New Horizons New Horizons : VMI Journal of Undergraduate Writing VMI Journal of Undergraduate Writing

Volume 7 Number 1 April 2013

New Horizons VMI Journal of Undergraduate Writing Institute Writing Program Virginia Military Institute Lexington, VA 24450 Volume 7 Number 1 April 2013 New Horizons VMI Journal of Undergraduate Writing

Editorial Board Executive Editor: D. Alexis Hart, Associate Professor of English Associate Editor for Engineering: Robert L. McMasters, Professor of Mechanical Engineering Associate Editor for the Humanities and Social Sciences: Timothy C. Dowling, Associate Professor of History Associate Editor for the Natural Sciences: Nathan D. Axvig, Assistant Professor of Mathematics

Contributing Editors for Volume 7

Louis Blair, Virginia Military Institute Joyce Blandino, Virginia Military Institute Stephen J. Blank, Strategic Studies Institute of the United States Army War College Bob Coleman, University of South Alabama Bradley Lynn Coleman, Virginia Military Institute Christopher S. Lassiter, Roanoke College Laurie Lyda, Georgia College & State University Kristen Pond, Baylor University Wayne G. Shear, Virginia Military Institute Matthew Swenty, Virginia Military Institute

Copyeditors and Layout and Design Editors for Volume 7

Taylor Armstrong, ‘13 Adam Marsh, ‘15 Lindsey Carty, ‘13 Mary Meidenbauer, ‘13 Lucas Champion, ‘14 Sean Murphy, ‘14 Max Curry, ‘13 Nathan Sitzman, ‘16 Flora Edelbrock, ‘14 Connor Sullivan, ‘15 Campbell Henkel, ‘14 Russell Timmons, ‘14 Glen Ingham, ‘12 Matt Wendler, ‘15

Cover photo by Cadet Sean P. Noll, ‘13. The editorial board of New Horizons: VMI Journal of Undergraduate Writing would like to acknowledge the generous financial support of the Institute Writing Program and the Office of the Dean of the Faculty, which provided the resources for publishing this issue.

Our thanks to the following for their efforts on behalf of New Horizons: • BG R. Wane Schneiter, Deputy Superintendent for Academics and Dean of the Faculty • COL Robert L. McDonald, Associate Dean for Academic Affairs • COL Christina R. McDonald, Institute Director of Writing • COL Emily P. Miller, Head, Department of English and Fine Arts • Dr. Jim Adams, Interim Director, VMI Writing Center • LTC Keith Kline, Director, VMI Center for Undergraduate Research • Mr. BR Floyd, VMI Communications and Marketing • COL Joseph Blandino, BG Charles Brower, MAJ Jennifer deHart, LTC Timothy Dowling, MAJ Wakeel Idewu, COL John Leland, COL Robert L. McDonald, MAJ Tim Moore, LTC Charles Newhouse, MAJ Mary Beth Pennington, COL Rose Mary Sheldon, and COL James E. Turner, faculty mentors to the cadet authors of New Horizons, Volume 7. • Special thanks to the members of the Spring 2013 WR349 Professional Editing and Design class. NEW HORIZONS

VMI JOURNAL OF UNDERGRADUATE WRITING

Volume 7 Issue 1 April 2013

TABLE OF CONTENTS

1 From the Executive Editor

2 From the Cadet Copyeditors and Designers

NATURAL SCIENCES

5 The Effects of Estrogen Deprivation on the Vascular Development of  (PEU\RQLF=HEUD¿VK Danio rerio) Cadet Frederick Dawson (Biology, ‘13) Faculty Mentor: Colonel James E. Turner

14 The Effects of Nitric Oxide on the Sensory-Motor Functions in the  'HYHORSLQJ=HEUD¿VK Danio rerio) Cadet Ben Sykes (Biology, ‘13) Faculty Mentor: Colonel James E. Turner

HUMANITIES

26 Operational Art Goes Digital Cadet John Bolen (History, ‘14) Faculty Mentor: Lieutenant Colonel Timothy Dowling

39 Kicking the Hornet’s Nest: Operation Ajax and Its Effects on Middle Eastern Relations Cadet Stephen Caskey (International Studies, ‘15) Faculty Mentor: Major Mary Beth Pennington

42 Ceci n’est pas une redaction de mi-semestre Cadet Sean McCauley (English and History, ‘13) Faculty Mentor: Colonel John Leland 50 Disaster at Arausio: Lessons in Leadership in the Roman Army Cadet Abhimanyu Trikha (History, ‘14) Faculty Mentor: Colonel Rose Mary Sheldon

62 Atticus Finch and “The Dude’s” Impact on American Masculinity Cadet Matthew Wendler (Biology, ‘15) Faculty Mentor: Major Mary Beth Pennington

67 Neo-Confederates on Your News Feed Cadet Cabell Willis (History, ‘14) Faculty Mentor: Colonel Robert L. McDonald

Social Sciences

79 Understanding the Danger of a Nuclear Iran Ms. Micah Coate (International Studies and Political Science, ‘12) Faculty Mentor: Brigadier General Charles F. Brower

Engineering

92 Compressive Strength Analysis of Mortar Mixes Consisting of Recycled Plastics Cadet John McDonald (Civil and Environmental Engineering, ‘15) Faculty Mentors: Major Jennifer deHart and Lieutenant Colonel Charles Newhouse

106 Using Correlations of Real-Time Vehicle Emissions and VISSIM Multimodal Traffic Flow Modeled Emissions to Predict Neighborhood-Scale Air Quality

and NOX Exposure Levels Cadet John Partin (Civil and Environmental Engineering, ‘14) Faculty Mentors: Major Wakeel Idewu and Major Tim Moore

117 Flapping-Wing Micro Air Vehicle Wing Deformation and Force Measurement in a Wind Tunnel Cadet Alex Sharp (Mechanical Engineering, ‘13) Faculty Mentor: Colonel Joseph Blandino 134 Curricular Suggestions

138 About the Contributing Editors

140 About the Authors

142 About the Copyeditors

144 The Institute Writing Program

1HZ+RUL]RQV‡9ROXPH‡1XPEHU‡$SULO

From the Executive Editor

t has been my distinct pleasure to have served as a member of the New Horizons editorial board since its initial conception as a highly selective, disciplinary expert-reviewed academic Iundergraduate journal in the Fall of 2005. I began my work on the journal as the Associate Editor for the Humanities and Social Sciences under the outstanding mentorship and leadership of then-Executive Editor COL Mary Ann Dellinger. Since that time, the journal has moved from the auspices of the VMI Center for Undergraduate Research to those of the Institute Writing Program and has expanded the range of cadet writing that it features. The editorial board has H[SHULHQFHGFKDQJHVDVZHOO$IWHU¿YH\HDUVRIH[FHSWLRQDOVHUYLFH&2/'HOOLQJHUJUDFLRXVO\ turned over to me the position of Executive Editor in 2010. In that role, it has been my honor to have worked with Dr. Duncan Richter and LTC Merce Brooke, who served as Associate Editor for the Humanities and Social Sciences and Associate Editor for the Natural Sciences, respectively, as well as collaborating with the current Associate Editors, MAJ Nate Axvig (Natural Sciences), LTC Tim Dowling (Humanities and Social Sciences), and CAPT Bob McMasters (Engineering). The dedication of these faculty members to the success of the journal and to the teaching and professional development of the cadet authors and copyeditors has been nothing less than remarkable, and I can not thank them enough for their commitment to this endeavor. In addition, I would like to acknowledge and to thank the dozens of VMI faculty members and the more than 30 faculty members at other institutions who have taken time out of their busy schedules to provide valuable critical comments and recommendations for revision to the cadet authors. ,KDYHDOVRKDGWKHJRRGIRUWXQHWROHDGWKUHHWHUUL¿FWHDPVRIFDGHWFRS\HGLWRUVDQGGHVLJQHUV who enrolled in the WR349 Professional Editing and Design course—many of whom did not know quite what they were getting into when they signed up, but all of whom worked diligently to ensure that the authors’ manuscripts were presented to the New Horizons readers in the most professional manner possible. Over the course of these changes, the journal has consistently featured exemplary samples of the extraordinary writing and research being produced by cadets across the disciplines, including the twelve manuscripts featured in this volume representing all of the major academic divisions at VMI.

This seventh volume represents my last as Executive Editor, as it is time for me to seek my own “new horizons.” Though I will no longer be directly involved in the process, I look forward to continuing to read the exceptional work that will undoubtedly be published in future volumes, and I will remain ever grateful for having had the privilege to work with and for the authors, editors, and readers of New Horizons.

Fair winds and following seas.

D. Alexis Hart Executive Editor

1 New Horizons‡$SULO

From the Copyeditors

The New Horizons copyediting staff is pleased to announce the release of Volume 7. This volume includes academic writing representing multiple academic disciplines across the VMI curriculum. We cadets enrolled in CDR Hart’s Professional Editing and Design course have been DEOHWRZRUN¿UVWKDQGZLWKWKHSXEOLVKLQJSURFHVVDVFRS\HGLWRUVIRUPDQXVFULSWVXEPLVVLRQV We were also responsible for determining the design, formatting, layout, and cover design of the journal and for contributing ideas for the “Curricular Suggestions.” This course has provided us with a good opportunity to branch out and meet more faculty mentors and fellow cadets. It has also given us the chance to read and study works from majors different than our own. The reading and editing processes have allowed us to broaden our academic horizons and hone our communication skills. We are proud of the successes we have achieved together as copyeditors this semester, and we hope you enjoy reading the manuscripts that follow.

Taylor Armstrong, Biology ,’13 Lindsey Carty, Psychology, ’13 Lucas Champion, English, ’14 Max Curry, English, ’13 Flora Edelbrock, English, ’14 Campbell Henkel, English, ’14 Glen Ingham, English, ’12 Adam Marsh, Biology, ’15 Mary Meidenbauer, English, ’13 Sean Murphy, History, ’14 Nathan Sitzman, International Studies, ’16 Connor Sullivan, Biology,’15 C. Russell Timmons, Applied Mathematics, ’14 Matthew Wendler, Biology, ’15

2

1HZ+RUL]RQV‡9ROXPH‡1XPEHU‡$SULO The Effects of Estrogen Deprivation on the Vascular Development of (PEU\RQLF=HEUD¿VK Danio rerio)

Frederick M. Dawson ‘13 )DFXOW\0HQWRU COL James E. Turner, Ph.D., Department of Biology

Abstract:(VWURJHQ ( LVDKRUPRQHWKDWKDVPDQ\IXQFWLRQVLQERWKPDOHVDQGIHPDOHVLQ DGGLWLRQWRVH[XDOUHSURGXFWLRQ)RUH[DPSOHLWLVNQRZQWRSOD\DQDFWLYHUROHLQWKHQHUYRXV DQGFDUGLRYDVFXODUV\VWHPV7UHDWPHQWRIHPEU\RQLF]HEUD¿VK Danio rerio ZLWKDQDURPDWDVH LQKLELWRU $, VROXWLRQHIIHFWLYHO\EORFNVHVWURJHQV\QWKHVLVUHVXOWLQJLQWKH³OLVWOHVVFRQGLWLRQ´ 7KLVFRQGLWLRQLVFKDUDFWHUL]HGE\ORVVRIPXVFXODUIXQFWLRQFXUYDWXUHRIWKHVSLQHDQHQODUJHG FDUGLDFVDFUHGXFHGEORRGÀRZDQGFDUGLDFDUUHVW7KHSXUSRVHRIWKLVVWXG\ZDVWRGHWHUPLQHWKH

UROHRI(LQWKHGHYHORSPHQWDQGPDLQWHQDQFHRIWKHGHYHORSLQJEORRGYHVVHOVXVLQJWKHµOLVWOHVV¶ PRGHO$WUDQVJHQLF]HEUD¿VK7* ÀL(*)3 y1/+y1 $% DOORZVIRUWKHYDVFXODUV\VWHPRI WKHOLYLQJHPEU\RVWREHYLHZHGin vivoE\FRQIRFDOPLFURVFRS\WKDWZDVXVHGLQWKLVVWXG\)LVK ZHUHWUHDWHGZLWKDFRQWUROVDOLQHHJJUHDULQJVROXWLRQ (56 $,>K\GUR[\DQGURVWHQRGLRQH 2+$[0 @HVWURJHQ 0 RUDFRPELQDWLRQRI$,DQGHVWURJHQLQDFRWUHDWPHQW SDUDGLJP7UHDWPHQWVZHUHVWDUWHGDWWZRGD\VSRVWIHUWLOL]DWLRQ GSI DQGFRQWLQXHGWRGSI GXULQJZKLFKWLPHVWKHYDVFXODUGHYHORSPHQWRIWKHWUHDWHGWUDQVJHQLF]HEUD¿VKZDVDQDO\]HG 7KHUHVXOWVVKRZHGWKDWDODFNRIHVWURJHQERWKUHWDUGVDQGGDPDJHVYDVFXODUGHYHORSPHQW ZKHUHDVDQLQFUHDVHLQHVWURJHQDFFHOHUDWHVYDVFXODUGHYHORSPHQWE\VHYHUDOGD\V7KHVHUHVXOWV HQFRXUDJHIXUWKHUUHVHDUFKWRXQGHUVWDQGIXOO\WKHUROHRIHVWURJHQLQYDVFXODUGHYHORSPHQW

Introduction FDUGLRYDVFXODU KHDOWK 6SHFL¿FDOO\ KHDUW strogen (E ) is a hormone produced in cells, vessel endothelial cells and its smooth 2 muscle tissue contain both E receptors and the both men and women. While it is best 2 enzyme aromatase, which is responsible for E recognized as the primary female sex 2 E 3 hormone, E plays an important role in many synthesis. 2 The clinical basis for this belief that E other developmental and regulatory cascades. 2 These include (but are not limited to): the plays a prominent role in cardiovascular regulation of brain function, control of bone system health was demonstrated through growth, and protein synthesis in both males clinical trials that show women are far less and females.1 For E to alter these diverse susceptible to cardiovascular diseases prior to 2 menopause when E levels are high. However, pathways, it must diffuse through a cell and 2 women become far more likely to experience bind to an E2 UHFHSWRU ZKLFK WXUQV VSHFL¿F genes on or off, and in turn, affects any of these cardiovascular disorders post-menopause. 2 This basis of understanding on the role of E systems. 2 It is also believed that there is a strong in curbing the effects of menopause spurred a Women’s Health Initiative trial conducted by correlation between the presence of E2 and 5 New Horizons‡$SULO the National Institute of Health. From 1993- OHVVFRPSOLFDWHG/DVWO\HPEU\RQLF]HEUD¿VK 1998 over 16,000 postmenopausal women easily diffuse treatment solutions placed in were selected to participate in the trial through their aqueous environments through their forty medical facilities across the United skin allowing them to be treated with various States. After 5.2 years, the trial was stopped.5 compounds.4 Participants in the study experienced a 12.7% $ XQLTXH WUDQVJHQLF ]HEUD¿VK KDV EHHQ drop in low-density lipoprotein (LDL) levels developed to study blood vessel development. and an increase in high-density lipoprotein This model takes advantage of the friend OHYHOVE\GXULQJWKH¿UVW\HDUDORQH%DVHG leukemia integration factor 1(ÀL), a gene that on this data and the fact that low LDL and high WUDQVFULEHV WKH FRUUHVSRQGLQJ ÀL SURWHLQ HDL levels have been linked with a decreased which codes for the differentiation of multiple risk for cardiovascular heart disease (CHD), cell types.6  6SHFL¿FDOO\ ÀL LV WKH HDUOLHVW it was expected that patients would exhibit at indicator of blood vessel development, which least a 30% drop in risk for CHD. Instead, a VSHFL¿FDOO\ ODEHOV HQGRWKHOLDO FHOOV  )RU WKLV 1.29 hazards ratio for CHD was found. This reason, researchers chose to insert enhanced ratio, along with other unexpectedly high JUHHQ ÀXRUHVFHQW SURWHLQ (*)3  LQWR WKH ratios for other cardiovascular disorders, was promoter for the ÀL gene construct. Single expressed regardless of the age of members in FHOO VWDJHG ]HEUD¿VK HPEU\RV ZHUH WKHQ the trial, including in younger (age 50-59) trial injected with this construct. Injection at this members. Furthermore, the risk for myocardial stage in development ensures that every cell LQIDUFWLRQV KHDUW DWWDFNV  ZDV VLJQL¿FDQWO\ thereafter will contain the ÀL construct. The high even less than a year into the trial. High embryos that expressed the highest levels of triglyceride levels, a known risk factor for EGFP were then isolated, raised, and bred CHD, was one of the most frequent symptoms to create a strain of transgenic ÀL:EGFP found in patients during the study. However, ]HEUD¿VK >7* ÀL:EGFP)]. All endothelial increased cytokine levels and any role as a FHOOVRIWKHVH]HEUD¿VKH[SUHVVWKH(*)3VR

SURLQÀDPPDWRU ZHUH IRXQG LQ QHLWKHU (2 nor through confocal microscopy, LQ YLYR blood progesterone co-treatments. Because of these vessel development and morphology can be ¿QGLQJV ³7KHUH LV DQ LPSRUWDQW RSSRUWXQLW\ detected. Along with vascular endothelial to determine the cause or mechanism of cells, macrophage morphology in the yolk the increased CVD risk for women on E+P sac, as well as detection of mesenchyme and therapy… The research focus should be on cartilaginous structures in the cranial neural understanding mechanisms and improving crest cells can also be detected.7 (the) outcome”.6 In the development of vertebrates, blood One of the primary animals used for the vessel development can take place by two study of E2 LV WKH ]HEUD¿VK Danio rerio). different pathways: vasculogenesis and =HEUD¿VK DUH LGHDO UHVHDUFK VXEMHFWV IRU angiogenesis. Vasculogenesis is the pathway multiple reasons. At the embryonic stage in which blood vessels develop, GHQRYR, or in RI GHYHORSPHQW ]HEUD¿VK DUH WUDQVOXFHQW the absence of pre-existing blood vessels.11 The which allows for their internal anatomical early-forming, primitive blood vessels have organization to be studied. Furthermore, their been found to develop via vasculogenesis. anatomical design, particularly the nervous The vasculogenesis pathway has been found and vascular systems, is well characterized to function similarly among all vertebrates, to and relatively simplistic. This is vital for LQFOXGH]HEUD¿VK1.2 conducting vascular research, because it makes Unlike vasculogenesis, angiogenesis QRWLFLQJDEQRUPDOLWLHVPXFKHDVLHU=HEUD¿VK occurs when new blood vessels form by also develop at a rapid rate over several days, developing as branches from pre-existing which makes observing their vascular growth blood vessels. Vascular endothelial growth

6 )UHGHULFN'DZVRQ‡(IIHFWVRI(VWURJHQ'HSULYDWLRQRQ9DVFXODU'HYHORSPHQW factor (VGEF), a family of signal proteins, is RIWKH]HEUD¿VKE\GD\VSRVWIHUWLOL]DWLRQ known to be a key part in the regulation of both (dpf).9 the vasculogenic and angiogenic pathways.11 Aromatase is an enzyme that plays an active 5 While vasculogenesis only occurs during role in E2 synthesis, and aromatase inhibitors development for vertebrates, angiogenesis (AI) such as 4-hydroxy androstenodione (4- occurs both during development and as an OH-A) can block this synthesis effectively.8 adult. Indeed, in adults (to include both humans 7UHDWLQJGHYHORSLQJ]HEUD¿VKZLWK$,ZRUNVDV DQG ]HEUD¿VK  DQJLRJHQHVLV IXQFWLRQV LQ an excellent method for creating an absence of

PDQ\VSHFL¿FWLVVXHVLQFOXGLQJIHPDOHVH[XDO E2DQGZKHQWUHDWHGWKLVZD\¿VKGHPRQVWUDWH and reproductive organs (mammary glands, the “listless condition.” Characteristics of ovaries, and the uterus) and also functions as this condition include loss of motor function, a method to repair damaged tissues. One of FXUYDWXUHRIWKHVSLQHUHGXFHGEORRGÀRZD WKHPRVWVLJQL¿FDQWIXQFWLRQVRIDQJLRJHQHVLV swollen cardiac sac, and eventually cardiac in repair is from cardiovascular disorders such arrest, which resembles tamponade in the as myocardial infarctions and strokes. In human heart.5 These results have led to the contrast, when activated in adults, angiogenesis hypothesis of this study that E2 plays an can also play deleterious roles in promoting important role in blood vessel development carcinogenesis as well as, interestingly and maintenance. enough, contributing to many cardiovascular 7KH ¿QGLQJV LQ WKLV VWXG\ LQGLFDWH WKDW disorders.13 Another important sub-pathway is both estrogen deprivation and supplementation notch signaling, a process that moderates the have profound effects on vascular growth. fates of induced endothelial cells that sprout during angiogenesis.11 Therefore, many studies Treatment have been devoted to better understanding the EGFP transgenic embryos, TG(ÀL:EGFP) role of angiogenesis and its regulators. y1/+y1 (AB), were ordered from the ZFIN ,QWHUVHJPHQWDOYHVVHOV 6( LQ]HEUD¿VK biological supply company (Eugene, Oregon). DUH VRPH RI WKH ¿UVW YHVVHOV WR IRUP YLD WKH 7KH¿VKDUULYHGDWWZRGD\VSRVWIHUWLOL]DWLRQ angiogenesis pathway and were chosen as one (dpf) and were divided into four treatment of the vessels to track in this study.12 SE are groups: AI, E2, co-treatment, and control. pairs of arteries and veins that run caudally The AI 4-hydroxy androstenodione (4-OH-A, GRZQ WKH WUXQN RI WKH ]HEUD¿VK FRQQHFWLQJ Sigma) was administered at a concentration the dorsal longitudinal anastomotic vessel -6 -8 of 50 x 10 M. E2 was prepared at a 10 M (DLAV) to the caudal artery (CA) and posterior concentration, and control was a saline embryo caudal vein (PCV), of which the latter two rearing solution (ERS) prepared by mixing 9 vessels are formed via vasculogenesis. The 0.04 g CaCl2, 0.163g MgSO4, 1.0g NaCl, and SE form initially as sprouts from the dorsal 0.03g KCl into 1000 mL of distilled water. regions of the CA (and dorsal artery, which Co-treatment is a solution that contains equal is posterior and contiguous with the CA) and parts if 50 x 10-6 M AI and 10-8 M E . Both 3&9DQG DUH ODWHU FRQVLVWHG RI WKUHH WR ¿YH 2 the AI and E2 were dissolved in 0.001% ETOH endothelial cells per vessel. These cells will and diluted accordingly with ERS. The control eventually fuse to form a “seamless tube,” solution also contained ETOH diluted to and “branch rostrally and caudally, and then 0.001%. 12 interconnect to form the… (DLAV)”. The 7KH¿VKZHUHWKHQOHIWLQWKHLUUHVSHFWLYH pathway for the development of the SE is solutions starting at 2 dpf and kept in an not clearly understood, but it is believed that incubator at 28°C, with solution changes every 9(*) DQG QRWFK VLJQDOLQJ DUH VLJQL¿FDQWO\ 24 hours. Fish were viewed at twenty-four 12 involved. The SE are well-developed and are KRXU LQWHUYDOV IRU WKUHH WR ¿YH GD\V RI WKDW distinguishable in the vascular bed of the trunk treatment period. Primary focus was placed on

7 New Horizons‡$SULO 4 days post-treatment (dpt) as the primary time the length between where the DLAV ceased period for data collection. to run continuously and where the last SE was located was measured. In order to quantify Preparations for Confocal Microscopy vessel integrity, three abnormalities, 1) the :KLOH $, ¿VK H[SHULHQFH WKH ³OLVWOHVV number of SE bifurcations, 2) the number of FRQGLWLRQ´ WKH ]HEUD¿VK LQ WKH RWKHU WKUHH VA/SE misconnections, and 3) the number of solutions did not, so it was necessary to gaps in the VA, were documented. An SE develop a method to immobilize them. The bifurcation was recorded any time the SE technique required a preparation slide Petri artery and vein of one myotome bifurcate away GLVK$QHVWKHWLFWULFDQH>HPEU\RWULFDQH from each other and connect to the DLAV in solution (Sigma – Ethyl 3-aminoenzoate abnormal locations. VA/SE misconnections methanesulfonate)] was used to anesthetize the were recorded any time the VA connected with ¿VK  7KLV ZDV DFFRPSOLVKHG E\ SODFLQJ WKH another SE in an anterior or posterior region embryos in a tricane bath for two minutes, then instead of connecting centrally. Whenever a removing the embryos and placing them on the gap appeared in the VA between SE, it was preparation slide petri dishes with a 1% tricane documented as a skipped VA connection. DJDURVHVROXWLRQWRODWHUDOO\¿[WKHDQHVWKHWL]HG embryos in position for photography. Statistical Analysis One way variance (ANOVA) tests through Confocal Microscopy SigmaStat were conducted on each set of data. A Nikon C1 confocal microscope (James This determined whether or not each treatment Madison University, Department of Biology), FRQGLWLRQZDVVWDWLVWLFDOO\VLJQL¿FDQWIURPWKH was used during this experiment. Images were other treatments. FDSWXUHG DW PDJQL¿FDWLRQV RI [ [ DQG 200x and photographs taken for both qualitative Results and quantitative analyses. The vasculature Through confocal microscopy, only the was photographed at the caudal portion of the YDVFXODWXUH RI WKH GHYHORSLQJ ]HEUD¿VK LV ¿VK%ULJKW¿HOGLPDJHVZHUHDOVRFDSWXUHGWR YLVLEOH )LJXUHVDQG 7KH(56WUHDWHG¿VK help identify the region being photographed. provides an excellent example for the typical Z-stack images, which compose focused vascular growth (compare Figures 1, 2, and portions from multiple images at different 3B). In comparison, the AI treated specimen WLVVXHOHYHOVZHUHWDNHQLQERWKEULJKW¿HOGDQG VKRZVDVLJQL¿FDQWDEVHQFHRUGHJHQHUDWLRQRI (*)3¿OWHU vasculature and particularly in the DLAV and SE vessels, which appear patchy or absent (see Morphometric Analysis arrows in Figure 3C and compare with Figure 1). The vasculature in the E This study used the morphometric analytical 2WUHDWHG¿VKDSSHDUV software from NIH’s ImageJ program. Caudal crisper and even with some possible early PAV artery (CA) diameter, length between the vessel formation was observed, which does not end of the dorsal longitudinal anastomotic normally occur until 7 dpf (compare Figures vessel (DLAV) and last intersegmental vessel 2 and 3C). (SE), and vertebral artery (VA) were all Apart from the PAV and one or two documented. CA diameter was measured from gaps in the VA, most vessels, under standard a point 875 micrometers from the caudal end conditions, should appear by four days post- 9 of the vessel bed. CA diameter was taken at treatment (dpt).   7KH FRQWURO ¿VK SLFWXUHG this location in every photograph to provide in Figure 3B represents what normal vessel a standard reference point. To determine the development should look like at 4 dpt. Vessels state of DLAV development or degeneration, maintain integrity and organization. As seen

8 )UHGHULFN'DZVRQ‡(IIHFWVRI(VWURJHQ'HSULYDWLRQRQ9DVFXODU'HYHORSPHQW

Figure 1: $GHSLFWLRQRIKRZWKHYDVFXODWXUHRID]HEUD¿VKDWGSIVKRXOGDSSHDU1RWLFHWKH labeled major vessels include the dorsal latitudinal anastomotic vessel (DLAV), dorsal artery (DA), caudal artery (CA), posterior cardinal vein (PCV), caudal vein (CV), and intersegmental vessels (SE). Source: Isogai, Sumio, Horiguchi, Masaharu, Weinstein, Brant. 2001. The Vascular Anatomy RIWKH'HYHORSLQJ=HEUD¿VK$Q$WODVRI(PEU\RQLFDQG(DUO\/DUYDO'HYHORSPHQW'HYHORS %LRO. 230:278-301.

Figure 2: At 7 dpf, the appearance of multiple parachordal vessels (PAV) develop between the intersegmental vessels. Also, the vertebral artery (VA) intersects most intersegmental vessels by 7 dpf. For key to vessel nomenclature, see Figure 1. Source: Isogai, Sumio, Horiguchi, Masaharu, :HLQVWHLQ%UDQW7KH9DVFXODU$QDWRP\RIWKH'HYHORSLQJ=HEUD¿VK$Q$WODVRI(PEU\RQLF and Early Larval Development. 'HYHORS%LRO. 230:278-301. in Figure 3C, with AI treatment, however, The length between the end of the DLAV all integrity and organization is lost. SE and the last SE once again shows a pattern bifurcations, deterioration of the DLAV, gaps that is consistent with previous research. In in the VA, and VA/SE misconnections are all the control and E2¿VKWKHUHZDVUDUHO\DJDS commonplace. In contrast, in E2 ¿VK VXFK between the DLAV and last SE. A small gap as in Figure 3D, vessel integrity is not only was more frequent, though, in control than E2. maintained organized, but PAV appear, and In the AI and co-treament subsets, the lengths there even are less gaps in the VA. In Figure were much larger. (FRWUHDWPHQW¿VKVWUDQJHO\GLVSOD\ERWKD The subsets of SE bifurcations and skipped loss of integrity and the appearance of PAV. 9$ FRQQHFWLRQV DUH VWDWLVWLFDOO\ VLJQL¿FDQW A standard reference point (as seen in from one another, and they, once again, follow Figure 4B) of 875 micrometers was used to a pattern consistent with previous research. In ensure that every measurement of CA diameter contrast, the results from the number of VA/SE was taken in the same anatomical location. The PLVFRQQHFWLRQVLVQRWVWDWLVWLFDOO\VLJQL¿FDQW graph represents a pattern in which AI shows and the AI and co-treatments do not display the smallest CA diameter, and E2 has a larger a great deal of difference between the control

CA diameter than control. The co-treatment and E2 treatments. ¿VKFOHDUO\VKRZVDUHFRYHU\IURPVPDOO&$ diameter with E2 supplementation.

9 New Horizons‡$SULO

Figure 3: 7UHDWPHQW HIIHFWV RQ FDUGLRYDVFXODU JURZWK $ $ %ULJKW¿HOG LPDJH RI D FRQWURO ¿VK SURYLGHVFRQWH[WWRWKHDQDWRPLFDOORFDWLRQRIWKHÀXRUHVFHQWLPDJHV% 7KHFRQWURO¿VKSURYLGHDQ H[FHOOHQWH[DPSOHIRUWKHW\SLFDOYDVFXODUJURZWKDWGSW& ,QWKH$,WUHDWHG¿VKWKHYDVFXODWXUH shows either retarded growth or deterioration, particularly in the DLAV and VA which appear patchy

or absent. D) The vasculature, particularly in the CA, in the E2WUHDWHG¿VKDSSHDUVFULVSHUDQGZLGHU DQGWKH9$ZDVREVHUYHGWRKDYHOHVVJDSVWKDQHYHQWKHFRQWURO¿VK$OVRSDUDFKRUGDOYHVVHOV which do not normally begin to develop until 5 dpt. E) The DLAV shows either retarded growth or GHWHULRUDWLRQLQWKHFRWUHDWPHQW¿VKEXWWKH9$KDVOHVVJDSVDQG3$9YHVVHOVDSSHDUDVZHOO

Figure 4:7UHDWPHQWHIIHFWVRQDYHUDJHWDLO&$GLDPHWHU$ &$GLDPHWHULVVLJQL¿FDQWO\UHGXFHGLQ $,¿VKZKHQFRPSDUHGWRFRQWURO/LNHZLVHFRWUHDWPHQW&$GLDPHWHULVOHVVWKDQFRQWUROEXWODUJHU than AI. E2 CA diameter is consistently larger than control. B) In order to ensure that measurements of the CA were collected in the same location in every photograph, a standard reference point was used. $VWHULVNVUHSUHVHQWVLJQL¿FDQWGLIIHUHQFH S  

10 )UHGHULFN'DZVRQ‡(IIHFWVRI(VWURJHQ'HSULYDWLRQRQ9DVFXODU'HYHORSPHQW

Figure 5: Treatment effects on the length between DLAV and SE. A) The length between the end of the

DLAV and the last SE follows a consistent pattern with AI has the longest length and E2 having the shortest length. B) An image representing the abnormally long length between the end of the DLAV and last SE LQDQ$,¿VK$VWHULVNVUHSUHVHQWVVLJQL¿FDQWGLIIHUHQFH S  

Figure 6: Treatment effects on vascular integrity. A) Both the data sets for SE bifurcations and and skipped 9$FRQQHFWLRQVDUHVWDWLVWLFDOO\VLJQL¿FDQWZKLOH6(9$PLVFRQQHFWLRQVLVQRWVWDWLVWLFDOO\VLJQL¿FDQW%  ([DPSOHVRI6(ELIXUFDWLRQV6(9$PLVFRQQHFWLRQVDQGVNLSSHG9$FRQQHFWLRQVLQDQ$,]HEUD¿VK $VWHULVNVUHSUHVHQWVLJQL¿FDQWGLIIHUHQFH S 

Discussion of the vasculature to either deteriorate or simply retard the rate of its growth. Through It has been previously known that E2 plays an important role in the cardiovascular system, preliminary trials of photography at 2 and 3 dpt, EXWLWVLQÀXHQFHRQEORRGYHVVHOIRUPDWLRQKDV in which the DLAV appear more maintained, it is more likely that a lack of E is initiating not been thoroughly investigated. However, 2 the current study suggests that an increase of deterioration in the vascular bed. CA diameter, length between the end of the DLAV and the E2 can accelerate vascular growth. In contrast, the absence of E is causing a deterioration last SE, as well as VA and SE integrity all 2 follow patterns that provides strong evidence 11 New Horizons‡$SULO for the hypothesis that E2 is a hormone in and analyzing the images. As many images as vascular development. All of the data sets possible should be taken of all four treatments collected except VA/SE misconnections were in order to fully gain an accurate understanding IRXQG WR EH VWDWLVWLFDOO\ VLJQL¿FDQW ZKLFK of estrogens impact on vascular growth. provides even more credibility to the results. Despite VA/SE misconnections not being Likewise, the early appearance of multiple PAV VWDWLVWLFDOO\VLJQL¿FDQWGDWDZLOOFRQWLQXHWREH vessels at 4 dpt instead of 5 dpt supports this collected of this abnormality in case any future 9 hypothesis. It appears that when E2 levels are VLJQL¿FDQWSDWWHUQVVKRZXS$¿IWKWUHDWPHQW increased, it causes the vasculature to develop of ICI, which is a solution that can block the at an advanced rate. E2 receptor, will also be used to compare with These results are consistent with those AI treatment. Recent research conducted by published in the literature. In one study, E2 colleagues suggests that NO may be the key supplementation was show to induce the to understanding E2’s effect on the vasculature. progression of carotid arterial thickness Future rounds of experimentation will include much like this study has observed in CA ¿VKWUHDWHGZLWK12DQGQLWULFR[LGHV\QWKDVH diameter. The former study found that mice LQKLELWRU126,%ORRGÀRZDQDO\VLVZLOODOVR null for aromatase had dysfunctional vascular be conducted at 4 dpt to determine if there is a relaxation (from vasoconstriction) and proved strong link between reduced cardiac output and 10 E2 has antiapoptotic effects. A second vascular degeneration due to E2 deprivation. study found that treatment with anastrozole, an aromatase inhibitor, reduces the ability Acknowledgements 11 for vascular dilation. This supports the The author would like to thank Dr. James hypothesis that a lack of E is decreasing CA 2 Turner for his mentorship and guidance GLDPHWHULQ$,¿VKDVZHOODVGHWHULRUDWLQJWKH throughout this experiment as well as the rest vasculature rather than inhibiting it. The cause of the Biology Department at the Virginia for vessel dilation may be correlated with the Military Institute for their constructive role of E in regulating nitric oxide (NO) levels, 2 criticism. The author would also like to thank 12 which is a powerful vasodilator. Chris McNair, Alex Houser, and Gene Algood for their guidance as well as Ben Sykes, Drew Conclusion Luxhoj, Ashley Briggs, Kenny Lampert, Dr. Based on the data collected from the Chris Lassiter, and Dr. Terri Reife for their images thus far, a strong correllation between support. Special thanks also goes out to Dr. Alex Bannigan and the microscopy laboratory E2 and vascular growth can be strongly inferred. Enough data has been collected at James Madison University, Department of WR VXI¿FLHQWO\ GHWHUPLQH WKDW PDQ\ RI WKH Biology, for providing the use of their confocal microscope. Lastly, the author would like to ¿QGLQJVDUHVWDWLVWLFDOO\VLJQL¿FDQW,I,&, (2 receptor blocker) and nitric oxide synthase thank the Commonwealth Health Research inhibitor (NOSI) treatments mimic AI’s ability %RDUGJUDQWIRU¿QDQFLDOVXSSRUW WR GHWHULRUDWH WKH YHVVHO EHG DQG EORRG ÀRZ anaysis further supports the hypothesis, an even References stronger argument can be made for estrogen’s 1. “What does Estrogen do?” 7KH 0HGLFDO VLJQL¿FDQWUROHLQYDVFXODUGHYHORSPHQW News. http://www.news-medical.net/health/ What-Does-Estrogen-Do.aspx (accessed July Future Work 20, 2010). Now that the methods for quantifying the 2. “Estrogen - What is Estrogen?” 7KH0HGLFDO LPDJHVRIWKH]HEUD¿VKYDVFXODWXUHKDYHEHHQ News. http://www.news-medical.net/health/ developed, more time may be spent collecting

12 )UHGHULFN'DZVRQ‡(IIHFWVRI(VWURJHQ'HSULYDWLRQRQ9DVFXODU'HYHORSPHQW Estrogen-What-is-Estrogen.aspx (accessed 13. Ward De Spiegelaere, Christopher July 20, 2010). Casteleyn, Wim Van den Broeck, Johanna 3. Koji Hisomoto, Jeffrey R. Bender. “Vascular Plendl, Mahtab Bahramsoltani, Paul Cell Signaling by Membrane Estrogen Simoens, Valentin Djonov, Pieter Cornillie. Receptors.” 6FLHQFH'LUHFW(16 March 2005): “Intussusceptive Angiogenesis: A Biologically 1-2. Relevant form of Angiogenesis.” -RXUQDORI 4. Margaret Wierman, Wendy Kohrt. “Vascular 9DVFXODU5HVHDUFK(June 26, 2012): 390-391. and Metabolic Effects of Sex Steroids: New Insights Into Clinical Trials.” 6DJH 3XEOLFDWLRQV University of South Carolina. (September 4, 2007): 300-301. 5. Gene Algood. “Estrogen’s Effect on the Development and Maintenence of the Cardiovascular System in the Embryonic =HEUD¿VK 'DQLR 5HULR).” Virginia Military Institute, 2010. 6. Lewis Kuller. “Hormone Replacement Therapy and Risk of Cardiovascular Disease Implications of the Results of the Women’s Health Initiative.” Arteriosclerosis, Thrombosis, and 9DVFXODU %LRORJ\(November 7, 2002). 7. Nathan Lawson, Brant Weinstein. “In Vivo Imaging of Embryonic Vascular Development 8VLQJ 7UDQVJHQLF =HEUD¿VK´ 'HYHORSPHQWDO %LRORJ\(2002): 309-313. 8. “Aromatase Inhibitors.” http:www.breast cancer.org/treatment/hormonalaromatase_ inhibitors/ (accessed July 20, 2010). 9. Sumio Isogai, Masaharu Horiguchi, Brant Weinstein. “The Vascular Anatomy of the 'HYHORSLQJ=HEUD¿VK$Q$WODVRI(PEU\RQLF and Early larval Development.” 'HYHORSPHQWDO %LRORJ\(2001): 296-297. 10. Margaret Wierman and Wendy Kohrt. “Vascular and Metabolic Effects of Sex Steroids: New Insights Into Clinical Trials.” 6DJH 3XEOLFDWLRQV University of South Carolina. (September 4, 2007): 306-307. 11. Sunita Patel-Hett, Patricia D’Amore. “Signal Transduction in Vasculogenesis and Developmental Angiogenesis.” 7KH ,QWHUQDWLRQDO -RXUQDO RI 'HYHORSPHQWDO %LRORJ\(2011): 353-389. 12. Aniket Gore, Kathryn Monzo, Young Cha, Weijun Pan, Brant Weinstein.“Vascular 'HYHORSPHQWLQWKH=HEUD¿VK´&ROG6SULQJV +DUERU3HUVSHFWLYHVLQ0HGLFLQH (2011): 4-7.

13 1HZ+RUL]RQV‡9ROXPH‡1XPEHU‡$SULO The Effects of Nitric Oxide on the Sensory-Motor Functions in the 'HYHORSLQJ=HEUD¿VK Danio rerio)

Ben Sykes ‘13 )DFXOW\0HQWRU: COL James E. Turner, Ph.D. Department of Biology

Abstract: 1LWULFR[LGH 12 LVDIUHHUDGLFDOPROHFXOHWKDWDFWVDVDQLQWUDFHOOXODUPHVVHQJHU RIWKHQHUYRXVV\VWHP12LVHVVHQWLDOWRPDQ\IXQFWLRQVLQWKHERG\VXFKDVQHXURWUDQVPLWWHU UHOHDVHUHJXODWLRQRIEORRGSUHVVXUHDQGGLJHVWLRQ12LVFUHDWHGE\DQHQ]\PHFDOOHGQLWULF R[LGH V\QWKDVH 126  ZKLFK FDQ EH LQKLELWHG E\ YDULRXV QLWULF R[LGH V\QWKDVH LQKLELWRUV

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Introduction and stimulation of immune responses.2 It serves an essential role in activating daily LWULF R[LGH 12  LV WKH ¿UVW JDV responses, like the release of neurotransmitters, 1 known to act as a biological regulation of blood pressure, and digestion. Nmessenger.1 Previously thought of as NO does not require membrane receptors to an environmental pollutant and poison to the initiate cellular activity and because it is a gas, human body, it has been determined to be a it is able to feely diffuse across membrane 3 fundamental molecule in the proper functioning surfaces. NO is produced when the enzyme of the human body.1 nitric oxide synthase (NOS) catalyzes the 2 NO is produced in various tissue and cell oxidation of L-arginine to L-citrulline. Nitric types, and its functions include smooth muscle oxide synthase (NOS) can exist in three relaxation, vasodilatation, neuronal signaling, forms: neuronal (n) NOS, endothelial (e)

14 Ben Sykes • Effects of Nitric Oxide on Sensory-Motor Functions NOS, and inducible (i) NOS. In this study in all experiments.7 All zebrafish were either we will be primarily concerned with neuronal bred at Virginia Military Institute, Roanoke (n) NOS, because of its involvement at the College, or ordered from The Zebrafish Model neuromuscular junction.4 Previous research in Organism Database, a specialty lab in Oregon the field suggests that nNOS is likely to take (ZFIN). A protease concentration of 2 mg/ml part in neurogenesis regulation and even signal (Sigma) was used to dechorionate the embryos at the epigenetic level, reflecting the broad at 48 (hpf), in order to expose the fish to the impact that NO has on neuronal physiology.5,6 various treatments.7 Averages of 90-100 fish

Although estrogen (E2) is a reproductive were used in each trial, with about 30 fish in hormone, it is involved in the development each of the various treatments. The zebrafish and maintenance of the cardiovascular and were raised in a controlled environmental nervous systems. E2 is synthesized when the chamber throughout the experimental trials and reproductive hormone testosterone is converted maintained a constant temperature (28.5°C) into estrogen by the aromatase enzyme.7 In and light cycle (12:12).7 addition, E2 has been shown to stimulate the synthesis of NO through its actions on NOS in Treatments 8 the nervous system. The separate groups of zebrafish were A previous study in our laboratory treated with an assortment of different established the ‘listless’ model in the 7 solutions. To block the production of E2 the zebrafish, which refers to the degeneration of AI, 4-hydroxy androstenedione (4-OH-A, sensory-motor function after treatment with Sigma) was used at a 5x10-5 M concentration 7 an aromatase inhibitor (AI). Symptoms of as advised by previous studies dealing with the ‘listless’ condition include: vestibular 7 E2 deprivation in zebrafish. Egg rearing dysfunction, a loss of sensory-motor function, solution (ERS), a standard saline solution, was decreased heart rate, shorter survival time, used as the control group treatment for this and the inability to react to external stimuli experimentation (0.04g CaCl2, 0.163g MgSO4, by righting itself, responding to touch, or 1.0g NaCl, and 0.03g KCl in 1 L of distilled exhibiting the swim escape.7 Because E has 2 water).7 The E (β-estradiol, Sigma) used been shown to stimulate NO synthesis, it is 2 alone or in the E2 added to AI co-treatment hypothesized that this could contribute to was held at a concentration of 10-8 M. The the listless condition because of NO’s role in nitric oxide synthase inhibitor (NOSI) media facilitating neurotransmitter release. During was made by combining 50mL of the standard experimentation fish deprived of estrogen ERS saline solution with Nw-Nitro-L-arginine were compared to fish deprived of NO in order methyl ester hydrochloride (Sigma) to make to determine the mechanism of the ‘listless’ the inhibitor treatment at a concentration model and the role NO has in inducing it. of 10-2M.9 In addition, a co-treatment The culmination of experiments that were solution consisting of AI and an NO donor, performed have shown that treatment with (diethylamine NONOate sodium salt hydrate, NOSI can mimic AI’s role in causing the Sigma) was used at a concentration of 10-4 M. ‘listless’ condition. In the absence of NO, E 2 The treatments that contained NO were remade replacement therapy is not effective in rescuing every 24 hours because of the shortened half- the fish from the ‘listless’ condition. life NO obtains when combined with water.9 For the second set of experiments three Materials and Methods treatment groups for each of the three NOSI Zebrafish Preparation isoforms nNOSI, iNOSI, and eNOSI (Sigma) Embryonic zebrafish between the ages of 48 were used. Because very little literature has and 96 hours post fertilization (hpf) were used been published describing the use and optimal concentrations of these NOSI isoforms,

15 New Horizons‡$SULO

Figure 1: Comparisons of NOSI and AI Treatments on Survival

Figure 2: NOSI Prevents E2 Replacement Therapy Rescue

Sigma was referenced in accordance with ([SHULPHQWDO'HVLJQV their established IC50 values. With respect to Testing for the ‘Listless’ Condition these values, each of the three NOSI isoforms was tested at four concentrations: 10-6M, $OO ¿VK ZHUH WUHDWHG DW  KRXUV SRVW 10-5M, 10-4M, and 10-2M for an initial dosage fertilization (hpf) with either ERS, AI, NOSI, AI+E , AI+NO, AI+NOSI+E , nNOSI, iNOSI, response test. It was determined through 2 2 7 experimentation that all three NOSI isoforms RUH126,VROXWLRQVIRU¿YHDGGLWLRQDOGD\V The produced optimal results at a concentration of ‘listless’ condition was determined by a loss of 9 10-5M. All solutions were exchanged every 24 sensory-motor function. This loss of sensory- hours over the 4-5 day test period. PRWRU IXQFWLRQ ZDV GH¿QHG E\ WKH LQDELOLW\ RI]HEUD¿VKWRUHDFWWRH[WHUQDOVWLPXOL9 This LQFOXGHGWKHLQDELOLW\RIWKH]HEUD¿VKWRULJKW itself, showing no respond to touch, or being

16 %HQ6\NHV‡(IIHFWVRI1LWULF2[LGHRQ6HQVRU\0RWRU)XQFWLRQV

Figure 3: Comparison of NOSI and AI Treatments on Survival at Day 4 unable to exhibit the swim escape response.9 'DWDDQDO\VLV The percent ‘listless’ was measured in all The analysis of the collected data focused treatment groups by quantifying the number of in part on contingency tables (SigmaStat) with ¿VKXQDEOHWRULJKWWKHPVHOYHVDQGUHVSRQVHWR D VLJQL¿FDQFH RI Į    7KLV PHWKRG RI 9 touch. Results were recorded daily between analysis was utilized because of the decreasing day three (96 hpf) and day four (120 hpf) of sample size over the testing period and the treatment, to determine the percent affected by fact that the values obtained were percentages the ‘listless’ condition. Percent survival of the RI VXUYLYDO DQG ¿VK GLVSOD\LQJ WKH µOLVWOHVV¶ ]HEUD¿VK LQ WKH WKUHH VROXWLRQV ZDV UHFRUGHG condition. The heart rate data collected was between day 1 and day 5 of treatment. The DQDO\]HG IRU VWDWLVWLFDO VLJQL¿FDQFH XVLQJ culmination of tests performed were able analysis of variance (ANOVA). to indicate an accumulation of neurological GH¿FLWVWKDWFRQWULEXWHWRWKHµOLVWOHVV¶PRGHO Results

Testing for Heart Function %RWK 126, DQG $,( 7UHDWPHQW *URXSV &RQVLGHUDEO\'HFUHDVHWKH6XUYLYDO7LPHOLQH $OO ¿VK ZHUH WUHDWHG DW  KRXUV SRVW ZKHQ &RPSDUHG WR &RQWURO DQG (VWURJHQ fertilization (hpf) with either ERS, AI, NOSI, 5HSODFHPHQW7UHDWPHQW*URXSV AI+E2, AI+NO, AI+NOSI+E2, nNOSI, L126,RUH126,VROXWLRQVIRU¿YHDGGLWLRQDO The data displays the ability of the NOSI days.2 +HDUW UDWHV ZHUH PHDVXUHG IURP ¿VK treatment to decrease the survival timeline in a immobilized in a 2% gel. Heart rate was manner similar to the AI treatment (Figure 1). The addition of the NOSI treatment to the AI+E measured in beats per minute (bpm) by 2 REVHUYLQJ LQGLYLGXDO ¿VK RQ DQ /&' VFUHHQ co-treatment is shown to diminish the rescue response associated with the E replacement under a compound microscope, counting 2 in the AI+E co-treatment paradigm (Figure the number of heartbeats in 30 seconds, and 2 multiplying that number by two. Results 2). Because NO is known to be stimulated by E , this data suggest that because the survival were obtained every 24 hours between days 3 2 and 5 of treatment. For each treatment group timelines are so similar the mechanism for EHWZHHQDQG¿VKZHUHXVHGWRREWDLQDQ decreased survival could be more dependent average value for the heart rate (bpm). on the NO deprivation.

