Austria, the former
Soviet Union, and the former Czechoslovakia. According to Pierre Auger, three major orientations in terminology can be established: “terminology adapted to the linguistic system, terminology for translation and terminology for planning”
(Cabré 12).
Terminology adapted to linguistic system is an orientation developed in
Vienna, Prague and Moscow. It considers “terminology a medium of expression and communication” (Cabré 13). Terminology oriented towards language planning aims to develop word-formation in the native language instead of import of terminology from languages spoken in technologically dominant
16 cultures. Translation-oriented terminology is highly developed in institutionally bilingual or multilingual countries. This approach “establishes terminological equivalents in the various languages which are used as points of reference by translators and which contribute to the quality of a translated text” (Cabré 14).
According to Cabré, this orientation has the most important motivation for the creation of terminological databanks (14).
The terminology of the databanks is extracted from various sources, such as writings by respected experts or technical documentation. The amount of terminology increases every day, which has “resulted in increased activities in the field of terminology” (Al-Kasimi 155).
Most compilers of dictionaries for special purposes are specialists in the particular discipline. They create terminological dictionaries or databanks, despite being either linguists or professional terminographers, due to being
“confronted with the irritating terminological problems of their respective fields”
(Moulin 146). Therefore, terms inserted in a terminological databank must be standardised. The process of standardization represents the effort “to present definitions or equivalents that will permit the universal use of the underlying lexical material in full accordance with the needs and claims of those branches of skill and knowledge in which it took its origin“ (Opitz 166).
The terminology entries must include supplementary information mentioned above. However, “a terminology collection which serves as an aid to translation [do not have] to include only definitions that are complete, exact and binding. Normally, neither the time nor the personnel for this type of treatment is available, not is such a total approach essential” (Schulz 218). The general process of terminology extraction and compilation are described in Chapter 3.
17 1.6. Summary
The purpose of this chapter was to explain the theoretical background and main concepts within the area of terminology and terminography. The core of the study of these disciplines is a “term”, definition of which is introduced.
Terminology and terminography are distinguished from lexicology and lexicography and the methodology of creating terminology work is described.
2. Electronic Tools
Electronic tools in general include word processors, Internet tools (Web browsers, search engines, databases etc.), CAT tools, PDF tools, desktop publishing tools, proofreading tools, tools for freelance translators (billing software, Internet fax services) and other software packages, such as anti-virus and anti-spyware software, file compressors and other tools (Sánchez). All these tools help translators in the process of translating. However, the aim of the thesis is to provide an overview of electronic tools that are used directly for translation itself.
The thesis focuses on the Web-based tools, such as electronic dictionaries, translators, search engines, encyclopaedias and websites. They are used by translators during the translation process when specialized corpora, term banks or glossaries are not available. The aim of this chapter is to describe the individual electronic tools.
2.1. Search Engines
Search engines are programs that search available documents on the World
Wide Web and then give a list of the documents that match the keywords. Most search engines use algorithms to get the information, some of them combine 18 algorithms and human input. Robot crawlers are used by AltaVista, Google,
Excite and Lyxos. One of the human-powered search engines is Yahoo! (Fujii
7).
One of the major disadvantages of free search engines is their orientation towards commerce. Advertisers pay for their location on front pages of the search results. The search engines also try to guess users’ location by their IP address and display advertisement according to the proximity to the user. This is not useful for linguists/translators who search for words or phrases from different cultural contexts.
In 2008, the first bilingual search engine was released. It is called
2lingual and allows 1,225 bilingual searching combinations. It searches the
World Wide Web, Images, Videos, Wikipedia, and the Blogosphere (“About
2lingual”). The basic search engine for 2lingual is Google. “2lingual translates the typed in words via a Statistical Machine Translation (SMT) system. SMT is an approach where translations are generated based on statistical models derived from the analysis of bilingual text” (The 2lingual Team).
Google is widely used all over the world and “has given rise to a whole range of ‘googlisms’, e.g. ‘to google’, ‘to re-google’, ‘to back-google’ or ‘to cross- google’, meaning to look up a term on the Web, to do a second search, to do a reverse search, and to check out a guess” (Gouadec, 268).
2.1.1. Indexing
The search engines use Web crawlers which gather as many documents as possible and another program (indexer) reads through the documents and creates an index based on words in the documents (“Search”). The documents
19 that can be searched are web pages, images and other file types, such as
*.doc, *.pdf, *.xls, *.ppt and others.
The very first Internet search engine was Archie. It was established in
1990 to index FTP archives when the World Wide Web did not exist (Li). It searched the file names and made a list of them. Archie was followed by two search programs called Veronica and Jughead which worked on similar basis.
The first Web search engine was called the World Wide Web Wanderer or simply Wanderer. It was released in 1993. Since then many search engines were released, such as Yahoo!, AltaVista or Google. Each of these search engines uses its own crawlers and creates its own indexes. Since 1997 the indexes have grown significantly. “By the end of 2001, Google was indexing an estimated 1.5 billion pages with runners-up Fast, Altavista, and Inktomi indexing half a billion or more“ (Jackson 58).
2.1.2. Query Processing
2.1.2.1. Boolean Search
Boolean search uses operators, such as AND, OR and NOT, to connect words in a query. It is often called a “terms and connectors” search. “The operators derive their meaning from the following truth tables of Boolean logic, hence 'Boolean search'” (Jackson 29): and true false or true false not true true false true true true true false false false false false true false false true
Table 2. Boolean truth tables
20 The entry “true” in the cell with column “true” and row “true” in the AND table shows that
“true” AND “true” begets “true”. Any other combination of truth values ANDed together
results in “false” (Jackson 29).
A Boolean engine returns the set of documents in the database that correspond with the user’s query. For example, the query ‘computer AND virus’ would return all documents that contain both words, by intersecting the postings for
‘computer’ and ‘virus’ in the inverted file, thus
POSTING computer ∩ POSTING virus
The query ‘computer OR virus’ would return all documents containing either term, by
forming the union of the postings for ‘computer’ and ‘virus’:
POSTING computer U POSTING virus
The NOT operator allows users to exclude terms and conditions from their search result
terms. Thus ‘Jordan NOT Michael’ would return all documents containing the term
‘Jordan’ but not the term ‘Michael’ , namely
POSTING Jordan – POSTING Michael
where ‘–’ denotes set difference.
There is normally a precedence established between operators, in order to avoid
ambiguity. Thus
‘Jordan NOT Michael AND Nike’
would be interpreted as
(POSTING Jordan – POSTING Michael) ∩ POSTING Nike
rather than
POSTING Jordan – (POSTING Michael ∩ POSTING Nike)
where NOT has broader scope (Jackson 30).
Boolean systems allow non-Boolean operators and use stemming operators. Stemming operators allows users to enter only a root of the searched word and retrieve documents with its morphological variants. Phrase searching is also possible with the use of quotation marks. Boolean operators are used by
21 all online search engines and remain popular despite the introduction of other search methods (Jackson 31).
Despite many advantages of Boolean operators, there also certain known problems with Boolean search:
1) large result set – the user sometimes has to add terms and
connectives to obtain a result of manageable size
2) complex query logic – too simple queries may offer too few or too
many documents
3) unordered result set – the result set is not ordered by relevance
4) dichotomous retrieval – there is no notion of partial satisfaction
5) equal term weights – the Basic Boolean model gives all query terms
equal importance (Jackson 31-2).
2.1.2.2. Ranked Retrieval
Most online search engines are based on a technology that ranks search results according to the frequency distribution of query terms in the document collection. Boolean operators will not work well in translation of natural language queries. “Instead of regarding documents as sets of terms, and queries as operations on sets of documents, researchers began to think of documents as being arranged in a multi-dimensional vector spade defined by terms themselves” (Jackson 33).
Today, one of the most popular search engines is Google (“Top Sites”). It was developed by Larry Page and Sergey Brin in 1997. The Google search engine uses an algorithm called PageRank. PageRank computes a score for the web pages based on the number of pages that link to them (“The
Anatomy”). This is supposed to correlate with the human concept of importance.
22 2.1.2.3. Probabilistic Retrieval
This method uses a Bayesian model that estimates relevance of documents to a query. Parameters for the model are the usual term and document frequency statistics. Primary research engine that uses this method is Okapi. Probabilistic information retrieval means “computing the probability that a document is relevant to a query, given that it possesses certain attributes or features”
(Jackson 37).
2.1.3. Machine Translation Systems
Machine translation (MT) systems can be used in the process of translation as an equivalent to dictionaries. Online MT systems first appeared in the 1990s but they were not free. The first real-time online MT system was introduced by
AltaVista in 1997. It was called Babelfish and was “based on the various
Systran MT systems” (Hutchins, “Recent”).Yang provides more detailed information on AltaVista’s online MT system:
The service is available directly from AltaVista’s Search Service. … The user can input
text or a URL of a web page in the box, choose the language direction, and click on the
Translate button, and the translation comes back instantly. The translation service is
also accessible from a search result. … A Translate link is present below each search
results (Yang and Lange 191).
Within the next few years, the number of online MT systems increased, most of them being online versions of existing PC-based systems. Most recently,
Google has introduced a new MT system called Google Translate which is not
Systran-based. Unlike other MT systems, it uses statistical learning methods, therefore it is called a statistical machine translation (“Google Translate”).
23 The largest components of MT systems are dictionaries. The MT systems are equipped with full-form lexicons, i.e. “lists of words as they actually occur, with their corresponding grammatical information” (Hutchins 16). This may be problematic with highly inflecting languages, such as Czech, but for the purpose of professional translation this is not an issue. The MT lexicon gives also additional information, such as grammatical category, sub-categorisation features (e.g. transitive or intransitive verb, masculine or feminine noun) and semantic information.
With respect to terminology, some of the subject fields are included in
MT systems lexicons. Arnold et al. explain that specialized vocabulary has different “and somewhat less troublesome” (101) issues. According to Arnold et al., the terminology is often well defined and in some cases even codified. A large number of terms represent only one concept (although there are exceptions). Due to this lack of ambiguity, “terms are potentially more tractable for MT systems than general language vocabulary” (Arnold et al. 101).
2.2. Electronic Dictionaries
Electronic dictionaries provide translators with a number of advantages over paper dictionaries. Fujii summarizes the advantages of online dictionaries:
1) [they] relieve the user from the burden of flipping through pages, 2) implement high-
speed search applications, 3) instantaneously support two-way language conversions,
4) include a comprehensive range of everyday phrases and idioms with selected
examples, 5) are available via the Internet, and 6) can be used for spelling and stylistic
consistency (Fujii 7).
Fujii also comments on its usefulness for translating technical jargon (7).
24 Electronic dictionaries are available in various formats. They can be stored on hand-held devices, on CD-ROMs, hard disks or they can be Internet based. Some dictionaries used to be stored on floppy disks but this technology declines and new computers and laptops are not equipped with a floppy disk drive. A single CD-ROM has a capacity of 700 MB – “enough to contain, for example, the 44 million-word database of the Britannica CDTM” (Nesi 59). The twenty-volume Oxford English Dictionary is also stored on a single CD-ROM.