17 New Horizons‡$SULO

Figure 4: 12126,&R7UHDWPHQW)DFLOLWDWHV5HVFXH'D\ 3  

Figure 5: Treatments that Affect the ‘Listless’ Condition

$Q12'RQRUZKHQ$GGHGWR(LWKHUWKH$,RU 4). This data involving the NOSI+NO co- 126, 7UHDWPHQW *URXSV (OLFLWV DQ ,QFUHDVHG treatment shows that the decrease in survival is 5HVFXH5HVSRQVH not because of treatment toxicity, but the actual 7KHGDWDGLVSOD\VWKHVLJQL¿FDQWUHFRYHU\ deprivation of NO (Figure 4). in percent survival, associated with the addition of the NO donor to the AI treatment 9DULRXV &RWUHDWPHQWV ,QGXFH WKH µ/LVWOHVV¶ group (Figure 3). This data suggests again that &RQGLWLRQLQ=HEUD¿VK the mechanism associated with the decrease in Figure 5 represents summary data, which survival is more related to the absence of NO provides a comparison between all treatments

LQ WKH ]HEUD¿VK WKDW (2 (Figure 3). The data and co-treatments in their ability to elicit the GLVSOD\V WKH VLJQL¿FDQW UHFRYHU\ LQ SHUFHQW µOLVWOHVV¶FRQGLWLRQLQ]HEUD¿VKDIWHUIRXUGD\V survival associated with the addition of the NO of treatment. The ability of the NOSI treatment donor to the NOSI treatment group (Figure to mimic the results of the AI treatment is again

18 %HQ6\NHV‡(IIHFWVRI1LWULF2[LGHRQ6HQVRU\0RWRU)XQFWLRQV

Figure 6: AI and NOSI Treatment to Induce the ‘Listless’ Condition

Figure 7: NO Treatment Rescues Fish From the NOSI Induced ‘Listless’ Condition demonstrated in this graph. The importance of 6SHFL¿F6WDWLVWLFDO&RPSDULVRQV'HPRQVWUDWH the presence of NO to prevent the development WKH 6LJQL¿FDQFH RI 9DULRXV &RWUHDWPHQWV RIWKHµOLVWOHVV¶FRQGLWLRQLVH[HPSOL¿HGE\WKH ,QGXFHWKHµ/LVWOHVV¶&RQGLWLRQLQ=HEUD¿VK two co-treatments involving the use of the NO 7KHGDWDGLVSOD\VWKHVLJQL¿FDQWLQFUHDVHLQ donor (AI+NO and NOSI+NO.) The rescue WKHSHUFHQWRI¿VKZLWKWKHµOLVWOHVV¶FRQGLWLRQ response associated with the E replacement 2 associated with the AI and NOSI treatment in the AI+E is compared with the decrease in 2 groups when compared to the control treatment rescue response that occurs with the addition (Figure 6). The second graph indicates the of the NOSI treatment to this paradigm. VLJQL¿FDQW UHFRYHU\ LQ WKH DELOLW\ RI WKH 12 donor when added to the NOSI treatment to UHGXFH WKH SHUFHQW RI ]HEUD¿VK GLVSOD\LQJ the ‘listless’ condition (Figure 7). The data also indicates that the addition of the NOSI

19 New Horizons‡$SULO

Figure 8:126,%ORFNVWKH$,(,QGXFHG5HVFXH)URPWKHµ/LVWOHVV¶&RQGLWLRQ 3 

Figure 9:3HUFHQW6XUYLYDORQ'D\RI7UHDWPHQW 3  treatment to the AI+E2 co-treatment group is isoform treatments (nNOSI, eNOSI, and VKRZQWRVLJQL¿FDQWO\GLPLQLVKWKHDELOLW\RI iNOSI) (Figure 9). The three NOSI isoforms the AI+E2 treatment to elicit a rescue response ZHUH XVHG WR GHWHUPLQH WKH PRVW VSHFL¿F through E2 replacement (Figure 8). mechanism involving NOSI that can be correlated with the results previously observed 126, ,VRIRUP ,QKLELWRUV 5HGXFH WKH 3HUFHQW with the generic NOSI treatment. The nNOSI 6XUYLYDO5DWHE\'D\7KUHHRI7UHDWPHQW treatment is shown in Figure 10 to have the most detrimental effect on the percent survival The data provides a comparison between when compared to the other NOSI isoforms. the generic NOSI treatment and three NOSI

20 %HQ6\NHV‡(IIHFWVRI1LWULF2[LGHRQ6HQVRU\0RWRU)XQFWLRQV

Figure 10: Ability of Treatments to Cause the ‘Listless’ Condition 7KH7KUHH126,,VRIRUPV(OLFLWWKHµ/LVWOHVV¶ indicates that the addition of the NO donor to the &RQGLWLRQDW'D\V7KUHHDQG)RXURI7UHDWPHQW 126,WUHDWPHQWLVDVVRFLDWHGZLWKDVLJQL¿FDQW The data provides a comparison between recovery response (Figure 12). This indicates the generic NOSI treatment and the three NOSI that the irregular heart rate associated with the isoform treatments in their ability to elicit the ‘listless’ condition could be directly related to ‘listless’ condition at days 3 and 4 of treatment the absence of NO instead of exclusively being related to the absence of E (Figure 10). As observed in the previous graph 2 7KH VLJQL¿FDQW recovery in heart rate associated with the AI+E the nNOSI treatment is associated with the 2 most detrimental results. The generic NOSI co-treatment is again diminished with the is shown to have the greatest ability to elicit addition of the NOSI treatment. This suggests the ‘listless’ condition (Figures 11-13). This that the recovery response in heart rate is not entirely a result of E replacement, but also due is likely because the generic NOSI treatment 2 to the NO stimulation due to the E (Figure 13). involved the inhibition of all three isoforms, 2 ZKLOH WKH LVRIRUP LQKLELWRUV DUH VSHFL¿F WR D single isoform in their inhibition. Discussion $GH¿FLHQF\RI126LQ]HEUD¿VKDSSHDUV 7KH12'RQRU&DQ5HVFXH+HDUW5DWHLQWKH to elicit symptoms of the ‘listless’ condition 126,&RWUHDWPHQW3DUDGLJPEXW126,&R in a manner similar to that of the AI. NO

WUHDWPHQW ZLWK (  $, ,QKLELWV WKH 5HVFXH has shown similar results in the culmination 5HVSRQVH of experiments performed to determine the 7KH GDWD LQGLFDWHV D VLJQL¿FDQW GHFUHDVH direct mechanism responsible for causing the LQ KHDUW UDWH ZLWK WKH ]HEUD¿VK WUHDWHG ZLWK ‘listless’ condition. the AI and NOSI treatments when compared Figure 1 demonstrates the tendency of to the control treatment (Figure 11). The AI NOSI appears to mimic the ‘listless’ symptoms WUHDWPHQWLVVKRZQWRKDYHWKHPRVWVLJQL¿FDQW displayed in the AI treatment group. It appears detrimental effects on the heart rate after four that in both the AI and NOSI treatment groups, days of treatment. The second graph again the inhibited synthesis of NO may cause the

21 New Horizons • April 2013

Figure 11: AI and NOSI Treatments Diminish Heart Rate

Figure 12: NOSI+NO Co-Treatment Elevates Heart Rate

Figure 13: NOSI Prevents E2 Replacement Therapy Rescue of Heart Rate

22 %HQ6\NHV‡(IIHFWVRI1LWULF2[LGHRQ6HQVRU\0RWRU)XQFWLRQV inability of acetylcholine to be released in order IXQFWLRQLQJRIWKHQHUYRXVV\VWHPRI]HEUD¿VK to trigger neuromuscular responses.7 This EHFDXVH RI LWV VLJQL¿FDQW HIIHFW GHVSLWH 12¶V inability to exhibit neuromuscular responses short half-life when combined with water. and a loss of sensory-motor functions are Another piece of evidence that continues ZHOOGH¿QHGV\PSWRPVRIWKHµOLVWOHVV¶PRGHO with this hypothesis is shown in Figure 8, The decreased survival rates of the NOSI and ZKLFK GHSLFWV WKH VLJQL¿FDQW GHFUHDVH LQ WKH

AI treatment groups, shown in Figure 1, are rescue associated with the E2 replacement of

VLJQL¿FDQWO\ GLIIHUHQW ZKHQ FRPSDUHG WR WKH the AI+E2 co-treatment when NOSI is added unaffected survival of the ERS control group. to produce the AI+NOSI+E2 co-treatment. In The use of a co-treatment containing the Figure 13 again the addition of NOSI to the aromatase inhibitor while providing time AI+E2 co-treatment negates the rescue affect released nitric oxide (AI+NO), can be used E2 replacement normally exhibits. This again to demonstrate the linkage between estrogen further suggests that even with ample E2

(E2) and the ‘listless’ condition. In Figure 5 UHSODFHPHQW LI 126 LV LQKLELWHG PRUH ¿VK a reduction in percent displaying the ‘listless’ will develop the ‘listless’ condition. These condition is seen in all three co-treatment ¿QGLQJV KDYH IXUWKHUHG RXU XQGHUVWDQGLQJ RI groups when compared to the AI and NOSI the mechanism that causes the development treatment group. The fact that the AI+NO co- of the ‘listless’ condition and highly suggests treatment group shows a reduction in percent that NO is the primary downstream molecule displaying the ‘listless’ condition, furthers the involved. hypothesis that NO has a crucial role in the As we hypothesized, nNOS, as displayed in IXQFWLRQLQJ RI WKH ]HEUD¿VK¶V QHXURPXVFXODU )LJXUHVDQGH[KLELWVWKHPRVWVLJQL¿FDQW system. Because of the shortened half-life of negative response in terms of survival timeline NO when placed in water, we cannot expect and the development of the ‘listless’ condition WKDWWKH¿VKWUHDWHGZLOOEHDEOHWRDEVRUEDOO when inhibited. This can likely be explained of the NO placed in their environment. A by the established importance nNOS has noticeable recovery is seen in Figure 5 when been shown to take part in the neuromuscular comparing the survival timeline of the AI and junction.4 There is a possibility that our NOSI treatment group and the AI+NO co- results could be misleading because of the treatment group. The survival timeline of the speculation that the synthesis of nitric oxide

AI+ E2 co-treatment group shows the greatest (NO) by iNOS may represent a compensatory recovery when compared to the AI treatment mechanism in the absence on nNOS.10 This group, supporting the hypothesis that estrogen would suggest that the inhibition of nNOS GHSULYDWLRQ SOD\V D VLJQL¿FDQW UROH LQ WKH OLNHO\DIIHFWVWKHV\QWKHVLVRIL126LQWKH¿VK development of the ‘listless’ condition. and thus both isoforms may be involved in the Although we cannot expect that any VLJQL¿FDQW QHJDWLYH UHVSRQVH DVVRFLDWHG ZLWK co-treatment will compensate entirely for the inhibition of nNOS. In conclusion, this inhibition with replacement therapy, in Figure research has brought us closer to determining 7 we see that when the NO donor is added to the the mechanism and cause of the ‘listless’ 126, WUHDWPHQW JURXS D VLJQL¿FDQW UHFRYHU\ condition to be linked to a lack of NO released LQ WKH SHUFHQW RI ¿VK GLVSOD\LQJ WKH µOLVWOHVV¶ LQWKH¿VK condition is observed. In Figure 12 the rescue response associated with the addition of the NO Acknowledgements donor to the NOSI treatment group is displayed First and foremost I would like to thank my E\DVLJQL¿FDQWLQFUHDVHLQKHDUWUDWHZKHQWKH faculty advisor Dr. James E. Turner for his NOSI+NO co-treatment is compared to the guidance and support through my entire NOSI treatment. This highly suggests that NO research experience. This research was plays a large role in the proper development and supported by grant funding from Virginia’s

23 New Horizons‡$SULO Commonwealth Health Research Board, the 9. Ottie E. Allgood Jr., “Estrogen’s Effect Virginia Military Institute, Roanoke College, on the Development and Maintenance of the and James Madison University Departments Cardiovascular System in the Embryonic of Biology, and the Virginia Military Institute =HEUD¿VK Danio rerio),” VMI Institute Honors Center for Undergraduate Research. paper. (April 2010) 10.Shin, H Dong, Lim S Hyoung, Cho, K References Sung, Lee, Y Hwa, Lee, W Hye, Lee, H Kyung, 1. E. Culotta and D.E. Koshland Jr., “NO News Chung, H Yoon, Cho, S Sa, Cha, I Choong, is Good News,” 6FLHQFH- vol. 258 (December Hwang, H Douk. “Immunocytochemical 1992) localization of neuronal and inducible nitric 2. R.C. Gouge, P. Marshburn, B.E. Gordon, W. R[LGH V\QWKDVH LQ WKH UHWLQD RI ]HEUD¿VK Nunley, and Y.M. Huet-Hudson, “Nitric Oxide Brachydanio rerio” 1HXURVFLHQFH/HWWHUV 292 as a Regulator of Embryonic Development,” 220-222 (2000 August) %LRORJ\RI5HSURGXFWLRQ 58. (March 1997) 11. Nelson, B., Henriet, R. P., Holt, A. W., 3. Taqatqeh F, Mergia E, Neitz A, Eysel UT, Bopp, K. C., Houser, A.P., Allgood, O. E., and Koesling D and Mittmann T. J, “More than a Turner, J/ E. 2008, “The role of estrogen on the retrograde messenger: nitric oxide needs two developmental appearance of sensory-motor cGMP pathways to induce hippocampal long- EHKDYLRUV LQ WKH ]HEUD¿VK 'DQLR UHULR 7KH term potentiation,” 1HXURVFL. (2009 July) characterization of the ‘listless’ model.” %UDLQ 4. Shinoda E, Sasayama S, Takimoto Y, 5HV., 1222:118-128 Keyamura R, Hattori R, Yui Y, Aoyama T, “Differential expression of three types of nitric oxide synthase in both infarcted and non-infarcted left ventricles after myocardial infarction in the rat,” ,QWHUQDWLRQDO -RXUQDO RI&DUGLRORJ\ 76(2-3), (2000): 135-45, http:// www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11104868 5. Nott, Alexi and Riccio Antonella. “Nitric oxide-mediated epigenetic mechanisms in developing neurons” &HOO&\FOH 8:5, 725-730 (March 2009) 6. Zhou, Li and Zhu Dong-Ya. “Neuronal nitric oxide synthase: structure, subcellular localization, regulation, and clinical implications” 1LWULF2[LGH 20 223-230 (2009) 7. Alexander Houser, “Effects of Estrogen on the Neuromuscular system in the Embryonic =HEUD¿VK Danio rerio),” 3URFHHGLQJV RI %LJ 6856. (March 2009) 8. Xavier D’Anglemont De Tassigny, Céline Campagne, Sophie Steculorum, and Vincent Prevot, “Estradiol induces physical association of neuronal nitric oxide synthase with NMDA receptor and promotes Nitric oxide formation via estrogen activation in primary neuronal cultures,” -1HXURFKHP. 109(1) (2009 April): 214–224, http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/ articles/PMC2743827/pdf/halms358721.pdf

24

1HZ+RUL]RQV‡9ROXPH‡1XPEHU‡$SULO Operational Art Goes Digital: Information Warfare and the Future of Russian Operational Theory

John Bolen, ‘14 Faculty Mentor: LTC Timothy Dowling, Ph.D., Department of History

Abstract: 2SHUDWLRQDODUWKDVKHOGDSODFHLQWKHPLOLWDU\DUWRIWKH5XVVLDQDQG6RYLHWDUPHG IRUFHVIRUQHDUO\\HDUV7KURXJKRXWLWVKLVWRU\WKHRULVWVKDYHDGDSWHGRSHUDWLRQDODUWWRQHZ WHFKQRORJLHVDQGHPHUJLQJWUHQGVLQZDUIDUH7KHLUFXUUHQWHIIRUWVVHHNWRLQFRUSRUDWHLQIRUPDWLRQ ZDUIDUHLQWR5XVVLD¶VRSHUDWLRQDODUW,QIRUPDWLRQZDUIDUHHPHUJHGDVDNH\FRPSRQHQWRIWZHQW\ ¿UVWFHQWXU\ZDUIDUHDQGLWVLPSRUWDQFHFRQWLQXHVWRJURZ:ULWLQJVRQF\EHUZDUIDUHLQIRUPDWLRQ UHFRQQDLVVDQFHVWULNHV\VWHPVDQGRWKHUFRPSRQHQWVRILQIRUPDWLRQZDUIDUHFXUUHQWO\GRPLQDWH 5XVVLDQPLOLWDU\WKHRUHWLFDOZULWLQJV5HFHQW5XVVLDQPLOLWDU\RSHUDWLRQVLQFOXGLQJWKH *HRUJLDQ:DUIXUWKHULQGLFDWHWKDWLQIRUPDWLRQZDUIDUHWKHRU\LVEHFRPLQJDUHDOLW\LQWKHFRXQWU\¶V DUPHGIRUFHV:KLOHVWLOODZRUNLQSURJUHVV5XVVLDQRSHUDWLRQDODUWKDVLQGHHGJRQHGLJLWDO

Introduction LQLWLDOO\VWUXFWXUHGLWVHOIWR¿JKWFRQYHQWLRQDO trategy and tactics are the two wars. Only after the 2008 Georgian War components of any plan. Until the mid- did the Russian military adopt structural 1 S1980s, the United States approached its modernizations similar to those of the U.S. goals with a similar two-part model. By that Strangely, Russian operational art did not WLPH D VLJQL¿FDQW JDS KDG HPHUJHG EHWZHHQ UHÀHFWDQDGKHUHQFHWRWKHVHFKDQJHV,QVWHDG the strategic and tactical levels, demanding an operational theorists entered the realm of LQWHUPHGLDWH FRPSRQHQW WR ¿OO WKH YRLG7KLV information warfare (IW). component became operational art, a concept Today’s Russian operational theorists are borrowed from America’s greatest foe in the primarily concerned with IW and information 1980s, the Soviet Union. operations (IO). This focus is displayed by The Soviet Union had been studying the dominance of IW and IO related articles the operational level of war for sixty years. in Russia’s most notable journal of military 2 Following the collapse of the Soviet Union, thought, 9RHQQD\D0\VO¶ (Military Thought). American study of Soviet (Russian) operational Recent cyber-attacks on Estonia and Georgia, art waned. Large army-sized formations, the assuming Russian involvement, also indicate tools of conventional operational art, were no Russian operational art has gone digital. longer congruent with American strategy. The U.S. military transitioned to a smaller brigade- Historical Background based structure, focused on peacekeeping and A fundamental concept in the Russian not major land warfare. military is the hierarchal relationship that exists The Russian Federation, too, faced a in the three-tier hierarchy of warfare: strategy, new strategic environment. Russia’s military operational art, and tactics.3 Operational art is

26 -RKQ%ROHQ‡2SHUDWLRQDO$UW*RHV'LJLWDO subordinated to strategy, making any discussion “The totality of maneuvers and battles of operational art impossible without a solid on a given sector of a theater of military foundation in Russian strategic thought. operations directed toward achieving the It is often unclear as to what is meant by overall aim established as the ultimate one 7 “strategy.” In Russia, the realm of strategy in a given period of a campaign.” extends beyond military affairs. Alexander Interwar theorists were mainly concerned 6YHFKLQLQGH¿QHGVWUDWHJ\DV with the application of operational art to the unique conditions of the Soviet Union. “the art of combining preparation for war and a grouping of operations to achieve Accounting for quantitative and qualitative the aim put forth by the war for the improvements in mechanized, aerial, and armed forces. Strategy decides issues communication equipment, theorists such as associated with the employment of the 7XNKDFKHYVN\ 7ULDQGD¿OORY DQG ,VVHUVRQ armed forces and all the resources of a developed the concepts of deep battle and country for achieving ultimate war aims… deep operation. These became fundamental the strategist must take into account the components of Soviet military doctrine.8 entire rear, both his own and the enemy’s, During World War I, opposing armies often represented by the state with all its sought to suppress their opponents’ frontline economic and political capabilities.”4 defense only, this still allowed their enemy Svechin understood strategy to encompass freedom to maneuver beyond the tactical the political, economic, social and other level. The result was the rapid movement of characteristics of a state that affected its operational reserves to sectors of penetration, ability to wage war. This is similar to the preventing breakthrough beyond the tactical U.S. concept of grand strategy. The Russian level. Deep battle sought the simultaneous suppression of an enemy throughout his GH¿QLWLRQLGHQWL¿HVPDMRUQRQPLOLWDU\IDFWRUV entire operational depth, thus preventing the DVLQÀXHQFLQJWKHRSHUDWLRQVRILWVIRUFHV,Q maneuver of reserves.9 FRQWUDVW WKH 86 GH¿QLWLRQ SODFHV PLOLWDU\ strategy between the two, indirectly relating Deep battle utilized artillery, aviation and strategy and operations. Russian theorists’ paratroopers to attack the enemy up to sixty understanding of strategy guided their kilometers beyond its frontlines. The key to development of operational art. the success of deep battle was the commitment The operational level of war was not of the mobile group, which consisted of always distinct in the hierarchy of warfare. mechanized, armored and cavalry forces, into breaches in the enemy line created by Soviet 6YHFKLQ GH¿QHG RSHUDWLRQDO DUW LQ D  lecture entitled, 7KH ,QWHJUDO 8QGHUVWDQGLQJ ULÀHGLYLVLRQV5LÀHGLYLVLRQVZHUHFRPELQHG arms units as well, but were composed mostly RI 0LOLWDU\ $UW.5 Upon realizing the waning importance of the decisive battle due to the of infantry. increasing size of armies and industrialized Deep battle transitioned to deep operation rear areas, Svechin theorized a series of with the commitment of the mobile group. The military operations would instead bring task of the mobile group was the exploitation of victory in future wars. These operations were tactical success by pursuing enemy forces and to be mutually-supportive, simultaneous and destroying rear areas. Deep operations could continuous.6 push over 200 kilometers into an opponent’s The role of operational art became directing depth. A single operation concluded when the operations of large military formations, Soviet logistical limits were reached, after armies, and army groups to strategic objectives. which preparation immediately began for the next attack.10 ,Q  9DUIRORPH\HYGH¿QHG RSHUDWLRQ DUW as:

27 New Horizons‡$SULO During this era 9RHQQD\D0\VO¶, the Soviet not ignorant of the power of new technologies, Union’s premier military thought journal, was the U.S.’s application of the systems was ¿UVWSXEOLVKHG0XFKRIWKHRSHUDWLRQDOWKRXJKW tactical. In contrast, Soviet writings discussed occurring in the period originated in this work. changes at the operational level. For example, &XUUHQW DQG IRUPHU 6RYLHW RI¿FHUV GLVFXVVHG while the U.S. was concerned with using PGMs new technologies, theories and issues at all to destroy enemy tanks, the Soviets discussed levels of warfare. Since its creation, the journal the missile’s ability to destroy second- has been used by the West as an indicator of echelon forces. The Soviets, due to an inferior developments in Soviet military thought.11 economic base, were unable to develop the The purges of Joseph Stalin in the late military means necessary to transform theory 1930s severely impaired the development of into reality.16 Soviet operational thought, removing many of During the mid-to-late 1980s Soviet the theory’s founders. The dictator, fearing a military theorists, attempting to counter the PLOLWDU\ FRXS GHVWUR\HG PXFK RI KLV RI¿FHU Air-Land battle concepts of the West, wrote corps. Association with the theories of deep extensively on the employment of operational battle and deep operations became reason maneuver groups (OMGs) on a non-linear enough to be purged. The operational lessons EDWWOH¿HOG17 This research was headed by First of a generation of brilliant theorists were Deputy Minister of Defense N. V. Ogarkov. temporarily lost. +HDYLO\LQÀXHQFHGE\WKHGHHSRSHUDWLRQWKHRU\ During World War II, Russia, which was of the 1930s, Ogarkov wrote extensively on still suffering the effects of Stalin’s purges, the modern applicability of the deep battle and initially suffered terrible setbacks against the deep operation. The “mobile group” served as Wehrmacht. Slowly, competent commanders the model for his modern OMGs.18 emerged to lead Russia’s forces. By 1944, many OMGs were divided into two categories: of Russia’s offensive operations resembled those that served as forward detachments to the deep operation theory of the 1930s.12 The larger units, and those stationed domestically Great Patriotic War validated the work of the in Soviet military districts. These formations, interwar theorists, but at a terrible cost. mainly tank corps and armies, served as a After World War II, Stalin again rapid-reaction forces, capable of quickly suppressed operational art until his death in closing and engaging before the enemy could 1953.13 After Stalin’s passing, the General utilize PGMs and tactical nuclear weapons. Staff’s preoccupation with nuclear weapons Once within the enemy formation, the OMG’s limited the discussion of operational theory. role became exploitive, this was similar to the The perceived ability of nuclear weapons to mobile groups of 1930s theorists.19 directly achieve strategic goals limited the Ogarkov’s resurrection of deep battle and importance of operational art. Operational deep operation would not last. The collapse theory was reduced to studying the application of the Soviet Union stemmed the further of nuclear weapons to operational problems, development of OMGs, and the Russian and analyzing operations of the Great Patriotic Federation became strategically defensive.20 War. 14 In the 1970s Soviet military theorists The State of Russian Operational Thought rejuvenated operational thought in order to in the 1990s meet the threat of NATO forces wielding The armed forces of the Russian Federation, precision guided missiles (PGMs), advanced which formed in 1992 following the collapse reconnaissance systems and instantaneous of the Soviet Union, struggled to develop 15 communication networks. The Soviet Union innovative military thought due to a time of EHFDPH WKH ¿UVW SRZHU WR FRPSUHKHQG WKH great political instability. Russia’s political subsequent revolution in military affairs. While leaders adopted a strictly defensive military

28 -RKQ%ROHQ‡2SHUDWLRQDO$UW*RHV'LJLWDO doctrine. OMGs and air assault formations Committee of the Security Committee of the were also disbanded.21 5XVVLDQ)HGHUDWLRQGH¿QHG,:DV By 1993 Russia, comprehending the passivity created by an exclusively defensive “the aggregate of all the coordinate doctrine, adopted a defensive-counteroffensive measures and actions of troops conducted military doctrine. This called for Russia to according to a single plan in order to gain remain strategically defensive while also or maintain an information advantage over the enemy during the preparation or developing its ability to retaliate if attacked. conduct of operations.”25 OMGs, air assault and airborne formations 22 were re-formed as counteroffensive forces. Russian military theorists were beginning The strategic stance of the Russian Federation to grasp the impact of modern information remained defensive-counteroffensive until the technologies, fueling the intense theoretical turn of the century. effort subsequently dedicated to incorporating While the General Staff clearly preferred IW into Russian operational art. to prepare for conventional wars, the likelihood of such was in decline. During Information Warfare the First Chechen War (1993-1996), Russia approached a counterinsurgency operation in a 2SHUDWLRQDO7KRXJKWRQ,QIRUPDWLRQDO:DUIDUH conventional fashion, resulting in unnecessary LQWKH*HRUJLDQ:DU loss of life and the subsequent withdrawal of Russian military theorists incorporated IW Russian forces. into the strategic framework of the military and Three years later Russia again invaded state. According to Dr. V. I. Tsymbal, presenter Chechnya, displaying improvements to systems at an Academy of State Service of the Russian of command and control, as well as technology Federation conference: and logistics. Forces resembling OMGs were also used. While the Second Chechen War “Into the IW concept for the Ministry  ZDVPRUHVXFFHVVIXOWKDQWKH¿UVW of Defense of the Russian Federation the operational approach of the Russian army must be incorporated the constitutional ZDV VWLOO GHVLJQHG IRU D OLQHDU EDWWOH¿HOG23 requirements of the Russian Federation, Clearly the longtime conventional orientation LWV EDVLF ODZV VSHFL¿FV RI WKH SUHVHQW economic situation in the Russian of Soviet and Russian operational art would Federation, and the missions of our armed not be easily adapted to the stability operations forces.”26 emerging on the periphery of the former Soviet Union. Russian theorists tailored IW to the During this time the Russian General Staff political, economic, social and military began working on the concepts of information conditions composing their strategic warfare. Realizing that the technological environment. Once incorporated, IW descended base of their armed forces lagged behind the levels of war from strategic to operational. the West, as evidenced by Operation Desert At a Brussels conference on IW, a Russian Storm, the General Staff sought to match the PLOLWDU\WKHRULVWGH¿QHG,:LQRSHUDWLRQV C4ISR (command, control, communications, computers, information, surveillance, “the aggregate of all the coordinated reconnaissance) systems of the United States measures and actions of troops conducted and NATO.24 according to a single plan in order to gain Russian operational thought incorporated or maintain an information advantage over elements of IW as early as 1996.Vladimir the enemy during preparation or conduct of 3LUXPRY WKHQ &KDLUPDQ RI WKH 6FLHQWL¿F operations.” ...“An information advantage assumes that one’s own troop and weapon

29 New Horizons‡$SULO command and control components are communications systems and the internet. The informed to a greater degree than are those information-psychological realm typically of the enemy…” which thus “…make it GHDOVZLWKHOHPHQWVWKDWLQÀXHQFHFLWL]HQVDQG possible to actualize this advantage in the soldiers, such as propaganda, media and the 27 combat actions of troops.” Internet.30 Russia has focused its operational efforts in the information-psychological IW ceased to be a component of operations, realm.31 instead becoming an entirely separate form of Two examples demonstrating Russia’s operation. In 2010 A. A. Strel’tsov, a premier view of IW and operations are the Estonian 5XVVLDQWKHRULVWRI,:GH¿QHGWKHLQIRUPDWLRQ cyber attacks (2007) and the Georgian War operaton (IO) as: (2008). In the Estonian cyber attacks, Estonia “activities coordinated in terms of time, IHOO YLFWLP WR ZKDW VRPH FRQVLGHU WKH ¿UVW efforts, and objectives performed by agents cyber war against an entire country. Prior to to implement government information the attacks, Estonian and Russian relations policy over a relatively long period of time had plummeted, culminating in the Estonian that are directed at carrying out mid-term removal of a Soviet World War II memorial or short-term political tasks.”28 in Tallinn.32 The attack came in two waves: a small attack against several Estonian ,2ZLOOQRW¿WLQWRWKHPROGRIRSHUDWLRQDO governmental websites; and a much stronger DUW GH¿QHG LQ 6RYLHW WH[WERRNV ,QIRUPDWLRQ effort against major government media and tactics will not necessarily be combat ¿QDQFLDO ZHEVLWHV ,Q ERWK FDVHV D JURXS RI actions, but rather individual cyber-attacks, mostly Russian websites supplied the hackers media events and other means of controlling with tools and instructions.33 This has led many, information. The operational art of IW will including Timothy Thomas of the Foreign consist of uniting these individual efforts to Military Studies Institute, to assume Russia achieve political and strategic goals. These orchestrated these attacks. Jeffrey Carr’s goals may include affecting citizen morale and “Project Grey Goose 2,” supports Thomas’s achieving information superiority and strategic claim. Carr, an American cyber-security IW results. expert, views the highly organized nature of the IO is the IW equivalent of the conventional attacks and their coordination with the Russian Soviet operations of World War II. For ground offensive as evidence of Moscow’s example, Operation Bagration (1944) was responsibility.34 The cyber-attacks on Estonia initiated to achieve the operational objective of shut down government and media websites, clearing the Wehrmacht from the Belorussian LPSDLULQJ WKH LQIRUPDWLRQ ÀRZ WR (VWRQLDQ sector. This contributed to the strategic goal FLWL]HQV7KHDWWDFNVDOVRVWRSSHGDOO¿QDQFLDO of maintaining offensive momentum against transactions requiring ATMs and electronic Germany. IO utilizes computers and other IW accounts. While not crippling, the attacks were means to achieve operational objectives such as VLJQL¿FDQWHQRXJKWRPRWLYDWHVHYHUDOIRUPHU impairing communication, economic activities Soviet satellites to work with NATO to prevent and industry. These objectives contribute to future attacks.35 the strategic goal of impairing an opponent’s In the Georgian War, Georgia suffered a ability to wage war. VLPLODUZDYHRIF\EHUDWWDFNV,QWKHFRQÀLFW The Russian military divides IO into two 5XVVLDEHFDPHWKH¿UVWFRXQWU\LQKLVWRU\WRXVH realms: the information-technological, and IO and cyber-attacks to support the operations the information-psychological.29 Although of ground forces in war.36 Hackers, organized not universally agreed upon, information- and supported by several mostly Russian technological issues usually concern the use websites, disabled many important websites of military technology, electronic equipment, of the Georgian government, impairing the

30 -RKQ%ROHQ‡2SHUDWLRQDO$UW*RHV'LJLWDO country’s leaders’ ability to communicate with jamming equipment failed to impair Georgian citizens.37 networks, resulting in the loss of several The effects of the cyber-attacks on Estonia Russian planes to air-defense systems. and Georgia contain similarities to Strel’tsov’s Additionally, a lack of satellite and unmanned GH¿QLWLRQRI,2%RWKDFKLHYHGWKHVKRUWWHUP aerial vehicle support resulted in several units political goal of interrupting the government’s EHFRPLQJORVWRUHQJDJLQJLQIULHQGO\¿UH public communication networks. As the ground No student of Soviet military art would attacks increased in intensity so too did the be surprised to discover that Russia, allegedly, cyber campaign, showing a correlation between EHFDPH WKH ¿UVW FRXQWU\ WR FRRUGLQDWH F\EHU ground and cyber operations.38 Additionally, and ground operations in war. IO can be used widely distributed groups of hackers, organized to concentrate distributed computer systems and equipped by websites, concentrated efforts and hackers against government, media, in space and time on decisive axes of enemy DQG ¿QDQFLDO ZHEVLWHV VHHNLQJ WKH VWUDWHJLF information and communication means. This is objective of worsening citizen morale. operational art in its purest form, representing Transforming tactical achievements into the IW equivalent of what had been discussed strategic results is the mission of operational by Soviet military theorists since the 1930s. art and in Estonia and Georgia IO displayed its What makes this variety of IO even more potential to do just that. attractive to the attacker is the nearly untraceable nature of the attacks. In the Estonian attacks, 2SHUDWLRQDO7KRXJKWRQ,:VLQFHWKH*HRUJLDQ IP addresses of attackers could be traced to :DU 178 different countries, making any retaliation One of the clearest indicators that Russia against a single point impossible. The result considers IW important in future warfare is the is a tremendous offensive advantage in IO in country’s 2010 military doctrine. This doctrine which internet-savvy citizens and international states that one of the features of modern supporters, not directly linked to a formal state, PLOLWDU\ FRQÀLFW LV ³WKH SULRU LPSOHPHQWDWLRQ 39 can attack an opponent. of measures of information warfare in order IO in the Georgian war also utilized to achieve political objectives without the media. Before hostilities opened, the Russian utilization of military force…”41 JRYHUQPHQWWUDQVSRUWHGURXJKO\¿IW\UHSRUWHUV 7KLVGRFWULQHGH¿QHVDVWUDWHJLFREMHFWLYH to the Georgian border to serve as imbeds with ZKLFK ,2 ZLOO IXO¿OO LQ IXWXUH FRQÀLFWV WKLV 40 military units. This media presence ensured objective is undermining the leadership and WKH5XVVLDQSHUVSHFWLYHRIWKHFRQÀLFWZRXOG decreasing the citizen morale of an enemy. be reported. While Western media coverage The operational ways of such actions are was mostly pro-Georgian, Russian media as displayed in 2007 and 2008 attacks on networks provided a Russian perspective to JRYHUQPHQW PHGLD DQG ¿QDQFLDO ZHEVLWHV their citizens. By doing so, popular support Some consider the effects of such attacks to IRUWKHFRQÀLFWZDVDFKLHYHG:KLOHWKHF\EHU be the modern equivalent of a blockade.42 One attacks and IO alone were not decisive, their could also imagine pro-Russian propaganda ability to affect citizen morale would prove being distributed to the target population via VLJQL¿FDQWDVSDUWRIDJUHDWHUVWUDWHJLFHIIRUW internet and more traditional means such as the in future operations. OHDÀHWVXVHGDJDLQVWWKH&KHFKHQUHEHOV The performance of the Russian military The destruction of government in the information-technical component of IW communication means displays the was less successful. Russian command and information-technical aspect of Russian IW control systems failed to properly operate, concepts, and the attacks on the minds of the forcing Russian commanders to use journalists’ enemy’s population displays the information- cell phones to communicate. Russian signal- psychological aspect. These operational

31 New Horizons‡$SULO elements contribute to the strategic objective RIQRVPDOOHULPSRUWDQFHWKDQDULÀHRUDWDQN of achieving information advantage.43 These To be serious, a computer is more important.”49 DFWLRQV VDWLVI\ 6WUHO¶WVRY¶V GH¿QLWLRQ RI ,2 While opinions on progress vary, the being implemented by government policy and armed forces of the Russian Federation are contributing to short-term political tasks. pressing forward with modernization.50 Areas An article in a 2012 edition of 9RHQQD\D of focus are the GLONASS system, unmanned 0\VO¶ is the most recent clue as to the aerial vehicles and the tactical-operational state of Russian military thought on cyber- integration of several new means of shortening attacks. The article references two examples the time between detection and destruction of international cyber-attacks which have RI EDWWOH¿HOG WKUHDWV 7KH PRVW VLJQL¿FDQW occurred since the Georgian War. An attack in Russian effort in achieving NCW has been Brazil in November of 2009 shut down public its development of the RUK/ROK, RUS/ WUDQVSRUWDWLRQ LPSDLUHG WUDI¿F OLJKWV DQG ROS and IUS systems. Initially only tactical HOHYDWRUV DQG VORZHG EXVLQHVV DQG ¿QDQFLDO complexes, these systems have evolved to activities for days. In Iran, a virus knocked rival the capabilities of Western equivalents. out 10 percent of enrichment centrifuges at The difference between Russian and the the Natanz uranium enrichment plant, undoing West is that the former, to this point, has not two years of progress in the country’s nuclear provided evidence of the system’s successful program. The article also references the role implementation. of social media in contributing to the Arab Spring.44 Evolution of the RUK/ROK, RUS and IUS The same article notes the relatively Since the mid-1980s 9RHQQD\D0\VO¶ has inexpensive nature of cyber-attacks in relation contained references to both the reconnaissance- to conventional warfare. It cites Western VWULNH 58.  DQG UHFRQQDLVVDQFH¿UH 52.  estimates that a “single battalion of 600 ‘cyber complexes. RUK was seen as a means of ¿JKWHUV¶DIWHUWZR\HDUVRIWUDLQLQJIRUDF\EHU instantaneous destruction or annihilation of attack and no more than $100 million in costs” a target using tactical-operational PGMs, could destroy the information infrastructures while ROK would suppress a target over a of the United States or Russia. The authors SHULRG RI WLPH ZLWK WDFWLFDO ¿UH PHDQV VXFK compare the effects of such attacks to those as artillery.51 With the evoluton of military of nuclear weapons. Such claims may be affairs, RUK’s importance rose vis-à-vis ROK exaggerated, but a group of Russian theorists due to the successful American use of similar FOHDUO\ EHOLHYH VLJQL¿FDQW SRWHQWLDO H[LVWV IRU weapons systems in Operation Desert Storm.52 45 cyber-attacks. Observations of Western success sparked the In addition to the cyber dimension of IW, Russian development of the tactical RUK into reforms are also underway in the information- the operational-strategic level reconnaissance- technical realm aimed at enabling Russia to strike system (RUS), and more recently the 46 ¿JKWQHWZRUNFHQWULFZDUIDUH 1&:  Poor information-strike system (IUS). SHUIRUPDQFHRIUHFRQQDLVVDQFH¿UHVWULNHDQG A 2009 article in the Russian journal command and control systems in the Georgian 9R]GXVKQRNRVPLFKHVND\DL2ERURQD (Air and War reinvigorated reform efforts from the top- 6SDFH'HIHQVH GH¿QHG58.DV down in the Russian military.47 An example is President Vladimir Putin’s investment in “The reconnaissance-strike complex the GLONASS system, Russia’s equivalent (RUK, range up to 200 kilometers, in of GPS, to the amount of 67 billion rubles the “operational zone”) is an automated (approximately $ 2.15 billion US) annually.48 weapons complex designed for the timely Former president Dmitry Medvdev stated in GHWHFWLRQDQG¿UHGHVWUXFWLRQRILPSRUWDQW 2010: “today’s computer is a weapon, which is

32 -RKQ%ROHQ‡2SHUDWLRQDO$UW*RHV'LJLWDO enemy ground-based targets that use strike engagements, and strikes coordinated and systems.”53 interrelated in terms of goals, missions, place, and time and conducted jointly under The complex was an early Soviet attempt a common concept and plan by groupings to reduce the interval between detection and RI UHFRQQDLVVDQFH ¿UH HQJDJHPHQW DQG destruction of enemy targets at the tactical- EW personnel and assets on one or several strategic axes for purposes of crushing the operational level. While capable of destroying 57 targets in the enemy’s operational depth, the HQHP\E\¿UH´ RUK was not able to achieve operational-level ROO represents the place of the RUS in the REMHFWLYHV WKURXJK GHVWUXFWLRQ E\ ¿UH 7KH operational art of Russia. Distributed means of need for such a capability by the Russian armed ¿UH PXOWLSOH ODXQFK URFNHW V\VWHPV 3*0V forces led to the development of the RUS. and air defense systems are concentrated on several strategic or operational axes to achieve The RUS and the Reconnaissance-strike overwhelming superiority at the decisive place Operation and time. By 2000, Russian military journals began The mission of the ROO is achieving initial referencing the descendent of RUK, the RUS. ¿UH VXSHULRULW\ RYHU WKH HQHP\ E\ WKH UDSLG In Russian terminology, a complex is “a single detection and simultaneous destruction of its FRPEDW PRGXOH ZLWK D VSHFL¿HG SXUSRVH´ ¿UH DQG VWULNH PHDQV 7KLV LV DFFRPSOLVKHG Systems are “an aggregate of several combat throughout an opponent’s operational-strategic PRGXOHV RI D VLQJOH RU YDULRXV VSHFL¿HG depth.58 Several Russian theorists have even purposes...”54 The RUS is likely an aggregate FRQFOXGHG WKDW PDQHXYHU E\ ¿UH ZLOO UHSODFH of RUK and other weapon complexes, allowing that of ground forces.59 the simultaneous suppression or destruction of In 2003, Russian theorists focused their multiple targets. efforts on improving the information network The same 9R]GXVKQRNRVPLFKHVND\D L of RUS. Improvements combined weapons 2ERURQDDUWLFOHGH¿QHGWKH586 platforms, reconnaissance, navigation and detection systems. Still, RUS was not capable “The reconnaissance-strike system of conducting net centric warefare, failing to (RUS, range up to 500 kilometers, in the LQWHJUDWHWKHIXOOUDQJHRIEDWWOH¿HOGZHDSRQV operational-strategic zone) is the aggregate systems and intelligence assets.60 During the of strike and support automated weapons latter half of the decade, RUS was developed and military equipment complexes.”55 IURPDVHTXHQWLDOWRDVLPXOWDQHRXV¿UHV\VWHP RUS facilitates the total annihilation-by- RUS’s information network was digitalized ¿UHRIHQHP\JURXSLQJV7KHV\VWHPLVFDSDEOH DQG WDFWLFDO ¿UH PHDQV ZHUH LQWHJUDWHG IURP of independently achieving operational battalion-level and up. Following the Georgian objectives.56 RUS replaced force concentration, War, the amount of UAV support for RUS was 61 the culmination of Soviet operational art during also increased. These efforts culminated in :RUOG :DU ,, ZLWK ¿UH FRQFHQWUDWLRQ 7KH the development of the information-strike development of the RUS demonstrates a shift system (IUS). in goals from suppression to destruction of an HQHP\E\¿UH,QGHSHQGHQWRSHUDWLRQVRIWKH The IUS and the Information-strike 586 DQG 526 UHFRQQDLVVDQFH¿UH V\VWHP  Operation DUH NQRZQ DV UHFRQQDLVVDQFH¿UH RSHUDWLRQV ,Q  WKH ¿QDO HYROXWLRQ RI WKH (ROO): reconnaissance-strike family was described in Vozdushno-kosmicheskaya i Oborona: “the aggregate of simultaneous and VXFFHVVLYHDLUDLUGHIHQVHDQG¿UHEDWWOHV

33 New Horizons‡$SULO “The information-strike system (IUS, VSDFHHFKHORQRI¿UHDQGVWULNHIRUFHVVHHNLQJ range over 500 kilometers, in the superiority in the theater of near-space. strategic zone) is an automated weapons Once superiority is achieved in near-space system designed for the highly-effective operations, IW will become strategically destruction of one, several, or many defensive to protect information systems. At facilities/targets using precision-guided strike weapons at great distances in WKLVSRLQWWKHRXWFRPHRIWKHFRQÀLFWZLOOKDYH accordance with the operations plan or its been decided. Conventional ground and sea concept of operations.”62 forces, if employed, will seek only exploitative success of secondary importance.65 The article describes IUS and its increased IUS will reduce many of the geographic range vis-à-vis the RUS. IUS enables the strike UHVWULFWLRQVZKLFKIRUPHUO\GH¿QHGWKHDWHUVRI destruction of an economic, political, social operations, bringing even near-space into the and information targets to depths previously combat zone.66 IO in near space appears to be unreachable by PGMs.63 Even more important the next step in the eighty year evolution of the than range is its ability to shorten the interval deep operation. Destruction of an opponent’s between detection and destruction of enemy information assets in space would achieve a command and control and counterstrike major information advantage over an opponent. systems. IUS could enable Russia’s armed 'HWDLOV KDYH \HW WR HPHUJH FRQ¿UPLQJ WKH forces to conduct NCW. More details of the integration of IUS, but a recent military system need to be made available, however, H[HUFLVH PD\ KDYH IHDWXUHG WKH V\VWHPV ¿UVW before conclusions can be made. use. The entirety of information and IUS The 2010 Vostok military exercise engagements compose the information-strike displayed several developments in Russian operation (IUO): IW. Featured in the exercise was a “new single, integrated command-and-control system of “The sum total of interrelated and the air force’s anti-aircraft troops and ground coordinated operations …of information forces air defense units,” combined with “new strike battles, information-weapon mobile command posts.”67 This description engagements, and information strikes warrants comparison to IUS, possibly revealing which are being conducted with the goal the transition of IUS from theory to reality. of disrupting the enemy troops command The new system orchestrated the destruction and control and weapon control systems of forces conducting an air raid on the Russian and the destruction of his information resource. This is a new form of armed city of Khabarovsk. Russian forces also combat, the characteristic elements of conducted radio-electronic warfare, aimed at which are information strikes which disrupting an opponents’ command and control WUDQVLWLRQLQFRPELQDWLRQZLWK¿UHLPSDFW and targeting systems.68 into information-weapon engagements Everything always seems to go well in and information-strike battles.”64 military exercises, so one can hardly state Russia proved anything at Vostok. IUS appears According to Russian theory, IO will be to have the potential to provide Russia’s used pre-emptively in operations, seeking military with NCW capabilities, but until information advantage over an opponent. Next, evidence emerges of the system’s successful weapons and information systems such as the integration, Russia’s military will remain a ,86ZLOOPHHWWKRVHRIDQRSSRQHQWLQD¿UH twentieth century force. engagement, the modern form of the meeting engagement. The goal will be destruction Conclusion of opponent’s information systems, and the means may take the form of an independent ,Q WKH WZHQW\¿UVW FHQWXU\ 5XVVLDQ operational art has continued to develop in

34 -RKQ%ROHQ‡2SHUDWLRQDO$UW*RHV'LJLWDO the form of IO. The Five Day War was the 2SHUDWLRQDO $UW  7KH 'RFXPHQWDU\ ¿UVWWLPHLQKLVWRU\F\EHUDWWDFNVDQG,:ZHUH %DVLV, v.1, ed. Harold S. Orenstein (London: Frank conducted in support of ground operations. Cass, 1995), 38. 8 Future Russian operations will build upon Harrison, 187. 9 what has already been accomplished, seeking G. S. Isserson, “The Evolution of Operational Art,” 1932, in 7KH(YROXWLRQRI6RYLHW2SHUDWLRQDO WREHFRPHWKH¿UVWWRPDVWHU,27KHSRVVLELOLW\ $UW  7KH 'RFXPHQWDU\ %DVLV, v.1, ed. of a “space echelon” through the use of IUS, Harold S. Orenstein (London: Frank Cass, 1995), which is currently being discussed by several 66. notable Russian military theorists, represents 10Harrison, 225. the next stage of development in the storied 11Ibid. history of the Soviet deep operation. 12U.S. Central Intelligence Agency…1. IW has added another thread to the 13Harrison, 225. tapestry of Russian operational art. Cyber- 14A. Vetoshnikov and V. Zlobin, “Concerning Soviet warfare and media coverage are growing Army Operational Art,”1947, in 7KH (YROXWLRQ FRPSRQHQWV RI PRGHUQ FRQÀLFWV ,86 DQG RI 6RYLHW 2SHUDWLRQDO $UW  7KH 'RFXPHQWDU\ %DVLV, v.1, ed. Harold S. Orenstein other NCW systems provide commanders with (London: Frank Cass, 1995), 176. information superiority, a decisive advantage 15David M. Glantz, introduction to “The Revolution in modern operations. Russian operational art in Military Affairs, 1960-64” in 7KH (YROXWLRQ ZLOOFRQWLQXHWRIXO¿OOWKHUROHRIWUDQVIRUPLQJ RI 6RYLHW 2SHUDWLRQDO $UW  7KH tactical actions into strategic results. The 'RFXPHQWDU\%DVLV, v. 1, ed. Harold S. Orenstein theory’s development can be traced through the (London: Frank Cass, 1995), 285. writings of military-theoretical journals, and 16Dima Adamsky, 7KH &XOWXUH RI 0LOLWDU\ the most recent actions of the Russian military. ,QQRYDWLRQ7KH,PSDFWRI&XOWXUDO)DFWRUVRQWKH Both of these indicators reveal that, to meet the 5HYROXWLRQLQ0LOLWDU\$IIDLUVLQ5XVVLDWKH86DQG demands of modern warfare, operational art ,VUDHO (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2010), 2. has gone digital. 17Ibid, 57. 18David M. Glantz, “The Intellectual Dimension Endnotes of Soviet (Russian) Operational Art,” in 7KH 1Rod Thornton, 0LOLWDU\ 0RGHUQL]DWLRQ DQG WKH 2SHUDWLRQDO$UW'HYHORSPHQWVLQWKH7KHRULHVRI 5XVVLDQ *URXQG )RUFHV (Carlisle, PA: Strategic :DU, ed. B.J. McKercher and Michael A. Hennessy Studies Institute Publications, 2011), 22. (Westport, CN: Praeger, 1996), 138. 2U.S. Central Intelligence Agency, 0LOLWDU\ 19Ibid, 137. 7KRXJKW 8665  ,PSURYLQJ WKH 5HDGLQHVV RI 20David M. Glantz, “The development of the Soviet 7DFWLFDO 0LVVLOHV IRU /DXQFK, William E. Nelson and Russian Armies in Context, 1945-2008: A (Washington, DC: GPO, 1974), 1. Chronological and Topical Outline” (Unpublished 3Richard W. Harrison, 7KH 5XVVLDQ :D\ RI :DU collection of research, Carlisle, PA, 2009), 102. 2SHUDWLRQDO$UW (Lawrence: University 21Ibid, 140. Press of Kansas, 2001), 139. 22Ibid, 180. 4James J. Schneider, 7KH 6WUXFWXUH RI 6WUDWHJLF 23Ibid, 188. 5HYROXWLRQ7RWDO:DUDQGWKH5RRWVRIWKH6RYLHW 24Brad Nickens, “In Search of Post-Soviet :DUIDUH 6WDWH (New York: Presidio Press, 1994), Operational Art: A Case Study in Russian Military 151. Operations in the North Caucasus Since 1991” 5Harrison, 140. (master’s thesis, Marine Corps University 2009), 6Alexander A. Svechin, “Strategy and Operational 24. Art,”1927, in 7KH(YROXWLRQRI6RYLHW2SHUDWLRQDO 25Timothy L. Thomas, 5HFDVWLQJ WKH 5HG 6WDU $UW  7KH 'RFXPHQWDU\ %DVLV, v.1, ed. 5XVVLD)RUJHV7UDGLWLRQDQG7HFKQRORJ\7KURXJK Harold S. Orenstein (London: Frank Cass, 1995), 7RXJKQHVV(Fort Leavenworth, KS: Foreign Military 12. 6WXGLHV2I¿FH  7N. Varfolomeyev, “Strategy in an Academic 26V. Pirumov, Nekotorye Aspekty Informatsionny Formulation,”1928, in 7KH (YROXWLRQ RI 6RYLHW Voyny (Several Aspects of Information War)”

35 New Horizons‡$SULO (conference speech, Information Warfare Seminar, MERLN, 2010 (accessed 9/26/2012), 5. Brussels, BE, 5/1996) in Thomas, 5HFDVWLQJ WKH 43Heickerö, 20. 5HG6WDU, 169. 44Ibid, 17. 27Dr. V. I. Tsymbal, “The Concept of Information 45COL S. I. Bazylev et al, “The Russian Armed Warfare” (presentation, Academy of State Service Forces in the Information Enviornment: Principles, of the Russian Federation, Moscow, 10/13/1995) 5XOHV DQG &RQ¿GHQFH%XLOGLQJ 0HDVXUHV´ in Thomas, 5HFDVWLQJWKH5HG6WDU, 138. 0LOLWDU\7KRXJKW21, no. 2 (2012): 11. 28V. Pirumov, “Nekotorye Aspekty Informatsionnoy 46Ibid, 12. Voyny.” 47Heickerö, 153. 29Strel’tsov, “Government Information Policy: 48Ibid, 159. Basic Theory,” (Moscow MTsNMO 2010) in 49Ariel Cohen, “The Russian Military… Thomas, 5HFDVWLQJWKH5HG6WDU, 143. Implications,” 52. 30Timothy L. Thomas, &\EHU6LOKRXHWWHV6KDGRZV 50Thomas, 5HFDVWLQJWKH5HG6WDU, 137. 2YHU ,QIRUPDWLRQ 2SHUDWLRQV (Fort Leavenworth, 51Ibid, 153. .6)RUHLJQ0LOLWDU\6WXGLHV2I¿FH  52Ibid, 167 31Ibid, 80. 53Ibid, 169. 32Andrew Liaropoulos, “Russia’s Approach to 54Igor Morozov, Sergey Baushev and Oleg Information Operations,” 5HVHDUFK ,QVWLWXWH IRU Kaminskiy, “Kosmos I kharakter sovremennykh (XURSHDQDQG$VLDQ6WXGLHV, accessed 1 July 2012, voennykh deystviy (Space and the Character KWWSULHDVJULQGH[SKS"RSWLRQ FRPBFRQWHQW WDV of Modern Military Activities),” 9R]GXVKQR N YLHZ LG  ,WHPLG  NRVPLFKHVND\D,2ERURQD $LUDQG6SDFH'HIHQVH 33Ian Traynor, “Russia accused of unleashing no. 4, (2009): 48-56, in Thomas, 5HFDVWLQJWKH5HG cyberwar to disable Estonia,” 7KH*XDUGLDQ, 5/16/ 6WDU, 180. 2007, http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2007/ 55O. Berezin and B.j Antonenko, “O Terminakh may/17/topstories3.russia (accessed September 26, µ9RRUX]KHQLH¶ , µ2UX]KLH¶ , .ODVVL¿NDWVLL 2012). Voenno-Tekhnicheskikh Sredstv (On the Terms 34Roland Heickerö, “Emerging Cyber Threats µ$UPDPHQWV¶DQGµ:HDSRQV¶DQGWKH&ODVVL¿FDWLRQ and Russian Views on Information Warfare and of Military-Technical Means),” 0RUVNR\ 6ERUQLN Information Operations,” 6ZHGLVK 'HIHQVH 1DYDO'LJHVW no. 1 (2000) trans. by Robert Love, 5HVHDUFK$JHQF\, published March 2010, accessed in Thomas,5HFDVWLQJWKH5HG6WDU, 168. 7/3/2012, http://www.highseclabs.com/Corporate/ 56Igor Morozov, “Kosmos…deystviy.” 181. foir2970.pdf. 57Thomas, Recasting the Red Star, 174. 35Ibid, 45. 58Sergey Grigoryev, “Who Will Fire First? The Eyes, 36William C. Ashmore, “Impact of Alleged Russian Ears, and Nervous System of the Ground Troops,” Cyber Attacks,” %DOWLF 6HFXULW\ DQG 'HIHQVH 1H]DYLVLPD\D *D]HWD ,QGHSHQGHQW 1HZVSDSHU 5HYLHZ, published 2009, accessed 7/24/2012, http:// (Moscow), 8/22/1996, in Thomas, 5HFDVWLQJ WKH www.bdcol.ee/files/files/documents/Research/ 5HG6WDU, 173. BSDR2009/1_%20Ashmore%20-%20Impact%20 59Ibid, 174. of%20Alleged%20Russian%20Cyber%20 60Ibid, 174. Attacks%20.pdf. 61Thomas, 5HFDVWLQJWKH5HG6WDU, 176. 37Ariel Cohen and Robert E. Hamilton, The 62Ibid, 178. Russian Military and the Georgia War: Lessons and 63Igor Morozov, “Kosmos…deystviy.” 181. Implications (Carlisle, PA: US Army War College 64Ibid. Strategic Studies Institute, 2011), 44. 65Ibid. 38Thomas, 5HFDVWLQJWKH5HG6WDU, 304. 66Ibid. 39Ashmore, “Impacts of Alleged Russian Cyber 67Ibid. Attacks.” 68Roger N. McDermott, 7KH 5HIRUP RI 5XVVLD¶V 40Thomas, 5HFDVWLQJWKH5HG6WDU, 41. &RQYHQWLRQDO $UPHG )RUFHV (Washington, D.C.: 41Ibid, 47. The Jamestown Foundation, 2011), 269. 42“2010 Military Doctrine of the Russian Federation,” Internet, Moscow, 2010. Military Education Research Library Network, National Defense University Library, Washington, DC:

36 John Bolen • Operational Art Goes Digital Acknowledgements and Topical Outline.” Unpublished This paper would not have been possible collection of research, Carlisle, 2009. without the opportunity to work with Dr. Glantz, David M. “The Intellectual Dimension Stephen Blank and the rest of the staff of the of Soviet (Russian) Operational Art.” In U.S. Army War College Strategic Studies The Operational Art: Developments in the Institute. Such an opportunity would not have Theories of War, edited by B.J. arisen had it not been for the support of the VMI McKercher and Michael A. Hennessy. Summer Undergraduate Research Initiative, as Westport, CN: Praeger, 1996. well as the advising of professors Geoff Jensen Harrison, Richard W. The Russian Way of and Timothy Dowling. War: Operational Art, 1904-1940. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, Bibliography 2001. Heickerö, Roland. “Emerging Cyber Threats “2010 Military Doctrine of the Russian and Russian Views on Information Federation.” Internet, Moscow, Warfare and Information Operations.” 2010. Military Education Research Swedish Defense Research Agency. Library Network. National Defense Published March 2010, accessed7/3/2012. University Library. Washington, DC: http://www.highseclabs.com/ MERLN, 2010 (accessed 9/26/ Corporate/foir2970.pdf. 2012). Liaropoulos, Andrew. “Russia’s Approach Adamsky, Dima. The Culture of Military to Information Operations.” Research Innovation: The Impact of Cultural Institute for European and Asian Studies. Factors on the Revolution in Military Accessed 7/1/2012. http://rieas.gr/ Affairs in Russia, the US and Israel. index.php?option=com_content&task=vie Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2010. w&id=167&Itemid=46. Ashmore, William C. “Impact of Alleged McDermott, Roger N. The Reform of Russia’s Russian Cyber Attacks.” Baltic Conventional Armed Forces. Washington, Security and Defense Review. Published D.C.: The Jamestown Foundation, 2011. 2009, accessed 24 July 2012. http:// Schneider, James J. The Structure of Strategic www.bdcol.ee/files/files/documents/ Revolution: Total War and the Roots of Research/BSDR2009/1_%2Ashmore the Soviet Warfare State. New York: %2-%20Impact%20of%20Alleged%20 Presidio Press, 1994. Russian%20Cyber%20Attacks%20.pdf. Thomas, Timothy L. Cyber Silhouettes: Bazylev, S.I., I.N. Dylevsky, S.A. Komov and Shadows Over Information Operations. A.N. Petrunin. “The Russian Armed Fort Leavenworth, KS: Foreign Military Forces in the Information Enviornment: Studies Office, 2005. Principles, Rules and Confidence- Thomas, Timothy L. Recasting the Red Star: Building Measures.” Military Thought 21, Russia Forges Tradition and Technology no. 2 (2012): 10-15. Through Toughness. Fort Leavenworth, Cohen, Ariel and Robert E. Hamilton. The KS: Foreign Military Studies Office. Russian Military and the Georgia War: ----. Pirumov, V. Nekotorye Aspekty Lessons and Implications. Carlisle, PA: Informatsionny Voyny (Several Aspects US Army War College Strategic Studies of Information War).” Conference speech, Institute, 2011. Information Warfare Seminar, Glantz, David M. “The development of Brussels, BE, 6/1996. the Soviet and Russian Armies in ----. Dr. Tsymbal, V.I. “The Concept of Context,1945-2008: A Chronological InformatioWarfare.”Presentation,

37 New Horizons‡$SULO Academy of State Service of the Russian ----. Glantz, David M. Introduction to “The Federation, Moscow, 9/13/1995. Revolution in Military Affairs, 1960-64.” ----. Strel’tsov. “Government Information Thornton, Rod. 0LOLWDU\0RGHUQL]DWLRQDQG Policy: Basic Theory.” Moscow  WKH5XVVLDQ*URXQG)RUFHV. Carlisle, PA: MTsNMO 2010. Strategic Studies Institute Publications, ----. Morozov, Igor, Sergey Baushev and Oleg 2011. Kaminskiy. “Kosmos I kharakter Traynor, Ian. “Russia accused of unleashing sovremennykh voennykh deystviy cyberwar to disable Estonia.” 7KH (Space and the Character of  *XDUGLDQ, 6/16/2007. http:// Modern Military Activities).” 9R]GXVKQR www.guardian.co.uk/world/2007/may/17/  NRVPLFKHVND\D,2ERURQD $LUDQG6SDFH topstories3.russia (accessed 9/26/2012)  'HIHQVH no. 4, (2009). U.S. Central Intelligence Agency. 0LOLWDU\ ----. Denisenko, V. A., Ye. I. Suvorin and P. S.  7KRXJKW 8665 ,PSURYLQJWKH  Romanov. “Intellektual’nye sistemy  5HDGLQHVVRI7DFWLFDO0LVVLOHVIRU/DXQFK. uravleniya Razvedyvatel’no-Udarnykh William E. Nelson. Washington, DC: Kompleksov Sukhoputnykh Voysk GPO, 1974. (Intelligent Command and Control Systems of the Integrated Reconnaissance and Strike Systems of the Ground Forces).” 9RHQQD\D0\VO¶ (Military Thought), no. 1 (1995): 54-56. ----. Berezin, O., and B. Antonenko. “O Terminakh ‘Vooruzhenie’ I ‘Oruzhie’ I  .ODVVL¿NDWVLL9RHQQR7HNKQLFKHVNLNK Sredstv (On the Terms ‘Armaments’ and  :HDSRQV¶DQGWKH&ODVVL¿FDWLRQRI  Military-Technical Means).” 0RUVNR\  6ERUQLN 1DYDO'LJHVW , no. 1 (2000), translated by Robert Love. ----. Grigoryev, Sergey. “Who Will Fire First? The Eyes, Ears, and Nervous System of the Ground Troops.” 1H]DYLVLPD\D  *D]HWD ,QGHSHQGHQW1HZVSDSHU (Moscow), 8/22/1996. 7KH(YROXWLRQRI6RYLHW2SHUDWLRQDO$UW  7KH'RFXPHQWDU\%DVLs, v.1, edited by Harold S. Orenstein. London: Frank Cass, 1995). ----. Svechin, Alexander A. “Strategy and Operational Art,” 1927, 5-32. ----. Varfolomeyev, N. “Strategy in an Academic Formulation,” 1928, 33-47. ----. Isserson, G.S. “The Evolution of Operational Art,” 1932, 48-77. ----. Vetoshnikov, A. and V. Zlobin. “Concerning Soviet Army Operational Art,” 1947, 168-207.

38 1HZ+RUL]RQV‡9ROXPH‡1XPEHU‡$SULO Kicking the Hornet’s Nest: Operation Ajax and Its Effects on Middle Eastern Relations

Stephen H. Caskey, ‘15 )DFXOW\0HQWRU: MAJ Mary Beth Pennington, Ph.D., Department of English and Fine Arts

Abstract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¶V ¿UVW SUHVLGHQW ZLWK WKH 6KDK¶V DXWKRULWDULDQ UHJLPH LQVWLJDWHG DQ ,VODPLF UHYROXWLRQ WKDW HVWDEOLVKHG D PRGHO JRYHUQPHQW WKDW KDV VLQFH HQFRXUDJHG ,VODPLVWV DURXQG WKH ZRUOG

RU WKH SDVW WZHQW\¿YH \HDUV 8QLWHG now largely has its roots in the American- States foreign policy has increasingly sponsored Operation Ajax. Ffocused on combating international On September 11, 2001, members of the WHUURULVP VSHFL¿FDOO\ DPRQJ WKH ,VODPLF Al-Queda terrorist organization destroyed the fundamentalist movement. If you ask people World Trade Center in New York and brought on the street, the majority will say that this the full attention of the United States to the attraction to terrorism and seemingly universal Middle East and the Islamic religion, resulting hatred of the United States is born from the in a declaration of “War on Terror.” After the Islamic religion’s avocation of backward attacks, President George W. Bush explained values and violent action toward non-Muslims. to the American people that Muslims are However, nothing could be further from polarized against the US because “they hate the truth. Since the age of the early Islamic our freedoms- our freedom of religion, our Caliphates, the vast majority of Muslims were freedom of speech, our freedom to vote no more intolerant than any Christian. During and assemble and disagree with each other” the 16th century, Islamic laws even elevated (Kidwai 52). But nothing could be further from the status of women in society and provided the truth. In a 2007 Gallup survey of 500,000 for equal and fair treatment to all non-Muslims, 0XVOLPV LQ PRUH WKDQ WKLUW\¿YH FRXQWULHV while Spain was having non-Catholics burned “only about 7 percent of Muslims condone at the stake. Only in the last century has Islamic terrorist attacks, but none of these ‘politically fundamentalism come to affect a small but UDGLFDOL]HG¶ JDYH UHOLJLRXV MXVWL¿FDWLRQ IRU LQÀXHQWLDOFROOHFWLRQRIUHOLJLRXVOHDGHUV%XW their beliefs, instead voicing fears that the West the anti-American attitude that we experience and United States are seeking to occupy and

39 New Horizons‡$SULO dominate the Islamic world” (52). The trend nationalist parties. To carry out this political of anti-Americanism in the Middle East has repression, SAVAK was given enormous only gained more popularity in the post-9/11 leeway in the execution of its duties, even going world and strengthened from the response of so far as to authorize brutal torture methods American politicians who soothe the voters that only increased in depravity through the with views of Muslims as politically repressed next two decades. and radicalized beyond reason. The CIA-trained SAVAK’s crackdown on In the early days of the 20th century, all political opposition, as a facet of Pahlavi’s Britain discovered the vast, untapped quantities authoritarian policies, bred the strongest of oil in Iran and established unequal treaties resentment among the people. Simultaneously, allowing itself complete control over Iran’s the Shah’s pro-Western policies alienated him SUR¿WDEOHRLOGHSRVLWV7KH$QJOR,UDQLDQ2LO from the conservative religious leadership. Company (AIOC) was incorporated to direct Chief among the religious dissenters was British interests and in 1923, the company Ruhollah Khomeini. Khomeini entered the was granted full rights to Iranian oil with only political arena by assuming leadership over the a small portion being given to the Iranian Shia religious scholars who were intellectually government. This arrangement continued until opposed to the secular government. He soon Prime Minister Ali Razmara was assassinated publicly denounced the Shah and what he and Mohammed Mosaddeq was elected by the considered to be US-originated policies through Iranian Parliament. the 1960s and was arrested several times for Mosaddeq promptly brought an end to the his actions. His opposition came to a head contemporary policies of Western appeasement in 1964 with his condemnation of the 2,500- and began to work toward nationalizing the oil year anniversary of the Persian monarchy and industry. He achieved his objective in 1951 the granting of diplomatic immunity to US and created the National Iranian Oil Company military personnel; in response he was arrested (NIOC) to take control of the AIOC’s facilities. and sent into exile. In August 1953, the CIA, with support from But Khomeini could not be silenced and MI6, executed a planned coup d’état, installing continued to publish lectures and speeches a more Western-oriented prime minister and that found their way back to Iran on cassette condemning Mosaddeq to a lifetime of house tapes that could be bought in common markets imprisonment. alongside daily groceries (Dreyfuss 219). The coup, codenamed Operation Ajax, When the Shah left Iran in January 1979, in the precipitated the close relationship between Iran midst of anti-government sentiment, Khomeini DQG WKH 86 RYHU WKH QH[W WZHQW\¿YH \HDUV made his return the next month. After the coup, General Fazlollah Zahedi was The next year saw the consolidation of appointed prime minister in accordance with power under Khomeini, much to the chagrin Mohammed Reza Pahlavi, the Shah at the of the progressive politicians who had tried to time. Zahedi reversed many of Mosaddeq’s implement a government based on civil rights policies, creating an authoritarian government DQGLPDJLQHGDVWDWHRQO\VOLJKWO\LQÀXHQFHG directed by Pahlavi and inviting the AIOC and by Islam. From 1979 to 1981 during the eight Western oil companies back to divide the Iranian Hostage Crisis, Khomeini consolidated short-lived NIOC. American experts, including his power and popularity by using his power to Norman Schwarzkopf, Sr., were sent in to force all liberal politicians out of government. facilitate the easier transition of governments, He also drafted a constitution based completely with Schwarzkopf himself training the security on Islamic ideals with himself being declared forces that would become the reviled SAVAK. supreme leader of Iran and encouraging The Shah quickly dissolved all political a culture that violently rejected Western, dissent, including the communist and powerful VSHFL¿FDOO\$PHULFDQLQÀXHQFH

40 6WHSKHQ&DVNH\‡.LFNLQJWKH+RUQHW¶V1HVW Stephen Kinzer points to the political nature several neighboring populations and soured of the Iranian hostage crisis and states that the relations between the Middle East and the VLWXDWLRQZDVDGLUHFWUHVXOWRI3DKODYL¶VÀLJKW United States. It is important to remember that to America following the coup. He had done though religion is now cited as the source of this the same prior to the 1953 coup after which he FRQÀLFW WKH GLYLGH EHJDQ ZLWK XQGHUKDQGHG returned to assume control of the government. politics and was fed by a repressed intellectual, 7KH,UDQLDQSHRSOHMXVWL¿DEO\UHODWHGWKHWZR religious elite. and assumed that the US would again sponsor Pahlavi’s return to Iran (202-203). Khomeini’s Acknowledgements clerics then “turned their country into a center I would like to credit MAJ Mary Beth for the propagation of terror abroad” and Pennington for my paper even being published. began to supply terrorist organizations such Her encouragement and direction greatly as Hamas and Hezbollah (Kinzer 203). These LQÀXHQFHG P\ ZULWLQJ VNLOOV GXULQJ P\ ¿UVW RUJDQL]DWLRQV KDYH KDG D KLVWRU\ RI FRQÀLFW year at VMI. Without her recommendation, with American presence in the Middle East and I would not have considered submitting have been directly linked to the bombing of the this paper to New Horizons :KHQ , ¿UVW US Marine barracks in Lebanon in 1983. In submitted this essay for a class, I was only 1996, American facilities at the Khobar Towers hoping to receive a respectable grade, but MAJ in Saudi Arabia were bombed, killing nineteen Pennington realized its potential and guided people and injuring 300. A joint FBI and Saudi me through every step of the editing process investigation arrested and charged members until it was accepted. Her mentoring has of a “Shiite opposition group” with ties to had a transformational effect on my writing, Hezbollah. Accusations were quickly linked and I have appreciated every moment of her and directed toward Iran for masterminding teaching. the attack (Faath 174). For the approximately thirty years Works Cited following the revolution, Iran has been exporting its ideology to radical terrorist groups Dreyfuss, Robert. 'HYLO¶V*DPH+RZWKH and has provided funding and motivation for  8QLWHG6WDWHV+HOSHG8QOHDVK these groups to strike at what it perceives to  )XQGDPHQWDOLVW,VODP. New York: be the greatest threat to its independence and Metropolitan, 2005. religious beliefs, setting the stage for one of the Faath, Sigrid. $QWL$PHULFDQLVPLQWKH  most devastating terrorist attacks in history.  ,VODPLF:RUOG/RQGRQ+XUVW   Until the 1979 revolution, Iran was 2006. considered “the most important cornerstone of Gasiorowski, Mark J. 0RKDPPDG0RVDGGHT US interests in the Middle East,” and it also  DQGWKH&RXSLQ,UDQ. Syracuse, NY: “acted as the highly-armed constable of the Syracuse Univ., 2004. United States, serving important functions of Kidwai, M. S. 863ROLF\WRZDUGVWKH0XVOLP ensuring order in the Gulf region” (Faath 167-  :RUOG)RFXVRQ3RVW3HULRG. 168). The closeness of this relationship caused Lanham, MD: University of America, the Islamic fundamentalists that followed 2010. the Shah to relate US support to the actions Kinzer, Stephen. $OOWKH6KDK¶V0HQ$Q of SAVAK and to the Shah’s overall attitude  $PHULFDQ&RXSDQGWKH5RRWVRI0LGGOH of authoritarian rule and complete refusal of  (DVW7HUURU+RERNHQ1--:LOH\  GHPRFUDWLFSURFHVVHV,UDQZDVRQHRIWKH¿UVW Sons, 2003. Middle Eastern countries to fall completely under the rule of fundamental Islam and began a wave that popularized its beliefs among

41 1HZ+RUL]RQV‡9ROXPH‡1XPEHU‡$SULO Ceci n’est pas une rédaction de mi- semestre Sean P. McCauley, ‘13 )DFXOW\0HQWRU: COL John G. Leland, Ph.D., Department of English and Fine Arts

Abstract,QWKHWZHQWLHWKFHQWXU\WKH:HVWIRXQGLWKDGORVWVRFLHW\*RGDQGLWVPLQG7KRVH ORVVHV ZHUH EURXJKW DERXW E\ WKH SV\FKRORJLFDO SROLWLFDO DQG SKLORVRSKLFDO UHYROXWLRQV RI 6LJPXQG)UHXG.DUO0DU[)ULHGULFK1LHW]VFKHDQG6¡UHQ.LHUNHJDDUG7KHVHPRGHUQWKLQNHUV DUJXHGPDQFRXOGQ¶WWUXVWVRFLHW\*RGUHDVRQRUKLPVHOIEHFDXVHHDFKZDVLQLWVRZQZD\ GHFHLWIXO,QVKRUWRUGHUPDQIRXQGKLPVHOIDORQHLQWKHZRUOG7KDWDOLHQDWLRQZDVUHÀHFWHG LQOLWHUDWXUHE\DXWKRUVVXFKDV(ULFK0DULD5HPDUTXH0DUFHO3URXVW7KRPDV0DQQ-DPHV -R\FH$OEHUW&DPXVDQG)UDQ].DIND7KHFKDUDFWHUVWKHVHDXWKRUVFUHDWHGDUHWKHDUFKHW\SDO UHÀHFWLRQV RI WKH DOLHQDWHG PDQ WKRVH WKLQNHUV SRVWXODWHG 7KHUH DUH 0DU[LVW DQWLERXUJHRLV HFKRHVLQ5HPDUTXH¶VAll Quiet on the Western FrontZKLFKFRPHLQWKHIRUPRI3DXO%lXPHU¶V WKRXJKWVRQWKHRI¿FHUFODVV,WLVQRWRQO\VRFLHW\DQGLWVUXOHUVWKDWFDQOHDGWR0DU[LVWDOLHQDWLRQ KRZHYHUWKHGH¿QLQJDVSHFWRI.DIND¶VMetamorphosisLVWKDWWKHIDPLO\RSSUHVVHV³SUROHWDULDW´ FKLOGUHQDVPXFKDVVRFLHW\RSSUHVVHVSUROHWDULDWZRUNHUV%XWWZHQWLHWKFHQWXU\DOLHQDWLRQZDV DVPXFKDIXQFWLRQRIDEVXUGLW\RIIDLWKZKLFK.LHUNHJDDUGDQG1LHW]VFKHDUJXHGDVRIERXUJHRLV RSSUHVVLRQDQG&DPXV¶The StrangerLVDSURGXFWRIWKDWDEVXUGIDLWKHPERGLHGLQ0HXUVDXOW )LQDOO\6LJPXQG)UHXGPDGHLWVRWKDWPDQFRXOGQRWHYHQWUXVWKLPVHOIEHFDXVHKHGLGQRW NQRZKLPVHOIWKURXJK)UHXGPDQZDVDOLHQDWHGIURPKLVRZQPLQG7KDWLQWHUQDODOLHQDWLRQ LVUHÀHFWHGLQWKHZRUNVRI-R\FH3URXVWDQG0DQQWKURXJKWKHUHSUHVVHGGHYLDQWVH[XDOLW\ WKDW0ROO\%ORRP$VFKHQEDFKDQG0DUFHOVKDUH$OORIWKHFKDUDFWHUVWKDWWKH0RGHUQLVWV FUHDWHGZHUHXQKDSS\LQWKHVDPHZD\KRZHYHUDOORIWKHPZHUHDOLHQDWHGLQWKHLURZQZD\ $OLHQDWLRQLVWKHGH¿QLQJDVSHFWRIWKH0RGHUQLVWPRYHPHQWDQGLQRUGHUWRIXOO\XQGHUVWRRGWKDW DOLHQDWLRQRQHPXVWH[DPLQHWKHVHDXWKRUV¶ZRUNVWKURXJKWKHDSSURSULDWHSKLORVRSKLFDOOHQV

n the twentieth century, the West found Camus, Thomas Mann, James Joyce, and it had lost society, God, and its mind. Marcel Proust. The characters those authors IThose losses were primarily brought about FUHDWHGDUHUHÀHFWLRQVRIWKHDUFKHW\SHVRIWKH by the psychological, philosophical, and oppressed as the psychologically and sexually political revolutions of Karl Marx, Friedrich alienated modern man those thinkers created. Nietzsche, Søren Kierkegaard, and Sigmund Until the outset of the twentieth century, Freud. These modern thinkers respectively governments had alternated between argued that man could not trust society, God, monarchies, theocracies, autocracies, or reason, or himself, because each of these abridged democracies, while all economies entities was in its own way deceitful. In short were a variant of a market system. However, in order, modern man found himself alone in his &RPPXQLVW0DQLIHVWR, Karl Marx describes WKH ZRUOG  7KDW DOLHQDWLRQ ZDV UHÀHFWHG LQ a new state of absolute equality wherein the literature by contemporary authors such as proletariat have overthrown the bourgeoisie Erich Maria Remarque, Franz Kafka, Albert and established a new society based on the

42 6HDQ0F&DXOH\‡&HFLQ¶HVWSDVXQHUpGDFWLRQGHPLVHPHVWUH principle of shared commodity and equity of I am mad with rage. But I cannot say wealth. He argued that this state was inevitable anything to him; he could put me under because “history of all hitherto existing society arrest if he liked. So I double back, and is the history of class struggles” (Marx 419), then march up to him. Six paces from him and that “every form of society has been based, I spring to a stiff salute and maintain it until I am six paces beyond him (Remarque as we have already seen, on the antagonism 168-169). of oppressing and oppressed classes” (Marx 424). According to Marx, no man could trust The scene is purely Marxist: the fat, old major, his own society because if he was not in the who has stayed behind the lines while young ruling class, then he was being oppressed, PHQJRWR¿JKWDFWLYHO\RSSUHVVHV%lXPHUE\ and the oppressed was alienated from society forcing him to do menial tasks and refusing to because he was unable to command the fate of DFNQRZOHGJHWKHVDFUL¿FHV%lXPHUKDVPDGH that society. IRU *HUPDQ\  %HIRUH ORQJ %lXPHU ¿QGV These Marxist principles are echoed in WKDW ³>KH GRHV@ QRW EHORQJ KHUH DQ\ PRUH LW Remarque’s $OO 4XLHW RQ WKH :HVWHUQ )URQW. is a foreign world” (Remarque 174). He has Although Remarque cannot be explicitly become alienated from his society. His rulers termed a Marxist, the ideas he conveys in the have sent him to die for his country, yet fail novel bear a distinct similarity to those Marx to recognize that he has more value than his propagated. Even the Nazis observed that his ability to attract bullets. If he can no longer ERRNFRQWDLQHG³SDFL¿VW0DU[LVWSURSDJDQGD´ WUXVWKLVVRFLHW\DQGLWVUXOHUVIURPRI¿FHUVWR and had it banned throughout schools to prevent his own parents, to see to his best welfare, then the continuing “infection of the schools” he has no reason for continuing association (Eksteins 357). with them. His alienation is absolute, and The novel chronicles the experience of has occurred precisely as Marx described: the Paul Bäumer, a German infantryman, from the realization of his oppression at the hands of the early days of the Great War until his death in the upper-class. ¿QDOSDUDJUDSKRIWKHERRN%lXPHU¶VPXVLQJV It is not only society and its rulers that on the nature of war are Marxist because they can lead to Marxist alienation, however, as the extrapolate the war’s placement of the lower family oppresses its “proletariat” as much as classes in front of bullets while the bourgeoisie society oppresses its. The archetypal, nuclear stay behind to hawkishly spur on war. It is family is a microcosm of tyranny: the father further examined through the arrogant, brutish and, to a lesser extent, the mother dominate DXWKRULWDULDQLVPRIWKHSHQFLOSXVKLQJRI¿FHU and oppress their children, forcing them to RYHUWKHZDU¿JKWLQJHQOLVWHGPDQ:KLOHRQ SHUIRUPDFWLRQVWKDWRQO\EHQH¿WWKHSDUHQWV leave, Bäumer unexpectedly encounters a 7KH0DU[LVWIDPLO\LVWKHGH¿QLQJDVSHFW major who becomes enraged when Bäumer of Franz Kafka’s 7KH0HWDPRUSKRVLV. “When fails to salute him: Gregor Samsa awoke from troubled dreams one morning, he found that he had been I explain to him that I arrived on leave transformed in his bed into an enormous only an hour or two since, thinking that he would then trot along. But not at all. He bug” (Kafka 11); his family’s reaction is total gets even more furious: “You think you rejection—they refuse to acknowledge him as can bring your front-line manners here, their son or brother, instead acknowledging what? Well, we don’t stand for that sort only his changed form. His mother shrieks of thing. Thank God, we have discipline and runs away, and when Gregor attempts here! to move from his bedroom his father corrals “Twenty paces backwards, double march!” him into his room with a stick; when Gregor he commands. discovers that he is too wide to pass through the door, his father begins to push his backside:

43 New Horizons‡$SULO “One side of his body lifted itself up; he was a function of absurdity in faith as it was of lying obliquely in the opening; one of his sides bourgeoisie oppression. Friedrich Nietzsche’s was completely abraded … . Next the door assertion that “God is dead” in %H\RQG*RRG was slammed shut with the stick; then all was DQG (YLO and Søren Kierkegaard’s argument ¿QDOO\TXLHW´ .DIND  that faith was the most reasonable of all In this scene, his family’s rejection and absurdities in )HDUDQG7UHPEOLQJ would have oppression becomes physical, where earlier a profoundly alienating impact on twentieth LQKLVOLIHLWKDVEHHQ¿JXUDWLYH*UHJRUXSRQ century writers and their readers. Both Albert KHDULQJKLVIDWKHUGLVFXVVWKHIDPLO\¿QDQFLDO Camus and Franz Kafka discussed that loss of situation thinks: faith, as well as its impact on society and the individual, in their works. He believed that his father had nothing at In Camus’ 7KH 6WUDQJHU, after Meursault all left from that business—at least, his has decided that he is apathetic to his death father had never told him anything to the sentence, a priest comes to comfort him in his contrary—and naturally Gregor hadn’t ¿QDO KRXUV  ,Q KLV LQTXLULHV WKH SULHVW DVNV asked about it. Gregor’s concern at the “‘Why have you refused to see me?’ I said that time had been to do everything in his power to make his family forget as quickly I didn’t believe in God. He wanted to know as possible the commercial disaster if I was sure and I said that I didn’t see any that had reduced them all to complete reason to ask myself that question: it seemed hopelessness. And so, at that time, he had unimportant” (Camus 116). Questioning begun to work with extreme enthusiasm him again, the priest inquires further: “‘Have … (Kafka 29). you no hope at all? And do you really live with the thought that when you die, you die, He is a slave to his family. The moment that and nothing remains?’ ‘Yes,’ I said. Then they fell into dire straits, he gave up everything he lowered his head and sat back down. He for them. But as soon as he transformed, he was told me that he pitied me” (Camus 117). In rejected and all his previous service forgotten. his conversations with the priest, Meursault, Gregor is Marx’s oppressed proletariat to his by Kierkegaard’s logic, becomes an absurd oppressive bourgeois parents. Once he is character. Kierkegaard argued that: locked away in his room, the metaphorical alienation becomes physical alienation. By 7KH NQLJKW RI IDLWK UHDOL]HV >WKDW@ RQO\ having Gregor become alienated from his thing which can save him is recourse to the family and by drawing attention to the physical, absurd, and this recourse happens through HPRWLRQDO DQG ¿QDQFLDO RSSUHVVLRQ RI WKH faith. That is, he clearly recognizes the family, Kafka caused his readers to question impossibility, and in the same moment he believes the absurd; for if he imaged their own family: either they loved him or were he had faith, without at the same time merely using him. recognizing, with all the passion his soul The evidence surely suggests that Gregor is capable of, that his love is impossible, was simply another object to be used to he would be merely deceiving himself, serve their wishes—a toy for their tyranny— and his testimony of no value, since had just as Bäumer was for Father Germany. not even arrived at the stage of absolute Both Remarque and Kafka, by having these resignation… (149-150) alienated members of the familial and societal proletariat, draw the readers’ attention to the 7RKDYHIDLWKDFFRUGLQJWR.LHUNHJDDUGGH¿HV 0DU[LVWDOLHQDWLRQWKDWZDVDIÀLFWLQJWKHHQWLUH reason and is absurd, but man must accept the planet and his own soul. absurdity of faith because to be faithless is even The alienation that permeated humanity more absurd. So, the priest pities Meursault during the early twentieth century was as much because his faithlessness makes the entirety