Many online dictionaries are parallel to either printed or off-line dictionaries and some are also designed to work with other applications on the translator’s workstation (Somers 19). Their advantage is that they can be easily updated and many of them are free.
The e-dictionary for the human user has the same functions as the traditional dictionary,
but the appeal is the speed with which information can be retrieved to help the used
produce or understand text in his or her native language. There is also a great
advantage with regard to exhaustiveness. Because physical space is not a factor, the
dictionary part can be linked to a background corpus which allows the used to check the
meanings, usage, frequency etc. formulated by the lexicographers (Sterkenburg 7).
Electronic dictionaries can provide more information associated with each entry than printed dictionaries, such as etymological information, pronunciation, usage and related terms. Hilary Nesi describes searching of electronic dictionaries which is performed
by “chaining” or “hyperlinking”, a search mechanism by which a double click on a word
on screen will call up a dictionary entry for that word. Akin to hyperlinking is “interfacing”
– the facility to call up a dictionary entry when working on another application (Nesi
61).
In addition to written data, some electronic dictionaries also contain audio libraries which provide the users with the spoken form of the headwords. 25 Longman electronic dictionaries include not only audio but also video, which makes it a multimedia application (Nesi 60). The computer affords a flexible structure with entries in hypertext format and hierarchical structure (Somers 19).
Most electronic dictionaries can be edited by users. Such dictionaries allow adding or deleting information, including entire entries (Somers 19).
Nevertheless, according to Margaret Rogers, electronic dictionaries are still word-based rather than meaning-based. Rogers proposes a dictionary which would use a definition to find a word and which would deal with queries, such as
“find me the name of the thing which is a kind of boat and which is flat-bottomed and travels on canals and rivers” (qtd. in Nesi 63). Such search facilities, however, already exist, although they are not perfect and many users are unaware of their existence. Nesi suggests that the next generation of electronic dictionaries may be able to develop a field-based search mode so the users can easily locate words by their semantic specifications (Nesi 63). Electronic dictionaries available on CD-ROM also use boolean operators.
Like printed dictionaries, electronic dictionaries have a double structure – the macrostructure and the microstructure. The macrostructure is a list of all words included in the dictionary, the microstructure is the information given about the words (Sterkenburg 6). The dynamics of the structure may vary depending on the medium. A definite choice of the structure must be made for a
CD-ROM at a certain point in order not to impede the work of the editors and to release the CD-ROM. Changes can only be made in the next release. On the other hand, the structure of a dictionary available on the Internet can be revised at any time, although this depends on what kind of database is used
(Sterkenburg 6).
26 2.2.1. Online Dictionaries
The Internet provides a great number of free online mono-, bi- or multilingual dictionaries. Those that are also available in either printed or CD-ROM versions are usually issued by universities or renowned publishing houses. These include Cambridge Dictionaries Online, AskOxford.com, The Longman
Dictionary of Contemporary English Online, Merriam-Webster Online Search,
Millennium technical dictionaries, Lingea and many others. There are also online dictionaries that do not originate from printed versions, e.g.
Answers.com, Dictionary.com and The Free Dictionary. This section focuses on individual online dictionaries. Four online dictionaries have been chosen for description - The Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English Online,
Answers.com, Web MetaTrans and lexicool.com.
The Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English Online is an online version of the CD-ROM of the Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English,
Updated Edition. It is a monolingual dictionary. Longman Dictionaries claim that their database contains “330 million words from a wide range of real-life sources such as books, newspapers and magazines” (“Longman”). Longman
Dictionaries also include a wide range of collocations and phrases. The online service is free to a certain extent – the online search is limited to 55,000 indexed entries.
Answers.com is a free monolingual database. It is not a dictionary because it does not have a vocabulary database but it provides definitions and articles from various websites. According to “Answers.com”, they use “180 trusted titles from the most prestigious reference publishers, and … add [their] patented database technology, to [provide] the most comprehensive page
27 available on a subject” (“Answers.com”). Answers.com cover over 4 million topics.
Web MetaTrans is a meta-translator for online bi- or monolingual dictionaries developed at the Faculty of Informatics at Masaryk University.
Pomikálek gives a simple explanatory model: “If a user looks for a translation of term X from language A into language B, the system operates as follows. First, a list of online dictionaries is determined which support translating from A to B.
Then each of these dictionaries is searched for a translation of X. The results are merged and returned to the user“ (Pomikálek 109). MetaTrans also provides morphological analysis of queries, along with a word sketch, which is “a summary of a word’s grammatical and collocational behavior” (Pomikálek 114).
Lexicool.com works on a similar principle as MetaTrans. The main task of lexicool.com
consists of finding and classifying all bilingual and multilingual dictionaries and
glossaries published freely on the Net. Each resource found is ranked as objectively as
possible according to its presentation, ease of use, general usefulness and size
(number of entries, number of languages). The position of a dictionary or glossary in
search results depends on this ranking (“About lexicool.com”).
The directory of lexicool.com contains over 7,000 links which are checked for validity every two months. New links are added daily (“About lexicool.com”).
2.2.2. CD-ROM Dictionaries
Many online dictionaries arose from CD-ROM dictionaries, e.g. the above mentioned The Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English Online. For many companies it is advantageous to sell their CD-ROM dictionaries and provide an online dictionary for the owners of the CD-ROM dictionaries. It is also possible
28 to pay for the access to such online dictionaries. This applies for example to
Millennium technical dictionaries. Contrary to the online dictionaries, CD-ROM dictionaries are not limited by server space and thus can be more comprehensive and specialized.