44 6HDQ0F&DXOH\‡&HFLQ¶HVWSDVXQHUpGDFWLRQGHPLVHPHVWUH of both their existences an absurdity, and by the advance to a new morning. pitying him he further alienates the most At such time will the down-goer bless alienated of men. That descent into absurd himself, that he should be an over-goer; piety would have had an intensely alienating and the sun of his knowledge will be at effect on moderns, because for centuries prior noontide. “Dead are all the Gods: now do we desire the Catholic theologians’ raison d’être was to the Superman to live.”—Let this reason God’s existence as necessary. EHRXU¿QDOZLOODWWKHJUHDWQRRQWLGH² When Kierkegaard commanded that God (Nietzsche 91-92) existed in a realm that cannot be accessed through human reason and that man must, in Nietzsche’s Zarathustra, a god amongst men, true Protestant fashion, simply accept God’s commands his audience to reject God and those existence VROD ¿GH, he in effect said that who associate with Him. He further asserts man’s reason cannot be trusted and that the that those who attest to God are fools kneeling only answer to an absurd world is an absurd before a false God when they should strive to be faith. All Camus has done with Meursault is as gods themselves and take command of their to believe the more absurd option to match own lives so that they might live for themselves his absurd existence, which was made so by DQGQRWEHUHVWUDLQHGE\³EHOLHI>V@RIVROLWWOH the fact that the end result of existence is non- account.” Closely tied with his assertion about existence: death. By stating that his readers becoming the Superman, or hEHUPHQVFK, is could not trust their reason to arrive at an Nietzsche’s description of the necessity of DSSURSULDWH MXVWL¿FDWLRQ IRU KLV H[LVWHQFH rejecting society’s and the Church’s moral Camus would have left them feeling utterly teachings and their conceptualizations of good alienated in their reasonless thoughts and and evil. In %H\RQG*RRGDQG(YLO, Nietzsche absurd faith in an absurd world. described the Church’s hold on mankind and While Kierkegaard asserted that faith was its monopoly on morality: “The Christian faith absurd, Nietzsche asserted that it was simply IURP WKH EHJLQQLQJ LV VDFUL¿FH WKH VDFUL¿FH foolish, a hindrance to society and mankind, of spirit, it is at the same time subjection, self- and a myth without which man would fare derision, and self-mutilation. There is cruelty better. In 7KXV6SDNH=DUDWKXVWUD, the Christ DQGUHOLJLRXV3K°QLFLDQLVPLQWKLVIDLWK>«@ ¿JXUHRI=DUDWKXVWUDZKRFRPHVWRHDUWKDQG it takes for granted that the subjection of the teaches man the way of truth, suddenly turns spirit is indescribably painful that all the past against himself and warns his listeners and and all the habits of such a spirit resist the worshippers: absurdissimum, in the form of which ‘faith’ comes to it” (53-54). To escape the control of Verily, I advise you: depart from me, and the Church and society, man had to be willing guard yourselves against Zarathustra! And to alienate himself from them and their morals; better still: be ashamed of him! Perhaps he had to create his own morality. he hath deceived you. … Ye say, ye believe in Zarathustra? But Nietzsche’s concepts of the rejection of of what account is Zarathustra! Ye are God and the creation of individual morality my believers: but of what account are all pervade Camus’ work. Meursault takes believers! command of his own life, and becomes the Ye had not yet sought yourselves: then did ³PDVWHURI>KLV@IDWH´DQG³WKHFDSWDLQRI>KLV@ \H¿QGPH6RGRDOOEHOLHYHUVWKHUHIRUH soul” as in Henley’s “Invictus.” He rejects all belief is of so little account. … the concept of God, the “good and “evil” that And it is the great noontide, when man is Christian morality prescribes, as well as all in the middle of his course between animal other forms of morality outside of himself in and Superman, and celebrateth his advance true Nietzschean fashion—he passes from to the evening as his highest hope: for it is Kierkegaard’s absurdism to Nietzsche’s

45 New Horizons • April 2013 nihilism. He sees life for life even though driven to stalk a young boy by his animalistic, that is used as evidence of his “insensitivity” Freudian unconscious. (Camus 99) during his trial, wherein the The latter is precisely what occurs in prosecution proceeds by outlining “my swim Mann’s Death in Venice, wherein respectable the next day; of the Fernandel movie; and Aschenbach, while vacationing in Venice, finally of my taking Marie home with me” becomes sexually transfixed with young (Camus 99) on the day after his mother’s Tadzio. The irony of this sexual transfiction funeral as well as his having “agreed with lies in Aschenbach’s spotless reputation as a Raymond to write the letter in order to lure his prominent author: mistress and submit her to mistreatment by a man of ‘doubtful morality’” (Camus 99). He He had taken false steps, blundered, has become the Nietzschean Übermensch, the exposed himself, offended in speech and most superior of all humans, who is inherently writing against tact and good sense. But he alienated because he has removed himself had attained honour, and honour, he used to say, is the natural goal towards which from lesser mortals and their morality as well every considerable talent presses with as God and His morality. Camus, by having whip and spur. Yes, one might put it that the most superior of all humans accept that life his whole career had been one conscious is no more than a Kierkegaardean absurdity and overweening ascent to honour, which and reject God as well as man, alienates his left in the rear all misgivings or self- readers by forcing them to realize that if they derogation which have hampered him wish to become the Übermenschen then they (Mann 385). must be willing to live lives of emotional and psychological solitude. He is the model of Germanic-Apollonian The pioneering works of Marx, Nietzsche, reason, representing order, self-discipline, and Kierkegaard compromised society, God, work ethic, and apparent asexuality. Upon and reason and alienated man from those arriving at his hotel, he finds Tadzio, whom entities. All that remained for man was the Mann describes as having flowing locks of security of cogito ergo sum: the idea that he hair that frame his face, delicate wrists, a existed and controlled himself. The work of perfectly pale complexion, and dressed as an Sigmund Freud, however, made it so man could English sailor (397). Aschenbach becomes not even trust himself, because he did not know libidinously obsessed with the boy, spending who he truly was; through Freud man was hours licentiously gazing at him across the alienated from his own mind. Freud argued beach, and following him into Venice’s that all people repressed certain urges, which labyrinthine streets. The narrator raises the comprised the “unconscious”; people, he said, possibility that the heart of Aschenbach’s were not in control of their unconscious as desire is the platonic pursuit of beauty, but even they were their conscious: “The kernel of the Socrates admits his attraction to Alcibiades system Ucs consists of instinct-presentations begins in lust, and from that lustful base it whose aim is to discharge their cathexis; then ascends to the higher plane of the platonic that is to say, they are wish impulses. These pursuit of beauty. Unlike Socrates’ attraction to instinctual impulses are coordinate with one Alcibiades, however, Aschenbach’s pursuit of another, exist independently side by side, and Tadzio never ascends to that higher plane and are exempt from mutual contradiction” (Freud remains firmly embedded in the mire of lust. 436). The unconscious, according to Freud, After exercising the ability that brought him was the animal portion of the mind: much like so many honors, he reflects, “Verily it is well a predator will instinctually hunt its prey, an for the world that it sees only the beauty of otherwise respectable man may be instinctually the completed work and not its origins nor the condition whence it sprang …. Strange hours,

46 6HDQ0F&DXOH\‡&HFLQ¶HVWSDVXQHUpGDFWLRQGHPLVHPHVWUH indeed, these were, and strangely unnerving her unconscious. Her sexuality, the thoughts WKHODERXUWKDW¿OOHGWKHP6WUDQJHO\IUXLWIXO it produces, and the repression of those same intercourse this, between one body and another thoughts all alienate her from both society and mind! … conscience reproached him, as it were herself. after debauch” (Mann 414). In true Freudian The Freudian guilt over sexuality extends form, Aschenbach has become alienated from from Joyce to Proust in the overture to his himself with the emergence of his unconscious $ 5HPHPEUDQFH RI 7KLQJV 3DVW. The work and instinctual homosexual pedophilia, as H[WHQGVIRUDPDVVLYH¿YHWKRXVDQGSDJHVRI the reader can observe through his imagined verbose, interlaced sentences as the subtly “intercourse” with Tadzio. The power of his named Marcel recalls every moment of Freudian unconscious has removed from him his upbringing in Combray after tasting a the power to control even his own thoughts and PDGHOHLQH GLSSHG LQ OLPHÀRZHU WHD UHPLQGV completed his alienation from his own mind. him of youthful Sunday mornings (Proust 38). Aschenbach’s sexual thoughts alienate Before his tasting of the madeleine, he recalls him; however, other characters such as Molly the overwhelming urge that he felt to have Bloom, in her soliloquy from Joyce’s 8O\VVHV, his mother present, especially when he was become alienated in their own thoughts due preparing to go to bed, even though he feels to the necessity that society not discover that doing so does not entitle him “to stay in their perversions. Although these perversely WKHKRXVHDGD\ORQJHU>DQGWKDWKH@VKRXOGEH alienated characters do not openly express their packed off to school next morning” (Proust sexual thoughts, they do think obsessively on 27). them. While reminiscing about her husband’s Yet Proust’s description of Marcel’s betrothal to her, Molly at one time digresses to thoughts about his mother choosing to spend pondering extramarital analingus: “God knows the night in his room is eerily cathartic: its not much doesnt everybody only they hide it I suppose thats what a woman is supposed Mamman spent that night in my room: to be there for or He wouldnt have made us when I had just committed a sin so deadly the way He did so attractive to men then if that I was waiting to be banished from the he wants to kiss my bottom Ill drag open my household, my parents gave me a far greater than I should ever have won as the reward drawers and bulge it right out in his face as RIJRRGDFWLRQ>$QG@LWVHHPHGWKDWVKH large as life he stick his tongue 7 miles up my did not wish to mar by recrimination those hole as hes there my brown part” (Joyce 765). hours, so different from anything that I This passage on the unladylike thoughts KDGDULJKWWRH[SHFW>VKH@UDLVHGPHWRWKH of non-procreative pleasure comments directly dignity of a grown up person, brought me on the Freudian repression of sexual desires of a sudden to a sort of puberty of sorrow, and the alienation that such repression causes; to emancipation from tears. I ought then man (and woman) alienates himself from to have been happy; I was not (30-31). his sexuality and, in doing so, from his own mind. The fact that Molly never vocally His desire to have his mother spend the night expresses her anally oriented musings is with him is the manifestation of his Freudian pure Freudian repression, which brings about Oedipal Complex, that unconscious urge in alienation because she is utterly isolated from young boys to view their father as competition others in her thoughts, which is the only place for their mother’s affection. Marcel’s Oedipal she can be truly free and utterly libertine; Complex evinces an intolerable guilt, because simultaneously, she is alienated from her own he acknowledges the perverse and taboo nature mind because she is not consciously electing of that instinct, but still he obeys it and is totally to have these thoughts, and they are instead unable to control it; Marcel becomes alienated manifesting themselves in the deepest part of from himself because of that guilt and because

47 New Horizons‡$SULO of the power of his unconscious to violate his which they offered to their characters: accept morals. their fate and live in willful ignorance or die. Freud discussed the unhappiness that The ultimate choice between these methods such impulses caused in &LYLOL]DWLRQ DQG of escape, however, belonged to the reader. It LWV 'LVFRQWHQWV when he said, “Voluntary was either ignorance or death for the twentieth loneliness, isolation from others, is the century reader: the choice was theirs. readiest safeguard against the unhappiness that may arise out of human relations” (772). Acknowledgments The discussion of such revolting instincts, I would like to thank Professor John G. Leland the power of the Freudian unconscious, and of the VMI English Department for his tireless their effects on the mind would have caused support of not only this paper, but also my Proust’s readers to question the power they academic career, and because he taught me had over their decisions and become alienated that I should never dismiss the possibility that from their minds, just like Mann and Joyce’s my life’s weak and idle theme was no more readers had after reading their discourses on yielding than a dream. He is the archetypal the unconscious mind. English professor. $OLHQDWLRQZDVRQHRIWKHGH¿QLQJDVSHFWV of the early twentieth century. The literature RI WKH WLPH UHÀHFWV MXVW KRZ DORQH KXPDQV Works Cited suddenly became. Although a certain amount 3ULPDU\ of alienation is undeniable, it was not as Camus, Albert. 7KH6WUDQJHU. Trans. Matthew complete as the literature would suggest upon Ward. New York: Vintage International, ¿UVWLQVSHFWLRQ$OORIWKHVHDXWKRUVSURYLGHG 1989. two options for their characters and readers Joyce, James. 8O\VVHV. New York: to escape a life of loneliness and alienation. Random House, 1946. They could either accept their fate and live in Kafka, Franz. “The Metamorphosis.” 7KH blissful and willful ignorance of their situation,  0HWDPRUSKRVLVDQG2WKHU6WRULHV. or they could die. Trans. Stanley Applebaum. New York: At the close of $OO 4XLHW RQ WKH :HVWHUQ Dover Publications, 1996. 11-52. )URQW, Paul Bäumer is succinctly killed with Mann, Thomas. “Death in Venice.” 7KRPDV graceful and bureaucratic nonchalance, thereby  0DQQ6WRULHVRI7KUHH'HFDGHV. Trans. ending his Marxist oppression at the hands H.T. Lowe-Porter. New York: Alfred A. of society, while Gregor escapes the Marxist Knopf, 1936. 378-437. oppression of the family through death at the Proust, Marcel. 5HPHPEUDQFHRI7KLQJV hands of the embedded, infected apple in his  3DVW. Trans. C.K. Scott Moncrieff. New back. Mersault avoids the alienation that the 

48 6HDQ0F&DXOH\‡&HFLQ¶HVWSDVXQHUpGDFWLRQGHPLVHPHVWUH Freud, Sigmund. “The Unconscious.” *UHDW%RRNVRIWKH:HVWHUQ:RUOG. Ed. Robert Maynard Hutchins, et al. Chicago: Encyclopedia Britannica, 1952. 428-443. ----.“Civilization and its Discontents.”*UHDW  %RRNVRIWKH:HVWHUQ:RUOG. Ed. Robert Maynard Hutchins, et al. Chicago: Encyclopedia Britannica, 1952. 767-802. Henley, William Ernest. “Invictus.” 0RGHUQ  %ULWLVK3RHWU\. Ed. Louis Untermeyer. New York, Harcourt, Brace and Howe, 1920; Bartleby.com, 1999. Kierkegaard, Søren. “Fear and Trembling.” 6HOHFWLRQVIURPWKH:ULWLQJRI   .LHUNHJDDUG. Trans. Lee M. Hollander. New York: Anchor Books, 1960. 119-152. Marx, Karl and Friedrich Engels. “Manifesto of the Communist Party.” *UHDW%RRNV  RIWKH:HVWHUQ:RUOG. Ed. Robert Maynard Hutchins, et al. Chicago: Encyclopedia Britannica, 1952. 419-434. Nietzsche, Friedrich. “Beyond Good and Evil.” 7KH:RUNVRI)ULHGULFK 1LHW]VFKH. New York: The Tudor Publishing Company, 1931. 1-237. ----.“Thus Spake Zarathustra.” 7KH:RUNV  RI)ULHGULFK1LHW]VFKH. New York: The Tudor Publishing Company, 1931. 238-325.

49 1HZ+RUL]RQV‡9ROXPH‡1XPEHU‡$SULO Disaster at Arausio: Lessons in Leadership in the Roman Army

Abhimanyu “Manu” Trikha, ‘14 )DFXOW\0HQWRU: COL Rose Mary Sheldon, Ph.D., Department of History

Abstract 7KLVSDSHUZLOOH[DPLQHWKH%DWWOHRI$UDXVLREHWZHHQWKHFRQVXODUIRUFHVRIWKH5RPDQ 5HSXEOLFDJDLQVWWKHDUPLHVRIWKH*HUPDQLF&LPEULDQG7HXWRQHVWULEHV7KLVEDWWOHRFFXUUHGRQ 2FWREHU%&LQDQDUHDEHWZHHQZKDWLVQRZ2UDQJH)UDQFHDQGWKH5K{QH5LYHU7KHEDWWOH ZDVDFDWDVWURSKLFGLVDVWHUIRUWKH5RPDQV7KH5HSXEOLFORVWDURXQGWHQWRWZHOYHOHJLRQVDQG DSSUR[LPDWHO\DOORIWKHDX[LOLDULHVDFFRPSDQ\LQJWKHIRUFHDPRXQWLQJWRDURXQGWRWDO FDVXDOWLHV+RZZDVVXFKDFRPSUHKHQVLYHGHIHDWRIWKHPLOLWDU\WKDWGHIHDWHG+DQQLEDOSRVVLEOH", HQGHDYRUWRDQVZHUWKLVTXHVWLRQE\H[DPLQLQJWKHFLUFXPVWDQFHVWKDWEURXJKWWKHDUPLHVWRJHWKHU WKHQGLVFXVVLQJWKHVLJQL¿FDQFHRIWKHHQJDJHPHQW¶VUHVXOWVVKRZLQJWKHPDJQLWXGHRIWKHGLVDVWHU DQGWKHHQVXLQJVHWEDFNWRWKH5HSXEOLF,ZLOODOVRH[DPLQHWKHWURRSTXDOLW\DQGFRPSRVLWLRQ RIERWKWKH*HUPDQLFWULEHVPHQDQGWKH5RPDQIRUFHDVZHOODVWKHFRPSHWHQFHRIWKH5RPDQ FRPPDQGHUV:KDWVKRXOGEHQRWHGDERXWWKLVUHSRUWLVWKDWWKHERG\RIVFKRODUO\ZRUNFRQFHUQLQJ WKLV VXEMHFW LV VPDOO VR WKLV ZRUN ZLOO FRQVLVW PDLQO\ RI RULJLQDO UHVHDUFK DQG FRQFOXVLRQV

Introduction it for the sake of explaining Gaius Marius’ he Battle of Arausio was an engagement election to his second consulship and the re- between forces of the Roman Republic building of the Roman army under his reforms. Tand the combined strength of the Cimbri The best narrative for Arausio from among and Teutones tribes that took place on October modern scholars is from Theodore Mommsen, 6, 105 BC. The battle was a disaster for Rome, the eminent 19th century scholar whose with around 120,000 slaughtered, according to history of Rome is still widely respected within the Roman historian Livy; a death toll higher WKH¿HOGRIDQFLHQW5RPDQVWXGLHV+LVVPDOO than at the Battle of Cannae (48,200) and the section discussing the battle is one of the best Battle of Carrhae (20,000). This defeat left overall accounts of the event and his discussion the Alps undefended and Italy vulnerable to a of the time period provides a good foundation Germanic invasion. It was only by chance that for in-depth study on the topic. the Republic was spared because of a shift in The purpose of this project is two-fold. the tribes’ interests. First, this paper will attempt to combine the Despite the gravity of this loss, Arausio various allusions to the Battle of Arausio is obscure compared to its more famous and, using Livy’s account as a starting point counterparts due in large part to the ancient and Mommsen’s narrative as further outline, sources which discuss Arausio and the Cimbrian create as sound a reconstruction as possible of War (110 BC-101 BC) are fragmentary at best. the battle itself, the circumstances that led to 0RGHUQ KLVWRULDQV XVXDOO\ EULHÀ\ UHIHUHQFH the engagement, the disaster’s aftermath, and

50 0DQX7ULNKD‡'LVDVWHUDW$UDXVLR the impact it had on Rome. The second goal people that had set out with their women is to compare Roman and Germanic styles of and children, with their goods and chattels, warfare and then analyze the leadership of the to seek a new home.” Roman commanders with the intent of showing that incompetent leadership was the deciding Cimbri culture was noted for the factor in causing the disaster. FRQVXPSWLRQRIUDZÀHVKFKRRVLQJWKHEUDYHVW warrior as king, and taunting the enemy before Backdrop charging ferociously, believing death on the EDWWOH¿HOGZDVWKHEHVWZD\IRUDZDUULRUWRGLH Prior to Arausio (134 BC to 105 BC), the $UDXVLR ZDV QRW 5RPH¶V ¿UVW HQFRXQWHU ZLWK FRQÀLFWEHWZHHQWKHDULVWRFUDF\DQGWKHORZHU these northern warriors, nor for that matter classes of Rome was reaching a boiling point. LWV ¿UVW GHIHDW 7KH ¿UVW PDMRU HQJDJHPHQW While the full scope of the crisis is beyond between Rome and the Germans took place the focus of this paper, what matters is that in 113 BC at Noreia, now modern Neumarkt, HIIRUWVE\FHUWDLQJRYHUQPHQWRI¿FLDOVWRJUDQW $XVWULD7KH¿JKWDW1RUHLDZDVSURPSWHGE\ more rights to the lower classes met with Cimbri incursion into Taurisci Gaul territory. IUXVWUDWLRQDQGWKHFRQÀLFWZRXOGKDYHDSDUW Gnaeus Papirius Carbo, consul for 113 BC, in determining the actions of many Romans requested the Cimbri vacate Tauriscian lands, during this time, including the commanders at and the Cimbri complied. Arausio. However, instead of leading the Cimbri At the Republic’s frontiers, Rome had only out peacefully, the guides Carbo sent drew UHFHQWO\ ¿QLVKHG WKH 1XPDQWLQH :DU LQ  the Germans into a trap. The Roman ambush BC, which resulted in Rome acquiring much EDFN¿UHG UHVXOWLQJ LQ PRVW RI WKH FRQVXODU of Celtiberia, now modern Spain, and putting army’s destruction. According to Mommsen: down Sicilian slaves in 132 BC. Rome then went to war against the usurper Jugurtha in “Accordingly an engagement took Numidia in 112 BC. Jugurtha proved a thorn place not far from Noreia in the modern in Rome’s side because of his ruthlessness, so Carinthia, in which the betrayed gained much so that he would not be apprehended WKHYLFWRU\RYHUWKHEHWUD\HUDQGLQÀLFWHG until the time the Battle of Arausio took place. on him considerable loss…” Meanwhile, a much larger threat was growing north of the Alps. The Cimbri and Despite this setback, Rome still wrote off the Teutones, Germanic tribes from the the barbarians as inferior, for initial foul ups in Jutland Peninsula and northeastern Germany DFRQÀLFWZHUHQRWXQKHDUGRILQFDPSDLJQLQJ respectively, were moving south. Displaced Instead of pressing south into Italy the Germans from their old land most likely because of over- decided to make their way east into southern SRSXODWLRQ D VLJQL¿FDQW &LPEUL SRSXODWLRQ Gaul, eventually arriving at Arausio. emigrated south, crossing through German and Gallic lands. Eventually they linked up Dramatis Personae with the Teutones and other smaller tribes. The With the general backdrop painted, it is now ultimate mission of the migrating tribes was necessary to introduce the important people never written down, but a reasonabe guess is involved in this battle to better understand how that they sought to put down roots in a fertile events will play out. region, in addition to plundering and pillaging. For the Cimbri and Teutones, we have According to Mommsen: kings Boiorix and Teutobod. Not much is known about Boiorix. All that is known is that “It was a marvelous movement, the like he is the king of the Cimbri during this time. of which the Romans had never seen; not Our knowledge of Teutobod is just as scanty. a predatory expedition… but a migratory

51 New Horizons‡$SULO However, if there was a Chain of Command, 7KLV VHOIPDGH VW\OH RI RI¿FLDO ZDV ORRNHG Boiorix would most likely be overall leader. down on by the aristocratic patricians, and This is because the Cimbri are the larger of WKLVFRQÀLFWZRXOGFRQWULEXWHWRWKHIDOORIWKH the two main groups and they play a more consular armies at Arausio. What is interesting prominent role in the battle. Boiorix is also the to note is that, given what is known of him, one most mentioned in the sources, playing Mallius should never have been commander. a more prominent part in the execution of a His senior consul, Publius Rutilius Rufus, Roman legate, and in proposing negotiations would have been the more sensible choice. with the Roman commanders. If Teutobod did Rufus had considerable military experience, play a more prominent role, it is unknown. seeing action in the Numantine War as well as For Rome, there are a few notable serving in the Jugurthan campaign alongside characters. The commanders at Arausio were Gaius Marius. Rufus would eventually be Consul Gnaeus Mallius Maximus, Proconsul forced into retirement after being convicted Quintus Servilius Caepio the Elder, and on charges of UHSHWXQGDH (illegal acquisition Marcus Aurelius Scaurus, legate to Mallius. In of money abroad by using Roman authority), addition to the commanders, Consul Publius although there was no evidence of guilt. Rutilius Rufus and Gaius Marius, the reformer Despite his status as a decorated soldier, Rufus of the Roman army, are also important to passed over command at Arausio with the understanding the chain of events leading ancient sources silent as to why. Reasonable to the battle, its aftermath, and its context in conjecture could say that Rufus did not, like Roman history. most Romans, take the Germanic threat very Caepio the Elder was consul in 106 BC. seriously and felt that Mallius could do with a After his tenure he served as proconsul to bit of martial experience by dealing with what Cisalpine Gaul, and was known for corruption. was seen as a mere irritation. When Arausio An example of this is when Caepio pillaged ended up a disaster, the Republic called on Tolosa (modern Toulouse, France), plundering another highly decorated soldier to settle the the pagan temple and making off with 50,000 subsequent crisis. pounds of gold bars and 10,000 pounds of Gaius Marius, prior to Arausio, had no real silver bars in 106 BC. However, before the role in any Gallic affairs. During this time, he entire treasure could reach the vaults of Rome, served as a legate to Metellus Numidicus in the gold was seized by marauders and never Numidia against Jugurtha. In 107 BC, during VHHQ DJDLQ $OWKRXJK QHYHU FRQ¿UPHG E\ KLV ¿UVW FRQVXOVKLS KH LJQRUHG WKH SURSHUW\ either the Romans or modern scholars, the TXDOL¿FDWLRQ IRU HQOLVWPHQW WKDW DOORZHG PHQ infamous “Gold of Tolosa” was rumored to of age to enroll in military service without have been stolen by brigands in the pay of needing property. This proved a great boost Caepio himself, desiring to increase his own to manpower due to the allowance of those fortune. During the Battle of Arausio, Caepio who had no land to join. However, the army would play a pivotal part in the failure of the system was not fully reformed by the time of consular armies, due in no small part to his Arausio in 105 BC and it would take the army’s condescending attitude toward his superior annihilation for Marius to gain the prominence RI¿FHU*QDHXV0DOOLXV0D[LPXV he has in Roman history. Mallius was the junior consul of Rome The last character in this Roman tragedy GXULQJ%&$QREVFXUH¿JXUHQRWPXFK is Marcus Aurelius Scaurus. Scaurus was is known about him, save that he was consul. D 5RPDQ JRYHUQPHQW RI¿FLDO ZKR EHFDPH It can be said with reasonable certainty that FRQVXO VXIIHFWXV DQ RI¿FLDO HOHFWHG WR VHUYH Mallius was a 1RYXV +RPR or “New Man” the remainder of a consular term when another ZKLFKPHDQWWKDWKHZDVWKH¿UVWLQKLVIDPLO\WR FRQVXO ZDV IRXQG XQ¿W WR GR VR  LQ  %& be elected consul or join the Senate in general. According to Mommsen, a few years before,

52 0DQX7ULNKD‡'LVDVWHUDW$UDXVLR in 115 BC, Scaurus was noted for leading an Scaurus, scouting ahead with his expedition to the Taurisci Gauls that established reconnaissance party, was quickly trade between this group and Rome. Scaurus overwhelmed by a Cimbri war party. Livy does was commissioned as a legate to Consul not mention the exact troop organization and Mallius for the Battle of Arausio. Scaurus was composition but it does not seem unreasonable charged with leading a reconnaissance force to go with Mommsen’s estimate. Scaurus was for the consular armies but he and his force captured and brought before the Cimbric king, would meet a tragic end at Arausio. Boiorix. Instead of showing humility in the IDFHRIWKHZDUORUG6FDXUXVUHPDLQHGGH¿DQW Geography VD\LQJ FRQ¿GHQWO\ WKDW 5RPH ZRXOG QHYHU Ancient Arausio, now modern Orange, fall. Boiorix, taken aback by this, had Scaurus France, was a Celtic settlement before executed. His death is described in this passage becoming a Roman colony in 38 BC. The town by Livy: took its name from a local river deity. Like the modern town, Arausio lies on a fertile plain on ³0DUFXV$XUHOLXV6FDXUXVDVWDIIRI¿FHU of the consul, was taken prisoner by the the left bank of the swift-running Rhone River. Cimbri when his army was routed; he was $OWKRXJK ZH KDYH QR VSHFL¿F LQIRUPDWLRQ summoned before their council and when concerning the battleground’s exact topography he tried to discourage them from crossing it may be logical to consider that being only the Alps to enter Italy, on the ground that a small distance away from the town on the the Romans could not be conquered, he opposite bank, that it would possess the same was killed by Boiroix, a savage youth. ” WHUUDLQDVDÀRRGSODLQPRVWO\ÀDWZLWKJHQWOH hills and small woods as well as small streams After getting word of Scaurus’ demise, and creeks that drain into the river. &DHSLR ZDV ¿QDOO\ FRQYLQFHG WR WUDQVIHU KLV camp over to Mallius’ side. However, instead Sequence of Events of combining the camps and maximizing their The following reconstruction of the defenses, Caepio, proceeded to pitch camp battle is written with a combination of Livy’s separately and refused to discuss anything with account, Mommsen’s narrative, and personal Mallius. interpretation of the ancient sources. Boiorix, seeing the movement of the two The battle took place on the October 6, armies, seemed intimidated and sent word 105 BC. The Republic sent two armies, one to Mallius requesting negotiations. Mallius led by the consul Mallius and the other headed VHHPHGRSHQWRWKLVDQGWKH¿JKWLQJFRXOGKDYH by his subordinate, Proconsul Caepio. They ended with a diplomatic solution. Caepio, on arrived on the banks of the River Rhone the other hand, was not going to stand for this. outside of Arausio but because the aristocratic Seeing the pending negotiations as a means for Caepio refused to coordinate with Mallius, the Mallius to take all the credit, Caepio decided to two armies camped on opposite river banks take matters into his own hands and launched a pre-emptive strike against the Cimbric camp. UDWKHU WKDQ PDNLQJ D VWURQJHU XQL¿HG FDPS While there are no sources detailing the exact The proconsul’s attack was ill-planned and positions of the Roman and Cimbric forces, hastily executed. Instead of sweeping away the fact that no source mentions the settlement the Cimbri opposition, the Germans held the being raided or held by either force suggests Romans at bay and then annihilated Caepio’s WKDWWKHVHWWOHPHQWGLGQRW¿JXUHSURPLQHQWO\ IRUFH 7KH SURFRQVXO ÀHG WKH VFHQH DQG WKH chain of events started by this half-baked RQ WKH EDWWOH¿HOG  0RPPVHQ FODLPV WKDW Caepio was on the left bank, with Mallius and DVVDXOWVHWWKHWHPSRIRUWKHUHVWRIWKH¿JKW Scaurus on the right bank. Boiorix and his warriors, seeing the Romans cut down before them while suffering

53 New Horizons • April 2013 minor casualties themselves, became confident and proceeded to rebuild it according to his in their ability to beat the vaunted Roman army. new standards. Marius’ reforms were based on The Cimbri dropped all talk of negotiations at a combination of his own alterations as well as this point and counter-attacked the retreating improvements on military changes instituted survivors, overrunning and looting the by Rutilius Rufus after the Arausio disaster. proconsul’s camp. While they did not possess While the history of the Roman army and the same sophisticated tactics and formations the full scope of Marius’ reforms are beyond as the Romans, the Cimbri seemed to make full the scope of this paper, a summary of the use of rapid advance and bravery. reforms and the context deserve mention. The The confident Cimbri then turned their Republican armies of the 2nd century BC attention to Mallius’ camp and attacked. The were comprised of citizens with the necessary Romans at this point, demoralized by the property qualifications to join and were divided bickering of the commanders and further into three varying styles of heavy infantry, and disheartened by the sight of their comrades were accompanied by skirmishers as well as fleeing, could not resist the Cimbri onslaught. cavalry made up of the wealthiest citizens. Mallius’ men, along with their camp followers, Men were mustered only for the duration of were slaughtered. The Romans tried to flee. a campaign, which meant that the collected Mallius himself escaped, but the camp was experience of the surviving veterans would poorly positioned by the river with his back to dissipate the longer the Republic was not at it and so his men were forced to swim across. war. This caused trouble because a significant Unfortunately, training at this time did not portion of these citizen soldiers had no real include swimming in full gear, so many hapless interest in being on campaign in foreign lands, soldiers drowned attempting to flee. In the end, preferring to be among family and business in 80,000 soldiers and 40,000 camp followers and the civilian sector. auxiliaries would die by drowning or Cimbric This set-up also limited manpower, as blades. The dismal scene is summarized by those who did not have enough property were Livy: not allowed to enlist. In 107 BC Marius, in an effort to raise volunteers for the Numidian “At Arausio these same enemies conquered war against Jugurtha, opened the rosters up in battle Gnaeus Manlius [Mallius] the to the capite censi, “those counted by the consul and Quintus Servilius Caepio the head,” which allowed citizens without enough proconsul, stripped them both of their material possessions to enlist for military duty. camps, and killed eighty thousand soldiers Marius then instituted the practice of soldiers and forty thousand servants and camp followers… ” carrying all gear on their backs instead of in a cumbersome baggage train, which greatly Aftermath improved mobility. Equipment was now issued by the state and the organization of the army The Alps were now unguarded, open to the also changed. The old maniple tactical unit advance of the rapacious German tribes. Rome (around 120 men) was replaced by the cohort, was in a panic; Italy’s land had not seen foreign which consisted of three maniples of 160 men invaders since Hannibal and had certainly not each. The reform of the most consequence, seen a horde of Gauls or Germans since the however, was the legion’s permanence. With sack of Rome by Brennus in 390 BC. Rome’s military now a professional institution, With the Cimbri and Teutones seemingly the legion’s collective experience and traditions ready to invade Italy, Rome turned to one of could be preserved, discipline and esprit de its best generals for help in this dark hour and corps could be better maintained, thereby elected Gaius Marius as consul. Marius was producing a more competent force overall than given full control of the army’s reconstruction their militia predecessors.

54 Manu Trikha • Disaster at Arausio Marius was fortunate in that the Cimbri Gaius Marius appears to have come out and Teutones chose not to press their advantage on top in this affair. His victories against the and attack Rome. Instead the tribes decided to Cimbri and Teutones made him a celebrity, part ways, the Teutones staying in France and Romans even went as far as to consider him as the Cimbri moving on to try their luck in Spain. the “Third Founder of Rome.” His new model Marius was given approximately three years’ army was a revolution in the Roman art of hiatus to train his new army, and in 102 BC, war and set the template for one of the finest defeated the Teutones at Aquae Sextiae and professional militaries of the ancient world. later defeated the Cimbri at Vercellae in 101 He would go on to an unprecedented seven BC, destroying the Cimbric force and ending consulships. However, his time in office and what came to be known as the Cimbrian War. politics would involve him in bitter rivalries With the war now over, what happened to and he would play a part in the chain of events the combatants at Arausio? Fate was not kind that led to the breakdown of the Republic and to either the Cimbri or Teutones, nor were dawn of the Roman Empire. Mallius and Caepio spared disgrace. Rome itself became stronger militarily The Cimbri were first driven out of as a result of this battle. With Marius’ Spain and then destroyed in northern Italy at reforms, Rome’s legions evolved into the Vercellae. From what few details we have, professional army that became an icon of it seems a few survived the defeat and made Roman imperialism and power. The legions their way back to the Jutland Peninsula. would go on to prove their martial prowess for Generations later a tribe also called the Cimbri many generations against all manner of foes, was found there; apparently descendants of both foreign and domestic. The army would both the Cimbri that embarked on their fateful also serve as a powerful tool in politics as the journey and those few who stayed behind generals, not the state, would command their in the first place. The Teutones suffered an loyalties, resulting in figures like Julius Caesar even worse fate. After their defeat at Aquae using their personal armies to further their own Sextiae, Teutobod and his people drop from goals. Rome would never see a Gallic horde the historical record altogether. Mommsen come across the Alps again until her twilight claimed that the survivors were brought in and final destruction in 476 AD. The era of chains to Rome in triumph, with Teutobod as the citizen-soldier was over. The era of the the main trophy. At this point Teutobod was professional soldier was at hand. either imprisoned or executed and the other captives either executed, or sold as slaves. The Analysis and Conclusion Teutones were now extinct. Despite its obscurity, the Battle of Arausio Caepio and Mallius survived the battle, makes an excellent case study for Roman and both were held accountable for their command leadership at its worst, and as a incompetence. Upon his return from the fight, comparison between the Roman and Germanic Caepio was tried and convicted for losing his ways of warfare. army. Livy mentions Caepio’s fate: Inexperience and hubris were the major traits of the two Roman commanders. For “Caepio, through whose rashness starters, Mallius and Caepio were both the disaster had been incurred, was condemned and his property confiscated, politicians. It is known that Mallius had for the first time since King Tarquin, and absolutely no military experience, and there is he was cashiered. ” no known argument contradicting Caepio’s lack of legitimate experience. The only significant Mallius was also condemned for his actions at combat Caepio had seen was when he sacked Arausio. Tolosa, ostensibly to quell a rebellion, but his seizing of the treasure horde at the pagan

55 New Horizons‡$SULO temple suggests an ulterior motive. With Mommsen supports this view of Caepio’s Mallius’ complete lack of experience; it is little foolishness when describing the legal surprise that his concept of choosing ground retribution the proconsul was about to face: was lacking. Mallius positioned his camp poorly, with the Rhone River at his back. When “It was against Quintus Caepio that their things went wrong, his men had no avenue to DWWDFNV ZHUH ¿UVW GLUHFWHG DQG MXVWO\ LQ escape the oncoming Cimbric force and so so far as he had primarily occasioned the ZHUHWUDSSHGDQGHLWKHUFXWGRZQ¿JKWLQJWR defeat of Arausio by his insubordination…” the death, or drowned in the river. &DHSLR ZDV MXVW DV VLOO\ KLV ¿UVW FDPS To make a long story short, Caepio was position was on the opposite bank of a pompous fool and he underestimated a Mallius’,with the swift Rhone in between the dangerous threat. The proconsul was sentenced two armies. This insured that should the Cimbri to exile with all assets effectively stripped. attack right away, Caepio’s army would have 0DOOLXV WKRXJK QRW QHDUO\ DV KLJKSUR¿OH DV been in no position to help their counterparts Caepio, could have also had enough pride as in Mallius’ army. When Caepio positioned his to underestimate the enemy. Roman opinion camp the second time, he failed to maximize of the Cimbri was the same opinion they often the sheer manpower concentration advantage held about those they considered barbarians: that two armies standing as one could have that Roman victory was assured. Sure, the provided. Instead he positioned his camp Republic would experience setbacks initially, in such a way that the Cimbri easily took it but in the end the Roman military machine without Mallius’ force doing anything about would prevail. The Republican army was the it. The commanders from the start should have force that beat the infamous Hannibal, after combined into one camp and selected strategic all, so these Cimbri would be no true threat ground that would have allowed the combined to Rome. Perhaps this kind of thinking was might of the armies to be fully maximized and what prompted Mallius’ co-consul, the veteran also provide an avenue of escape. Rufus, to send the inept Mallius to command. Despite their commanders’ lack of military If they had a healthy dose of humility, experience, the Romans still had a chance to the commanders would have kept their egos win, due to the sturdy nature of the Roman army, in check, allowing them to focus on the ZKLFK ZDV DQ HIIHFWLYH ¿JKWLQJ IRUFH HYHQ encroaching horde instead of the clumsiness before Marius’ optimizations. However, the seen at Arausio. Roman arrogance and over- incompetence and hubris of both commanders FRQ¿GHQFHLQWKHLURZQDELOLWLHVZRXOGFDXVH was what sealed the miserable fate of 120,000 them to send the wrong people to command, 5RPDQVDW$UDXVLR7KH¿UVWFDVHLVWKHPRVW and 120,000 Romans would die because of obvious, that of Caepio’s arrogance (because gross underestimation of the enemy coupled of his condescending attitude toward Consul with their commanders’ foolish attitudes. Mallius) and stupidity. There is a general Another fundamental aspect that consensus that Caepio’s incompetence had a determined the outcome of Arausio was the art great deal to do with the downfall of the armies of war used by the two armies. The Romans at Arausio. Livy mentions this: and Cimbri had two radically different styles of conducting warfare. Rome’s strength lay in “Caepio, through whose rashness its infantry. While not the iconic professional the disaster had been incurred, was legions of the Principate, the militia armies condemned… ” of the Republic were competent forces with the right leadership and a good amount of experience. The standard tactic of the Romans was to advance in orderly formations, using

56 0DQX7ULNKD‡'LVDVWHUDW$UDXVLR a large shield (VFXWXP) to block the long mitigate the losses suffered at the hands of the Germanic broadswords and then deliver a lethal deadly Roman SLOD. Delbruck also supports the stab with a short sword (JODGLXV). In addition to notion of Germanic warriors having limited VZRUGDQGVKLHOGWKHUDQNDQG¿OHVROGLHUDOVR equipment, citing crude metalworking skills. possessed SLOD, javelins with high penetrating Mommsen provides a different case. He power made with a special iron head and shaft claims that the Cimbri fought in a manner that warped once it hit an enemy shield or similar to other Gallic Celts. They possessed body, rendering it useless to throw back. The much better equipment, bronze helmets, a Romans also possessed better body armor than large sword, long narrow shield, and usually their Germanic opponents. Roman thinking a coat of mail. Mommsen also says that the FKDPSLRQHG WKH LGHD RI ¿JKWLQJ DV D ZKROH Cimbri used a dense formation and that the (using tactical units such as the PDQLSOH during front ranks also tied themselves together with the Republic and the FRKRUW during the Empire) cords. This was probably a means to prevent instead of as individuals. The PDQLSOHV would the front ranks from breaking and running in form three battle lines based on experience, sight of the enemy. with the least experienced in the front, the most Either case seems legitimate but ultimately veteran in the rear. The battle lines would form the evidence concerning the Cimbri is too in a checkerboard style deployment, allowing fragmentary to provide a decisive answer to PRUH ÀH[LELOLW\ RQ XQHYHQ WHUUDLQ ZLWKRXW the debate at this time. Regardless of what they falling into confusion and quicker response. To VSHFL¿FDOO\ EURXJKW WR WKH ¿HOG WKH &LPEUL the Romans, the whole was more than the sum more likely than not, fought with brute force of its parts. rather than cunning skill. They also, more The Cimbri had a much different approach. likely than not, fought with the individual They subscribed to the style of war favored by ZDUULRULQPLQG*ORU\RQWKHEDWWOH¿HOGZDV other Germanic tribes, namely to rush in and highly prized. The warrior would therefore break the enemy using brute force. According seek to show how glorious he was by feats of WR +DQV 'HOEUXFN RQH RI WKH ¿UVW PRGHUQ personal martial prowess. military historians, the Germans favored Roman armies were simply better guerrilla warfare, utilizing ambush and feigned organized and therefore better able to conduct withdrawal, and relied on personal courage to sophisticated maneuvers, allowing them more FDUU\WKH¿JKW WDFWLFDOÀH[LELOLW\DQGFRKHVLRQLQDGGLWLRQWR According to historians Peter Wilcox and HQDEOLQJWKHPWRUHIRUPDIWHUWKH¿UVWDWWDFN Rafael Trevino, they were not as well equipped by the enemy. It is not to say that the Cimbri did as the Romans. The majority of their weaponry not have group tactics and that Roman soldiers consisted of spears, javelins, simple shields GLGQRWZDQWJORU\EXWWKHJHQHUDOÀDYRUZDV and daggers. The sword was not commonplace, that the Cimbri focused on individualism while though if they did possess swords, it was the Romans tended to think of the army as a probable they would be a slashing broad whole. sword the likes of which are noted among the In light of the evidence gathered, the disaster Gallic and other Germanic tribes during the at Arausio was not so much a feat of Cimbric late Republic. Body armor was almost non- mastery of war, but the result of the Roman existent. commanders’ collective arrogance and military Wilcox and Trevino support the idea of the inexperience. The battle could have ended in Germans using wedge formations. They discuss favor of the Romans if their commanders a tactic called the )XURU 7HXWRQLFXs, a brutal were more strategic minded and militarily headlong rush against the Roman battle line in SUR¿FLHQW %DG SODFHPHQW RI WKH FDPSV DQG a sort of wedge formation. The speed of this the ill-thought-out assault that triggered the assault and the shape of the formation helped deadly chain of events were Roman errors

57 New Horizons‡$SULO that could have been prevented. There need 3Plutarch. /LIH RI &UDVVXV, part of, /LYHV, trans. QRW KDYH HYHQ EHHQ D IXOOÀHGJHG EDWWOH DW Bernadotte Perrin, ( London: William Heinemann, Arausio at all. Had Caepio not committed the 1920), 31.7. 4 hare-brained grab for glory that he did, Mallius The following ancient historians are those whose works, usually fragmentary, mention Arausio or any FRXOGKDYHQHJRWLDWHGDFHDVH¿UHZKHQ%RLRUL[ of the events and personalities related to the battle sent envoys. Arausio could have become a that, to me, merited inclusion in this paper. Please case where diplomacy prevailed and the tribes see the bibliography for a complete reference of could have found the homes they were looking their works: Livy, Dio, Granius Licinianus, Velleius for, simply another in a long list of obscure Paterculus, Pliny the Elder, Plutarch, Sallust, diplomatic and commercial treaties. Strabo, Tacitus, Cornelius, Lucius Annaeus Florus, Instead, Caepio and Mallius committed Valerius Maximus, and Eutropius. one of the biggest blunders in Roman military 5These modern historians are examples of scholars history and, as a result, cost the Republic whose works have mentioned Arausio at least thousands of souls and left it open to invasion. in passing (please see the full bibliography for It was only by pure chance that Rome was a complete reference of their respective works): Klaus Bringmann, Peter Connolly, Philip De spared during the time they had no legions Souza, Richard J. Evans, Harriet I. Flower, E. guarding the Alps. In light of this, the disaster Gabba, Adrian Goldsworthy, Michael Grant, W.E. at Arausio cannot remain in obscurity. A battle Heitland, Erik Hildinger, T. Rice Holmes, W.W. that cost Rome so much needs to be given a How, H.D. Leigh, Lawrence Keppie, Phillip A. more prominent place in her history. This battle Kildahl, Philip Matysak, A.H. McDonald, Charles serves as a warning to all militaries: that even Merivale, Charles Oman, Stewart Perowne, Cyril the mightiest war machines can be brought to E. Robinson, Jonathan Roth, H.H. Scullard, Evelyn their knees in the hands of the ignorant and Shirley Shuckburgh, Michael Simkins, Jugen von arrogant. Ungern-Sternberg, Jane F. Gardner. 6See “The Peoples of the North” in Mommsen’s 7KH +LVWRU\RI5RPH. Acknowledgements 7For further reading on the crisis please see Erik I wish to express my sincerest gratitude to Hildinger, 6ZRUGV$JDLQVWWKH6HQDWH, Cambridge: Colonel Sheldon for her invaluable guidance De Capo Press, 2003. DQGRYHUVLJKWGXULQJWKHFUHDWLRQDQGUH¿QLQJ 8J.A. Crook, A. Lintoit, Elisabeth Rawson (Editors), of this work. It was a challenging and rewarding 7KH &DPEULGJH $QFLHQW +LVWRU\ QG (GLWLRQ 9,; experience under her tutelage. Sincere thanks 7KH /DVW $JH RI WKH 5RPDQ 5HSXEOLF  %&, entries Spain, Sicily, (Cambridge: Cambridge also to Lieutenant Colonel Keith Kline and University Press, 1994). 21, 25. the VMI Center for Undergraduate Research 9For a full account of the Jugurthine Campaign, for granting me a tuition waived slot for the see Sallust, 7KH :DU ZLWK -XJXUWKD, trans. J. C. summer program, without which I would not Rolfe, Loeb Classical Library, London: William have been able to undertake this project in the Heinemann, 1920. ¿UVWSODFH/DVWEXWQRWOHDVWZDUPHVWWKDQNV 10Mommsen, +LVWRU\RI5RPH, 168. to Christine Taylor and her wonderful family 11Mommsen,+LVWRU\RI5RPH, 170. for hosting me in their charming home for the 12Mommsen, +LVWRU\RI5RPH, 170. 13 duration of the project, whose generosity I can Livy, 3HULRFKDH, 67. 14 never truly repay. Lucius Annaeus Florus, (SLWRPH RI 5RPDQ +LVWRU\, trans. Edward Seymour Forster, (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1984), Endnotes 1.38.10, Mommsen, +LVWRU\RI5RPH, 178. 1Livy, 3HULRFKDH , part of /LY\, trans. Alfred C. 15Strabo, *HRJUDSK\, 4.13. Schlesinger, (London: William Heinemann, 1922), 16Livy, 3HULRFKDH, 67.8. Book 67, 10-11. 17Livy, 3HULRFKDH, 67 and7KH&DPEULGJH$QFLHQW 2Livy, +LVWRU\RI5RPH, part of /LY\, 22.49.15. +LVWRU\ QG (GLWLRQ 9,; 7KH /DVW $JH RI WKH 5RPDQ5HSXEOLF%&, Chronological Table,

58 0DQX7ULNKD‡'LVDVWHUDW$UDXVLR (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994), 44For an in-depth look at the history of Roman 785. military organization, tactics and equipment, see 18Hornblower, Spawforth, 7KH 2[IRUG &ODVVLFDO Hans Delbruck, +LVWRU\ RI WKH $UW RI :DU ZLWKLQ 'LFWLRQDU\UG(GLWLRQ, Rutilius Rufus, Publius. WKH )UDPHZRUN RI 3ROLWLFDO +LVWRU\, trans. Walter 19Phillip A. Kildahl, &DLXV 0DULXV, ( New York: J. Renfroe, Jr., (London: Greenwood Press, 1985), Twayne Publishing Inc., 1968), 75-76. Goldsworthy, 7KH &RPSOHWH 5RPDQ $UP\, M.C. 20Michael Swan, 7KH&RQVXODU)DVWLRI%&DQG Bishop and J.C.N. Coulston, 5RPDQ 0LOLWDU\ WKH&RQVSLUDF\RI9DUUR0XUHQD, Harvard Studies (TXLSPHQW, (Aylesbury:Shire, 1993), Paul Erdkamp, in Classical Philology, Vol 71, 1967, 235-247. (editor) $&RPSDQLRQWRWKH5RPDQ$UP\, (Oxford: 21Mommsen, +LVWRU\RI5RPH, 166. Blackwell Publishing ltd, 2007), Roth Jonathan, 22(QF\FORSDHGLD%ULWDQQLFD2QOLQH, Orange. 7KH/RJLVWLFVRIWKH5RPDQ$UP\DW:DU%& 23Livy, 3HULRFKDH, 67. Mommsen, +LVWRU\RI5RPH, $', (Leiden: Brill, 1999). 172. 45For more information on Wilcox and Trevino’s 24See 2[IRUG &ODVVLFDO 'LFWLRQDU\ UG (GLWLRQ, research see Peter Wilcox, Rafael Trevino, entry Consul for more information concerning the %DUEDULDQV $JDLQVW 5RPH 5RPHV¶V &HOWLF relationship between consuls and proconsuls. *HUPDQLF 6SDQLVK DQG *DOOLF (QHPLHV, (Oxford: 25Livy, 3HULRFKDH, 67 and Mommsen +LVWRU\ RI Osprey Publishing Ltd., 2000). 5RPH, 172-173. 46Mommsen, +LVWRU\RI5RPH, 168. 26Livy, 3HULRFKDH, 67.1-6 27Mommsen, +LVWRU\RI5RPH, 172 Bibliography 28Mommsen, +LVWRU\RI5RPH, 172. 29Mommsen, +LVWRU\RI5RPH, 172. $QFLHQW6RXUFHV 30An in-depth discussion concerning Germanic Dio Cocceianus, Cassius, 5RPDQ+LVWRU\, warfare can be found in Hans Delbruck’s +LVWRU\ trans.Earnest Cary, Loeb Classical Library, RIWKH$UWRI:DUZLWKLQWKH)UDPHZRUNRI3ROLWLFDO London: William Heinemann, 1914, +LVWRU\, volume 2, passim. 9 volumes. 31Livy, 3HULRFKDH, 67.7-11. Eutropius, $EULGJHPHQWRI5RPDQ+LVWRU\, 32Livy, +LVWRU\RI5RPH, Book 5. 33Hornblower, Spawforth, 7KH 2[IRUG &ODVVLFDO Book 5, in -XVWLQ&RUQHOLXV1HSRVDQG 'LFWLRQDU\ UG (GLWLRQ, entry Rutilius Rufus,  (XWURSLXV, trans. John Selby Watson, Publius. London: Bohn, 1853. 34For an in-depth history of the Roman army and Florus, Lucius Annaeus, (SLWRPHRI5RPDQ Marius’ reforms, please see Phillip A. Kildahl,  +LVWRU\, trans. Edward Seymour Forster, &DLXV 0DULXV, (New York: Twayne Publishing Loeb Classical Library, Cambridge: Inc., 1968) and Adrian Goldsworthy, 7KH&RPSOHWH Harvard University Press, 1984. 5RPDQ$UP\, (London: Thames and Hudson Ltd., Licinianus, Granius, +LVWRU\, trans. N. Criniti, 2011). http://www.attalus.org/translate/granius. 35Goldsworthy, 7KH&RPSOHWH5RPDQ$UP\, 47. html. 36Mommsen,+LVWRU\RI5RPH, 173. 37See Livy, 3HULRFKDH, Book 68 and Mommsen, Livy, /LY\, trans. Alfred C. Schlesinger, +LVWRU\RI5RPH, 180-182. Loeb Classical Library, London: William 38Mommsen,+LVWRU\RI5RPH, 180. Heinemann, 1922, 14 volumes. 39Livy, 3HULRFKDH, 67. 11-14. For more information Paterculus, Velleius, +LVWRU\RI5RPH, trans. concerning Caepio’s trial see Mommsen’s +LVWRU\ Frederick W. Shipley, Loeb RI5RPH, 175, footnote 1. Classical Library, Cambridge: Harvard 40For further reading on Marius’ career see Richard University Press, 1924. J. Evans, *DLXV 0DULXV $ 3ROLWLFDO %LRJUDSK\, Pliny the Elder, 1DWXUDO+LVWRU\, trans. H. (Pretoria: University of South Africa Press, 1994). Rackham, Loeb Classical Library, 41See Strabo¸ *HRJUDSK\, Book 4 for more Cambridge, Harvard University Press, information concerning Caepio and the Gold of Tolosa. 1986, 10 volumes. 42Livy, 3HULRFKDH, 67.11-13 43Mommsen, +LVWRU\RI5RPH, 174.

59 New Horizons‡$SULO Plutarch, /LYHV, trans. Bernadotte Perrin, Evans, Richard J., Gaius Marius, $3ROLWLFDO Loeb Classical Library, London: William  %LRJUDSK\, Pretoria: University of South Heinemann, 1920, 10 volumes. Africa Press, 1994. Polybius, 7KH+LVWRULHV, trans. W.R. Paton, Flower, Harriet I., 5RPDQ5HSXEOLFV, Loeb Classical Library, New York:G.P. Princeton: Princeton University Putnam’s Sons, 1922, 6 volumes. Press, 2010. Sallust, 7KH:DUZLWK-XJXUWKD, trans. J. Gabba, E., 5HSXEOLFDQ5RPH7KH$UP\DQG C. Rolfe, Loeb Classical Library, London:  WKH$OOLHV, trans. P.J. Cuff, Berkeley: William Heinemann, 1920. University of California Press, 1976. Strabo, *HRJUDSK\, trans. Haorace Leonard Goldsworthy, Adrian, 7KH&RPSOHWH5RPDQ Jones, Loeb Classical Library,  $UP\, London: Thames and Hudson Ltd., Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2011. 1986, 8 volumes. Grant, Michael, 7KH+LVWRU\RI5RPH, Faber Tacitus, Cornelius. $JULFROD; translated by M. and Faber Limited, 1993. Hutton, Germania; translated by M. Greenidge A.H.J., Clay, A.M. 6RXUFHV  Hutton, 'LDORJXV; translated by W.  IRU5RPDQ+LVWRU\%&, Oxford: Peterson, Loeb Classical Library, Clarendon Press, 1926. Cambridge, Mass., Harvard University Heitland, W.E., vol. VII, 7KH5RPDQ5HSXEOLF, Press, 1970. 5 volumes. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1923. 0RGHUQ6RXUFHV Hildinger, Erik, 6ZRUGV$JDLQVWWKH6HQDWH, Cambridge: De Capo Press, 2003. Books Holmes, T. Rice, FURPWKH2ULJLQVWR%& Bishop, M.C. and Coulston, J.C.N.,  YRO7KH5RPDQ5HSXEOLFDQGWKH 5RPDQ0LOLWDU\(TXLSPHQW, Aylesbury:  )RXQGHURIWKH(PSLUH, Oxford: Clarendon Shire, 1993. Press, 1923. Bringmann, Klaus, $+LVWRU\RIWKH5RPDQ How ,W.W. and Leigh, H.D., $+LVWRU\RI  5HSXEOLF, trans. W.J.  5RPHWRWKH'HDWKRI&DHVDU, Ballantyne Smyth, Cambridge: Polity Press, 2007. Press, 1896. Connolly, Peter, *UHHFHDQG5RPHDW:DU, Keppie, Lawrence, 7KH0DNLQJRIWKH5RPDQ London: Greenhill Books, 1998.  $UP\)URP5HSXEOLFWR(PSLUH, Totowa: Coon, Carleton Stevens, 7KH5DFHVRI Barnes and Noble Books, 1984.  (XURSH, New York, The Macmillan Kildahl, Phillip A., &DLXV0DULXV, New York: Company, 1939 Twayne Publishing Inc., 1968. Delbruck, +LVWRU\RIWKH$UWRI:DUZLWKLQWKH King, Anthony, 5RPDQ*DXODQG*HUPDQ\,  )UDPHZRUNRI3ROLWLFDO+LVWRU\, trans. Berkeley: University of California Press. Walter J. Renfroe, Jr., London: Greenwood 1990. Press, 1985. 4 volumes. Matysak, Philip, &KURQLFOHRIWKH5RPDQ Drinkwater, J.F., 5RPDQ*DXO7KH7KUHH  5HSXEOLF7KH5XOHUVRI$QFLHQW5RPH  3URYLQFHV, 58 B.C.-A.D. 260,  IURP5RPXOXVWR$XJXVWXV, London: Thames Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1983. and Hudson, 2003. De Souza, Philip (editor), 7KH$QFLHQW:RUOG McDonald, A. H., 5HSXEOLFDQ5RPHAncient  DW:DU$*OREDO+LVWRU\, London: Thames Peoples and Places, vol. 50, and Hudson, 2008. Frederick A. Praeger, Inc., Publishers, Erdkamp, Paul, (editor) $&RPSDQLRQWRWKH 1966.  5RPDQ$UP\, Oxford: Blackwell Merivale, Charles, 7KH)DOORIWKH5RPDQ Publishing ltd, 2007.  5HSXEOLF, London: Longman, Brown, Green, and Longmans, 1853.

60 0DQX7ULNKD‡'LVDVWHUDW$UDXVLR Mommsen, Theodore, 7KH+LVWRU\RI5RPH,  QG(GLWLRQ9,;7KH/DVW$JHRIWKH5RPDQ vol. 3, trans. W.P. Dickson,(London: J.M.  5HSXEOLF%&, Chronological Dent and Sons Ltd., 1911; repr., New York: Table, Cambridge: Cambridge University E.P. Dutton and Co., 1930). Press, 1994. Citations are to the reprinted edition. Rawlingson, Canon “On the Ethnography of Oman, Charles, 6HYHQ5RPDQ6WDWHVPHQRI the Cimbri,” 7KH-RXUQDORIWKH   WKH/DWHU5HSXEOLF, New York:  $QWKURSRORJLFDO,QVWLWXWHRI*UHDW%ULWDLQ Longmans, Green and Co., 1902.  DQG,UHODQG, 1877. 150-158 Perowne, Stewart, 'HDWKRIWKH5RPDQ  Von Ungern-Sternberg, Jurgen, Ed. Harriet  5HSXEOLF)URP%&WRWKH%LUWKRI I. Flower, 7KH&DPEULGJH&RPSDQLRQWR  WKH5RPDQ(PSLUH, New York: Doubleday  WKH5RPDQ5HSXEOLF, Cambridge: and Company Inc., 1968. Cambridge University Press, 2004. Robinson, Cyril E., $+LVWRU\RIWKH5RPDQ Gardner, Jane F. “The Gallic Menace in  5HSXEOLF, New York: Thomas Y. Crowell Caesar’s Propaganda.” *UHHFHDQG5RPH Company Publishers, 1933. , 2 October, 1983. 181-189 Roth Jonathan, 7KH/RJLVWLFVRIWKH5RPDQ Encyclopædia Britannica Online, s. v.  $UP\DW:DU%&$', Leiden: “Orange,” accessed June 12, 2012, Brill, 1999. http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/ Scullard, H.H., )URPWKH*UDFFKLWR1HUR, topic/430866/Orange. London: Methuen and Co. Ltd., 1964. Encyclopædia Britannica Online, s. v. “Rhone Shuckburgh, Evelyn Shirley, A+LVWRU\RI River” accessed June 21, 2012,  5RPHWRWKH%DWWOHRI$FWLXP, New York: http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/ The Macmillian Co., 1896. topic/501771/Rhone-River. Simkins, Michael, :DUULRUVRI5RPH, New Swan, Michael, “The Consular Fasti of York: Sterling Publishing Co., 1992. 23 BC and the Conspiracy of Varro Wilcox, Peter, Trevino, Rafael, %DUEDULDQV Murena,” +DUYDUG6WXGLHVLQ&ODVVLFDO  $JDLQVW5RPH5RPHV¶V&HOWLF*HUPDQLF  3KLORORJ\, 71, 1967, 235-247.  6SDQLVKDQG*DOOLF(QHPLHV, Oxford: Osprey Publishing Ltd., 2000.

Articles and Websites The Princeton Encyclopedia of Classical Sites (http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/  KRSSHUWH[W"GRF 3HUVHXVWH[W  HQWU\ DUDXVLR KLJKOLJKW DUDXVLR Editors Hornblower, Simon, Spawforth, Anthony, 7KH2[IRUG&ODVVLFDO  'LFWLRQDU\UG(GLWLRQ$UDXVLR, entries Servilius Caepio, Rutilius Rufus, Publius, Consul, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996. Last, Hugh, Editors Cook, S.A., Adcock, F.E., Charlesworth, M. P., 7KH    &DPEULGJH$QFLHQW+LVWRU\9,;7KH  5RPDQ5HSXEOLF%&, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1962. Crook, J.A., Lintoit, A., Rawson, Elisabeth (Editors), 7KH&DPEULGJH$QFLHQW+LVWRU\

61 1HZ+RUL]RQV‡9ROXPH‡1XPEHU‡$SULO Atticus Finch and “The Dude’s” Impact on American Masculinity

Matthew Wendler, ‘15 )DFXOW\0HQWRU: MAJ Mary Beth Pennington, Ph.D., Department of English and Fine Arts

Abstract: $PHULFDQPDVFXOLQLW\KDVFKDQJHGRYHUWKHODVW¿IW\\HDUV7KHVHDUHUHÀHFWHGDQG HQFRXUDJHGE\WKHFKDUDFWHUL]DWLRQRIPHQLQPRYLHV2OGHU¿OPVWKDWZHUHJUDFHGZLWKWKHWDOHQWV RIDFWRUVVXFKDV*UHJRU\3HFNDQG6WHYH0F4XHHQGHSLFWHGPHQDVEDVWLRQVRILQWHJULW\VWRLFLVP DQGPRUDOLW\1HZHU¿OPVVXFKDVThe Big LebowskiDQGWKHFRPHGLHVRIDFWRUVVXFKDV3DXO5XGG KDYHFUDIWHGDQHZLPDJHRIPHQDVLPPDWXUHOD]\DQGKHGRQLVWLF,QWKLVSDSHU,DLPWRH[DPLQH WKHFKDQJLQJFKDUDFWHUL]DWLRQRIPHQLQ$PHULFDQ¿OPVDQGWKHHIIHFWLWKDVKDGRQRXUYLHZRIWKH UROHRIWKHPDOHJHQGHU&LWLQJQRWDEOHGLVSOD\VRIPDVFXOLQLW\IURP¿OPV,H[DPLQHPRYLHVWKDWKDYH UHÀHFWHGDQGSHUKDSVFRQWULEXWHGWRSDVWDQGSUHVHQWDWWLWXGHVDERXWZKDWGH¿QHVWKH$PHULFDQPDQ

ender expectations have changed conservative vision of a man and a woman considerably in America over the last marrying and realizing a fairly old fashioned Gseveral decades. One indication of the type of role. I expected the typical married man changes can be found in the characterization to be a leader of a family, head of the house, of men in movies. Today’s male characters and the one who makes money for the family. I tend to be self-centered and childishly vulgar viewed a woman’s responsibilities to be largely (often for comic effect). Of course, they are concerned with homemaking and raising entertaining to watch and when portrayed by children. Some modern movies support the a good actor, very likeable. The popular image masculine roles that I was raised to expect as RIPHQLQFRQWHPSRUDU\¿OPVVWDUNO\FRQWUDVWV commonplace, but upon viewing older movies with the rugged and independent image I realized that the characterization of a father presented by the movies of past decades. The ¿JXUH KDG FKDQJHG FRQVLGHUDEO\ 2OGHU ¿OPV change in the depiction of men in movies especially emphasized a man’s role not only as has had a part in altering the expectations a leader of a family, but also as an honorable associated with masculinity. Young men are man of considerable integrity. The classic living without ambition or responsibilities image of a male gender role was perfected by well into adulthood. Movies and television Gregory Peck’s Oscar winning performance as celebrate this image. For better or for worse, it WKHFKDUDFWHU$WWLFXV)LQFKLQWKH¿OP7R.LOO appears that this image of masculinity is now D0RFNLQJELUG. distinctly American. Despite being a single father, Finch is able Gender in American society entered a to instill in his children tolerant and honorable period of accelerated change in the second half values by set a good example for them. His RI WKH WZHQWLHWK FHQWXU\ , ¿QG LW GLI¿FXOW WR discipline of character frustrates his children describe exactly what each gender is expected DWPDQ\WLPHVLQWKH¿OPEXW$WWLFXVH[SHFWV to do today, but I was raised with an admittedly nothing less of his children than he does of

62 0DWWKHZ:HQGOHU‡$WWLFXV)LQFKDQG³7KH'XGH¶V´,PSDFWRQ0DVFXOLQLQW\ himself. He balances his high demands with the American man during the middle part of sincere affection and complete devotion to his the twentieth century. Of course there were children. 7R.LOOD0RFNLQJELUG depicts Finch’s also men who came to represent other aspects (and symbolically the United States’) struggle of masculinity that were not quite as sterling against the inequality of segregation and in nature. racism, which were gargantuan and seemingly The actor Steve McQueen stood out as unsolvable issues plaguing the country. The another incarnation of the All-American man. morals that Atticus displayed throughout He typically represented a heroic character the movie are essential in prevailing over WKDW GLG QRW DGKHUH WR D VHOÀHVV PRUDO FRGH WKH LQMXVWLFH KH ¿JKWV DJDLQVW +LV ZLVGRP OLNH $WWLFXV GLG +H ZDV RQH RI WKH ¿UVW patience and perseverance are the traits that American anti-heroes. His most famous role, led to Finch becoming the idealist model of as Captain Virgil Hilts in 7KH*UHDW(VFDSH, is American masculinity. Gregory Peck took this an excellent example of the persona McQueen important role beyond the screen and strived to came to embody. Set in a Nazi prisoner- be the living legacy of Atticus. of-war camp during World War II the plot In 7R.LOO D 0RFNLQJELUG, Peck perfectly centers on a real life escape attempt made conveys the wisdom and morality that Atticus by Allied prisoners during the Third Reich. Finch represents. As a lawyer living in a 0F4XHHQ¶VFKDUDFWHUVWDQGVRXWLQWKH¿OPDV small town in the Deep South, he is forced to a self-serving pragmatist and opportunist who put his integrity to the test when an African- serves as a foil to the other more idealistic American laborer is falsely accused of raping and conventional protagonists. Although Hilts the daughter of a destitute white sharecropper. is captured after the escape along with the The intolerant whites in the small rural town majority of the other characters, he is the only are dead set on lynching the innocent man and captured escapist to stay alive. His survival continuing to oppress the African-American may seem less noble than the stiff-upper-lipped community with fear. Finch approaches the approach to execution that his idealist English case against the man with a calm measured counterparts face. But his hardiness and will to attitude, in stark opposition to the reactionary survive offered a different take on masculinity. rage of those in the courthouse. He endures Although McQueen’s brand of heroism might ridicule, persecution, death threats, and is not be as sterling as Peck’s is, it added another even forced to stand down a lynch mob to popular and perhaps easier model for men demonstrate the virtue of his cause and his WR EDVH WKHLU GH¿QLWLRQ RI PDVFXOLQLW\ RII RI personal resolve. This set an example not only While both men still represent almost lost for men of all ages to be courageous and to do paragons of masculinity, the shift from Peck’s the right thing despite the attitudes of others. altruism to McQueen’s cynicism may have Atticus Finch, and by proxy Gregory begun the trend of masculine de-evolution. 3HFN EHFDPH LFRQLF WKH LFRQLF GH¿QLWLRQ RI Today’s movies offer much different the American family man. His impact was models of masculinity than classic movies so lasting that he was memorialized as “the did. The image of an American man as an embodiment of American decency” (Grimes) in eternal source of integrity and determination his 1HZ

63 New Horizons‡$SULO PD\KDYHUHFHLYHGIURPSHHUV¿IW\\HDUVDJR with models of masculinity that were simply Women have a much greater presence in the not options at the time 7R.LOOD0RFNLQJELUG workforce than they used to. Although women was released. Leading male characters have are still underrepresented and not paid as well become drastically different from those of as men in similar jobs, the percent change in McQueen and Peck’s time. females working in the USA from 1950 to Being a member of the current generation,  ZDV  7RRVVL   7KLV UHÀHFWV I am not sure whether to follow the example the increasing opportunities that women have of masculinity set in older movies, or to pick gained over half a century. At the same time up on some of the newer models encouraged WKHUDWHRIPDUULDJHKDVGURSSHGVLJQL¿FDQWO\ E\ PRUH UHFHQW ¿OPV , FDQ DSSUHFLDWH WKH In 1950 it was the societal norm to marry; decision to lead either lifestyle. I don’t really in fact seventy-eight percent of households know which I will pick. My doubts about the were occupied by married couples. The traditional roles of masculinity started when I census conducted in 2010 found that forty- ¿UVWEHJDQZDWFKLQJPRUHUHFHQWPRYLHVJHDUHG eight percent of households were occupied WRZDUGP\DJHJURXSVSHFL¿FDOO\WKH¿OPVRI by married couples. These statistics show a Paul Rudd and Adam Sandler. While the main drastic fall in the rate of marriage (Tavernise). FKDUDFWHUV LQ WKHLU ¿OPV DUH HQWHUWDLQLQJ WR I have found that many of my friends consider many people, nobody can deny that they are QHYHUPDUU\LQJDSRWHQWLDOO\IXO¿OOLQJOLIHVW\OH usually overgrown children. While they can ,I ZH ZHUH RXU DJH LQ WKH ¿IWLHV RU HDUO\ be funny, it never seemed to me that these sixties I do not think that would be the case. characters could be models of masculinity, Defying convention by remaining single can mostly because of how silly the characters are. make somebody more interesting. It seems The true appeal that comes with a life that enough people have decided to choose the without ambition was only revealed to me by a single life, and perhaps marriage is quickly FXOW¿OPFDOOHG7KH%LJ/HERZVNL. The morals becoming unconventional. RI WKH PDLQ FKDUDFWHU LQ WKLV ¿OP HQWLUHO\ It seems that men and women alike are VXEYHUWWKHLPDJHRIPDVFXOLQLW\DVGH¿QHGE\ starting to pursue high paying jobs over Gregory Peck and Steve McQueen. The movie the potentially mundane responsibilities of is about a middle aged burn-out named Jeffrey managing a home. Married life meant at one Lebowski who prefers being called “The Dude.” point that that a man was responsible and He gets caught up in a bizarre kidnapping productive, and any other option would have scheme in early 1990’s Los Angeles due to carried a certain level of shame and possibly being mistaken for a millionaire who shares emasculation. Due to the changes in the his name. In parody of and homage to neo-noir expected behavior and responsibilities of ¿OPV³7KH'XGH´KDVDVHULHVRIHQFRXQWHUV males, some men would be uncomfortable with the high life and low life of the city. The having the livelihood and even the survival of only thing each character has in common is a family based on their career and leadership being inherently strange, and in some way abilities. For this reason many feel like the connected to the supposed kidnapping of an idea of remaining single and not having to aging philanthropist’s trophy wife. Throughout adapt to a preconceived gender role would be his convoluted and always comic run-ins with more rewarding and less stressful than settling the denizens of Los Angeles, “The Dude” down permanently. These are fears that I could PDLQWDLQV KLV DI¿UPDWLRQ WKDW D OLIHVW\OH RI sympathize with as a very young man. I am FRPSODFHQFHDQGSDFL¿VPLVWKHEHVWGHVSLWH unsure of the future and whether I will be able the chaotic events surrounding him. to live the way my grandparents did. As males The greatest appeal to me in 7KH %LJ my age contemplate the responsibilities we /HERZVNL is the aura surrounding the character may face when we are older, we are presented “The Dude,” who is the antithesis of many

64 0DWWKHZ:HQGOHU‡$WWLFXV)LQFKDQG³7KH'XGH¶V´,PSDFWRQ0DVFXOLQLQW\ preceding images of masculinity set by the by Atticus Finch or the tough and tenacious likes of Gregory Peck and Steve McQueen. existence that Virgil Hilts thrived in. McQueen’s performance in 7KH*UHDW(VFDSH American masculinity has changed since was described by the 1HZ

65 New Horizons‡$SULO Tavernise, Sabrina. “Married Couples Are No Longer a Majority, Census Finds”. 7KH  1HZ

66 1HZ+RUL]RQV‡9ROXPH‡1XPEHU‡$SULO Neo-Confederates on Your News Feed: The Neo-Confederate Movement on Facebook

Cabell Willis, ‘14 )DFXOW\0HQWRUCOL Robert L. McDonald, Ph.D., Department of English and Fine Arts

Abstract: $V D NH\ SOD\HU LQ WKH JURZLQJ LQIRUPDWLRQ UHYROXWLRQ )DFHERRN UHSUHVHQWV DQ XQSUHFHGHQWHGPHGLXPRIFXOWXUDOH[SUHVVLRQIRUDGLYHUVHUDQJHRIVRFLDOJURXSV7KH /H[LQJWRQ9LUJLQLDFRQWURYHUV\RYHUWKHGLVSOD\RI&RQIHGHUDWH)ODJVJDYHULVHWRRQHVXFK H[DPSOH RI GLVWLQFWLYH FXOWXUDO H[SUHVVLRQ LQ WKH )DFHERRN JURXS ³6$9( 285 )/$*6´ $Q H[SORUDWLRQ RI 6RXWKHUQ GLVWLQFWLYHQHVV WKLV HVVD\ LQYHVWLJDWHV WKH 1HR&RQIHGHUDWH H[KLELWLRQ RI ³6RXWKHUQHVV´ RQ )DFHERRN $Q DOOHJLDQFH WR WKH &RQIHGHUDF\ &RQIHGHUDWH LGHRORJ\ DQG WKH SUHVHUYDWLRQ RI WKH PHPRU\ RI &RQIHGHUDWH VROGLHUV DQG &RQIHGHUDWH SDWULRWV FRQVWLWXWHV WKH HWKRV RI WKH 1HR&RQIHGHUDWH PRYHPHQW 7KH)DFHERRNSRVWVRI1HR&RQIHGHUDWHVLQWKHJURXS³6$9(285)/$*6´UHÀHFWQRWRQO\D VWURQJVHQVHRIPHPRU\DQGORVVIRUWKH2OG6RXWKDQGWKH&RQIHGHUDF\EXWDOVRDFRQWLQXLQJ VWUXJJOHWRSUHVHUYH³6RXWKHUQHVV´7KHJURXSH[LVWVHVSHFLDOO\IRUWKHSUHVHUYDWLRQRI&RQIHGHUDWH KHULWDJHIDFLOLWDWLQJWKLVVWUXJJOHHOHFWURQLFDOO\DQGDGGLQJWRLWVFKDUDFWHU%H\RQGSURWHVWV ZLWK&RQIHGHUDWH%DWWOH)ODJVPHPEHUVRI³6$9(285)/$*6´KDYHWKHDELOLW\WRH[SUHVV WKHLU6RXWKHUQLGHQWLW\DQGWRVWULYHWRSUHVHUYHLWE\PRELOL]LQJIHOORZ6RXWKHUQV\PSDWKL]HUV WR DFWLRQ LQ GHIHQVH RI WKH 6RXWK DQG PRUH LPSRUWDQWO\ LQ GHIHQVH RI 6RXWKHUQ PHPRU\

here are pages upon pages of them: On September 1, 2011, the City Council of Facebook postings such as Figure 1 Lexington, Virginia, passed an ordinance that Tby common townfolk, avid Sons of FXUWDLOV WKH À\LQJ RI &RQIHGHUDWH ÀDJV IURP Confederate Veterans, and far away supporters FLW\RZQHGÀDJSROHV$VWKHEXULDOJURXQGIRU merely seeking to chip in their own two cents. two of the Confederacy’s—and incidentally the The Facebook group page on which they appear South’s—heroes, Lexington quickly became a is not the only one of its kind. A search will hotbed of activity as Southerners came together yield hundreds of these Facebook “groups”— to support the embattled emblem that has long each one a cry for recognition. Just as their been a trademark of Southern distinctiveness. members have long cried for recognition in The struggle of these Southerners, as Michael city council chambers and on streets, picketing 3ULQFHGH¿QHVLWLVRQHLQGHIHQVHRI³6RXWKHUQ ZLWK ÀDJV DQG EDQQHUV WKHVH JURXSV QRZ honor” and “Southern identity”: represent the impassioned 21st century Neo- Confederate cry for the preservation, salvation, The “Americanization of Dixie” poses a and promulgation of the Confederate legacy as threat, as they see it, not only to the South’s a distinct part of Southern heritage. sense of self, but to the historical context and political underpinnings supporting

67 New Horizons‡$SULO

Figure 1: A Facebook post in the group “SAVE OUR FLAGS- BOYCOTT Lexington, Virginia.” The post calls on Neo-Confederates to attend the ceremonies and parades of Lee-Jackson Day, a traditional state holiday in many Southern states.

the South’s separate and distinct identity. science, the site is no anomaly in the 21st (Prince 146) century, as Steffen Dalsgaard acknowledges:

In their crusade to save the Confederate There is a recognized tendency in the West ÀDJ IURP ZKDW 3HWHU &DUPLFKDHO FDOOV today for the formation and representation “‘Political Correctness’… by members of the of a person’s social identity to be based liberal academic establishment” (Carmichael on exhibiting who one is via material and 10), these “Neo-Confederates” took to the immaterial consumption. (Dalsgaard 9) streets and to the city hall of Lexington in the character of civic Southerners concerned with )DFHERRN SUR¿OHV SURYLGH XVHUV ZLWK D issues in their community. Their activism, PHDQV RI LGHQWL¿FDWLRQ WKDW LV VLPLODU WR² however, did not begin or end with hearings but much more profound than—the clothes, or protests. Support for the opposition to the cars, and brand-name products that modern consumers covet. Facebook gives users a /H[LQJWRQ ÀDJ EDQ OLNH WKDW RI PDQ\ RWKHU movements, appears in the public forum of platform upon which to market themselves to Facebook. their peers, exhibiting their passions, beliefs, Facebook has become more than just a and lifestyles. Groups that Facebook users quaint social networking tool that distracts create and join, however, provide not only adolescents from their homework and keeps DQ H[WHQVLRQ WR WKLV PHDQV RI LGHQWL¿FDWLRQ them in constant contact with their peers. but also facilitate organization through the Originally launched in February 2004 by dissemination of information among like- an ambitious Harvard student of computer PLQGHGSHRSOH$FFRUGLQJWRWKH¿QGLQJVRID study by Park, Kee, and Valenzuela, Facebook

68 &DEHOO:LOOLV‡1HR&RQIHGHUDWHVRQ

Figure 2: This petition provides an example one of the many forms of civic activism that Neo-Confederates promote on Facebook. groups “are created to organize meetings or times down. Northerners say ‘Forget the events and share or discuss common issues War, it’s over.’ But they don’t have the about… community, politics, or casual issues” IDPLO\%LEOHVZHGR¿OOHGZLWKDOOWKHVH (Park 729). Such applications are not lost on kinfolk who went off to war and died. Southerners, particularly Neo-Confederates, We’ve lost so much.’ (Qtd. in Horwitz 26) who use Facebook both as a showcase for their The sense of personal memory—and Southern and Confederate identity, as well as personal loss—that this member of the United to self-mobilize in response to issues of civic Daughters of the Confederacy illustrates, and political nature relating to Confederate couples with a feeling of resistance towards heritage. an onslaught that began with the oppressive The Neo-Confederate sub-culture is an invasion of Yankees during the war, continued HVVHQWLDO SDUW RI WKH PHPRU\ WKDW GH¿QHV WKH with the arrival of the carpetbaggers during American South. It is comprised of fervent Reconstruction, and remains present today &RQIHGHUDWHOR\DOLVWVZKRUHÀHFWDPLFURFRVP as Neo-Confederates cling desperately to of the American South that “shares a pool the memory and heritage of their ancestors. of memory and folkways that constitute a These memories are all that remain for self- coherent and distinct cultural identity” (Prince identifying Southern Confederates of a culture 155). What makes the sub-culture distinct and a way of life that are gone with the wind. among other contemporary reactionary and The advent of the Neo-Confederate counter-counter-culture movements is the movement on Facebook coincides with the unbroken bond that many Southerners who emersion of “an electronic-Confederate associate themselves with Neo-Confederate community” (Prince 151) in the form of other groups feel, either with ancestors, or with the websites for Neo-Confederate groups, as well memory of ante-bellum Southern society. In as massive networks of email communication &RQIHGHUDWHV LQ WKH $WWLF, as Tony Horwitz that spread Southern ideas like viruses amongst undertakes his journey through the South to modern-day Confederate activists. As part discover the continuing cultural obsession with of this community, “SAVE OUR FLAGS – the “Late War,” he inquires of one particular %2<&277/H[LQJWRQ9LUJLQLD´H[HPSOL¿HV Neo-Confederate woman (Sue Curtis) why it is an informational usage of Facebook among that many Southerners still care about the Civil certain groups, such as the Sons of Confederate War: Veterans, to promote civic activism in response ‘The answer is family. We grow up to issues in the community, as Figure 2 knowing who’s once removed and six demonstrates.

69 New Horizons‡$SULO

Figure 3$SRVWWRRUJDQL]HDQLQLWLDOSURWHVWRIWKH&RQIHGHUDWHÀDJEDQLQ Lexington.

Facebook groups have the capacity to DSSHDUVLQ)LJXUHDJDLQVWWKHÀDJRUGLQDQFH increase both civic and political involvement: and promoted a rally that was held the day of by joining “a political or civic group on the hearing, as the post in Figure 3 shows. Facebook, individuals can receive mobilizing Even after the City Council hearing information that may not be available and the passing of the ordinance, the group elsewhere” (Park 729). In this way, “SAVE continues to promote events and encourage OUR FLAGS” has publicized events and civic action in response to the City Council’s inspired action on the part of Neo-Confederates, decision. One such event, which still occurs in Lexington, throughout Virginia, and across in Lexington on an almost weekly basis, the South. Prior to the City Council hearing, LV WKH SUDFWLFH RI ³ÀDJJLQJ´ DGYHUWLVHG E\ members of the group posted the petition that Figure 4, in which Confederate heritage

Figure 4$SRVWWRRUJDQL]HDSURWHVWRIWKH&RQIHGHUDWHÀDJ ban in Lexington. Neo-Confederates colloquially refer to such SURWHVWVDV³ÀDJJLQJ´

70 &DEHOO:LOOLV‡1HR&RQIHGHUDWHVRQ

Figure 5: One of many general posts in the Facebook group “SAVE OUR FLAGS,” promoting Southern and Confederate heritage through images demonstrative of Confederate history. activists gather in mini-rallies to picket the soldiers, along with other images alluding to VWUHHWVRI/H[LQJWRQZLWK&RQIHGHUDWHÀDJV the South’s history, as Figure 5 shows. 7KHVHÀDJJLQJHYHQWVOLNHWKHRULJLQDOUDOO\ Posts such as the one in Figure 5 show the on September 1st, continue to draw support loyalty of Confederate cyber-activists to the from Neo-Confederates from across the South, images of the Confederacy’s past, and their as well as those within Lexington. Indeed, the determination and asserted right to preserve page is not—nor was it ever—limited to dealing them as part of Southern heritage and culture. VROHO\ ZLWK WKH LVVXH RI WKH &RQIHGHUDWH ÀDJ This determination and assertion grows out of LQ /H[LQJWRQ 7KH JURXS DGYHUWLVHV ÀDJJLQJ a passion for the past in Neo-Confederates that, events in Richmond, Reidsville, and even in in many cases, is more visceral than cerebral. Georgia. Facebook, like other technological Moreover, lengthy posts and editorials (rivaling developments of the 21st century, creates a the length of this essay) also serve to defend network of communication between Neo- these images that the Neo-Confederates in the Confederates that enables them to mobilize in group are so passionately attached to: ways that are heretofore unparalleled in their culture. Defending Southern Heritage involves Beyond practical civic applications, more than protecting Confederate Facebook pages such as “SAVE OUR symbols; for them, it involves defending FLAGS” demonstrate numerous examples of ZKDW WKH ÀDJ V\PEROL]HG ZKDW LW VWRRG for, and vindicating the principles of the Southern culture. Other groups, such as “I’m southern cause it represents. (Prince 163) Not Just a Southerner, I’m a Confederate” and “The Confederate Flag” exist merely as As these advocates of Southern Confederate examples of Southern heritage and means of culture jump to the defense of their emblems, LGHQWL¿FDWLRQ:KLOHWKHJURXSZDVSULPDULO\ they also tout Southern culture in a broader developed to incite activism in response VHQVHRUPRUHVSHFL¿FDOO\WKHPHPRU\RILW WR WKH SURSRVHG ÀDJ EDQ LW DOVR VHUYHV DV that they seek to preserve. Other images of the a continuing gallery of Southern culture South appear on the wall of the group, images and ideology. Users have posted dozens of and wall posts show dimensions of the South LPDJHVRI&RQIHGHUDWHÀDJVDQG&RQIHGHUDWH WKDWVHHPXQUHODWHGWRWKHÀDJFRQWURYHUV\RU even the Confederacy, such as Figure 6.

71 New Horizons‡$SULO

Figure 6:A post in “SAVE OUR FLAGS” demonstrating the group’s general association with Southern culture, not particularly related to the Confederacy.

Images posted to the page, like Figure 6, threatens to erode and eventually destroy. GR QRW VHHP UHOHYDQW WR WKH &RQIHGHUDWH ÀDJ (Prince 155) at all. Other posts include a link to a video of “Amazing Grace” and a post citing scripture 6RXWKHUQHUV VSHFL¿FDOO\ WKRVH ZKR from the Bible. Such posts, while they do identify with the Confederacy, view QRWSHUWDLQGLUHFWO\WRWKH&RQIHGHUDWHÀDJRU their region as distinct, and cling to this Confederate heritage, demonstrate a Southern distinctiveness to protect it from what they cultural distinctiveness that members of the see as a “conspirational insurgency against group wish to show. It is clear that the members all things Confederate” (Carmichael 14). To of “SAVE OUR FLAGS” see themselves both prevent the destruction of their culture, Neo- as distinctively Confederate and distinctively Confederates direct their efforts towards Southern (the former is, to them, an essential opposing the efforts—and the presence—of HOHPHQWRIWKHODWWHU DQG¿QGMR\LQSRVWLQJ those seen as “Northern invaders.” In “SAVE images, videos, and words that show their OUR FLAGS,” Lexington mayor Mimi Elrod 6RXWKHUQHVV DQG DI¿UP WKHLU LGHQWLW\ DV has borne the brunt of many of these attacks, as members of a simultaneously Neo-Confederate Figure 7 demonstrates. and Southern group. Obviously Mayor Elrod’s lineage is in Illustrations of the Southern distinctiveness debate, and consequently, her claim to power of “SAVE OUR FLAGS” not only appear in the small southern town of Lexington. The in posts of various images representative of participants in this conversation question her the South, but also in distinct conversations speech (“she doesn’t speak like she’s from that take place among members of the group. Rockbridge County”), whether or not she is a One such conversation that is characteristic ³>JXLOW@ ULGGHQ UHFRQVWUXFWHG W\SH´ DQG HYHQ of Southern Neo-Confederates in particular the ancestral ties of her deceased husband. Their UHÀHFWV WKH 6RXWKHUQ &RQIHGHUDWH GLVGDLQ IRU inquiry as to her bloodline and her allegiances IRUHLJQ²SDUWLFXODUO\ /H[LQJWRQ@´,IVKHLV Confederates in particular, have been wary of at least a Yankee sympathizer (“Scallywag”), the presence and actions of Northerners in the of which Mr. Holds seems convinced, she is South, especially since the end of “the War of not welcome among those who would consider Northern Aggression”: themselves true Southerners (based on their Confederate heritage), much less welcome to The South constitutes an “organic” culture, pass judgment on their culture, their heritage, ZKLFKDQ\LQÀX[IURPRXWVLGH HYHQIURP and the symbols thereof. To the harsh and other parts of the United States itself) hyperbolic reasoning of the Neo-Confederates,

72 &DEHOO:LOOLV‡1HR&RQIHGHUDWHVRQ

Figure 7: A series of posts demonstrating the hostile sentiments of many Southerners towards people foreign to the South. This particular conversation brings into question Lexington mayor Mimi Elrod. her position as a “Yankee reconstructionalist” interpret the past” (Horwitz 6). Posts in the condemns her to hell. Or at the very least to group tackle all of these issues in some way be tarred, feathered, and ridden out of town or another. on a rail. The only immediate answer that From the opposing perspective, however, Neo-Confederate Southerners of Lexington race always seems to be the issue of contention give in their postings such as Figure 8 is her in Neo-Confederate rhetoric. According to a prompt departure—or removal—from the City VFLHQWL¿F VWXG\ RI &RQIHGHUDWH V\PEROV DQG Council and from Lexington itself. Southern identity, race is a prevalent issue in “SAVE OUR FLAGS” demonstrates its the politics of modern-day Confederates: distinctiveness as a Neo-Confederate and Southern group not only in its Southern and Southern identity is closely associated Confederate imagery and it strong anti-Yankee with racial attitudes. All of our measures sentiment, but also in its wrestling with issues of “southerness” are tied, to some extent, of Southern heritage that are often debated to views on race. (Reingold 578) when Confederate heritage is on the line. It is no surprise that race is an issue that is Horwitz’s account of the Neo-Confederate discussed regarding Confederate symbols and movement raises questions regarding “all sorts heritage. In “SAVE OUR FLAGS,” however, of unresolved strife: over race, sovereignty, the the discussion of racial issues takes on a sanctity of historic landscapes, and who should

73 New Horizons‡$SULO

Figure 8: Another post demonstrating the often hostile Southern sentiment toward those they consider Yankees. different dimension. Members of the group activists as racists comes relatively easily to who have posted on the wall acknowledge the American public, most of which sees the that they are often viewed as racists. However, Confederacy only as a symbol of racism: racism is not the apparent underlying motive behind the objectives of the group. In fact, Too often the advocates of Confederate PRVW PHPEHUV RI WKH JURXS ZRXOG ¿HUFHO\ heritage are portrayed as unthinking deny accusations of racism. Posts in the group, thugs who are so full of race hatred, so deluded by nostalgia, and so devoted to a such as the one in Figure 9, tend to downplay conservative agenda that they are incapable and criticize racism and claim that the heirs of of independent thought. (Carmichael 13) Confederate heritage are victims of a counter- discrimination that seeks to destroy all things Other posts on the group’s wall, such as Confederate, Southern, and reminiscent of the those in Figure 10, also condemn the popular “Old South.” hostility towards Confederate heritage and its The post in Figure 9 laments the fact that place in Southern culture that the Lexington opponents of the Neo-Confederate movement ÀDJEDQH[HPSOL¿HV stereotype its adherents as racists. The post Once more, we see contemporary Southern proceeds to refute this stereotype through an Confederates engaging in a staunch defense of exaltation of the character and intentions of the the distinctive history of their culture on behalf most active members of the group as virtuous of their heritage, rather than their hate. While LQWKHIXO¿OOPHQWRIDGXW\RIDQFHVWUDOSLHW\ racism and offensiveness continue to be part Such stereotyping of Confederate heritage

Figure 9: A post addressing the issue of racism and stereotyping as it pertains to Confederate heritage and the Neo-Confederate movement. Many Neo- Confederates, such as this Facebook user, perceive themselves to be victims of cultural stereotyping which pigeonholes them as racists.