Millennium technical dictionaries are aimed for professional translators, companies and universities. They are equipped with a large database of words and collocations, and also allow full-text search. According to “Millennium”, the
Professional English technical dictionary contains 1,906,787 entries.
It is also necessary to mention Czech monolingual technical dictionaries.
One of the most extensive Czech technical dictionaries is Technický slovník naučný. It was published in 2006 and according to Vopava, it is the most comprehensive Czech monolingual technical dictionary after a 30-year break. It contains nearly 36,500 entries and 3,000 images. The electronic version of this dictionary is included in LEDA – dictionary database which includes explanatory and translation dictionaries.
2.3. Encyclopaedias
Encyclopaedias as electronic tools are very helpful aids for translators. Some terms are used in very highly specialized fields and cannot be found in commonly accessible dictionaries. Encyclopaedias cover many topics, including specialized fields. The articles in encyclopaedias also provide valuable information, such as definition, history, usage etc. In case the translator needs to translate a term he is not familiar with, s/he can find the information about the concept in an encyclopaedia. The advantage of some encyclopaedias is that they are multilingual. It is necessary to mention that the border between
29 encyclopaedias and monolingual dictionaries is blurred, especially monolingual dictionaries and encyclopaedias can usually be interchanged.
According to “Interpedia FAQ”, the idea of creating an online encyclopaedia dates back to the foundation of the Internet in the late 1960’s.
The very first proposal of such an encyclopaedia was called Interpedia.
However, the project was never realized and was taken over by the World Wide
Web.
One of the first online encyclopaedias was Gutenberg Encyclopaedia in
1995. It was the first volume of Encyclopædia Britannica digitised by Project
Gutenberg. This encyclopaedia was later digitised by several other organizations and is nowadays available at various domains, such as http://www.britannica.com/ or http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/.
There are two ways of creating online encyclopaedias – digitisation of printed encyclopaedias and creation of new content. Nowadays, online encyclopaedias are created by combining these two methods. For instance,
Classic Encyclopaedia uses the 11th edition of Encyclopædia Britannica from
1911 and also volunteers who may edit the content. There are in fact two sites for each subject. One provides the information from Britannica and the other is created by the volunteers and provides updated information.
One of the best known online encyclopaedias is Wikipedia. It was established in 2001 and is written entirely by volunteers. Therefore, it is generally up-to-date. Its credibility may be controversial since the creators of the articles are mostly anonymous, however, the sources of the provided information are easy to find and individual articles contain full references.
According to Sánchez, Wikipedia is, thus, considered the best electronic
30 encyclopaedia. Wikipedia’s advantages, concerning translation, are its multilingualism and general interest. Thank to the fact that Wikipedia is created / edited by users, it contains “a wide variety of topics that do not appear in other commercial encyclopaedias” (Sánchez). Translators may also appreciate availability of the articles in many languages, although English articles usually cover more topics and are more elaborate.
2.4. Specialized Websites
It is necessary to mention the Web itself. A large number of specialized websites exist which can be very helpful during the search for the terms. Some of the websites have more language versions and it is likely that the content is the same in all language versions. However, the translators risk that there are mistakes on the websites. The procedure of finding terms with the use of specialized websites is described in Chapter 4.
2.5. Summary
The electronic tools described in this chapter are Web-based tools used in the process of translation itself. The aim of this chapter is to provide brief history of each of the tools and information relevant for understanding the processes behind the user interface. All these tools were used during the translation process of terms included in the glossary. Methods of using these tools during translation are described in Chapter 4.
3. Glossary
Glossaries are valuable tools in terminology processing and are one of the many possible outcomes of terminology work. Glossaries are smaller than other
31 terminological products but they provide the same kind of information – terms, context and usage. A glossary is a list of terms concerning a particular field of science. The amount of information may vary, so the terms appear either with or without additional specifications, such as “definitions, examples of usage, synonyms, related terms, usage notes, etc.” (Bowker 138). Glossaries can be mono-, bi-, or multilingual depending on their purpose.
Glossaries are created by professional terminologists or experts in a given field. Such glossaries also include definitions of individual terms which are consulted by subject experts (Bowker 141). “Confronted with the irritating terminological problems of their respective fields, they [subject experts] get down to the business of creating what they regard as a communicative tool”
(Moulin 146). According to Opitz, the users expect to find more material “than would be warranted from a strictly linguistic point of view” (Opitz 168). This is due to their inability to “sufficiently differentiate between technical and general lexemes” (Opitz 168). Opitz suggests that the compilers of technical dictionaries should expect such demands.
A specific group of glossaries includes glossaries created by a company involved in the production of a technology and the purpose of such glossary is to include the terms related to the technology. Machová comments of the fact that the companies create their own terminology, which makes user’s manuals incomprehensible. As a result, the user of the technology must obtain the company’s glossary. Thus, the terminologies and dictionaries become a part of competitors fight (Machová 145).
Bilingual and multilingual glossaries are very helpful tools for translators.
However, a corresponding glossary may not be available. The translator can
32 create his own glossary then. Although creating a useful personal glossary is rather time consuming, it is worth doing because it improves the effectiveness of the translation process considerably. For the purpose of this paper a glossary of motorsport terminology has been compiled, crucial aspects of which are summarized in the following chapter. The glossary can be found in the
Appendix. General methodology of compiling technical glossaries for the purpose of recording terminology of particular subject fields and for the purpose of translation is described in the following section.
3.1. Methodology of Bi-Lingual Glossary Compilation
Compilation of a bi-lingual glossary starts by deciding on the subject field. When the glossary is created by a translator, the subject field is decided by the text that needs to be translated. According to Bowker, it is necessary that the translator has knowledge about the subject field (“Using” 2). Professional terminologists co-operate with subject experts whom they can consult for advice. If the chosen domain is too large, the terminologists identify a sub-field.