74 &DEHOO:LOOLV‡1HR&RQIHGHUDWHVRQ

Figure 10: Two posts speaking out in defense of Confederate heritage against stereotyping and accusations of racism. of the discussion over Confederate symbols, onto the web is not uncharacteristic when Southern Confederates in this group deny one considers the technological revolution of accusations of racism and deny the reasoning the 21st century. However, the struggle for cited for the offensive nature of their symbols. the defense of Confederate heritage exists in That is not to say that other reactionary groups opposition to what many Southerners see as across the south do not misuse and misrepresent “a threat from contemporary government and the symbols of Confederate heritage. It is culture” (Prince 149). Michael Prince suggests important, however, to distinguish the non- the presence of a deeper tension that the Neo- racist motives of Neo-Confederates from the Confederate movement represents: racist motives of other groups. Regardless of the historiographical interpretations concerning The struggle over the Confederate Flag… the causes of the American Civil War, Neo- is symbolic of a more profound underlying Confederates seek primarily to vindicate the FRQÀLFW DQG LWV GHIHQVH DQG LQVWUXPHQW in reestablishing sovereignty over the ³PDQO\ ¿JKW RI WKHLU DQFHVWRUV LQ GHIHQVH RI region’s historical identity. (Prince 164) Southern honor and Southern identity” (Prince 146). They see neither their cause nor that of This is not to say that Neo-Confederates their ancestors as racist, and they certainly do DUH UHDFWLRQDU\ WKH PRYHPHQW LWVHOI ¿QGV not want others to see the symbols they defend LWV RULJLQV LQ DW OHDVW WKH ¿QDO GHFDGH RI WKH as racist in nature either. 19th century. Rather, Neo-Confederates are The Neo-Confederate movement shows ¿JKWLQJ D QHZ ³EDWWOH WR GH¿QH WKH 6RXWKHUQ itself as distinctly Southern, particularly past and through it, Southern identity” (Prince in the context of Facebook and the group 147) against a changing cultural ethos that “SAVE OUR FLAGS.” Through the electronic increasingly sees Confederate and associated medium of Facebook, Neo-Confederates traditional Southern symbolism and rhetoric as have found a forum to raise awareness of anachronistic if not offensive in nature. Prince pertinent issues of Southern heritage, as well argues that this “more profound underlying as to display that heritage through the images FRQÀLFW´ LV SDUW RI D JUHDWHU UHVLVWDQFH WR and the dialogue in which they take part. The new culture that is representative of the migration of the Neo-Confederate movement

75 New Horizons‡$SULO repression and discrimination against Southern RUJDQL]DWLRQDOVWUDWL¿FDWLRQWKDW)DFHERRNDQG Confederate symbols: the Internet provides. Certainly, groups like the Sons of Confederate Veterans and the United For neo-Confederates and southern Daughters of the Confederacy facilitate some traditionalists, submission to the dictates level of organization, but Facebook has the of contemporary norms—whether capacity to involve those beyond the ranks in the form of progressive historical of these groups, and to make the movement reinterpretation or new forms of social behavior—is nothing less than a sin. It is and the issues of concern readily available a sin against the past and against a way of to the public. While the South and the Neo- OLYLQJGH¿QHGE\*RG7KH\GRQRWZDQW Confederate movement continues to trace its to see the South subsumed into a greater roots and hold strong ties to memory and the American whole. (Prince 167) SDVW IRU VHOIGH¿QLWLRQ LW PXVW FRQWLQXH WR maintain a connection to the ever-quickening Many Southerners hold the maintenance SDFHRIWKHWZHQW\¿UVWFHQWXU\ZRUOGLILWLV of Southern distinctiveness to be the only to continue to effectively combat opposition to path to avoiding cultural amalgamation. the place of Confederate heritage in Southern Yet in assuming a place on Facebook in the history. WHFKQRORJLFDO LQWHUIDFH RI WKH WZHQW\¿UVW century, Confederate heritage activists such Acknowledgements as the members of “SAVE OUR FLAGS” are doing the very thing Prince asserts that Combining inspiration from the classroom they have sworn off. In his book, Horwitz and personal experience, this essay was born discovered that this “visceral clinging to the through the support, critique, and guidance past” (Prince 148) manifests itself in reenactors of COL Rob McDonald, my professor. COL who denounce “farbs” and “Farbism”—those McDonald not only provided ideas and insight “who approached the past with a lack of for the topic, but also challenged me in my verisimilitude” (Horwitz 10). approach thereto. Without the rigors of his The apparent aversion that many Neo- demand for a quality, in-depth, and irregular Confederates seem to have for compromise examination of what is in many ways a when it comes to their heritage certainly very familiar and personal topic, this essay manifests itself in the response to the Lexington would not be the complete product that it is. EDQ RI WKH &RQIHGHUDWH ÀDJ 7KH UHVSRQVH Furthermore, I would like to thank my father, however, in depending upon the networking who has challenged me and guided me to think capabilities of Facebook, seems a far departure past accepted ideas in a world that too often IURP VXFK DQ XQFRPSURPLVLQJ ¿GHOLW\ DQG cannot see beyond the walls of comfort that it resistance to cultural homogenization. Ironic? constructs for itself. Perhaps. But the response is a necessity in the face of the fast-moving world that technology Works Cited has facilitated. Even Stonewall Jackson’s rapid movement of troops that so befuddled &DUPLFKDHO3HWHU6³7UXWKLVPLJKW\ ZLOO the Union during the Valley Campaign of eventually prevail” Political Correctness, 1862 seems lumbering in comparison to the Neo-Confederates, and Robert E. Lee.” capabilities that Facebook has afforded the 6RXWKHUQ &XOWXUHV 17.3 (2011): 6-27. Neo-Confederate movement. :HE2FW KWWSPXVHMKXHGX Without Facebook groups like “SAVE vmiezproxy.vmi.edu/journals/southern_ OUR FLAGS,” the Neo-Confederate cultures/v017/17.3.carmichael.html>. movement would be left groping in the Dalsgaard, Steffen. “Facework on Facebook: dark, and would lack the vast and rapid The presentation of self in virtual life and

76 &DEHOO:LOOLV‡1HR&RQIHGHUDWHVRQ

77

1HZ+RUL]RQV‡9ROXPH‡1XPEHU‡$SULO Understanding the Danger of a Nuclear Iran Micah Coate, ‘12 )DFXOW\0HQWRUBG Charles F. Brower, Ph.D., Department of International Studies and Political Science

Abstract: ,UDQ¶V DGDPDQW GHYHORSPHQW RI QXFOHDU SRZHU KDV KHLJKWHQHG XQHDVH QRW MXVW LQ WKH 0LGGOH (DVW EXW DOVR LQ WKH LQWHUQDWLRQDO FRPPXQLW\ $ SRVVLEOH ,UDQLDQ QXFOHDU SURJUDP LV QRWKLQJ QHZ KRZHYHU WKH LVVXH KDV UHFHLYHG PRUH DWWHQWLRQ ODWHO\ EHFDXVH RI ,UDQ¶V LQFUHDVLQJ DELOLW\ WR FDUU\ RXW WKLV SURJUDP VXFFHVVIXOO\ DQG ZKDW WKDW LPSOLHV ,UDQLDQ RI¿FLDOV PDLQWDLQ WKDW WKH SURJUDP LV IRU SHDFHIXO HQHUJ\ SXUSRVHV EXW XQFHUWDLQW\ DERXW WKHVH FODLPV DERXQGV²HVSHFLDOO\ EHFDXVH ,UDQ KDV IDLOHG WR GLVFORVH LPSRUWDQW DVSHFWV RI LWV SURJUDP WR WKH ,QWHUQDWLRQDO $WRPLF (QHUJ\ $JHQF\ ,$($   7KHLQWHUQDWLRQDOFRPPXQLW\KDVUHVSRQGHGWR,UDQ¶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

ran’s adamancy for developing nuclear to the International Atomic Energy Agency power has heightened unease not just in (IAEA). Ithe Middle East, but also in much of the The United States is taking an active role in international community. A possible Iranian this affair because of its interests in the Middle nuclear program is nothing new; however, (DVWDQGWKHVLJQL¿FDQWSRZHUWKDWLWH[HUFLVHV the issue has received a more attention lately in the region. In response to Iran’s refusal to because of Iran’s increasing ability to carry adhere to the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty out this program successfully, and what (NPT) the U.S., as well as many other nations WKDW LPSOLHV ,UDQLDQ RI¿FLDOV PDLQWDLQ WKDW and the United Nations Security Council, has the program is for peaceful nuclear energy imposed a number of sanctions on Iran in hopes purposes, but uncertainty about these claims that Tehran’s economy and industry would be abounds, especially because Iran has failed to hindered enough to compel them to rethink fully disclose important aspects of its program their nuclear aims. Despite the wide array of

79 New Horizons‡$SULO sanctions, Iran has not made any concessions, world that Iran would resume the enrichment and has even reacted by threatening to block of uranium because they had the inalienable the strategic Strait of Hormuz, a crucial right to produce fuel for civilian uses under the passageway for a large percentage of the WHUPV RI WKH 137 7KH ,$($ FRQ¿UPHG WKDW world’s oil. Iran had indeed resumed uranium enrichment If diplomacy and sanctions were to fail, in early 2006. U.S. policy makers have seriously considered Concerns about the true nature of resorting to military force to coerce Iran into the Iranian nuclear program deepened ceasing its nuclear activity. Some believe that considerably in 2008 when the CIA released such a drastic action is necessary because the evidence, obtained clandestinely, that Iran had consequences the U.S. and its allies would been working secretly on uranium processing, suffer if Iran was allowed to develop a weapon high explosives testing, and re-entry vehicle of mass destruction are severely damaging to design programs.3 ,UDQLDQ RI¿FLDOV GLVPLVVHG their interests in the region. Others strongly the information as fabricated. Iran has advise against attacking Iran because they continued, however, to add to its vast network believe that it would produce effects equally of nuclear sites. In 2009 a Russian company as damaging. They assert that continued FRQ¿UPHG LW ZDV VWLOO FRPPLWWHG WR EXLOGLQJ diplomacy and tighter sanctions are the best a light-water reactor at Bushehr, which it had course of action. These two arguments have begun building in Iran in 1995.4 More alarming been hotly debated in Washington for some was the discovery, also in 2009, of a covert time now. There is, however, one more option uranium enrichment facility near Qom that had on the table that may allow the United States to allegedly been under construction for years avoid disastrous consequences altogether. without the knowledge of the IAEA.5 Soon Despite Iran’s continual claims that the sole after, Ahmadinejad approved the construction purpose of its nuclear program is to produce of ten new uranium enrichment plants, despite energy peacefully, specialists have remained international demands against it.6 extremely skeptical of these assertions due Iran’s nuclear program has already WRDQXPEHURI¿QGLQJVWKDWVWURQJO\VXJJHVW developed beyond merely building facilities the Iranian regime is attempting to carry though. The Institute for Science and out a nuclear weapons program. In 2002 the International Security (ISIS) reported in 2009 international community discovered that Iran that Iran was producing an average of 2.77 was constructing two secret nuclear facilities, kilograms of Low-Enriched Uranium (LEU) at Natanz and Arak. International pressure a day, and if they continued at that rate while persuaded Iranian authorities to allow into further enriching the LEU to weapons-grade the facilities inspectors from the IAEA who uranium they would have enough to produce subsequently reported that Iran had violated two nuclear weapons by early 2010.7 This the NPT Safeguards Agreement to which Iran ZRXOGQRWEHGLI¿FXOWWRDFFRPSOLVKEHFDXVH is a signatory. The agency further reported as one director at the International Institute WKDW LW ZDV XQDEOH WR FRQ¿UP ,UDQ¶V SHDFHIXO for Strategic Studies (IISS) notes, “72% of intentions due to the incomplete disclosure of the effort to produce weapons-grade uranium information about aspects of its program.1 is accomplished by the time the product is After the report, the Islamic Republic enriched to 3.5%. By the time the uranium is agreed to sign an additional protocol with the enriched to 20%, nine-tenths of the effort to EU-3 (France, Britain, Germany) in 2003, reach weapons-grade has been expended.”8 in which they agreed to cease enrichment Though ISIS believed that Iran had not actually activities.2 That agreement was short-lived. developed a nuclear weapon at that point, it When Mahmoud Ahmadinejad was elected as became clear that they were getting much Iranian president in 2005, he declared to the closer in February 2010 when they announced

80 0LFDK&RDWH‡8QGHUVWDQGLQJWKH'DQJHURID1XFOHDU,UDQ their intentions to enrich their stockpiles of active military presence in the Persian Gulf, a LEU to 20 percent, an amount that is known as reference to the regular deployments of carrier Highly-Enriched Uranium (HEU).9 strike groups that support missions in the U.S. These pieces of evidence strongly suggest Central Command area of responsibility.13 that Iran may be attempting to produce 'H¿DQWVWDWHPHQWVVXFKDVWKHVHUDLVHGLQWHQVH nuclear weapons, which has prompted the discussion about whether the U.S. intends to international community to attempt to coerce continue to use diplomacy in dealing with the the Iranian government into dropping its Iranian issue, or if they will turn to military QXFOHDUDPELWLRQV)ROORZLQJWKHFRQ¿UPDWLRQ force. U.S. authorities have responded to these that Iran had continued its uranium enrichment Iranian threats thus far by announcing publicly in 2006, the issue of Iranian nuclear ambitions that a closing of the Strait of Hormuz will not was referred to the United Nations Security be tolerated &RXQFLO 816&  ZKLFK DGPLQLVWHUHG D ¿UVW Hostility towards Iran and its nuclear round of sanctions in December 2006. These SURJUDPLVGH¿QLWHO\QRWOLPLWHGWRWKH8QLWHG included a ban on the exports of any nuclear States. Israel perceives Iran’s nuclear program materials to Iran and a prohibition against as a severe threat to its very existence, technical cooperation with the Iranian nuclear especially considering Ahmadinejad’s frequent program, as well as a freezing of assets and public condemnations of Israel and the Iranian restrictions on international travel for select government’s support for anti-Israeli militant individuals involved in the program.10 Since groups such as Hamas and Hezbollah. An WKRVH ¿UVW VDQFWLRQV ZHUH LPSOHPHQWHG Israeli military strike on Iran would not come however, the IAEA has released a number of as a surprise, given the history of past raids reports that indicate enrichment activities in that Israel has carried out on Iraqi and Syrian Iran have not been suspended, and that the nuclear facilities.14 Many experts believe that program still lacks the transparency needed Israel has already led a series of covert attacks WR FRQ¿UP ,UDQ¶V FODLPV WKDW LWV QXFOHDU inside Iranian borders, including assassinations program is solely for peaceful purposes. These of Iranian scientists, sabotage of nuclear resulted in three more rounds of sanctions by equipment, and funding of Iranian opposition the UNSC in 2007, 2008, and 2010, which groups.15 included bans on Iranian military exports and Still, worry about Iran’s growing capability ballistic missile activity, expansion of the list to produce nuclear weapons causes anxiety of select individuals and entities whose assets among Israeli citizens, whose government were to be frozen, calls for the monitoring of estimated in January 2012 that Iran was several Iranian banks, and encouragement of about nine months away from being able to the inspection of any cargo travelling to and withstand any attack that Israel would be able from Iran. The U.S. has implemented several to carry out on their nuclear facilities.16 Israeli sanctions on its own, creating an almost total Defense Minister Ehud Barak has stated that economic embargo on Iran, and the European he and Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu Union is beginning to follow suit.11 are responsible for the existence of the state of Iran responded recently to the sanctions Israel and the future of the Jewish people, and by threatening to take actions that would indicated that since late 2011 Israel has been test Western interests in the region. In late preparing for such a military option. Barak December 2011, the Iranian navy embarked constantly stresses the need for American on a ten-day military training exercise in the support in the situation, warning that if the rest Strait of Hormuz to demonstrate its capability of the world waits too long to take action then to block the strategic waterway, which moves the time will come—within this year—when it 40 percent of the world’s oil.12 They have also is no longer possible to act.17 warned the United States against keeping an

81 New Horizons‡$SULO Many analysts argue that these claims The concern over the spread of nuclear are being exaggerated so that Israel can weapons is not limited to non-state actors raise a greater urgency about the situation in though. Iran’s relations with other key players the United States and Europe.18 Yet Iran’s in the Middle Eastern are, for the most part, continued enrichment activities, the discovery strained. Saudi Arabia, an ally of the United of intentionally hidden aspects of the Iranian States, has been engaged in political and nuclear program, and the Iranian regime’s economic competition with Iran for decades. refusal to cooperate absolutely with UN bodies Iran has encouraged and even supported have brought the international community uprisings and terrorist attacks within Saudi to the consensus that Iran intends to produce territory, while the Saudis supported Saddam nuclear weapons. This has generated intense Hussein against Iran during the Iran-Iraq War discussion about what the existence of an and constantly question the true nature of Iran’s Iranian nuclear bomb implies for the Middle nuclear program.23 In Egypt, the Mubarak East and the rest of the world, and what other government accused Iran of supporting the nations, particularly the United States, should terrorist organization that was responsible for do about it. the assassination of former president Anwar The longest range missile in the Iranian Sadat, and Iran has condemned Egypt’s ties arsenal, the Sajjil, is still in testing and can with Israel.24 travel just under 1,500 miles; the longest The fearful speculation is that the Middle range of an actually deployed Iranian missile East states that have hostile relations with is roughly 900 miles. Thus it is not likely that Iran may be compelled to develop their own Iran can attack the American homeland anytime nuclear weapons if they feel an Iranian bomb in the foreseeable future.19 The President has threatens their security, thus sparking a nuclear stated a number of times, however, that the arms race in the region. In June 2011 a senior U.S. cannot allow Iran to develop nuclear 6DXGL GLSORPDW ZDUQHG 1$72 RI¿FLDOV WKDW weapons because having a nuclear-armed state Saudi Arabia “cannot live in a situation where in the Middle East will pose a great risk to US Iran has nuclear weapons and we don’t,” and interests in the region, as well as to the overall “if Iran develops a nuclear weapon, that will stability of the region. be unacceptable to us and we will have to Some experts believe the presence of an follow suit.”25 Similar claims were made by Iranian nuclear bomb would severely limit Egypt in 2010 when the Egyptian ambassador U.S. freedom of action in the Middle East by to the UN stated that if other nations acquire giving the Iranian regime the credible threat of nuclear weapons and use them to gain status initiating a nuclear war, and thereby hindering in the Middle East, Egypt will not stand by as any U.S. political or military initiatives.20 In “second-class citizens.”26 2009 the U.S. State Department stated that Iran Thus far, the international answer has been is “the most active state sponsor of terrorism,” the imposition of harsh sanctions that would because of the funding, weapons, training, and coerce the Iranian regime into modifying its guidance it provides to terrorist groups such as behavior in regard to their nuclear initiatives. Hamas and Hezbollah in states like Palestine, The effectiveness of these sanctions has been Lebanon, Iraq, and Afghanistan.21 Iranian PXFK GHEDWHG ,Q WKH ¿UVW VL[ ZHHNV RI WKLV leaders have denied the accusations, claiming year the rial, Iran’s currency, lost half of its to the contrary that they are in fact victims of value.27 Joel Brinkley, a Pulitzer Prize-winning terrorism.22 The fear remains, however, that former 1HZ

82 0LFDK&RDWH‡8QGHUVWDQGLQJWKH'DQJHURID1XFOHDU,UDQ “the heaviest economic onslaught on a nation program, and 35 percent said they would in history.”28 support a U.S. military strike against Iran as Economic conditions, as a result of an alternative.34 Another 48 percent say they sanctions, may become worse than that. In would want the U.S. to support an Israeli addition to America’s own near-complete attack on Iran.35 There are many critics of this embargo on Iran, the United States has been military option, however. appealing to other nations to stop buying Those who disapprove of the use of force Iranian goods. In Europe, where 20 percent argue that any pre-emptive military action of Iran’s oil exports go, France recently against Iran would come at a heavy price to announced that it will buy no more Iranian the United States. They contend that an attack oil, and encouraged the rest of the EU to do would undoubtedly incite the Iranian regime the same.29 Even China, which has stubbornly to retaliate by launching direct counterattacks refused to impose its own sanctions, is taking against U.S. troops, personnel, and interests advantage of a weakened Iranian economy by in the region, or by sponsoring terrorist demanding that Iran lower the price of its oil.30 organizations to do it for them.36 Retaliation Critics argue that despite the vast array of against Israel and other allies in the region sanctions imposed on Iran over the past decade FRXOGGUDZPXOWLSOHQDWLRQVLQWRWKHFRQÀLFW and the economic hardships that have resulted, VLJQL¿FDQWO\HVFDODWLQJWKHVLWXDWLRQ the Islamic Republic has never submitted to Another possible outcome of a pre- international pressure to cease enrichment emptive strike on Iran would be that the activities. Iran has even resisted calls for Islamic Republic may actually close the Strait effective diplomacy between them, the U.S., of Hormuz, just as they have threatened. This and other UN members. These critics say that closure, coupled with supply disruptions that when sanctions are placed on a state-run sector could be expected in the event of an attack, of the economy, such as banks or the Iranian would cause oil prices to sky-rocket, triggering oil industry, the repercussions are transferred a world-wide economic crisis.37 Richard to the smaller private entities of the country Haass, the president of the Council on Foreign with which those sectors are intertwined. This 5HODWLRQV DQG D IRUPHU RI¿FLDO LQ ERWK %XVK has created high unemployment and higher administrations, believes that any foreign living costs for ordinary Iranian citizens, while attack on Iranian soil, especially one aimed at the state-owned Iranian oil industry continues a program that all Iranians believe their nation to sell hundreds of thousands of barrels a day, has the right to implement to produce peaceful at an increased price, to nations like China and energy, would cause any dissident voices to be India who refuse to boycott Iranian oil.31 In quieted as the Iranian citizens rally around the a BBC report, one Iranian citizen voiced his regime.38 opinion that, “These sanctions are pointless. The biggest question critics pose though, 7KH UHJLPH¶V UXOHUV KDYH DOUHDG\ ¿OOHG WKHLU is whether or not the U.S. can expect an pockets with our country’s money, so it won’t attempt to destroy Iran’s nuclear program will affect them. It will just be the people of Iran be successful. Due to Iran’s history of hiding who suffer.”32 Another reason why the Iranian nuclear sites, some experts believe that there government may not be changing its behavior may still be several hidden components of in response to the sanctions is because it has the nuclear program. Several known sites are been dealing with sanctions since the 1979 located deep underground and widely dispersed revolution and, in a way, has learned to absorb throughout the country. An attack may not be and adapt to the economic consequences.33 able to destroy the sites most important to In a recent poll conducted by Rasmussen the program. Even if it did, there is still the Reports, 63 percent of American voters do not speculation that Iran’s nuclear ambitions would expect that sanctions will stop Iran’s nuclear not cease, but only be postponed.39

83 New Horizons‡$SULO Those in favor of military action understand of giving the Iranians a “freebie” to continue the fears of their counterparts, but still argue HQULFKLQJXUDQLXPIRU¿YHPRUHZHHNVZLWKRXW that an attack is the best option, for although limitations.44 the consequences of such an attack may be The Israelis, along with others, believe that tough to bear, they believe that dealing with this round of talks will end in the same way an Iran possessing nuclear weapons would be as did the talks in 2009, when Tehran initially even more burdensome. Matthew Kroenig, a agreed to a deal to send about 80 percent of Georgetown University professor and former its LEU to Russia in exchange for fuel that Defense Department strategist in the Obama would be used in a reactor to make medical administration, asserts that if an attack is isotopes, but backed out several months later.45 carefully managed by using advanced weapons If negotiations in May meet a similar fate, that systems to pinpoint targets and reduce civilian should sound an alarm for policy makers that casualties, evacuating non-essential American these attempts at diplomacy are only giving personnel within range of an Iranian retaliation, Iran a greater window to advance their nuclear and opening the Strategic Petroleum Reserve to ambitions while easing some economic offset the disruption of oil supplies, the United pressure and alleviating some fear that military States should be able to alleviate many of the action will be taken. consequences.40 Failed diplomacy, however, does not Other supporters argue that the attack may mean the U.S. should resort to military action. actually create more openings for dissident Having just spent a costly decade in Iraq and voices inside Iran to criticize the government Afghanistan, it would not be advisable to that allowed this to happen.41 They also doubt initiate another war in the region that would there are still operational nuclear sites in Iran most likely produce similar outcomes, even if that U.S. intelligence agencies are unaware of, some believe that such consequences would be and an attacker need not worry about missing better than allowing Iran to go nuclear. If any strategic targets. Though Natanz, Arak, and lesson can be drawn from the recent U.S. wars Qom were all hidden from the international in Afghanistan and Iraq though, it is that it is communities, each was discovered before far easier to start a war than it is to secure the it became fully operational.42 They further desired outcome. “The statesman who yields contend that if the offensive is devastating to war fever,” Winston Churchill said, “is no enough, Iran will drop its nuclear goals longer the master of policy, but the slave of altogether, just as Iraq did after the destruction unforeseeable and uncontrollable events.”46 of its nuclear program during the Gulf War, Instead, U.S. policy makers need to seriously and Syria did after the Israeli strike in 2007.43 analyze and consider another option that would Given these possible outcomes, the get around this “damned if you do, damned if best case scenario would clearly be that Iran you don’t” military strike scenario. In short, voluntarily commits itself to an agreement the U.S. needs to carefully reconsider just how with Western powers that would ensure they much of a threat a nuclear Iran is to American do not produce a nuclear weapon. Looking vital interests. at the history of such negotiations though, The popular and heated rhetoric of the likelihood that the Iranian regime will American and Israeli politicians who accuse whole-heartedly adhere to any constructive Iran of being an irrational actor that, once agreement is not high. The current negotiations in the possession of nuclear weapons, will EHWZHHQ,UDQDQGWKH¿YHSHUPDQHQWPHPEHUV wipe Israel off the face of the Earth and of the UNSC plus Germany (P5+1) have not transfer nuclear material to terrorists who produced any results thus far and recently will wreak havoc all over the world is itself were postponed until the middle of May 2012, highly irrational. The Iranian regime is as OHDGLQJ,VUDHOLRI¿FLDOVWRDFFXVHWKH3UHVLGHQW concerned with self-preservation as any other

84 0LFDK&RDWH‡8QGHUVWDQGLQJWKH'DQJHURID1XFOHDU,UDQ government and will not engage in activities nuclear weapons since the end of World War that could lead to its destruction. The regime II. Not a single weapon of mass destruction ended its practice of assassinating exiled has been used in almost seven decades. Even Iranian dissidents in the 1980s and 1990s, for North Korea, which is deemed just as-- if not example, when it created too much tension more-- irrational than Iran, has refrained from with European governments.47 In the 2006 using its nuclear weapons. war between Israel and Hezbollah in Lebanon, Further, North Korea’s nuclear ambitions ,UDQ WRRN D ORZULVN UROH LQ WKH FRQÀLFW E\ did not compel its regional rivals South Korea, deploying a relatively small number of Iranian Japan, and Taiwan to proliferate. Instead, Revolutionary Guards to train the Shiite those nations have traded the possibility of a militias, despite its immense hatred for Israel nuclear program of their own for an American and strong support for Hezbollah in Lebanon.48 nuclear security umbrella. In the Middle East, Iranian casualties totaled nine, while estimates the United States already has a similar method of Lebanese civilian and soldier casualties of protection in place for Turkey. Middle East were as high as 1,600.49 Since the war Iran has states have been living with Israel’s nuclear trained Hezbollah militants in Iran rather than ambiguity for years but only three have made Lebanon.50 any serious attempts at developing nuclear An Iranian attack on Israel, nuclear or weapons. Two of those three—Iraq and conventional, would be a suicide mission. Syria— ended their nuclear programs in 1991 Though Israel maintains a policy of nuclear and 2007, respectively, and have not made any ambiguity, it is widely believed its arsenal has VLJQL¿FDQWHIIRUWWRUHVWDUWWKHP54 There is not up to two hundred nuclear weapons that are much reason to assume they would treat an deployable via aircraft, ballistic missiles, and Iranian bomb any differently than an Israeli submarines.51 In the event Iran makes a serious one. threat to Israel’s existence, its aggression Pakistan, also a nuclear power and also an would undoubtedly be countered by a strong admitted sponsor of terrorism, has never handed ,VUDHOLVHFRQGVWULNHFDSDELOLW\,UDQRI¿FLDOO\ D QXFOHDU ZHDSRQ WR LWV WHUURULVW DI¿OLDWHV55 endorses and supports the creation of a Such a move would forfeit all legitimacy in the Palestinian state, but it is unlikely they would international arena, and disadvantageously tie be willing to risk Tehran to save Gaza.52 It the goals, decision making, and actions of that seems more likely that the Iranian regime terrorist group to their own policy objectives. would realize that, once in the possession Pakistan and its neighbor India, likewise a of nuclear weapons, any actions that might nuclear power, have engaged for decades in a threaten their regional rivals could lead to a FRQÀLFWRYHUFRQWURORIWKH.DVKPLUUHJLRQWKDW serious escalation that would be damaging to has been much more bloody and destructive the survival of the regime. It would not be in than any that has occurred between Iran and the best interest of Iran to do something like Israel, or Iran and Saudi Arabia. Still, neither transfer nuclear weapons to its terrorist allies state has resorted to nuclear war. In light of because it would most likely generate a quick these historical imperatives, it is safe to assume response from not just Israel, but from U.S. that the best use the Iranian regime will have and NATO forces in the region as well. The for a nuclear weapon will be to deter aggression EHQH¿WV ,UDQ ZRXOG VHH IURP KDQGLQJ RYHU against their own state, and as a status symbol. such a valued resource to reckless groups, It is important that U.S. policy makers moreover, are unclear.53 rationally and thoroughly analyze their It seems more plausible Iran will follow assumptions with regard to Iran’s nuclear the same path every nuclear power has taken program, and to understand the consequences since 1945. Despite the NPT, seven nations exaggerated assumptions could have. Having (eight, if Israel is included) have developed just ended a costly, bloody, eight-year invasion

85 New Horizons‡$SULO of Iraq and only now readying to end a similar Shire, “IAEA Report on Iran: Centrifuges increase; FRQÀLFW LQ $IJKDQLVWDQ OHDYHV WKH 86 QRW Rate of LEU production steady; progress on enough resources, let alone support from the inspection requests at Arak and Natanz; no progress $PHULFDQ SXEOLF WR ¿JKW DQRWKHU ZDU LQ WKH on possible military dimensions.” Institute for Middle East. The nuclear program of Iran is not Science and International Security, August 28, 2009, 1. http://www.isis-online.org/publications/ a national security threat to the United States; iran/Analysis_IAEA_Report.pdf it poses a minimal risk to order and stability in 8Mark Fitzpatrick, “Iran: The Fragile Promise of the Middle East. An American attack on Iran the Fuel Swap Plan” 6XUYLYDO (June/July 2010): may well lead to another costly and prolonged 78. http://www.iiss.org/EasysiteWeb/getresource. war, an even worse world economic crisis, and D[G"$VVHW,'  W\SH a further enfeebled United States. 9“CNN Student News Transcript: February 9, 2010,” CNN (February 8, 2010) http://www.cnn. Endnotes com/2010/US/studentnews/02/08/transcript.tue/ index.html 1 International Atomic Energy Agency. Board of 10United Nations Security Council. “Resolution Governors. “Implementation of the 1737 (2006),”December 27, 2006., 2-9. http://www. NPT safeguards agreement in the Islamic Republic isisnucleariran.org/assets/pdf/UNSC_res_1737.pdf of Iran,” June 19, 2003., 7. http://www.iaea.org/ 11“EU Iran sanctions: Ministers adopt oil imports Publications/Documents/Board/2003/gov2003-40. ban,” BBC (January 23, 2012). http://www.bbc. pdf. co.uk/news/world-europe-16674660 2 International Atomic Energy Agency. Information 12Tim Lister, “Analysis: Saber-rattling in Strait Circular. “Communication dated 26 November of Hormuz,” CNN (December 28, 2011). http:// 2004 received from the Permanent Representatives articles.cnn.com/2011-12-28/middleeast/world_ of France, Germany, the Islamic Republic of Iran meast_iran-hormuz_1_strait-iranian-warship- and the United Kingdom concerning the agreement LUDQLDQRLOSODWIRUPV"BV 300,''/(($67 signed in Paris on 15 November 2004,” November 13Cheryl Pellerin, “DOD Seeks Safe Hormuz 26, 2004., 3. http://www.iaea.org/Publications/ 3DVVDJHIRU$OO2I¿FLDO6D\V´86'HSDUWPHQWRI Documents/Infcircs/2004/infcirc637.pdf. Defense, January 3, 2012. http://www.defense.gov/ 3 International Atomic Energy Agency. Board QHZVQHZVDUWLFOHDVS["LG  of Governors. “Implementation of the NPT 14Peter Beaumont, “Was Israeli raid a dry run for Safeguards Agreement and relevant provisions of attack on Iran?” 7KH *XDUGLDQ (September 15, Security Council resolutions 1737 (2006) and 1747 2007). http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2007/ (2007) in the Islamic Republic of Iran,” March 5, sep/16/iran.israel 2008., 9-10. http://www.iaea.org/Publications/ 15Ronen Bergman “Will Israel Attack Iran?” 7KH Documents/Board/2008/gov2008-4.pdf (January 25, 2012) http://www. 4 1HZ

86 0LFDK&RDWH‡8QGHUVWDQGLQJWKH'DQJHURID1XFOHDU,UDQ 10, 2009). http://www.spiegel.de/international/ http://www.rasmussenreports.com/public_content/ world/0,1518,618559,00.html politics/current_events/israel_the_middle_east/if_ 23Ariel Farrar-Wellman, Robert Frasco, and Will israel_attacks_iran_48_want_u_s_to_help_israel Fulton, “Saudi Arabia- Iran Foreign Relations,” 36Kroenig, 82. America Enterprise Institute: Iran Tracker (August 37Richard N. Haass, “Answering Iran,” Project 1, 2011). Syndicate (January 26, 2012). http://www.project- http://www.irantracker.org/foreign-relations/saudi- syndicate.org/commentary/answering-iran arabia-iran-foreign-relations 38Ibid. 24Ariel Farrar-Wellman, Robert Frasco, and Will 39Ibid. Fulton, “Egypt-Iran Foreign Relations,” America 40Kroenig, 80-84. Enterprise Institute: Iran Tracker (August 11, 2011). 41Ibid. 85. http://www.irantracker.org/foreign-relations/egypt- 42Ibid. 79-80. iran-foreign-relations#_edn1 43Ibid. 84-85. 25Jason Burke, “Riyadh will build nuclear weapons 44“Obama rejects Netanyahu’s claim on Iran nuclear if Iran gets them, Saudi prince warns,” 7KH ‘freebie,’” CNN (April 16, 2012). http://www.cnn. *XDUGLDQ (June 29, 2011). http://www.guardian. com/2012/04/16/world/meast/iran-nuclear/index. co.uk/world/2011/jun/29/saudi-build-nuclear- html weapons-iran 45Steven Erlanger, David E. Sanger, and Robert F. 26Elaine M. Grossman, “Egypt Plays Key :RUWK³7HKUDQ5HMHFWV1XFOHDU$FFRUG2I¿FLDOV Nonproliferation Role, But Keeps Nuclear Options Report,” 7KH1HZ

87 New Horizons‡$SULO 54“Comprehensive Report of the Special Advisor Bacevich, Andrew J. 7KH/LPLWVRI3RZHU to the DCI on Iraq’s WMD: Nuclear” Central  7KH(QGRI$PHULFDQ([FHSWLRQDOLVP Intelligence Agency, September 30, 2004, 1. http:// (New York: 2008). www.foia.cia.gov/duelfer/Iraqs_WMD_Vol2. Burke, Jason. “Riyadh will build nuclear pdf;“Syrian nuclear weapons site revealed by UN weapons if Iran gets them, Saudi prince investigators,” 7KH*XDUGLDQ, (November 1, 2011). warns,” (June 29, 2011). http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2011/nov/01/ 7KH*XDUGLDQ syria-nuclear-arms-site-revealed http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2011/ 55Dean Nelson, “Pakistani president Asif Zardari jun/29/saudi-build-nuclear-weapons-iran admits creating terrorist groups” 7KH 7HOHJUDSK “Comprehensive Report of the Special (July 8, 2009). http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/ Advisor to the DCI on Iraq’s WMD: worldnews/asia/pakistan/5779916/Pakistani- Nuclear” Central Intelligence Agency, president-Asif-Zardari-admits-creating-terrorist- September 30, 2004. http://www.foia.cia. groups.html gov/duelfer/Iraqs_WMD_Vol2.pdf;“ “CNN Student News Transcript: February Acknowledgements 9, 2010,” CNN (February 8, 2010). http:// Special thanks to Brigadier General Brower www.cnn.com/2010/US/ who guided me through the writing and studentnews/02/08/transcript.tue/index. revision of this paper, and encouraged me to html submit it for publication. Erdbrink, Thomas. “Ahmadinejad vows dramatic expansion of Iran’s nuclear Works Cited program,” 7KH:DVKLQJWRQ3RVW (November 30, 2009). http://www Albright, David, Paul Brannan, and washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/ Jacqueline Shire. “IAEA Report on Iran: article/2009/11/29/AR2009112900992. Centrifuges increase; Rate of LEU html production steady; progress on inspection Erlanger, Steven, David E. Sanger, and Robert requests at Arak and Natanz; no progress F. Worth. “Tehran Rejects Nuclear on possible military dimensions.” Institute for Science and International Security,  $FFRUG2I¿FLDOV5HSRUW´7KH1HZ (October 29, 2009). http:// August 28, 2009. http://www.isis-online. 

88 0LFDK&RDWH‡8QGHUVWDQGLQJWKH'DQJHURID1XFOHDU,UDQ Fisk, Robert. “Hizbollah turns to Iran for Iran and the United Kingdom concerning new weapons to wage war on Israel,” the agreement signed in Paris on 15 7KH,QGHSHQGHQW (April 8, 2008). November 2004,” November 26, 2004. http://www.independent.co.uk/opinion/ http://www.iaea.org/Publications/  FRPPHQWDWRUV¿VNKL]EROODKWXUQVWR Documents/Infcircs/2004/infcirc637.pdf. iran-for-new-weapons-to-wage-war-on- “Iranians feel sanctions bite,” BBC (February israel-805763.html 2, 2012). http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/ Fitzpatrick, Mark. “Iran: The Fragile Promise world-middle-east-16813248 of the Fuel Swap Plan” Survival (June/ Klein, Aaron. “War Dead Flown to Iran,” New July 2010). http://www.iiss. 

89 New Horizons‡$SULO “Obama rejects Netanyahu’s claim on Iran http://www.isisnucleariran.org/assets/pdf/ nuclear ‘freebie,’” CNN (April 16, 2012). UNSC_res_1737.pdf http://www.cnn.com/2012/04/16/world/ 86'HSDUWPHQWRI6WDWH2I¿FHRIWKH meast/iran-nuclear/index.html Coordinator for Counter Terrorism. “Only 35% Support U.S. Military Action “Country Reports on Terrorism 2008,” If Sanctions Won’t Stop Iran,” Rasmussen April 30, 2009. http://www.state.gov/j/ct/ Reports, (January 19, 2012). http://www. rls/crt/2008/122436.htm rasmussenreports.com/public_content/ Vali, Nasr. “Sanctions,” Council on Foreign politics/current_events/iran/only_35_ Relations. http://www.cfr.org/interactives/ support_u_s_military_action_if_ CG_Iran/index.html#/analyzing-the- sanctions_won_t_stop_iran options/ Pellerin, Cheryl. “DOD Seeks Safe Hormuz 7KH:KLWH+RXVH2I¿FHRIWKH3UHVV  3DVVDJHIRU$OO2I¿FLDO6D\V´86 Secretary. “Statements by President Department of Defense, January 3, 2012. Obama, French President Sarkozy, and http://www.defense.gov/news/newsarticle. British Prime Minister Brown on Iranian  DVS["LG  nuclear facility,” September 25, 2009. Pillar, Paul. “We Can Live with a Nuclear http://www.whitehouse.gov/the_press_ Iran,” :DVKLQJWRQ0RQWKO\ (March/April  RI¿FH6WDWHPHQWV%\3UHVLGHQW2EDPD 2012). http://www.washingtonmonthly. French-President-Sarkozy-And-British- com/magazine/marchapril_2012/features/ Prime-Minister-Brown-On-Iranian- we_can_live_with_a_nuclear_ira035772. Nuclear-Facility/ php Procida, Frank. “Overblown: Why an Iranian Nuclear Bomb Is Not the End of the World,” )RUHLJQ$IIDLUV (June 9, 2009). http://www.foreignaffairs.com/ articles/65127/frank-procida/overblown# “Russia will complete Iran nuclear plant” $JHQFH)UDQFH3UHVV (September 2, 2008). http://afp.google.com/article/ “Spiegel Interview with Iranian President Ahmadinejad,” 6SLHJHO2QOLQH  ,QWHUQDWLRQDO (April 10, 2009). http://www.spiegel.de/international/ world/0,1518,618559,00.html Stoll, Ira. “Hundreds of Iranian Troops Fighting in Lebanon,” 1HZ

90

1HZ+RUL]RQV‡9ROXPH‡1XPEHU‡$SULO Compressive Strength Analysis of Mortar Mixes Consisting of Recycled Plastics John W. McDonald, ‘15 )DFXOW\0HQWRUV: MAJ Jennifer deHart, VMI Physical Plant LTC Charles Newhouse, Ph.D., Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering

Abstract:,QDQHIIRUWWR¿QGQHZZD\VWRPLQLPL]HWKHDPRXQWRISODVWLFZDVWHWKH9LUJLQLD 0LOLWDU\,QVWLWXWH 90, VHQGV WRORFDOODQG¿OOVDV SDUWRIDFROODERUDWLYHHIIRUWEHWZHHQWKH &LYLO DQG (QYLURQPHQWDO (QJLQHHULQJ 'HSDUWPHQW DQG WKH 90, 3K\VLFDO 3ODQW D UHVHDUFK SURMHFWZDVSHUIRUPHGDVSDUWRIWKH90,6XPPHU8QGHUJUDGXDWH5HVHDUFK,QVWLWXWH 685,  5HVHDUFKHUVZDQWHGWRGHWHUPLQHWKHYLDELOLW\RIUHF\FOHGSODVWLFVDVD¿QHDJJUHJDWH VDQG LQ VWDQGDUGPRUWDUPL[HV7KHUHF\FOHGSODVWLFVZHUHFROOHFWHGVRUWHGE\W\SHPHOWHGVKUHGGHG EDWFKHG LQWR D VWDQGDUG PRUWDU PL[ DQG WHVWHG WR GHWHUPLQH WKH FRPSUHVVLYH VWUHQJWKV D VWDQGDUGFRPSDUDWLYHPHDVXUHRIWKHUHVXOWLQJPL[HV6HYHUDOWHVWLQJSURFHGXUHVZHUHGHYHORSHG LQ RUGHU WR UHSODFH  RI WKH ¿QH DJJUHJDWH E\ YROXPH 2QH SURFHGXUH GHYHORSHG DOORZHG UHVHDUFKHUVWRGHWHUPLQHWKHVSHFL¿FJUDYLW\RIWKHSODVWLFVZKLFKZDVGLI¿FXOWWRGHWHUPLQH WKURXJKWUDGLWLRQDOWHVWLQJSURFHGXUHVEHFDXVHSODVWLFLVOHVVGHQVHWKDQZDWHUFDXVLQJLWWR ÀRDW2QDYHUDJHWKHPL[HVSURGXFHGIURPWKHYDU\LQJSODVWLFW\SHVPDLQWDLQHGURXJKO\RI WKHFRPSUHVVLYHVWUHQJWKRIDVWDQGDUGFRQWUROPL[7KHVHFRPSUHVVLYHVWUHQJWKVDUHLQOLQHZLWK SUHYLRXVUHVHDUFKDQGVKRZWKDWLWPD\EHSRVVLEOHWRXVHPL[HVSURGXFHGIURPUHF\FOHGSODVWLFV IRUV\VWHPVWKDWUHTXLUHORZHUVWUHQJWKFRQFUHWHVXFKDVFRQFUHWHIRUPHGKRPHVSHGHVWULDQ VLGHZDONVGHFRUDWLYHFRQFUHWHDQGPRUH,WZDVDOVRGLVFRYHUHGWKDWWKHZDWHUGHPDQGZDV PRUH WKDQ DQWLFLSDWHG DQG GHVHUYHV DGGLWLRQDO FRQVLGHUDWLRQ 7KH (QYLURQPHQWDO 3URWHFWLRQ $JHQF\¶V (3$  ³5HGXFH 5HXVH 5HF\FOH´ FDPSDLJQ XUJHV FLWL]HQV RI WKH 8QLWHG 6WDWHV WR DGGUHVV WKH DPRXQW RI ZDVWH WKH\ JHQHUDWH DQG KRZ LW LV XOWLPDWHO\ GLVSRVHG ,Q NHHSLQJ ZLWK WKH (3$¶V FKDUJH WKLV UHVHDUFK VKRZHG WKDW LW LV YLDEOH WR NHHS SODVWLFV DW 90, RXW RI ODQG¿OOV E\ LQFRUSRUDWLQJ WKHP LQ ORZHU VWUHQJWK FRQFUHWHV

Introduction still sent roughly 136 million tons of trash to ver the past several decades, household ODQG¿OOVLQ>@5RXJKO\PLOOLRQWRQVRI recycling has increased in the United plastic Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET) water OStates, but a large portion of recyclable bottles were produced in the U.S. in 2006 and PDWHULDOVVWLOOHQGVXSLQODQG¿OOV$FFRUGLQJWR RIWKHVHERWWOHVHQGHGXSLQODQG¿OOV>@ the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), While most plastics can be recycled, in 2010 Americans produced over 250 million VRPH FDQQRW DQG PXVW EH VHQW WR ODQG¿OOV tons of trash and recycled or composted over Additionally, recycling centers are often at 85 million tons of this material. While a 34% capacity for various reasons and are forced to recycling rate looks good when compared to VHQGSODVWLFVWRODQG¿OOV:KHQSODVWLFVDUHSXW the 16% recycling rate of 1990, Americans LQWRODQG¿OOVWKH\DUHFRPSDFWHGDQGFRYHUHG

92 -RKQ0F'RQDOG‡&RPSUHVVLYH6WUHQJWK$QDO\VLVRI0RUWDU0L[HV with dirt. Because the plastics are shielded from SODVWLFVDVD¿QHDJJUHJDWHLQDVWDQGDUGPRUWDU sunlight, the already lengthy decomposition mix. The compressive strengths of the mortar process is greatly extended. mixes containing plastics were compared to Typically, when rainwater and other the compressive strengths of three different liquids leech through the layers of waste they standard mixes. The overall goal was to FROOHFWFRQWDPLQDQWV/DQG¿OOVDUHUHTXLUHGWR determine the feasibility of further research collect and treat any liquids, termed leachate, involving recycled plastics in cement, mortar, WKDWSHUPHDWHWKURXJKWKHOD\HUVRIZDVWH>@ and concrete mixes in order to create a new &XUUHQWO\ (3$ UHJXODWLRQV UHTXLUH ODQG¿OOV EHQH¿FLDOGHPDQGIRUUHF\FOHGSODVWLF to be monitored and the leachate be treated IRU  \HDUV DIWHU EHLQJ FORVHG >@ 3ODVWLFV ,GHQWL¿FDWLRQ contribute to contaminants in leachate and may The varying plastic types are marked continue to degrade and produce contaminants ZLWK DQ LGHQWL¿HU DV GHVFULEHG LQ $670 long after 30 years, creating an unaddressed ' >@ 7KLV SXEOLFDWLRQ GHWDLOV WKH VL]H environmental concern. shape and placing requirements of the Plastic A recent project developed by the Virginia ,GHQWL¿FDWLRQ&RGH 3,& 5HVLQ,GHQWL¿FDWLRQ Military Institute (VMI) Concrete Canoe team &RGH 5,& WKDWLGHQWL¿HVWKHFRPSRVLWLRQRI contained recycled plastic (PET) bottles to plastic products. Descriptions and common produce a successful concrete mix. Based on uses for each plastic type can be found in Table this success the research team decided to further >@ investigate the possibility of using recycled Table 1: 5HVLQ,GHQWL¿FDWLRQ&RGH 5,&

93 New Horizons‡$SULO Collection GXVW RU PHOWHG 3RO\YLQ\O &KORULGH >@ ZDVWH After making contact with the managers of of this type is not largely produced on campus. Aramark, the company contracted to provide Because researchers want to determine campus-wide catering services for VMI, alternate uses for plastic waste produced by the research team established a recycling a certain population (VMI), the decision was collection point in Crozet Hall, VMI’s main made to not seek alternate sources of plastics dining facility. Aramark managers instructed labeled with RIC #3. their employees to place unclean plastic waste generated by food preparation at the designated collection point. The employees were helpful and willing to assist with the project. The most common plastics discarded at Crozet Hall were plastics labeled with the #2, #4, #5, DQG  5HVLQ ,GHQWL¿FDWLRQ &RGHV $V RIWHQ as the collection point reached capacity, the plastics would be collected and pre-washed for IXWXUHXVH,QRUGHUWR¿QGDVRXUFHIRUSODVWLFV labeled with RICs #1, #3 and #6, researchers worked with VMI Physical Plant Engineer MAJ Jennifer deHart. With her approval, the recycling collection points in the concession rooms of Barracks (student housing) were mined for additional plastics. Only plastics Figure 1: Collected plastics, RIC #2, and HDPE. labeled with RICs #1 and #6 were collected from Barracks. Refer to Table 2 for collection totals after 3 weeks of collection. Cleaning Researchers wanted to maintain the theme Table 2: Collection Data of sustainability when exploring cleaning Plastic Collected options. The initial cleaning attempts were Type Weight the least energy intensive but created other (RIC) (lbs.) concerns that overshadowed the lack of energy XVDJH7KH¿UVWSURFHVVZDVDWKUHHGLSSKDVH #1 12.0 using buckets of water. In addition to the problem of food waste left in the plastics, #2 20.0 researchers were presented with the challenge of properly disposing the food-laden waste #3 0.0 water. After discussing these concerns with #4 8.3 MAJ deHart, researchers decided the cleaning process needed to take place in Crozet Hall. #5 20.1 In addition to a grease entrapment system incorporated into the plumbing that allowed #6 7.0 for proper disposal of food waste, Crozet Hall #7 7.4 has a mop room with a hose that delivers 150°F water from a high pressure nozzle (Figure 2). After three weeks of collection, researchers While more energy intensive than originally decided not to include any plastics labeled hoped, this process ensured that all food waste with RIC #3, Polyvinyl Chloride, in the test was removed which eliminated the chance of materials. In addition to the risk of inhaling mold growth on the plastics while being stored

94 -RKQ0F'RQDOG‡&RPSUHVVLYH6WUHQJWK$QDO\VLVRI0RUWDU0L[HV

Figure 2: Washing food waste from plastic containers prior to the melting process. The necessity for 7KLVWHVWGH¿QHVZKDWLVFRQVLGHUHG³VWDQGDUG clean plastics was essential to provide accurate sand” by allowable passing percentages per and consistent data during the testing process. sieve number. Sieves create a mix design with These facilities were used throughout the DFHUWDLQJUDGDWLRQRI¿QHDJJUHJDWHSDUWLFOHV duration of the cleaning phase. Refer to Table 3 for allowable passing percentage as outlined in C33-02. Sieve Analysis of Sand After performing a sieve analysis of the sand The research team decided to use standard SURYLGHGUHVHDUFKHUVREVHUYHGWKDWLWZDV¿QHU FRQFUHWHPL[LQJVDQGDVWKH¿QHDJJUHJDWHIRU WKDQWKHVSHFL¿FDWLRQVRXWOLQHGE\$670& the mortar mixes. Sand used in the production 02, even though the bag was marked as meeting of standard mortar mixes should meet the these requirements. To ensure accuracy of the VSHFL¿FDWLRQVRXWOLQHGE\$670&>@ ¿UVWWHVWUHVHDUFKHUVXVHGWKHVDPHHTXLSPHQW Table 3: Fine Aggregate Grading Limits

6LHYH 6SHFL¿FDWLRQ( 3HUFHQW3DVVLQJ 9.5 mm (3/8 in.) 100 4.75 mm (No. 4) 95 to 100 2.36 mm (No. 8) 80 to 100 1.18 mm (no. 16) 50 to 85 600 μm (No. 30) 25 to 60 300 μm (No. 50) 5 to 30 150 μm (No. 100) 0 to 10 Chart Taken From ASTM C33-02

95 New Horizons‡$SULO

Figure 3: Vibrating sieve machine Table 4: Sieve Analysis Data

6LHYH$QDO\VLV 6LHYH$QDO\VLV Sieve 3HUFHQW3DVVLQJ Sieve 3HUFHQW3DVVLQJ 9.5 mm (3/8 in.) 100 9.5 mm (3/8 in.) 100 4.75 mm (No. 4) 100 4.75 mm (No. 4) 100 2.36 mm (No. 8) 99.89 2.36 mm (No. 8) 99.98 1.18 mm (No. 16) 98.01 1.18 mm (No. 16) 95.25 600 μm (No. 30) 76.51 600 μm (No. 30) 78.45 300 μm (No. 50) 29.17 300 μm (No. 50) 32.41 150 μm (No. 100) 3.08 150 μm (No. 100) 3.69

Figure 4: Comparison of Sieve Analysis- Cumulative Percent Passed and performed an additional sieve analysis test GHWHUPLQHG WKH VDQG ZRXOG EH VXI¿FLHQW IRU (Figure 3). Refer to Table 4 for Sieve Analysis the series of tests being performed as long data. Again, researchers observed that the as the same sand was used for the standard VDQG ZDV ¿QHU WKDQ WKDW RXWOLQHG LQ $670 mixes and all subsequent experimental mixes. C33-02. Figure 4 demonstrates that both tests Researchers would then be able to accurately produced similar percent passing rates. Given compare the overall compressive strengths. that the discrepancies were minor, researchers

96 -RKQ0F'RQDOG‡&RPSUHVVLYH6WUHQJWK$QDO\VLVRI0RUWDU0L[HV Shredding The need for a solid piece of plastic was When discussing shredding options, evident, so researchers decided to experiment researchers agreed upon the importance of with the possibility of melting the plastics into producing a product that was consistent in size a tin can, which was used as a mold. Using the and shape, regardless of plastic type. Initially, sorted plastics, each type was cut into pieces researchers investigated the possibility of using VPDOOHQRXJKWR¿WLQWRDWLQFDQ7KH¿UVWDWWHPSW large scale machinery that had the ability to at melting was performed on an outdoor grill. produce the desired product. After attempting to This proved promising, as the heat provided by coordinate the use of a large scale granulator at the grill melted the plastic down in a tin. When a northwestern Virginia plastics manufacturing observing the solid plastic cylinder produced company, researchers had to rule out this option by the heat of the grill, researchers decided to GXH WR VFKHGXOLQJ FRQÀLFWV$OWKRXJK IXUWKHU XVHDKHDWVRXUFHWKDWGLGQRWSURGXFHDÀDPH attempts to coordinate the use of a large scale On the grill, the plastic would occasionally granulator would have provided researchers FDWFK¿UHSULRUWRPHOWLQJ7KLVZDVFDXVHGE\ with insight into how the process works, they WKH GLI¿FXOW\ RI FRQWUROOLQJ WKH WHPSHUDWXUH decided against it with the goal of determining DQGÀDPHKHLJKWRIWKHJULOO%\XVLQJDKHDW a smaller, more sustainable solution. gun, researchers were able to melt the plastics In hopes of performing the shredding ZLWKRXWWKHULVNRI¿UH7KLVSURGXFHGDPXFK process on campus, researchers investigated cleaner and usable solid plastic cylinder. It the possibility of using an average, home- was important the researchers preformed this use cheese grater. The initial tests yielded procedure in a well-ventilated area in order to a promising product but the process was not minimized any risk associated with inhalation HI¿FLHQW'XHWRWKHVKDSHRISODVWLFFRQWDLQHUV of the fumes created by melting the plastic. high volume shredding was greatly limited, While creating solid cylinders of each different and resulted in too great a time commitment. plastic type, researchers observed variations in Researchers determined it was necessary melting temperatures. Further research into to alter the shape of the plastics in order to the manufacturing of these products proved maximize surface area of the plastics on this fact. According to Dynalon, a supplier the grater. After experimenting with several of educational supplies, plastics labeled with different ways of manipulating the shape, the RICs #2, #4, #5 and #6 could be melted using >@ attempts to produce satisfactory amounts of the ovens in the lab . These ovens made the shredded plastic were still ineffective. SURFHVV PXFK PRUH HI¿FLHQW DV UHVHDUFKHUV were able to perform other tasks in the lab

Figure 5: Taking temperature of plastic at its melting point as it takes the shape of the mold in an oven

97 New Horizons‡$SULO while simultaneously melting the plastics into through the center of a plastic cylinder. A 1/2 the molds (Figure 5). LQFK EROW ZDV ¿WWHG ZLWK D QXW DQG ZDVKHU After completing the melting process, before it was inserted into the cylinder. Once researchers used a handheld grater to shred the the bolt was threaded through the center of plastics into a collection bowl. This method the cylinder, another washer and nut were was slow but produced the desired shape and threaded onto the bolt. The opposing nuts were size of plastic necessary for use in a mortar mix securely tightened towards the center of the (Figures 6 and 7). As researchers spent large cylinder. This created a plastic cylinder that amounts of time hand grating the plastics, the rotated symmetrically around an axis. Once issue of sustainability became quite obvious. the bolt was secured to the cylinder, the end This process created a large demand for of the bolt was secured into a power drill, just extremely time-consuming, rigorous physical as a drill bit would be. The drill provided the labor. Hand grating would work for the power needed to move the cylinder at a high testing process, but this issue really interested RPM. After attaching a box grater to a table researchers and motivated them to explore mounted vise, researchers were able to apply pressure to the spinning cylinder as it made contact with the grater. This action mimicked that of hand grating, but at a much faster pace. 7KLVSURFHGXUHJUHDWO\LQFUHDVHGWKHHI¿FLHQF\ of the grating process.

Replacement Once researchers had all the material that was to be added to the varying mortar mixes, the research team needed to determine the most FRQVLVWHQW ZD\ WR UHSODFH WKH ¿QH DJJUHJDWH (sand) of a standard mortar mix with the shredded plastic. After weighing out several samples of different plastics types, researchers determined that if they were to replace a Figure 6: Typical Shredded Plastic, Type portion of the sand with an equal weight of #7, Other each plastic type, they would be adding largely different volumes of plastic to each mix. For example, plastic labeled with RIC #7 is far denser than RIC #6. To replace 20 grams of sand with 20 grams of each type of plastic would create one mix with a volume of RIC Figure 7: Size of typical shredded plastic, Type #6 far greater than the volume needed to add #7, Other a similar weight of plastics labeled with RIC #7. This could greatly affect other properties and not provide a reliable comparison. With PRUHHI¿FLHQWPHWKRGV this knowledge, researchers decided to replace Researchers investigated industrial size the sand with the recycled plastics by the cheese graters to determine if one would be cost standard “Absolute Volume Method.” With EHQH¿FLDO WR WKH UHVHDUFK SURFHVV $OWKRXJK this method, when removing 250cm3 of sand, this was not the case, researchers were able researchers would replace the same volume to emulate the function of an industrial grater. (250cm3), regardless of plastic type. In order To do this, researchers drilled a 3/8 inch hole to do this, the density of both the sand and

98 John McDonald • Compressive Strength Analysis of Mortar Mixes varying plastic types needed to be determined. While some of this information is available in various sources, researchers were unsure what chemical changes were made by the melting process. It was necessary to know the density of the varying plastic types in the state at which they would be added to the cement mix. Researchers used ASTM C128-01 [10], “Standard Test Method for Density, Relative Density (Specific Gravity), and Absorption of Fine Aggregate,” and were able to determine the relative density (specific gravity) of the sand. This test method was designed for, and works well with sand, which was found to have a relative density of 2.53 g/cm3, but it proved to be far less effective with plastic. Because plastic is less dense than water, the shredded plastics floated in water. This was problematic in finding the submerged sample Figure 8: Submerging sand as part of specific weight as required by the test (Figure 8). Using gravity analysis ASTM C128-01 as a model, the researchers experimented with several different ways to minimize uncertainty in the data. To do this, take similar measurements to those required researchers used a 250mL Erlenmeyer flask by the test. and a number 6 stopper with a 1/8 inch hole In order to achieve a weighable submerged drilled through its center. The plastics were sample of the varying plastic types, researchers added to a dry flask which was then filled used a French-Press coffee maker. The within 5mL of capacity. Next, the stopper was screen in the French-Press kept the plastics added to the flask and was pressed into place by submerged, but due to the diameter of the a 20 lb. weight. This ensured that the stopper press, uncontrollable inconsistencies arose. In was fitted with the same pressure each time the order to take a submerged weight of plastics, test was performed. Any excess water would the press was filled strictly with water to a displace and the flask was then weighed. The calibration mark and weighed. The water was difference in this weight and the weight of a then removed, the plastics were added, and the flask filled strictly with water determined the press was then again filled to the calibration submerged weight. This method provided a mark and weighed. The difference in weight much more consistent set of data. With this would be the submerged weight of the plastics. data, researchers were able to determine the The area of the press was so large that while density of the different plastic types (Table 5). the press was filled to the calibration mark, Using the equation for density: Density differences of ± 5-10 grams in weight were =mass/volume, researchers were able to noticed. The human eye is not keen enough determine what volume 25% of the required to notice these minute changes in the volume. weight of sand occupied. Likewise, researchers Though the French-Press was able to keep were able to take the volume of sand being the plastics submerged, researchers needed to removed and determine the weight of each Table 5: Material Densities

Plastic Type (#) #1 #2 #4 #5 #6 #7 Average Density (g/cm3) 1.087 0.683 0.658 0.583 0.048 0.834

99 New Horizons‡$SULO Table 6: Material Amounts per Batch (Actual)

Mix &HPHQW Plastic 6DQG Water ,QJUHGLHQW (g) (g) (g) (g) 3ODVWLF 500.00 147.67 1031.30 282.10 3ODVWLF 500.00 92.78 1031.30 282.70 Plastic #4 500.00 89.36 1031.30 282.60 Plastic #5 500.10 79.49 1031.30 282.60 Plastic #6 499.90 6.57 1031.30 282.00 Plastic #7 500.00 113.34 1031.30 281.60 6WDQGDUG6DQG 500.00 0.00 1375.20 294.60 6WDQGDUG6DQG 500.00 0.00 1375.00 294.60 6WDQGDUG6DQG 500.00 0.00 1375.00 282.70

plastic that would be needed to occupy the the water was added while the mixer was in the same space. This method is known as the “on” position where it mixed for three minutes, “Absolute Volume Method.” This data dictated per ASTM C-109. the mix ratios for each batch (Table 6). After the mixing process was complete the mortar mix was added to the molds in two Mixing GLIIHUHQW OLIWV ,Q WKH ¿UVW OLIW WKH FXEH PROG Before mixing, each of the different mix ZDV¿OOHGURXJKO\KDOIZD\ZLWKWKHPRUWDUPL[ ingredients were measured out and stored in before it was tamped (packed) down 32 times separate containers until they were ready to be SHU FXEH DV SHU $670 &E >@ 7KH added to the mixer (Figure 9). It was important second lift was added and the tamping process to ensure the stainless steel mixing bowl was UHSHDWHG7KHWRSVRIWKHPROGVZHUH¿QLVKHG wiped down with a damp rag prior to adding using a trowel (Figure 10) prior to the mold any ingredients. This ensured no water content being labeled and placed in a curing room, was taken from the mix. The sand and the where it was covered with wet burlap. The FHPHQWZHUHDGGHG¿UVWWRWKHPL[LQJERZODQG wet burlap provided the cubes with moisture, mixed for one minute. This allowed the sand allowing the cement to fully hydrate. This and the cement to be mixed evenly. Next, the process is what allowed the cement to bond plastic was added to the mixing bowl where it with the other ingredients. Six cubes were was mixed for another minute. Once the sand, made for each mix. Three standard mixes (no cement, and plastics (if needed) were mixed,

Figure 9: Proportioned ingredients for mix Figure 10: Finished cube molds containing plastic

100 -RKQ0F'RQDOG‡&RPSUHVVLYH6WUHQJWK$QDO\VLVRI0RUWDU0L[HV

Figure 12: Cubes in curing room, covered with wet burlap Figure 11: Cube mold demonstrating failure caused by compressive load

Table 7: Standard Mixes Break Data

Cube Cube Load Max &RPSUHVVLYH ,QLWLDO Aged Weight Average Age ID Rate Load 6WUHQJWK Weight Weight *DLQHG C.S. (Date) (Mix/Cube #) (PSI/S) (lbs) (PSI) (g) (g) (g) (PSI)

+56 S1/C1 — 5940 1485 274.3 — — 1511 12-Jun-12 S1/C2 — 6150 1538 275.3 — — — 3 Day S1/C3 — 12630 3158 271.5 — — 3213 15-Jun=12 S1/C4 — 13070 3268 276.2 — — — 'D\ S1/C5 9 17860 4465 274.3 277.87 3.57 4555 10-Jul-12 S1/C6 9 18580 4645 277.8 280.72 2.92 — Cube Cube Load Max &RPSUHVVLYH ,QLWLDO Aged Weight Average Age ID Rate Load 6WUHQJWK Weight Weight *DLQHG C.S. (Date) (Mix/Cube #) (PSI/S) (lbs) (PSI) (g) (g) (g) (PSI)

+56 S2/C1 4 7930 1993 275.96 275.96 0.00 1978 19-Jun-12 S2/C2 4 7890 1973 276.28 276.28 0.00 — 3 Day S2/C3 6 14740 3685 273.25 273.62 0.37 3760 21-Jun=12 S2/C4 12 15340 3835 277.78 278.15 0.37 — 'D\ S2/C5 9 22630 5658 274.69 276.63 1.94 5675 16-Jul-12 S2/C6 14 22770 5693 276.18 275.90 -0.28 — Cube Cube Load Max &RPSUHVVLYH ,QLWLDO Aged Weight Average Age ID Rate Load 6WUHQJWK Weight Weight *DLQHG C.S. (Date) (Mix/Cube #) (PSI/S) (lbs) (PSI) (g) (g) (g) (PSI)

+56 S3/C1 3 5630 1408 272.34 272.34 0.00 1404 19-Jun-12 S3/C2 4 5600 1400 271.76 271.76 0.00 — 3 Day S3/C3 7 13190 3298 275.45 275.47 0.02 3423 21-Jun=12 S3/C4 11 14190 3548 277.24 277.53 0.29 — 'D\ S3/C5 14 23970 5993 275.19 274.52 -0.67 5739 16-Jul-12 S3/C6 16 21940 5485 274.03 274.40 0.37 —

101 New Horizons‡$SULO Table 8: Plastics Mix Break Data Cube Cube Load Max &RPSUHVVLYH ,QLWLDO Aged Weight Average Age ID Rate Load 6WUHQJWK Weight Weight *DLQHG C.S. (Date) (Mix/Cube #) (PSI/S) (lbs) (PSI) (g) (g) (g) (PSI)

+56 PC1/C1 3 5030 1258 239.88 239.88 0.00 1259

13-Jun-12 PC1/C2 4 5040 1260 241.16 241.16 0.00 —

3 Day PC1/C3 4 6900 1725 234.46 237.50 3.04 1801

15-Jun-12 PC1/C4 5 7510 1878 237.79 239.89 2.10 —

'D\ PC1/C5 26 10540 2635 239.00 241.58 2.58 2668

10-Jul-12 PC1/C6 7 10806 2702 238.20 240.84 2.64 —

Cube Cube Load Max &RPSUHVVLYH ,QLWLDO Aged Weight Average Age ID Rate Load 6WUHQJWK Weight Weight *DLQHG C.S. (Date) (Mix/Cube #) (PSI/S) (lbs) (PSI) (g) (g) (g) (PSI)

+56 PC2/C1 4 5180 1295 249.30 249.30 0.00 1301

13-Jun-12 PC12C2 4 5230 1308 248.18 248.18 0.00 —

3 Day PC2/C3 6 8040 2010 242.86 246.36 3.50 2014

15-Jun-12 PC2/C4 5 8070 2018 246.55 249.32 2.77 —

'D\ PC2/C5 7 12150 3038 244.53 248.04 3.51 2928

10-Jul-12 PC2/C6 7 11270 2818 244.70 248.52 3.82 —

Cube Cube Load Max &RPSUHVVLYH ,QLWLDO Aged Weight Average Age ID Rate Load 6WUHQJWK Weight Weight *DLQHG C.S. (Date) (Mix/Cube #) (PSI/S) (lbs) (PSI) (g) (g) (g) (PSI)

+56 PC14C1 3 4380 1095 242.96 242.96 0.00 1164

13-Jun-12 PC4/C2 4 4930 1233 249.68 249.68 0.00 —

3 Day PC4/C3 6 7310 1828 247.11 250.82 3.71 1844

15-Jun-12 PC4/C4 5 7440 1860 248.14 251.61 3.47 —

'D\ PC4/C5 8 10790 2698 249.26 253.09 3.83 2845

10-Jul-12 PC4/C6 7 11970 2993 252.20 256.11 3.91 —

Cube Cube Load Max &RPSUHVVLYH ,QLWLDO Aged Weight Average Age ID Rate Load 6WUHQJWK Weight Weight *DLQHG C.S. (Date) (Mix/Cube #) (PSI/S) (lbs) (PSI) (g) (g) (g) (PSI)

+56 PC5/C1 3 4110 1028 247.22 247.22 0.00 1030

13-Jun-12 PC5/C2 4 4130 1033 245.76 245.76 0.00 —

3 Day PC5/C3 5 7280 1820 243.29 246.43 3.14 1903

15-Jun-12 PC5/C4 5 7940 1985 247.68 250.32 2.64 —

'D\ PC5/C5 9 11490 2873 240.00 244.30 4.30 2884

10-Jul-12 PC5/C6 8 11580 2895 241.24 245.62 4.38 —

Cube Cube Load Max &RPSUHVVLYH ,QLWLDO Aged Weight Average Age ID Rate Load 6WUHQJWK Weight Weight *DLQHG C.S. (Date) (Mix/Cube #) (PSI/S) (lbs) (PSI) (g) (g) (g) (PSI)

+56 PC6/C1 4 4480 1120 250.32 250.32 0.00 1120

13-Jun-12 PC6/C2 4 4480 1120 251.82 251.82 0.00 —

3 Day PC6/C3 6 9110 2278 251.70 255.63 3.95 2350

15-Jun-12 PC6/C4 5 9690 2423 253.54 254.41 3.09 —

'D\ PC6/C5 8 14230 3558 250.54 254.41 3.87 3603

10-Jul-12 PC6/C6 8 14590 3648 253.11 257.20 4.09 —

Cube Cube Load Max &RPSUHVVLYH ,QLWLDO Aged Weight Average Age ID Rate Load 6WUHQJWK Weight Weight *DLQHG C.S. (Date) (Mix/Cube #) (PSI/S) (lbs) (PSI) (g) (g) (g) (PSI)

+56 PC7/C1 4 4710 1178 253.40 253.40 0.00 1118

13-Jun-12 PC7/C2 4 4230 1058 246.56 246.56 0.00 —

3 Day PC7/C3 5 6680 1670 247.63 250.43 2.80 1909

15-Jun-12 PC7/C4 7 8590 2148 251.60 254.06 2.46 —

'D\ PC7/C5 8 11000 2750 251.91 255.95 4.04 2465

10-Jul-12 PC7/C6 8 8720 2180 245.49 249.59 4.10 —

102 -RKQ0F'RQDOG‡&RPSUHVVLYH6WUHQJWK$QDO\VLVRI0RUWDU0L[HV

Figure 13: Comparison of compressive strengths

Figure 14: Percent compressive strength lost in each plastic type as compared to the average standard mix

103 New Horizons‡$SULO plastic) and six plastic mixes were made. Six respect to the amount of recycled plastics used specimens were made from each mix. DVD¿QHDJJUHJDWH Visual observation indicated that the Breaks cement bonded better to the softer plastics than the harder, denser plastics. Further research Each different mortar mix was aged in should be performed in order to determine a curing room. After 24 hours in the molds, various methods to increase bond strength the cubes were weighed, marked with their between smooth, dense plastics and the cement LGHQWL¿FDWLRQFRGHDQGIRXURIWKHFXEHVZHUH interface. returned to the curing room to continue the 5HVHDUFKHUV H[SHULHQFHG D FRQÀLFW ZLWK curing process. The two cubes that were left out discrepancies in proper water content over the would be tested to determine their compressive duration of the mixing phase. When comparing strength using a compressive strength test water content of the standard mixes to their machine (Figure 11). This test is referred to as respective compressive strengths, researchers “breaking.” This process was repeated on days discovered that variations in water content 3 and 28 of the aging process. Throughout had a direct impact on compressive strength. the aging process, the cubes sat covered with The plastic mixes seem to demand larger wet burlap in a high moisture curing room in water content than researchers anticipated. order to be provided with constant temperature Researchers believe the size of the aggregate and humidity (Figure 12). The cement would created large amounts of surface area for water continue to hydrate and gain strength for the to bond to. Because of this, further research duration of the curing process. When the is needed to determine the ideal amount of breaks were performed the following data was water in each mix to maximize its compressive collected: max load, compressive strength, strength potential. and load rate. This data was all compiled into While a compressive strength loss of 45% spreadsheets along with initial and aged cube PD\VHHPWRRVLJQL¿FDQWWRTXDOLI\WKHSODVWLF weight, for easy comparison to the varying mixes for any practical use, this is not the case. mixes. Break strengths were similar to data Since the mortar cubes maintained 55%, on FROOHFWHG E\ SUHYLRXV UHVHDUFKHUV >@ 7KLV average, of their compressive strength, this data is shown in Tables 7 and 8. TXDOL¿HVWKHPIRUXVHLQDQXPEHURIORZVWUHQJWK applications in addition to several building Conclusions construction applications. As highlighted by In conclusion, the reduction in compressive Parviz Soroushian, and Roz-Ud-Din Nassar, strengths was typical of previous research the plastics improve the thermal qualities of involving the use of recycled plastics in WUDGLWLRQDO FRQFUHWH >@ PDNLQJ FRQFUHWH concrete. Although other research incorporated containing portions of recycled plastics ideal mixed types, the compressive strength loss of for concrete home construction. approximately 52% of the control was similar While the results of this research justify WRZKDWZDVREVHUYHGLQWKLVUHVHDUFK>@2Q further investigation into the use of recycled DYHUDJHWKHYDU\LQJSODVWLFW\SHVXVHGDVD¿QH plastics in concrete, the research team aims aggregate lost 46% the compressive strength to keep minimizing plastic’s environmental of the control mixes, with the extremes being implications in the forefront of their research plastics labeled with RIC #3 losing only 32% efforts. These baseline tests give researchers compressive strength and plastics labeled with a place from which to move forward. Now RIC #7 losing 54% compressive strength. that many of the initial testing procedures and Further research needs to be performed to road blocks have been addressed, researchers determine a strength reduction curve with PD\IRFXVWKHLUHQHUJ\RQ¿QGLQJVROXWLRQVWR

104 -RKQ0F'RQDOG‡&RPSUHVVLYH6WUHQJWK$QDO\VLVRI0RUWDU0L[HV VSHFL¿F LVVXHV WKDW DURVH GXULQJ WKLV SULPDU\ >@$6706WDQGDUG&³6SHFL¿FDWLRQ research phase. for Concrete Aggregates,” ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA. Acknowledgements >@ '\DQORQ QG ³6FLHQFH DQG (GXFDWLRQ This research project would have not been Product Cataloge,” Rochester, NY. possible had it not been for the research >@$670 6WDQGDUG &  ³6WDQGDUG opportunity provided by the VMI Summer Test Method for Density, Relative Density 8QGHUJUDGXDWH5HVHDUFK,QVWLWXWHWKH¿QDQFLDO 6SHFL¿F *UDYLW\  DQG $EVRUSWLRQ RI )LQH support provided by the VMI Department of Aggregate,” ASTM International, West Civil and Environmental Engineering, and the Conshohocken, PA. materials and facilities provided by the VMI >@$670 6WDQGDUG &  ³6WDQGDUG Physical Plant and VMI Aramark Staff. Not Test Method for Compressive Strength of only did all parties provide support through +\GUDXOLF&HPHQW0RUWDUV 8VLQJLQRU> funding and access to materials and facilities, mm] Cube Specimens),” ASTM International, they provided a wealth of knowledge in their West Conshohocken, PA. UHVSHFWLYH¿HOGV7KLVLQVLJKWZDVDJUHDWWRRO >@ 6RURXVKLDQ 31DVVDU 5 8 '  when navigating through the research process. “High-Recycled-Content Concrete Energy: (I¿FLHQW %XLOGLQJ &RQVWUXFWLRQ´ -RXUQDO RI 6ROLG :DVWH 7HFKQRORJ\  0DQDJHPHQW, pp. References 143-152. >@ (QYLURQPHQWDO 3URWHFWLRQ $JHQF\ 2010, “Municipal Solid Waste Generation, Recycling, and Disposal in the United States: Facts and Figures for 2010.” >@ *RYHUQPHQW$FFRXQWDELOLW\ 2I¿FH  “Bottled Water: FDA Safety and Consumer Protections Are Often Less Stringent Than Comparable EPA Protections for Tap Water,” Washington DC. >@ 2I¿FH RI 6ROLG :DVWH 5HGXFWLRQ DQG 5HF\FOLQJ  µ+RZ /DQG¿OOV :RUN´ Columbia, SC. >@ (QYLURQPHQWDO 3URWHFWLRQ $JHQF\  “Wastes - Non-Hazardous Waste - Municipal Solid Waste,” http://www.epa.gov/osw/ QRQKD]PXQLFLSDOODQG¿OO¿QDQFLDOPVZFORVH htm >@$670 6WDQGDUG '  ³6WDQGDUG Practice for Coding Plastic Manufactured $UWLFOHV IRU 5HVLQ ,GHQWL¿FDWLRQ´ $670 International, West Conshohocken, PA. >@5HF\FOLQJDQG5HVRXUFH5HFRYHU\&RXQFLO 1994, “Uses of plastics and recycled plastics, Australia.” >@7KRPSVRQ:/QG³3RO\YLQ\O&KORULGH ‘PVC’ the Hidden Home Hazard, A Guide for Health Care Professionals.”

105 1HZ+RUL]RQV‡9ROXPH‡1XPEHU‡$SULO Using Correlations of Real- Time Vehicle Emissions and 9,66,00XOWLPRGDO7UDI¿F)ORZ Modeled Emissions to Predict Neighborhood-Scale Air Quality and NOX Exposure Levels John B. Partin Jr., ‘14 )DFXOW\0HQWRUV: MAJ Wakeel Idewu, Ph.D., and MAJ Tim Moore, Ph.D., Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering

Abstract: $FFRUGLQJ WR WKH :RUOG +HDOWK 2UJDQL]DWLRQ DLU SROOXWLRQ LV UHVSRQVLEOH IRU WKH GHDWKV RI  PLOOLRQ  SHRSOH HDFK \HDU  7KH :RUOG +HDOWK 2UJDQL]DWLRQ VXEPLWV WKDW DLU SROOXWLRQLVDVLJQL¿FDQWSXEOLFKHDOWKFRQFHUQDWWULEXWDEOHWRLWVGLUHFWUHODWLRQVKLSWRFDUGLR SXOPRQDU\ GLVHDVH DQG YDULRXV IRUPV RI WHUPLQDO FDQFHU $LU SROOXWLRQ LQFUHDVHV PRUWDOLW\ LQWKH8QLWHG6WDWHVDQGDFURVVWKHJOREHVLJQL¿FDQWO\2WKHUQHJDWLYHHIIHFWVDWWULEXWDEOHWR DLUSROOXWLRQLQFOXGHFOLPDWHFKDQJHGHFUHDVHLQYLVLELOLW\DQGVHYHUHHFRORJLFDOGDPDJH7R IXOO\XQGHUVWDQGWKHUROHYHKLFOHHPLVVLRQVSOD\LQLQFOXGLQJQHLJKERUKRRGVFDOHGDLUSROOXWLRQ UHODWHGKHDOWKHIIHFWVLWLVQHFHVVDU\WRGHYHORSDQDFFXUDWHSLFWXUHRIWKHFRQWULEXWLRQRIWKHVH HPLVVLRQVRQDUXUDOVFDOH8VLQJFRUUHODWLRQVRIUHDOWLPHPHDVXUHGGDWDIURPWKH9LUJLQLD 7HFK)OX[/DEIRU$WPRVSKHULF0HDVXUHPHQWRI(PLVVLRQV )/$0( DQG9,66,0UXUDODUHD WUDI¿FÀRZPRGHOVZHDOWHUHGDPRGHOFDSDEOHRISUHGLFWLQJQHLJKERUKRRGVFDOHHPLVVLRQVDQG FRQVHTXHQWO\DLUSROOXWLRQH[SRVXUHOHYHOVWRZLWKLQDSSUR[LPDWHO\9,66,0LVDWUDI¿FÀRZ DQGHPLVVLRQVPRGHOLQJVRIWZDUHSURJUDPFDSDEOHRIPRGHOLQJWUDI¿FHPLVVLRQVZLWKLQYDULRXV WUDQVSRUWDWLRQUHODWHGVFHQDULRV8WLOL]LQJUHDOWLPHPHDVXUHGHPLVVLRQV )/$0( DQGWUDI¿F ÀRZGDWDIURPWKH9LUJLQLD'HSDUWPHQWRI7UDQVSRUWDWLRQ 9'27 IRUDQLQWHUVHFWLRQLQWKH 9LUJLQLD%HDFKDQGWKH9LUJLQLDDUHD ,DQG,QGLDQ5LYHU5RDG ZHFDOLEUDWHGWKH9,66,0 PRGHO WR HYDOXDWH LWV HIIHFWLYHQHVV QRW RQO\ DV D WUDI¿F PRGHOLQJ VRIWZDUH EXW DOVR H[DPLQH LWVFDSDELOLWLHVIRUSURYLGLQJUHOLDEOHWUDI¿FUHODWHGHPLVVLRQVGDWDZLWKLQXUEDQDQGLQGXVWULDO VHWWLQJVDQGXOWLPDWHO\SURYLGHDFOHDUSLFWXUHRIQHLJKERUKRRGDLUSROOXWLRQH[SRVXUHOHYHOV

Introduction emissions. However, very little research any studies have been conducted that has focused on the correlation of real-time involve modeling of emissions from emissions data with that of modeled emissions MORFDOL]HG WUDI¿F GDWD SDWWHUQV > data using eddy covariance measurement 6]. Also, much research has focused on real- techniques. The eddy covariance technique time ground-level measurements of vehicular is the most widely used, accurate, and direct method presently available for quantifying

106 -RKQ%3DUWLQ-U‡8VLQJ&RUUHODWLRQVRI5HDO7LPH9HKLFOH(PLVVLRQV exchanges of carbon dioxide, water vapor, spleen, liver, and blood, while the short term methane, various other gases, and energy effects include defective pulmonary function, between earth’s surface and the atmosphere with asthmatics being the most vulnerable

>@(GG\FRYDULDQFHSURYLGHVDQDFFXUDWH >@  7KH DGYHUVH HIIHFWV RI 12x exposure ZD\WRPHDVXUHVXUIDFHWRDWPRVSKHUHÀX[HV can also result in severe changes in cell type gas exchange budgets, and emissions from a in tracheobronchial pulmonary regions, lung variety of ecosystems, including agricultural structure, metabolism and defense against DQG XUEDQ SORWV ODQG¿OOV DQG YDULRXV ZDWHU bacterial and viral infection, as well as VXUIDFHV > @ (PLVVLRQV DQG ÀX[HV FDQ EH HPSK\VHPDOLNHV\PSWRPV>@1RWRQO\GRHV measured by instrumentation on a stationary NOx adversely affect human health, but it also RU PRELOH WRZHU ÀRDWLQJ YHVVHO VXFK DV D results in notable environmental destruction

VKLS RU EXR\  YDQ RU DLUFUDIW  > @  (YHQ >@  12x contributes to the formation of less data is available on the direct health smog, acid rain, water quality deterioration, comparison of these measured emissions. Our JOREDOZDUPLQJDQGYLVLELOLW\LPSDLUPHQW>@ research focuses on the correlation of modeled The effects of air and vehicle pollution emissions with directly measured emissions in are clearly visible across the globe, especially an effort to evaluate the effectiveness of using LQ $VLD DQG (XURSH >  @  'XULQJ 9,66,0 WUDI¿F HPLVVLRQV PRGHOLQJ VRIWZDUH the late 20th century, Europe was facing as a tool for predicting air pollution exposure drastic levels of eutrophication (damage and at the neighborhood scale level. Consequently, changes in ecosystems due to the availability this model will also provide insight into the of excessive amounts of nutrients) as a localized air pollution related health effects consequence of NOx and SOx emissions from within various neighborhoods as well. automobiles. Investigations revealed that devastating ecological damage was a direct Adverse Effects of Vehicle Pollution and Air FRQVHTXHQFHRIDFLGL¿FDWLRQRIVRLODQGZDWHU

Pollution due to atmospheric depositions of NOx and SO More than half of all Americans live in x >@  'XH WR WKH KLJK OHYHOV RI IRUHLJQ areas with unhealthy levels of air pollution. pollutant emissions, countries across Europe 18.5 million Americans live in counties and the United States now limit the amount where outdoor air failed the 6WDWH RI WKH $LU of greenhouse gases and pollutants emitted UHSRUWVWDQGDUGV>@9HKLFOHDLUSROOXWLRQLV in order to reduce and prevent further drastic responsible for 1.4% of total deaths annually increases in air pollution. ZRUOGZLGHHDFK\HDU>@7KHPDMRUSROOXWDQWV NO and Vehicle Pollution in Urban Cities resulting from automobile emissions are x carbon dioxide (CO2), carbon monoxide In recent years, urban air pollution has

(CO), nitrous oxides (NOx), sulfuric oxides emerged as one of the most acute problems,

(SOx), and particulate material (PM2.5). On- because of its negative effects on health and road vehicles account for 34% of total NOx GHWHULRUDWLRQ LQ OLYLQJ FRQGLWLRQV >  

HPLVVLRQVLQWKH8QLWHG6WDWHV>@12x, in 13]. Automobiles and other road vehicles particular, produces numerous short and long- have constantly been acknowledged as chief WHUPKHDOWKHIIHFWV>@ contributors to the metropolitan air and vehicle

NOx is one of the preeminent pollutants SROOXWLRQ EXUGHQ RQ VRFLHW\  7UDI¿FUHODWHG

SUHVHQWLQDPELHQWDLU>@12x is a dangerous air pollution is most severe in municipal areas gaseous substance largely produced by the and particularly city centers, where large, thick combustion of fossil fuels such as coal, natural WUDI¿F YROXPHV DQG FRQJHVWLRQ JLYH ULVH WR

JDV DQG RLO >@  12x is a reddish brown, degradation of the air quality in these areas. highly reactive gas. Long-term exposure to The dilemma is compounded by the fact that

NOx can result in abnormal effects in the lungs, WKHVHDUHDOVRFHQWHUVRIKXPDQDFWLYLW\>@ 107 New Horizons‡$SULO Virginia Beach, located in the Hampton accurately model an unlimited number of Roads area of Virginia, is responsible for vehicle types (i.e. cars, trucks, buses, heavy

2.1% of total NOx emissions in the Virginia UDLODQGOLJKWUDLOYHKLFOHV DQGWUDI¿FUHODWHG

Commonwealth in 2008. The primary source emission of PM2.5, sulfur oxides (SOx) nitric of NOx in Virginia Beach is the vast number oxides (NOx), carbon monoxide (CO), and of automobiles on the roads. As previously carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions in a particular stated, 34% of the total NOx emissions DUHD  9,66,0 FDQ VSHFL¿FDOO\ EH XVHG WR come from automobiles; the emissions from PRGHO LQWHUVHFWLRQV WKDW FRQWURO WUDI¿F XVLQJ automobiles have a severe and direct impact yield signs, stop signs, stop lights, and other on the environment. signals, such as the intersection modeled in For this research, the intersection of I-64 this research (I-64 and Indian River Road). and Indian River Road, a heavily traveled VISSIM software is most commonly intersection, was chosen as the automobile used to determine the environmental impact emissions modeling site. According to the RQDVSHFL¿FDUHDDQGWRPRGHODQGHVWLPDWH model created, this section of Indian River WRWDO DLU SROOXWDQW HPLVVLRQV >@  %\ PDNLQJ

Road produces 411.7 kg or 905.8 lbs of NOx DGMXVWPHQWV WR WKH PRGHO VSHFL¿FDWLRQV DQG each year. The 2008 measured concentration given program restraints, we varied the built- for the area was 22 ± 7 ppb, approximately in model parameters to develop an accurate 4.3% less than the EPA National Ambient Air HPLVVLRQVSUR¿OHIRUFRPSDULVRQWRUHDOWLPH Quality Standard (NAAQS) of 53 ppb. Even measured emissions for the purpose of model though this location is considered safe by validation. Real-time data collected using the the EPA NAAQS, there are multiple areas in FLAME, provided valuable information for Virginia Beach that report concentrations more validation of the VISSIM model and produced than 53 ppb. Approximately 25% of locations an accurate determination of localized NOx measured during a 2008 FLAME measurement emissions and NOx exposure levels. Below are campaign revealed concentrations above the VISSIM programmed equations used in primary and secondary NAAQS standards. this research to predict the amount of emissions 37.5% of tested locations were within the produced from the I-64 and Indian River Road standard deviation of exceeding the National WUDI¿FPRGHO Ambient Air Quality Standards. . î6SHHGî6SHHG Methods (1) 9,66,06RIWZDUH .  