“Once the sub-field has been agreed, the terminologists then start to collect documentation use during the terminology project” (Bowker 141).
Types of texts collected may vary according to the purpose of the glossary. If the glossary serves understanding of technical documentation or user’s manual, the compiler will gather texts related to the technology or procedure that is to be described in the documentation or manual. Translators gather any texts from the given subject field (in both languages) in order to find as many terms as possible.
Once the documentation is gathered, terminologists extract term candidates either manually or with the use of corpus processing tools. The
33 terminologists may also “decide that some of the term candidates are in fact not terms or that they do not belong in the sub-field under investigation (Bowker
141). The problematic cases are discussed with subject experts, i.e. cases when the terminologists are not sure whether a particular word is a term or not.
Thus, the list of terms is refined and finalized.
In the next step the terminologists start collecting supplementary information about the terms. The information is stored in a so called terminological record sheet. It includes definitions, grammatical information, synonyms, examples of usage etc. Some of the slots of the terminological record sheet may never be filled, e.g. some terms do not have synonyms.
Definitions are either compiled with the use of existing definitions, or new ones are created on the basis of the context.
The supplementary information can also include quasi synonyms and terms similar in meaning. True synonyms “must have the same definition, belong to the same field of reference (subject area), and, if relevant, apply to the same system. Naturally, synonyms must also be equivalent in concept to all terms that appear in the entry in other languages” (Schulz 220).
All the steps must be taken twice in case of a bi-lingual glossary. The supplementary information is provided for terms in both languages and the pairs of terms are aligned either manually in case of a small glossary or with the use of corpus processing tools.
The data are stored systematically so that the user can “make a revision
… immediately and without any difficulty” (Nikolarea). The data can be stored either in printed version or in electronic form.
34 3.2. Summary
Glossaries are terminological products which contain terminology of a certain subject field. They are generally created by terminologists or experts in given field. However, it is sometimes necessary that a translator creates his/her own glossary for the field he is translating. The aim of this chapter is to provide general methodology of creating a glossary. The procedure of creating a personal glossary which was compiled for the purpose of the thesis is described in the following Chapter.
4. Creation of a Personal Glossary
In the previous chapter a general description of a glossary compilation was introduced. It was based on texts written by various scholars whose research fields were terminology, terminography, linguistics, lexicography and Web- based electronic tools. The aim of the previous chapters was to provide an introduction to the practical output of the thesis, which is a creation of a bilingual
Czech – English glossary of motorsport terminology with the use of electronic tools specified in Chapter 2. However, not all of the procedures mentioned in the previous chapters apply for the outcome of this thesis.
Translators who work in field search for individual terms with the aid of the electronic tools when corpora or term databanks are not available. It is useful for the translators to store the terms which may occur in future translations. Therefore, the translators are advised to create their own glossaries. The additional information included in such glossaries varies. The glossary which was created for the purpose of the thesis includes usage and
35 sources of the texts in both languages. The aim of this chapter is to summarize a procedure of creation of the glossary.
4.1. Subject Field
The subject field of this paper is motorsport. There are three reasons why this subject field was chosen: 1) it is the author’s translation domain, 2) the terminology of this subject area has no databank, 3) it is a highly specialized subject field.
4.1.1. Translation in Czech Motorsport
The rally press centres issue certain materials, such as rally programs, guides, press releases, accreditation forms etc. The majority of Czech motorsport events (rallies) are only local. Thus, there is no need of translation of any of these materials. However, there are a few rallies that are involved in international events and materials for these events must be translated. Although some of the materials are prepared before the events and there is enough time for preparation and translation, the press releases must be translated within minutes. The translator is usually only equipped with an Internet-connected computer, which is in principle his/her only working “tool”. Individual Web-based electronic tools are described in Chapter 2. The following section deals with their practical usage in translation of Czech terms from motorsport subject area.
4.2. Using Electronic Tools for Term Translation
The process of searching for terms on the Web while translating usually starts with the use of a bi-lingual dictionary. Most electronic dictionaries are, however, too general and highly specialized terms are not included in them.
36 Nevertheless, some terms, obviously widely used, can be found in them. Let us present this on an example word “převodovka”. The dictionary used in this case is Web MetaTrans. The keyword gives several results displayed in the following table: převodovka gear-box hlavní převodovka mainbox převodovka gearbox hlavní převodovka main box převodovka change gearbox hydrodynamická fluid drive unit převodovka převodovka gear case mechanická převodovka change gearbox převodovka gear unit redukční převodovka speed-reducing gear box převodovka do pomala speed-reducing samočinný převodovka automatic gear box transmission převodovka do rychla speed-increasing synchronizovaná synchromesh gear převodovka speed gear box převodovka řízení steering box synchronizovaná synchronized převodovka transmission dělená převodovka twin-splitter třístupňová převodovka three-speed transmission gearbox dělená převodovka split transmission šestistupňová six-speed gearbox převodovka hlavní převodovka main gearbox šneková převodovka worm-gear unit hlavní převodovka main transmission šneková převodovka worm-gear system
Table 3. Results for keyword “převodovka” in Web MetaTrans bi-lingual dictionary
It is the translator’s task to decide which of these results is the actual term. At this point, the translator must use other electronic tools to find out which result is valid. There are several approaches which the translators can take:
1) “google” individual results. The results are, thus, put into Google search box as keywords along with other keywords which narrow the search field. In this case it would be “rally” or “motorsport”. The translator then has to go through the most relevant results manually and find the context.
2) create a corpus and use search results from the dictionary as keywords. This will give the translator a list of contexts for each of the results. However, the translator has to find the most relevant results manually, which is time- consuming.
37 3) use site search. It is a feature supported by many search engines. The translator can search websites known to him/her as relevant. For example, the keyword is “gearbox”, the website that is to be searched is www.fia.com, the official website of the International Automobile Federation (Fédération
Internationale de l’Automobile). The query then must be “gearbox site:www.fia.com”. The result set will only include the keyword occurrence at given website. Google also provides number of occurrences / hits, which may be a helpful feature for deciding which meaning of the translated word is the most appropriate.
Terms that do not occur in general bi-lingual dictionaries are more complicated to find. The translator has several options:
1) use a search engine localized to or developed in his/her language. The query must then include the term and a keyword that will narrow the search field, for example “rychlostní zkouška” and “rally”. The translator then has to go through the results manually and look for websites which also have an English version.
However, these sources may be unreliable because the translation may be wrong. Nevertheless, the translator can still check the validity of the term on specialized websites, as stated above.
2) use common sense, try to guess the translation and search specialized websites to make sure. For example, the term “administrativní přejímka“ gives the impression that there is no special term and it can be translated as
“administrative check”. The context is then examined on specialized websites.
However, using this method is not always possible. For example, a term with similar features as “administrativní přejímka” – “technická přejímka” cannot be translated this way because there is a specific term for it – “scrutineering”. This
38 is why it is necessary to verify the validity of the suggested translation. The verification would be easier with the use of a corpus but under the above-stated conditions it is impossible to create a corpus.
The translator may not be familiar with some of the terms and therefore it is difficult for him to decide what term he is actually looking for. In such cases, the encyclopaedias are very useful, as they cover a wide range of topics.
Wikipedia, being in both Czech and English, is a very powerful tool in this sense. For example, the translator is not familiar with the term “spojka”. S/he might need to know what it looks like, the definition or how it works in order to understand the context of the text s/he is translating. The keyword “spojka” is, thus, entered in the encyclopaedia, which gives a single result. It can happen that more results are given. In that case, it is the translator’s task to use his/her critical thinking to distinguish the relevant results. Wikipedia offers the possibility of finding the term in other languages. It is very simple – there is a menu on the left side with languages in which the word is available. By clicking on “English” the translator gets an article about “clutch”.
Another way of getting familiar with terms (and also for verification) is searching images. It is a very fast way of verification of the terms. Nevertheless, this method mostly applies to objects. For example, the word “podvozek” gives the following results in Web MetaTrans: podvozek carriage podvozek underframe podvozek undercart podvozek autobusu bus chassis podvozek chassis (sg=pl) podvozek letadla landing gear podvozek support frame podvozek letadla aircraft landing gear podvozek (žel.) bogie (GB) podvozek odtahového drive-away chassis vozidla podvozek running gear podvozek přívěsu trailer chassis podvozek underbody podvozek s lyžemi ski landing gear podvozek undercarriage podvozek transformer transformátoru undercarriage podvozek carriage unit podvozek vozidla vehicle chassis podvozek wheelframe bezrámový podvozek frameless chassis
39 podvozek (pro langing gear (US) běžný podvozek trailer bogie přistání) podvozek chassis běžný podvozek carry bogie běžný podvozek idle bogie
Table 4. Results for keyword “podvozek” in Web Metatrans bi-lingual dictionary
It is the translator’s task to choose the most appropriate translation and verify it.
In this case the word “chassis” was chosen. Both words “podvozek” and
“chassis” were put into the Google Image Search box as queries, respectively and the results were compared.
4.3. Data Storing
In the previous chapters no particular way of storing the entries of the glossary was suggested. The glossary compiled for the purpose of the thesis is kept in the electronic form. However, it is possible to maintain the glossary in printed version. In such case, paper cards are suggested.
The glossary of motorsport terminology is kept in a form of a table, which is a standard form used in the wiki system at the Faculty of Arts at Masaryk
University. Each line contains the information related to the term in the first column. The labels of the columns refer to the information contained in each column. The glossary is Czech – English. The Czech terms go first because they are translated to English. Some of the Czech terms do not have context included because they were only listed in the source - Rally Guide and no context was given.
4.3.1. Ways to Improve the Process of Translation
The glossary can later be imported in various CAT tools. The terms which are included in the glossary may be used as keywords for the retrieval of websites with texts suitable for the creation of a specialized corpus (e.g. with the help of
40 Web BootCat). The contexts for the terms included in the glossary can be used to create a translation memory. CAT tools and corpora can make the future translations easier and faster.
4.4. Summary
A glossary of motorsport terminology was compiled for the purpose of the thesis. The aim of the chapter is to explain the motivation of the subject field choice and describe the procedure of creating the glossary. The translation of the terms was performed with the use of electronic tools described in Chapter 2.
The terms were verified with the use of the Google search engine. Thus, the context for each of the terms was found and stored in the glossary. The glossary is stored systematically in the form of a table and can be later used with various CAT tools or for a coprus creation.
41 Conclusion
The purpose of the paper was to create a bilingual glossary of the motorsport terminology with the use of Web-based electronic tools. Also both theoretical and practical issues of terminology and terminography are provided.
The first chapter explains the theoretical background and main concepts within the area of terminology and terminography. Terminology and terminography are defined in opposition of lexicology and lexicography. The basics of terminology work are given.
The electronic tools described in the following chapter are Web-based tools used in the process of translation itself. This chapter gives the general information about each of the tools, including their history and functions. The tools were used during the compilation of the glossary, the process of which is described in the last chapter.
The last two chapters focus on glossaries and their creation. Glossaries contain terminology of certain subject fields. It is sometimes necessary that a translator creates his/her own glossary of terminology he needs for translation.
The motivation of the subject field choice is described in the last chapter along with the procedure of compilation of the glossary.
The outcome of the thesis, the glossary, contains terms from motorsport.
The texts used to retrieve the Czech terms are press releases and a rally guide of Barum Rally Zlín 2008. The terms were translated with the use of the electronic tools and the context provided in the glossary was found with the use of the Google search engine.
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Philadelphia, PA, USA. 2 Feb 2009 52 Appendix Bilingual Glossary – Motorsport Terminology Czech Term Context English Term Context Term Source administrativní administrative The Administrative Checks will take http://www.cyprusrally.com.cy/ 1 přejímka check place on Monday 9th March 2009 documents/regulations.pdf between 16:00-20:00 hours. činovník pro styk competitor relation The competitor must complete the www.motorsport.org.nz/Rally/ s jezdci1 officer Temporary Withdrawal form from the mainland/2008%2520Westlan rear of the Road Book, and hand to d%2520Rally%2520Supp%25 a Control Official or Competitor 20Regs.pdf Relations Officer. etapa2 Kromě Vouilloze nedělní etapa leg BP-Ford World Rally Team drivers http://www.therallysite.com/joo nezačala dobře ani pro Španěla Mikko Hirvonen and Jarmo Lehtinen mla/index.php?option=com_co Enrique García Ojedu s peugeotem lead Rally Japan after today's ntent&task=view&id=2819 a Belgičana Bernda Casiera s dramatic opening leg in which three jediným volkswagenem kategorie frontrunners were sidelined. Super 2000 ve startovním poli. historický Zájem o start projevilo hned několik vintage car Maintenance is very important for http://www.thaindian.com/new automobil3 kvalitních jezdců a vozů, z nichž vintage cars. sportal/india-news/vintage-car- podstatná část sklízí úspěchy v rally-for-tiger-conservation-in- soutěžích Mistrovství ČR v rally lucknow_10016064.html historických automobilů. 1 http://www.barum.rally.cz/2008/pdf/rg1_cz.pdf 2 http://www.barum.rally.cz/2008/press_detail.php?cont=90&sec=4&lng=cz 3 http://www.barum.rally.cz/2008/press_detail.php?cont=67&sec=4&lng=cz Czech Term Context English Term Context Term Source homologační list1 homologation The FIA homologation papers will be www.africanrallychampionship paper sent to all ASN’s as soon as they are .com/downloads/CACMS%252 received from the FIA. 0meeting%2520minutes%252 0Uganda%25206th%2520Sep tember%25201999.pdf hlavní časoměřič1 chief timekeeper I have been Chief Timekeeper for http://www.rallybuzz.com/chief the Circuit of Ireland Rally since -timekeeper-rally-ireland/ 1995 and first became involved in rally timekeeping almost thirty years ago through my membership of the BMMC. hlavní technický chief scrutineer The Chief Scrutineer is responsible www.jltsport.com/msa/Mungo komisař1 for the employment, and conditions Blobs/157/868/Technical_Dele of employment of staff. gates_%26_Scrutineers_page s_101-102.pdf kontrola Hodinu po sobotním poledni jsme regrouping 20 minutes maximum regrouping http://2000.acropolisrally.gr/98/ přeskupení4 zachytili v kontrole přeskupení pod timetable.htm zlínským Velkým kinem následující ohlasy jezdců z čela startovního pole. nárazník5 Přijel s poničeným předním bumper Unlike the standard front end which http://www.restoreclassics.co nárazníkem: included a full length front bumper. m/Front-Bumpers-3450.html 4 http://www.barum.rally.cz/2008/press_detail.php?cont=76&sec=4&lng=cz 5 http://www.barum.rally.cz/2008/press_detail.php?cont=69&sec=4&lng=cz Czech Term Context English Term Context Term Source podvozek6 Od včerejší městské RZ nás trápil chassis The use of chassis for both testing http://www.fia.com/oldautomoti podvozek, teď už je to lepší. and competing will be limited to 10 ve/issue6/sport/article1.html for the calendar year and a time penalty of five minutes will be imposed in any rally where an extra chassis or any subsequent chassis is first used. poloosa7 Celou rychlostní zkoušku jsme odjeli axle shaft On stage 2, the likely champs had http://www.drivingsports.com/s s prasklou poloosou. their exhaust come apart ite/2008/09/2008-rally- downstream of the turbo, frying a colorado/ forward axle shaft and requiring some fast work from the service crew to get the car repaired. posádka1 Posádky jsou povinny dodržovat při crew Literally 'over time limit' - crews have http://www.rallyireland.org/wrc/ seznamovacích jízdách všechna to stick to a strict timetable during the-jargon ustanovení Všeobecných předpisů the event. pro mistrovství FIA v rally, Předpisů pro mistrovství Evropy v rally a těchto ZU. pozorovatel8 V roli pozorovatele FIA přijede na observer Road-book and safety plan are http://www.rallyclassics.org/po osmatřicátý ročník populární completed, and cheked by the FIA rtalnet2/Eventos/RallyCostaBr barumky poprvé do Zlína pan Jordi observer, who said the work done is ava/56RallyCostaBrava/FIAHi Parro Vidal ze Španělska. great. storicCompetitors/tabid/93/lan guage/es-ES/Default.aspx 6 http://www.barum.rally.cz/2008/press_detail.php?cont=71&sec=4&lng=cz 7 http://www.barum.rally.cz/2008/press_detail.php?cont=88&sec=4&lng=cz 8 http://www.barum.rally.cz/2008/press_detail.php?cont=32&sec=4&lng=cz Czech Term Context English Term Context Term Source pneumatika6 Měli jsme problém s pneumatikou, tyre Isola said the most successful http://www.wrc.com/jsp/index.j dostali jsme defekt. drivers on the rally were those who sp?lnk=101&id=1514&desc=Pi best adapted their speed to the limits relli%20satisfied%20with%20t of their car and tyres, while those yre%20performance%20in%2 who believed the tyres were 0Greece%20&rally_id=GR&se indestructible had problems. ason=2009 převodovka9 Měli jsme obrovské potíže s gearbox The gearbox got stuck in second http://www.michaelguest.com. převodovkou. gear about two kilometres into the au/2008/11/gearbox-ends- stage, and that was it. guests-rally/ retardér9 Probrzdil jsem retardér. chicane Since the rally used roads usually http://www.motorsportmemoria opened to normal traffic, the chicane l.org/focus.php?db=ct&n=2051 was not installed during reconnaisance; however, the obstacle was indicated by a special symbol in the pace notes given to the crews by the organizers. rychlostní stupeň9 Rychlostní zkoušku jsem dojel bez gear And they make it possible to choose http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ge tří rychlostních stupňů. the gear (gear ratio) and to switch ar_shift this in or out. rychlostní zkouška5 Úvodní Super rychlostní zkouška se special stage The rally will start at 9:00 with 15 http://www.rallybuzz.com/van- tradičně odehrála v ulicích krajského minutes service before the cars will merksteijn-portugal-ss1/ města. head for the Ourilque special stage. 9 http://www.barum.rally.cz/2008/press_detail.php?cont=70&sec=4&lng=cz Czech Term Context English Term Context Term Source ředitel rally1 clerk of the course Welshpool was synonymous with the http://www.plainsrally.co.uk/ Plains in its early years and was equally successful under the newly appointed Clerk of the Course, Graham Raeburn in 2007 when the Plains Rally was awarded the best 'BTRDA Rally of the Year 2007'. servisní zóna10 Servisní zóna během shakedownu service park The rally fans can also meet the http://www.nesteoilrallyfinland. najde azyl v blízkosti dostihové drivers and see how the cars are fi/en/spectators/otherentertain dráhy ve Slušovicích. fixed in the Service Park. ment/servicepark/ seznamovací Soutěžní posádky mají za sebou reconnaissance Rally Tennessee, known for its http://www.theautochannel.co jízda11 první den seznamovacích jízd amazingly twisty paved tarmac m/news/2008/11/26/263917.ht Barum rally Zlín 2008. roads, continues its tradition of multi- ml pass reconnaissance. spojka12 Máme problémy se spojkou. clutch However, there seems to be an http://www.fiorally.com/?p=144 issue with the clutch. sportovní komisař8 Ve funkci hlavního sportovního steward Before the start of the rally and any http://www.rallyebdc.com/ahtm komisaře přiletí do České republiky subsequent leg, any modification will l/reglements.htm pan Xavier Conesa. be posted on the official board and will have to be signed by a steward. technická1 přejímka scrutineering Competitors must take their rally http://www.rallywhangarei.co.n cars to be scrutineered or checked z/spectators-2009.html that they adhere to the rules both before and after the event. 10 http://www.barum.rally.cz/2008/press_detail.php?cont=8&sec=4&lng=cz 11 http://www.barum.rally.cz/2008/press_detail.php?cont=49&sec=4&lng=cz Czech Term Context English Term Context Term Source testovací rychlostní shakedown Loeb has set the fastest time in the http://rallyshots.blogspot.com/ zkouška1 Shakedown of Rally Norway, with a 2009/02/shakedown-rally- time of 1:59.3, with 4 tenths of norway-2009-second-wrc.html advantage over Hirvonen and 5 tenths over Sordo. traťový komisař1 route director Designing a route that not only http://www.mywire.com/a/Cras meets but exceeds all expectations h/Organisers-prepare-2005- has been the number one priority for Rally-Mexico/659193?&pbl=27 route director René Hernánez and, through the experience gained during the 2004 event, a host of new factors have also come into play. vedoucí rychlostní SS director In case of crashed vehicle marked www.rallyecup.ic.cz/english/pr zkoušky1 by OK, approaching crew will avidla09/pravidla_pos_09en.p continue driving and by SS stop will df report the fact (where the crash happened, vehicle's starting number, whether they saw crew-members, eventually other matters that he saw) to the SS director eventually to the timekeeper. vedoucí tiskového press relations Granting accreditations for radio, TV, www.tempusrally.sk/public/me střediska1 officer video studios and other electronic dia/0237/accreditation_rules.d media (Internet) are fully in oc competence of the organizer of TEMPUS BECEP RALLY 2008 – majstrovstvá Slovenska and the press relations officer. 12 http://www.barum.rally.cz/2008/press_detail.php?cont=72&sec=4&lng=cz Czech Term Context English Term Context Term Source uzavřené parc fermé Only the Historic rally cars can stay http://www.rallyclassics.org/po parkoviště1 from thursday evening to sunday rtalnet2/Eventos/RallyCostaBr midday at the parc fermé, just in ava/56RallyCostaBrava/FIAHi front of FIA Hotels (Excelsior, storicCompetitors/tabid/93/lan Marsol and Miramar) guage/es-ES/Default.aspx zpracovatelská results crew The starter’s assistant is to be http://members.iinet.net.au/~ra skupina1 located close to the record keeper wsport/~%2520'08%2520Mars and use the Sky-net module (or hals%2520Manual.pdf telephone) to transmit the start times to the results crew located in the mobile command post and to also give the starter a break by swapping positions from time to time.