9,66,0LVDWUDI¿FÀRZDQGWUDQVSRUWDWLRQ . î6SHHG 3) engineering modeling program used to predict + UHDOWLPH WUDI¿F DQG DXWRPRELOH HPLVVLRQV LQ )XHO&RQVXPSWLRQ 7RWDO'LVWDQFH7UDYHOHGî. 7RWDO6WRS'HOD\î. +1XPEHURI6WRSVî. urban locations. VISSIM uses a microscopic   (4) VLPXODWLRQ IRU PXOWLPRGDO WUDI¿F PRGHOLQJ VISSIM is utilized by transportation engineers 12 HPLVVLRQV î)XHO&RQVXPSWLRQ (5) WR VLPXODWH YDULRXV WUDI¿F VFHQDULRV EHIRUH [ implementation or construction of highways, The equations above are based on the intersections, and other transportation 75$16<7)  WUDI¿F VRIWZDUH SURJUDP ,Q developments. It allows transportation the equation, speed is equivalent to the cruise HQJLQHHUV WR HVWLPDWH DXWRPRELOH WUDI¿F speed (mph), total distance traveled is equal to emissions, cost, and transportation quality. the total number of vehicle miles traveled (mi), VISSIM is EPA approved and is widely used total stop delay is the total signal delay (hr) and throughout the United States. VISSIM can stops is equal to the total stops (vehicles per

108 -RKQ%3DUWLQ-U‡8VLQJ&RUUHODWLRQVRI5HDO7LPH9HKLFOH(PLVVLRQV KRXUYSK 75$16<7)LVDWUDI¿FVLPXODWLRQ SURGXFHG9HKLFOHHI¿FLHQF\FDQEHLQFUHDVHG and signal timing optimization program. The E\ LPSURYLQJ WKH HI¿FLHQF\ RI WKH HQJLQH RU primary application of this program is signal reducing the loads on the vehicle. The size timing design and optimization. TRANSYT- of the vehicle is important because of the 7F features genetic algorithm optimization effects of aerodynamics. Aerodynamic losses of cycle length, phasing sequence, splits, and are imposed by expending energy to push air offsets. aside as the vehicle moves. Accessory loads For this research, 35 VISSIM runs were like air conditioning and vehicle lights are conducted and the average speed, total distance also factors that play into increasing the load traveled, total stop delay, and number of stops on the automobile. Vehicle mass also affects were used in the formulas for all three time tire rolling resistance losses. By increasing the frames. Results from these runs provided the mass and load on the automobile, the engine is normal daily average NOx emissions that would forced to operate at a high level. By operating be expected in a typical day at the location. A at a higher level, emissions and other pollutant study needs at least 30 samples to have a good are increased. Thus, mass and size have a direct HVWLPDWLRQ IRU PRGHOLQJ7KLUW\¿YH9,66,0 DQGVWURQJUHODWLRQVKLSZLWKYHKLFOHHI¿FLHQF\ runs were run in order to get a model that can One major parameter in estimating accurately estimate emissions along Indian automobile emissions for an intersection is the River Road by the I-64 exit. starting emissions. In order to make a vehicle start easier, more fuel is normally supplied to 7UDI¿F0RGHOLQJ3DUDPHWHUV the engine. This causes the air-fuel mixture to Depending upon the size of the urban area become richer which makes the vehicle start under consideration, there will typically be easier, especially in cold weather. However, this several hundred thousands to millions of on- procedure also increases the emissions from URDGYHKLFOHVRSHUDWLQJZLWKLQWKHFRQ¿QHVRI the vehicle until the air-fuel ratio is returned to the area. Some of these vehicles will be old, the normal rate. Vehicles manufactured in the some will be new, some will be for passengers United States before 1960 often had a manual and some will be for transporting goods. adjustment for the air-fuel mixture called a It is important to validate and calibrate the “choke,” which would richen the mixture VISSIM software with real life parameters. when pulled and then was manually shut off The parameters are used to ensure the model once the vehicle was warmed up. Modern is being created for a real life situation. If vehicles handle this adjustment automatically the parameters are not similar to the real life so that the driver is normally unaware that situation, then the model cannot be used to such an adjustment is taking place. These extra simulate the experiment. When modeling emissions that occur as the vehicle is started and automobile emissions at intersections there warmed up are referred to as start emissions. are exponentially large quantities of variables With the addition of catalysts to vehicles, to manipulate like: vehicle category, speed, the emissions associated with a vehicle start acceleration, starting acceleration speed, idling compared to normal operations increased time, amount of time of acceleration until the further since the catalyst is ineffective until it is automobile reaches constant speed, number of warmed up. Therefore, an important emissions vehicles, quantity of fuel types burned, quantity concern with respect to vehicles is the start of fuel consumed, combustion temperatures, emissions. Catalyst-controlled vehicles tend to and even the age of the vehicle. have relatively larger start emissions compared The quantity of various sizes of the to non-catalyst controlled vehicles. automobiles is vital. The size of the 6WDUWHPLVVLRQVDUHGH¿QHGDVWKHHPLVVLRQV automobile has direct correlation with the in excess of normal warm vehicle emissions WKDW RFFXU GXULQJ WKH ¿UVW IHZ PLQXWHV RI amount of carbon dioxide (CO2) that is 109 New Horizons‡$SULO vehicle operation. A vehicle that has been have not been able to decrease the amount of operated so that the engine and catalyst are CO2 emissions with engines. Since carbon at least somewhat warm will have fewer start dioxide is the principle greenhouse gas, emissions than a vehicle that has sat for a idling time has a major impact on automobile long time and the engine and catalyst are at emissions at intersections. Each gallon of ambient temperatures. Thus, there are different gasoline that is consumed emits 20 lbs of CO2. start emissions associated with a vehicle that When gasoline burns, the carbon and has stopped for only a few minutes and then hydrogen separate. The hydrogen combines re-started compared to a vehicle that has not with oxygen to form water and CO2. A carbon operated for 12 or more hours. The time that atom has an atomic weight of 12, and each a vehicle is not operated is referred to as the oxygen atom has a weight of 16, giving each

“soak” period. The start emissions then vary single molecule of CO2 and atomic weight with the soak period from almost zero with of 44 (12 from carbon and 32 from oxygen). a soak period of less than 15 minutes to the Therefore, to calculate the amount of CO2 maximum amount after about twelve hours of produced from a gallon of gasoline, the weight non-operation soak. of the carbon in the gasoline is multiplied by Another important parameter in automobile 44/12 or 3.7. Since gasoline is about 87% emissions modeling is the type of fuel being carbon and 13% hydrogen by weight, the burned and consumed. There are two major carbon in a gallon of gasoline weighs 5.5 fuel types for vehicles: gasoline and diesel. pounds (6.3 lbs. x .87). The weight of the The volatility of the fuel impacts the amount carbon (5.5 pounds) is then multiplied by 3.7, of gasoline that evaporates into the air. The which equals 20 pounds of CO2>@ higher the volatility, the more evaporative The temperature outside is also a major emissions produced. The amount of sulfur in parameter towards automobile emissions. The the gasoline is a key factor in this fuel. The colder the temperature is outside the harder the percentage of sulfur in the fuel is released to the engine has to work to circulate the cold oil. atmosphere contributing to acid rain and PM2.5. The harder the engine has to work is directly Sulfur degrades the catalyst performance and related to the amount of emissions produced. thus increases vehicle emissions. Octane Many parts of the vehicle including wheel (gasoline) does not cause emissions itself but bearings, tires, and the suspension system degrades the catalyst performance, resulting will warm up only when the car is in motion. in increased emissions emitted. The second Contrary to common belief, you only need to fuel type is diesel. The hydrocarbon makeup idle for a maximum of thirty seconds to get the of diesel can impact emissions. A value called oil circulating through the engine. In the winter the cetane number is measured for the fuel and WLPHWKHHPLVVLRQVIURPDFDUDUHVLJQL¿FDQWO\ LQGLFDWHVWKHFRPEXVWLRQHI¿FLHQF\RIWKHIXHO larger due to the engine trying to run off of Normally, a higher cetane number results in cold gasoline. Fuel combustion is much less fewer emissions. Sulfur like gasoline degrades HI¿FLHQWLQDFROGHQJLQHUHVXOWLQJLQLQFUHDVHG the catalyst performance and thus increases pollutants. Until the converter reaches its vehicle emissions. peak operating temperature (between 400oC A major contributing factor towards the and 800oC), all of the engine’s emissions pass automobile emissions is idling time. Idling through the exhaust untreated. time is where are a car is stopped with Speed and acceleration are other key the engine continuing to run. Automobile parameters involved with modeling emissions companies like Ford, General Motors, Toyota, output. The faster the speed and acceleration Honda, and Chrysler have utilized new modern of a vehicle, the more emissions it will technologies to decrease the amount of PM2.5, produce. Studies from Virginia Tech show

NOx, and SOx; however, the car manufacturers that the slower and calmer style of driving was

110 -RKQ%3DUWLQ-U‡8VLQJ&RUUHODWLRQVRI5HDO7LPH9HKLFOH(PLVVLRQV found to reduce CO emissions by 17%, VOC (open path and/or closed path), and a sonic emissions by 22%, and NOx emissions by anemometer. 48%. Multiple studies also prove that the most Because of the fast vertical movement of HI¿FLHQWPHWKRGRIGHFUHDVLQJ&2HPLVVLRQVLV the wind and small amounts of gas and water to drive slowly and calmly. The less strain and vapor carried by the upward and downward work from the engine the less CO is emitted winds, eddy covariance measurements from the exhaust pipes. require very sophisticated (fast and precise) LQVWUXPHQWDWLRQ>@ FLAME The Flux Lab for the Atmospheric Discussion Measurement of Emissions (FLAME) is able to 5HDO7LPH(PLVVLRQV/RDG capture emissions from ground-based sources, The FLAME produced measured NOx VXFKDVPRWRUYHKLFOHVUDLODQGEDUJHWUDI¿F SROOXWDQWÀX[YDOXHVIRUDIRRWSULQWVXUURXQGLQJ UHIXVH¿UHVDQGUHIXHOLQJVWDWLRQVIRUZKLFKQR D UHVLGHQWLDO VXEGLYLVLRQ  5HFRUGHG WUDI¿F direct measurement method has been available volumes were not available for the subdivision, SUHYLRXVO\ >@  7KH )/$0( DOORZV IRU WKH therefore, we assumed the vast majority of the real-time neighborhood-scale measurement pollutants detected from the FLAME came RI SROOXWDQW ÀX[HV  7KH PRELOH )/$0( LV IURPWKHQHDUE\KLJKWUDI¿FURDG,QGLDQ5LYHU capable of conducting measurements in many Road. This is a reasonable assumption since GLIIHUHQW DUHDV DQG FDQ IRFXV RQ VSHFL¿F UHVLGHQWLDOWUDI¿FLQWKLVSDUWLFXODUDUHDLVOLJKW VRXUFHV E\ SDUNLQJ GRZQZLQG RI WKHP >@ producing low idling times, and slower driving The FLAME uses eddy covariance in order speeds. Indian River Road is more congested to measure the emissions output in a given in the mornings, afternoons, and evenings, has region. The eddy covariance method relies on higher speed limits, and results in more stops the combined high-speed measurements of gas and idling times. Also, recorded real-time concentrations, temperature, and wind speed, emission concentrations from the FLAME were followed by rapid data collection and analysis more consistent with a congested roadway. >@ The modeled site is located at the ,QSK\VLFDOWHUPV³HGG\ÀX[´LVFRPSXWHG University Shoppes center at the intersection by measuring how many molecules, moles, of Strickland Boulevard and Indian River or milligrams of gas traveled up with upward Road (Figure 1). Regent University is located wind movement at one moment and how many 0.25 kilometers southwest and the majority of traveled down with downward wind movement the area is residential. Within 0.1 kilometers LQWKHQH[WPRPHQW>@,QPDWKHPDWLFDOWHUPV there are several fuel stations, restaurants, and ³HGG\ ÀX[´ LV FRPSXWHG DV D FRYDULDQFH VWULSPDOOV7UDI¿FLVKHDY\GXULQJUXVKKRXUV between the instantaneous deviation in vertical (PLVVLRQV ÀX[ LV WKH WLPHDYHUDJHG wind speed (w’ ) from the mean value (w) and covariance between the instantaneous the instantaneous deviation in gas mixing ratio deviations of the vertical wind velocity (w’) (s’), from its mean value (s), multiplied by and the concentration (&[’), from their linear mean air density ( ȡa >@ trends over the averaging period. A positive The eddy covariance method is a direct ÀX[UHSUHVHQWVDQHWWUDQVIHUXSZDUGLQWRWKH PHDQV IRU PHDVXULQJ WXUEXOHQW ÀX[HV LQ WKH DWPRVSKHUHIURPWKHVXUIDFH$QHJDWLYHÀX[ atmospheric boundary layer, near the surface illustrates a net transfer from the atmosphere to >@ ,Q D W\SLFDO VHWXS VHQVRUV DUH PRXQWHG the land surface. RQ D WRZHU IRU PHDVXULQJ ÀX[HV DERYH WKH In June of 2008, emissions of NOx were atmosphere-vegetation interface and for measured at the intersection of Strickland ZLWKLQYHJHWDWLRQ PHDVXUHPHQWV >@ 7KH basic instruments include a CO2/H2O analyzer 111 New Horizons‡$SULO

Figure 1: Emission Modeling Site

Boulevard and Indian River Road near I-64. Modeled Emissions Load Emissions measurements taken throughout %DVLF$VVXPSWLRQ the day (0830-1730) at this location are shown in Table 1 below. From the table the hours Figure 2 shows the extent of the from 0830-0930, 1130-1230, and 1630-1730 measurement footprint for this particular location. The footprint describes the extent show NOx emission loads of 210, 288, and 630 grams respectively, These hours represent RI WKH DUHD LQÀXHQFLQJ PHDVXUHG HPLVVLRQV WKHSHDNWUDI¿FÀRZWLPHVGXULQJWKHGD\DQG $V VHHQ IURP WKH ¿JXUH WKH PDMRULW\ RI correspond to: morning rush hour, lunch time, measurements included a nearby subdivision. and late afternoon rush hour. Based on wind speeds and directions coming mainly from a northerly direction, we can

Table 1: Hourly Account of NOx Emissions During Field Measurement Campaign

(PLVVLRQ+RXUV Amount of NOx Emissions (grams) 0830-0930 210 0930-1030 271 1030-1130 563 1130-1230 288 1230-1330 215 1330-1430 171 1430-1530 438 1530-1630 778 1630-1730 630

112 John B. Partin Jr. • Using Correlations of Real-Time Vehicle Emissions

Figure 2: NOx Emission Footprint make the assumption that concentrations and Lunch 1130-1230 consequently emissions fluxes within the neighborhood are being influenced by the K1=0.007083-0.0002492×Speed+0.000000126×Speed2 surrounding heavily traveled roads surrounding (11) the measurement site. K2= .2209 (12) Modeling Real-Time Emissions K3=0.0000010801×Speed2 (13) Below are the sets of equations adjusted from the emissions program on the Vissim traffic software. Fuel Consumption=Total Distance Traveled×K1+

Total Stop Delay×K2+Number of Stops×K3 Morning 0830-0930 (14) K1= 0.013283-0.0002692×Speed+0.00001246×Speed2 NOx emissions=13.6 g/gal×Fuel Consumption (gal) (6) (15)

K2= .2629 (7) Late Afternoon 1630-1730 K3=0.0000015011×Speed2 (8) K1=0.006083-0.0002492×Speed+0.000000126×Speed2

Fuel Consumption=Total Distance Traveled×K1+ (16)

Total Stop Delay×K2+Number of Stops ×K3 (9) K2= .1709 (17) K3=0.0000006601×Speed2 (18)

NOx emissions=13.6 g/gal×Fuel Consumption (gal) (10)

113 New Horizons‡$SULO

)XHO&RQVXPSWLRQ 7RWDO'LVWDQFH7UDYHOHGî.+ air quality and health safety website, Virginia 7RWDO6WRS'HOD\î. +1XPEHURI6WRSVî.   Beach has an air quality index that is 5% less (19) than the Virginia average and 16.2% less than the national average. Virginia Beach also 12[HPLVVLRQV JJDOî)XHO&RQVXPSWLRQ JDO (20) has a pollution index 345.9% greater than the Virginia average. $UHDYLEHV reported that 9DULDEOHVSUHYLRXVO\GH¿QHG Virginia Beach has had 68 days during the year where the air quality was moderate or poor. Less than a mile stretch of Indian River Health Effects Related to NOx Exposure Road near I-64 produced 1128 grams of NO The State of Virginia released 351,489 short x (1.128 kg) from a total time of 0830-0930, tons of nitrogen oxides into the atmosphere in 1130-1230, and 1630-1730. These three times 2008. Virginia Beach emitted 7,437 short tons represent the morning, lunch and rush hour of NO RUVKRUWWRQVDUHFODVVL¿HG x WUDI¿FWLPHV)URPVLPSO\WKHVHKRXUVHDFK DV PRELOH SROOXWDQWV  &XUUHQW VFLHQWL¿F day during the workweek, this small stretch evidence links short-term NO exposures, x of Indian River Road produces 905.8 lbs of ranging from 30 minutes to 24 hours, with NO (45.3% of a ton) each year. Due north adverse respiratory effects including airway x of Indian River Road near I-64 is a residential LQÀDPPDWLRQLQKHDOWK\SHRSOHDQGLQFUHDVHG zone currently be occupied by young children respiratory symptoms in people with asthma. and elderly citizens. Individuals who spend time on or near major According to previous research the city of roadways can experience short-term NO x Virginia Beach has multiple locations where exposures considerably higher than measured NO emissions levels are close to passing the by the current network. Approximately 16% x primary standards set forth by the National of United States’ housing units are located Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS). within 300 feet of a major highway, interstate, The primary standards provide safe levels railroad, or airport (approximately 48 million of NO exposure to ensure public health people or over 10% of the entire United States x protection, including protecting the health population). NO exposure concentrations x of “sensitive populations such as asthmatics, near roadways are a particular concern for children, and the elderly. This modeled site, susceptible people with asthma asthmatics, according to previous research, is safe with a children, and the elderly. NO concentration of 22 ± 7 ppb. However, North of Indian River Road (the road x this was in 2008. More research needs to modeled for emissions output) is a residential be conducted to see what the current NO neighborhood. Young new families with x concentration is in the area, due to an increase children and elderly couples occupy this in cars over the four-year gap. residential zone. According to $UHDYLEHV, an

Table 2: Percent Differences Between Real-Time and Modeled Emissions

Time Real-Time Modeled Modeled Percent Emissions Emissions Standard Difference (grams) (grams) Deviation Morning - 210 211 6 0.48% (0830-0930) Lunch - 288 276 19 4.17% (1130-1230) Late Afternoon 630 602 47 4.44% (1630-1730)

114 -RKQ%3DUWLQ-U‡8VLQJ&RUUHODWLRQVRI5HDO7LPH9HKLFOH(PLVVLRQV Conclusion Acknowledgements If we can correlate, we can estimate. Since First I would like to show my appreciation for WKH PRGHOHG HPLVVLRQV DUH EDVHG RQ WUDI¿F LTC Kline and the SURI program for allowing counts, then it is possible to measure emissions me to conduct my research project. I would at every intersection and road. This research like to thank the Civil and Environmental proves that it is possible to create a real-time Engineering Department especially to MAJ emissions model using the FLAME to gather Swenty, MAJ Idewu, and CAPT Riester for real-time emissions data, then developing a their constant support. The greatest thanks WUDI¿F PRGHO RQ WKH9,66,0 WUDI¿F VRIWZDUH and recognition is for MAJ Tim O. Moore, exactly like to tested site, and create a set of who guided and illuminated my understanding equations to model the emissions along the through the research process. I could not have tested road. asked for a better research advisor than MAJ This research is not only applicable to Moore. I am looking forward to signing up for measuring emissions at intersections, roads, more independent research with him for the highways, and freeways, but it is directly related next two years. with the population’s health and the local ecosystem’s health. The emissions produced References from this road have direct consequences as >@ 0DULQL 6$  3HRSOH 'LH LQ WKH mentioned above on human and environmental 86 (DFK @ 6PLW 5 6PRNHUV 5 5DH (  $ 1HZ and possible health and environmental effects 0RGHOOLQJ $SSURDFK IRU 5RDG 7UDI¿F RI ORFDO WUDI¿F  $V PHQWLRQHG SUHYLRXVO\ (PLVVLRQV9(56,7. Transportation Research the EPA has Virginia Beach listed as a safe Part D: Transport and Environment, 2007 air quality zone; however, this research and 12(6): p. 414-422. preceding research show that the EPA needs >@ /HH & ,PSDFWV RI 7UDI¿F )ORZ &RQWURO better methods of quantifying emissions in RQ&2(PLVVLRQVIURP3DVVHQJHU&DUXVLQJ ORFDO DUHDV  7KH (3$¶V DLU TXDOLW\ SUR¿OH RI '\QDPLF 1HWZRUN 0RGHO. IEEE Conference Virginia Beach is not as accurate, and should on Intelligent Transportation Systems, use real-time emissions modeling as a standard Proceedings, ITSC, 2000: p. 364-369. of reporting air quality. >@ $O2PLVK\ + DQG $O6DPDUUDL + This location produces over 1.1 kg or 5RDG7UDI¿F6LPXODWLRQ0RGHOIRU3UHGLFWLQJ 2.4 lbs of NO emissions between 0830- x 3ROOXWDQW (PLVVLRQV. Atmos. Environ., 1988. 0930, 1130-1230, and 1630-1730. This does 22(4): p. 769-774. not include the other hours of the day. This >@ $OH[RSRXORV $ $VVLPDFRSRXORV ' information can be used to determine the long- Mitsoulis, E., 0RGHO IRU 7UDI¿F (PLVVLRQV term health effects for the people living in the (VWLPDWLRQ. Atmospheric Environment - Part B local residential area. The modeled sets of Urban Atmosphere, 1993. 27 p. 435-446. equations are within a 4.5% percent difference >@ :X &= @0RRUH72$SSOLFDWLRQRID0RELOH)OX[ further the validation of the model, we would /DE IRU WKH $WRPVSKHULF 0HDVXUHPHQW RI have to develop a correlation and comparison (PLVVLRQV )/$0( . 2009: p. 1-124. for each new simulation run.

115 New Horizons‡$SULO >@ /,&25 :K\ 8VH (GG\ &RQYDULDQFH WR 0HDVXUH)OX[" 2012. >@ /DZVRQ$5 *KRVK % %URGHULFN % 3UHGLFWLRQRI7UDI¿F5HODWHG1LWURJHQ2[LGHV &RQFHQWUDWLRQV XVLQJ 6WUXFWXUDO 7LPH6HULHV 0RGHOV Atmos. Environ., 2011. 45(27): p. 4719-4727. >@ 2GX\HPL .2. DQG 'DYLGVRQ % 7KH,PSDFWVRI5RDG7UDI¿F0DQDJHPHQWRQ 8UEDQ$LU4XDOLW\. Sci. Total Environ., 1998. 218(1): p. 59-66. >@$VVRFLDWLRQ$/$LU4XDOLW\)DFWV6WDWH RIWKH$LU. 2011. >@$JHQF\(36RPH)DFWVRQ$XWRPRELOHV DQGWKH(QYLURQPHQW. 2002. >@ 7DLQLR 0 7XRPLVWR - 7 +DQQLQHQ O., Aarino, P., Koistinen, K. J., Jantuen, M. J., Pekkanen, J., +HDOWK(IIHFWV&DXVHGE\3ULPDU\

)LQH3DUWLFXODWH0DWWHU 30 (PLWWHGIURP %XVHV LQ WKH +HOVLQNL 0HWURSROLWDQ $UHD )LQODQG. Risk Analysis, 2005. 25(1): p. 151- 160. >@ (XURSHDQ (QYLURQPHQWDO $JHQF\ $LU 3ROOXWDQWVDQG*OREDO(IIHFWV. >@ (QYLURQPHQWDO 3URWHFWLRQ$JHQF\ /DZV DQG5HJXODWLRQV 2011. >@&KDQJH81)&R&.\RWR3URWRFRO. >@(QYLURQPHQWDO3URWHFWLRQ$JHQF\(IIHFWV RI$LU3ROOXWDQWV+HDOWK(IIHFWV. 2012. >@³+RZFDQSRXQGVRIJDVROLQHFUHDWH pounds of carbon dioxide?.”ZZZIXHOHFRQRP\ JRY. U.S. Department of Energy. Web. 3 Dec  KWWSZZZIXHOHFRQRP\JRYIHJFR shtml>

116 1HZ+RUL]RQV‡9ROXPH‡1XPEHU‡$SULO Flapping-Wing Micro Air Vehicle Wing Deformation and Force Measurement in a Wind Tunnel

Alex Sharp ‘13 )DFXOW\0HQWRUV: COL Joseph Blandino, Ph.D., Department of Mechanical Engineering, Virginia Military Institute Alan Jennings, Ph.D. and Jonathan Black, Ph.D., Department of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Air Force Institute of Technology

Abstract:6PDOOÀ\LQJDXWRQRPRXVURERWVFDOOHG0LFUR$LU9HKLFOHV 0$9V SURYLGHDFRVW HIIHFWLYHDQGHI¿FLHQWZD\RIJDWKHULQJLQIRUPDWLRQDQGUHFRQQDLVVDQFH&UHDWLQJ0$9VWKDW EOHQGLQWRWKHQDWXUDOVXUURXQGLQJVORZHULQJWKHLUFKDQFHVRIGHWHFWLRQVLJQL¿FDQWO\UHTXLUHV LQVSLUDWLRQLQWKHLUGHVLJQ)ODSSLQJZLQJWHFKQRORJ\PXVWEHUH¿QHGWRDFKLHYHWKLV³QDWXUDO´ FDPRXÀDJH 6LPXODWLRQV RI WKH ZLQJV PXVW EH GHYHORSHG WR KHOS LQ WKH RSWLPL]DWLRQ RI WKH ZLQJ VKDSH 7RFUHDWH WKHVH VLPXODWLRQV SKRWRJUDPPHWU\ ZDV XVHG WR FUHDWH ' PRGHOV RI WKHZLQJVGXULQJDÀDSF\FOHZKLFKZDVWKHQEHSDLUHGZLWKWKHIRUFHVIRXQGWREHSURGXFHG E\ WKH ZLQJV GXULQJ WKH ÀDS F\FOH ,Q WKLV SDSHU WKUHH GLIIHUHQW PHWKRGV ZHUH XVHG LQ DQ DWWHPSWWR¿QGWKHIRUFHVSURGXFHGGXULQJDÀDSF\FOH7KH¿UVWZDVDEDVLFVWDWLRQDU\VWDQG DWWDFKHGWRDSUHFLVHIRUFHEDODQFH7KHVHFRQGWULHGWRDFFRXQWIRUWKHERXQFLQJRIWKHELUG DV LW ÀHZ E\ DWWDFKLQJ VSULQJV WR WKH ERWWRP RI WKH VWDQG WR GDPSHQ WKH YLEUDWLRQV FUHDWHG 7KH¿UVWWZRVWDQGV¶GDWDSURYHGLQFRQFOXVLYHE\TXDQWLWDWLYHO\VWDWLQJWKDWWKHELUGFRXOGQRW À\ZKHQWKHELUGZRXOGEHVHHQWRÀ\7KHWKLUGZDVDVWDWLRQDU\VWDQGWKDWZDVDEOHWRDGMXVW WKHDQJOHRIDWWDFNRIWKHELUGDQGZDVXVHGLQDZLQGWXQQHO:KHQSODFHGLQWKHZLQGWXQQHO WKH GDWD TXDQWLWDWLYHO\ VKRZHG WKDW WKH ELUG FUHDWHG PRUH OLIW WKDQ GUDJ UHVXOWLQJ LQ ÀLJKW

Introduction of war, such as Iraq and Afghanistan. MAVs icro Air Vehicles (MAVs) are would be able to operate in these conditions, widely studied because of their escape detection, and be able to obtain more Mhuge possibility to reshape the LQIRUPDWLRQ WKDQ E\ ¿[HG ZLQJ DLUFUDIW 7KH paradigms of surveillance and reconnaissance. ÀDSSLQJ ZLQJ GHVLJQ KDV WKH SRWHQWLDO IRU 0$9VKDYHEHHQGH¿QHGDVDFODVVL¿FDWLRQRI added maneuverability. This design would unmanned aerial vehicles that weigh less than allow the MAV to have 6 degrees-of-freedom, 100 grams and are smaller than 15 centimeters hovering capabilities, and the ability to take off in any dimension. MAVs have the potential DQGODQGYHUWLFDOO\7KHÀDSSLQJZLQJGHVLJQ to change the standard in surveillance and would allow the MAV to be concealed in plain reconnaissance because of their effectiveness sight by imitating nature and having the vehicle in obtaining information after implementation. look like a simple winged creature, such as a These vehicles would be able to thrive under bird. This allows it to get closer to the target the urban conditions of the current theaters and potentially gain more information. These

117 New Horizons‡$SULO EHQH¿WVDUHZK\VRPDQ\OLNH.RUHD&KLQD done by AFIT in the past, was based on the and especially the US Air Force, have taken the model done by Fitzerald while the material LQWHUHVWWRH[SORUHÀDSSLQJZLQJ0$9V properties used in the model were based on 7RH[SORLWÀDSSLQJG\QDPLFVWKHVWUXFWXUDO the investigation started by Aono’s research. EHKDYLRU RI WKH ÀDSSLQJ ZLQJ PXVW ¿UVW EH The previous FEA model, created by AFIT, explained. The ultimate goal of this research UHSOLFDWHG D VLQJOH ZLQG ZLWK D FDUERQ ¿EHU is to be able to create a model that captures the leading edge and a membrane that was based ÀXLGVWUXFWXUDOLQWHUDFWLRQEHWZHHQWKHZLQJV on the properties from the Mylar membrane DQGWKHÀXLGWKH0$9LVÀ\LQJLQ7RDFFXUDWHO\ >@7KHPHPEUDQHRIWKHZLQJZDVPRGHOHG be able to create this model, a structural model in the program using a planar shell feature capturing the deformation of the wing must with a membrane section assignment. The ¿UVWEHFUHDWHG$ELOORZLQJHIIHFWKDSSHQVLQ ÀDSSLQJ LQ WKH PHFKDQLVP ZDV SURYLGHG E\ WKHSRZHUDQGUHVWVWURNHRIÀDSSLQJZLQJVDQG applying a rotation at the root beam node. A can be seen on a wing type with a relatively four-bar simulation was created to provide the VWLIIOHDGLQJHGJHDQGÀH[LEOHPHPEUDQHZLQJ wave form shape of the rotation. The four-bar surface. This billowing causes a very complex PHFKDQLVP SURYLGHG DV\PPHWULHV LQ WKH ÀDS aerodynamic, aero-elastic, and structural cycle which could be a factor in creating the dynamic interaction. Being able to replicate this lift, enabling the model to more accurately composite phenomenon is essential to creating UHSOLFDWHWKHUHDOÀDSSLQJZLQJ the model. Also, a full understanding of all the Research into photogrammetry is currently IRUFHVWKHÀDSSLQJZLQJVFUHDWHVDQGKRZWKH XVHG WR FRQ¿UP WKHVH ¿QLWH HOHPHQW PRGHOV ÀXLGSDVVLQJE\WKHZLQJVFKDQJHVWKHVHIRUFHV Photogrammetry is the method of establishing is essential to designing an accurate model. 3-D coordinates for points derived from a With an understanding of both how the wings series of 2-D images. The methods developed function structurally and the effects rendered by Magree, et al. of a texture-based technique upon and by the surrounding environment due in conducting photogrammetry were used in WRWKHLUPRYHPHQWWKHÀDSSLQJZLQJ¶VVKDSH performing analysis to determine wing shapes. can be understood and optimized. Texture-based photogrammetry is a method The focus of this research is to understand that generates a large number of correlated KRZ WKH ZLQJV RI D À\LQJ 0$9 FDQ FUHDWH SRLQWVZKLFKFDQEH¿OWHUHGWRIRUPDGHQVH HQRXJKOLIWDQGWKUXVWIRUVWHDG\ÀLJKWDQGWR surface for the object. The other method of SURYLGHKHOSLQWKHUH¿QHPHQWRIWKHVWUXFWXUDO photogrammetry is target-based and uses model of the deformation in the wing. The VSHFL¿FDOO\ PDUNHG SRLQWV DV WKH UHIHUHQFH goal of this research is to formulate ideas and points for the 3-D model. This method was not H[SHULPHQWDOO\ WHVW WKHP WR ¿QG VLWXDWLRQV LQ XVHGEHFDXVHWKHVSHFL¿FPDUNHUVZHUHODUJH ZKLFKWKHÀDSSLQJZLQJVSURYLGHVXI¿FLHQWOLIW and, if attached to the wing of the bird, would and thrust to propel the MAV and to collect and hinder the deformation of the wing. Resolution provide more data for the improvement of the would also result in lower curvature resolution. previously developed structural model of the In other papers, force studies have been ÀDSSLQJZLQJV done to pair with photogrammetry results. Most of these studies have used a 6 degrees- Background of-freedom force balance. The basis for this Many studies have been done on the research was the insight provided by Curtis’s GHIRUPDWLRQRIÀDSSLQJZLQJV7KH$LU)RUFH thesis, and how the 6 degrees-of-freedom Institute of Technology (AFIT), has done its force balance was used. In past research done RZQ VWXGLHV DQG FUHDWHG QHZ ¿QLWH HOHPHQW at AFIT, the magnitude of the average force models to replicate the deformation in the was only 50.1 mN which is less than the ZLQJV>@7KH)LQLWH(OHPHQW$QDO\VLV )($  ZHLJKW RI WKH 0$9  P1  >@ 7KLV ZDV

118 $OH[DQGHU6KDUS‡)ODSSLQJ:LQJ0LFUR$LU9HKLFOH:LQJ'HIRUPDWLRQ

Figure 1a: iFly Duck with dots Figure 1b: iFly Duck without dots VWDUWOLQJEHFDXVHWKHÀDSSLQJZLQJ0$9XVHG in an attempt greatly reduce the glare. Glare LQWKHH[SHULPHQWVFDQÀ\EXWWKHGDWDWDNHQ would occasionally hinder the images of the ZRXOG QRW VXSSRUW WKH REVHUYDWLRQ RI ÀLJKW duck with the dots. The white speckles were in This incongruity is why a major part of this an attempt to catch not only the edges but also UHVHDUFKZDVVHWRQ¿QGLQJRXWKRZWKH0$9 the inner deformation of the wing. An image ZDV DEOH WR JHQHUDWH LWV OLIW %\ ¿QGLQJ KRZ of the iFly Duck without the dots is shown in the MAV created its lift, the data would be able Figure 1b. to be put into the model and to provide more Four high-speed cameras were used to RIDQXQGHUVWDQGLQJRIKRZWKHÀDSSLQJZLQJ capture the images used to create the dense system works. surface modeling. These cameras can capture pictures at a rate of up to 500 frames per Methodology second. Each imaging station consisted of a high-speed MC1362 Mikrontron camera with (TXLSPHQW Fujion CCTV lens. The camera and lens were The test vehicle used in this study is a mounted on a Sagebrush Technology Model commercial off-the-shelf ornithopter from 20 gimbal. The gimbal allowed the camera to Interactive Toy Concepts iFly Duck that can move and to be pointed at the correct location À\ VWDEO\ ERWK LQGRRUV DQG RXWGRRUV 7KH for the best image. The entire system was built ornithopter has a wingspan of 30 cm, a mass by EPIX, Inc. EPIX, Inc. also wrote the imaging RIJDQGDÀDSDQJOHRI“o. It has a rear software that operated each camera and lens attachment of the wings that can be rotated that allowed the settings to be adjusted. Figure to control directions but was centered for 2 shows the camera, lens, and the gimbal. the tests. The wings are driven by a rocking A 6 degrees-of-freedom force balance by motion established by an electric motor and 0RGHUQ0DFKLQH 7RRO&RPSDQ\ZDVXVHG JHDULQJV\VWHP7KLVV\VWHPÀDSSHGWKHZLQJV to measure the forces created by the iFly Duck. at 16 Hz. The iFly Duck is a veteran of many The force balance, Figure 3, was designed and past tests used in research at AFIT. This duck FRQVWUXFWHGVSHFL¿FDOO\IRU$),7IRUXVHLQD has small circles painted on the edges of the ZLQG WXQQHO %HFDXVH RI WKLV LW ZDV ¿WWHG WR ZLQJVWRKHOS3KRWRPRGOHU6FDQQHU¿QGSRLQWV a rod with approximately the same diameter on the wings and match the exact shape. Figure as the balance for use in the wind tunnel. The 1a shows an image of the iFly Duck with the force balance has twenty-four strain gages dots. A second iFly duck was obtained and with the measurement system that allows for a used in case the more veteran duck broke or resolution of 0.001 N and 0.2 Nmm. ran out of batteries. This iFly duck’s wings were lightly painted black with white speckles

119 New Horizons‡$SULO

Figure 2: MC1362 Mikrontron camera, Fujion CCTV lens, and Sagebrush Technology Model 20 gimbal

Figure 3: AFIT 6 degrees-of-freedom Force Balance

,PDJH3URFHVVLQJ'DWD&ROOHFWLRQ and some adjustments for accuracy might need The program Photomodler Scanner was to be made. This newer feature saved a large chosen to process the images taken. This amount of time as opposed to the older way program can take all of the corresponding in which each point had to be marked by hand images from all four cameras and create a on each image and then matched. From the rough 3-D image. It does this using a feature Smart Points, the Photomodler Scanner could called Smart Points, as seen in Figure 4. create a 3-D Dense Surface Mesh that would This feature uses the camera’s calibration to replicate the chosen area and surfaces could ¿QG SRLQWV RQ HDFK LPDJH DQG WKHQ PHVKHV be created. An example of the created Dense them together to create the rough 3-D image, Surface Mesh of a wing of the iFly Duck can Figure 5. Each point can only be used if the be seen in Figure 6. corresponding point can be found in at least The data given by the 6 degrees-of-freedom one other image. After the Smart Points are IRUFHEDODQFHLVFROOHFWHGDQGVDYHGLQWRD¿OH created, the image must be checked visually through a program written in LabVIEW, a

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Figure 4: Smart Points

Figure 5: 3-D Image created from Smart Points program made by National Instruments. This subtraction of the iFly Duck’s weight and any program collects all of the data output by other forces that may be acting on the object. the force balance and shows the three forces This gives easy access to the forces created by (equivalent to the lift, thrust, and side force) WKHÀDSSLQJZLQJV)LJXUHVKRZVWKHVFUHHQ and their corresponding moments in real time. view of the LabVIEW controller used for It also contains a tare function that allows data gathering the data from the force balance. The to be collected and then torn to allow for easy trigger signal of the cameras is also recorded

121 New Horizons‡$SULO

Figure 6: Dense Surface Created from Smart Points

Figure 7: LabVIEW Controller for Force Balance Data

122 $OH[DQGHU6KDUS‡)ODSSLQJ:LQJ0LFUR$LU9HKLFOH:LQJ'HIRUPDWLRQ for syncing 5000 Hz tested with and without a Scanner, Smart Points was applied and used NSUH¿OWHU for orientation. After the initial application of 6PDUW 3RLQWV VRPH UH¿QHPHQW RI WKH SRLQWV 'HQVH6XUIDFH0RGHOLQJ was needed. The program was looking for any point it could match and some of the points The objective of this experiment was to were mismatched which throwing off the rest FRQ¿UPDQGIXUWKHUUH¿QHWKHZLQJGHIRUPDWLRQ of the 3-D points. Once the Smart Points were model previously created at AFIT by Alerding, UH¿QHG WKH JHQHUDO ' LPDJH ZDV FUHDWHG et al. To do this, the iFly Duck was set up on at which point the dense surface model was a poster board with the coded targets around it created based on the Smart Points. There were to help with the referencing once the images  IUDPHV SHU ÀDS F\FOH$IWHU DOO  RI WKH were in the Photomodler Scanner. The set-up frames were processed, a MATLAB code was of the iFly duck can be seen in Figure 8. Four written to export the dense surface meshes into camera systems were used around the duck and MATLAB. focused on the left wing in an attempt to try From MATLAB, post-processing of to get higher quality images for comparison the meshes could take place. The meshes in to the Abaqus model. All of the cameras were MATLAB can be seen in Figure 9. Further synchronized using a trigger so that all of the UH¿QHPHQW UHPRYHG HYHQ PRUH RI WKH images were taken at the same time and the extraneous points leaving more accurate same rate. The frame rate for the cameras was meshes. In addition, other information was able set at 450 frames per second and a shutter time to be extracted by post-processing. Through of 1 msec. 0$7/$% VSHFL¿F SRLQWV LQ WKH ZLQJ ZHUH After the photos were taken, they were DEOHWREHIROORZHGWKURXJKWKHÀDSF\FOH7KLV imported into the program Photomodler would make clear how far that part of the wing Scanner for processing. In Photomodler

Figure 8: iFly Duck set-up for Image Capture

123 New Horizons‡$SULO

Figure 9: Meshes after being imported into MATLAB

PRYHGWKURXJKWKHHQWLUHÀDSF\FOHDVZHOODV weight of the iFly Duck. This would mean that LWVSRVLWLRQGXULQJVSHFL¿FSRLQWV WKHGXFNFRXOGQRWÀ\7RWU\WRRYHUFRPHWKLV Through the processing in Photomodler paradox, some observations of the duck were Scanner, it was found that even in the different taken. After observing the duck, it was found arrangement of the four cameras and focusing WKDW WKH GXFN EREEHG YHUWLFDOO\ DV LW ÀDSSHG on one wing, it was still hard for the program its wings. The question arose as to whether WR¿QGSRLQWVRQWKHERWWRPSRUWLRQRIWKHÀDS this bobbing contributed to the lift. To test this cycle. This had been found before in previous question, a special stand was created using H[SHULPHQWV 7R VROYH WKLV SUREOHP VSHFL¿F springs to allow the iFly duck to vertically bob points had to be found by hand and marked in while attached to the force balance. An image each frame. The iFly duck without the dots was of the iFly Duck on the test stand can be seen in used in this experiment. Although the glare Figure 10. This was accomplished by putting was greatly reduced, as hoped, the speckles two springs on the stand, one at the front of were found to be too small for the Photomodler the duck and one towards the back of the duck. 6FDQQHU WR ¿QG XVLQJ 6PDUW 3RLQWV %HFDXVH The tiles had the spring feeding through them of this, there were very few points found by which allowed the length of the spring to be the program on the bottom part of the wing. changed. The excess spring would be stored This caused the necessity of more hand marked in the small PVC component, so it would not points. This was able to create a good dense affect the test, and the same weight would surface mesh but was still very time consuming, always be on the stand. Since this experiment even though it only had to be done on less than was used only as a proof of a concept, none of half the frames. the camera systems were set up to take images of the tests. All that was used in this set-up was 6SULQJ7HVW6WDQG the iFly duck attached to the spring test stand on the 6 degree-of-freedom force balance with As explained in the above “Background” LabVIEW brought up to collect the data. portion, the major problems with the past An initial test was done with the springs research done by Alerding, et al., at AFIT was FRPSOHWHO\ FROODSVHG DQG ÀXVK ZLWK WKH that the forces of the lift were less than the stand (0 inches) to make sure the results were

124 $OH[DQGHU6KDUS‡)ODSSLQJ:LQJ0LFUR$LU9HKLFOH:LQJ'HIRUPDWLRQ

Figure 10: iFly Duck on the Spring Test Stand consistent with the results from the stationary was shorter it was much harder to deform test stand. The initial test did show that the allowing more of the force to be transferred spring length of 0 inches was in the same area into the force balance, while the longer springs as the stationary test stand used in previous would take more of the force transfer leaving studies. Once this base lift was established, less to be measured by the force balance. The the spring was set to a median length of 1 3/8 variation in lift is attributed to the elasticity inches just to make sure that the test stand of the spring. When the spring was longer the would work. After this test, the spring test weight of the duck could have deformed the stand worked and showed promise because the springs to one side. This would mean that all Normal Mean (lift) was slightly higher than in of the lift the duck was creating would not be the stationary case. From this, a minimum of seen as lift because the coordinate systems of ¿YHWHVWVZHUHGRQHDWWKHOHQJWKVRIDQG the duck did not match the coordinate system 3 inches. of the force balance. The vector created from When the data of the normal (lift), axial the lift and thrust averages should have come (thrust), and side force means were analyzed, out the same if this were true. This was proven several interesting results popped up. The true when the vectors only ranged from 8.40 g GDWDFDQEHVHHQLQ7DEOH7KH¿UVWSDWWHUQ to 10.6 g; although 2 g may seem like a lot, this seen was that as the spring elongated the lift difference could be attributed to the difference generally increased. Also, it was noted that in the battery charge. Every time the battery as the spring was longer, the thrust became was charged, the lift more than doubled. This less. This inverse relation between the lift and test was done with the iFly duck with the dots; the thrust is believed to have come from the the older duck, and the start difference in the spring itself. As the spring got longer, the force performance depending on the battery could of the thrust went into the deformation of the be attributed to its age. The consistency of spring. As the duck thrust forward, the spring the results, despite the battery charge, showed would take energy to deform. When the spring that the bobbing of the duck was not where

125 New Horizons‡$SULO the additional amount of the lift was coming concluded that this phenomenon occurred from. Therefore, a different approach would be EHFDXVH WKH GXFN FRXOG QRW À\ ZLWKRXW needed. DLU ÀRZLQJ SDVW LWV ZLQJV 7R WHVW WKLV ZH concluded that we needed to put the iFly duck :LQG7XQQHO7HVWLQJ LQWRWKHZLQGWXQQHODW$),7EXW¿UVWZHKDG During the observation it was also noted WR¿JXUHRXWZKDWYHORFLW\WKHGXFNWUDYHOHGDW that when the iFly Duck was set on a table DQGWKHDQJOHRIDWWDFNIRUVWHDG\ÀLJKW DQGWXUQHGRQWKHGXFNZRXOGQ¶WÀ\EXWZRXOG 7R ¿QG WKH VSHHG RI WKH GXFN DQ VLPSO\ ÀRS DURXQG :KHQ WKH GXFN IHOO RII experiment was created where the duck would the end of the table, after diving for a second, EH ÀRZQ SDVW D JULG ZKLOH WKH KLJK VSHHG LW ZRXOG WKHQ OLIW XS DQG VWDUW À\LQJ ,W ZDV camera systems were recording images. With

Table 1: Spring Test Data by Spring Size

6SULQJ 1RUPDO0HDQ $[LDO0HDQ Vector 6LGH0HDQ /HQJWK LQ (g) (g) (g) (g) 1 -2.86 9.28 9.710715731 0.62 $YJ1RUPDO -2.408 0HDQ 1 -2.31 9.54 9.815686425 0.66 $YJ$[LDO0HDQ 9.346 1 -1.53 9.18 9.306626671 0.45 $YJ6LGH0HDQ 0.478 1 *2.59 9.45 9.798499885 0.58 Avg 9.662 1 -2.75 9.28 9.678889399 0.08 1.375 -1.65 9.77 9.908350014 1.63 $YJ1RUPDO -1.520 0HDQ 1.375 -1.32 8.86 8.957789906 1.22 $YJ$[LDO0HDQ 9.488 1.375 -1.95 10.46 10.64021146 2.15 $YJ6LGH0HDQ 1.538 1.375 -1.38 9.82 9.916491315 1.41 Avg 9.610 1.375 -1.44 9.73 9.83597987 1.46 1.375 -1.38 8.29 8.404076392 1.36 2 -1.9 8.72 8.924595229 -0.2 $YJ1RUPDO -2.012 0HDQ 2 -2.14 8.72 8.978752697 -0.11 $YJ$[LDO0HDQ 9.174 2 -0.86 8.53 8.57324326 -0.29 $YJ6LGH0HDQ -0.211 2 -1.83 8.81 8.998055345 -0.26 Avg 9.408 2 -1.61 8.43 8.582365641 -0.33 2 -3.01 10.21 10.64444456 -0.26 2 -2.58 9.64 9.979278531 0.68 2 -1.44 9.7 9.806304095 -0.59 2 -2.74 9.81 10.18546513 -0.54 3 -1.38 10.08 10.17402575 0.75 $YJ1RUPDO -2.805 0HDQ 3 -1.66 8.65 8.807843096 1.57 $YJ$[LDO0HDQ 8.819 3 -3.41 8.45 9.112112818 2.1 $YJ6LGH0HDQ 1.777 3 -3.04 8.85 9.357569129 1.62 Avg 9.336 3 -2.89 8.91 9.366973898 2.01 3 -2.8 7.96 8.438104052 0.96 3 -2.1 8.39 8.648820729 2.36 3 -5.64 8.33 10.05974652 1.35 3 -3.63 8.85 9.565531872 1.95 3 -1.07 9.55 9.60975546 2.76 3 -3.24 8.99 9.55602951 2.12

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Figure 11:L)O\'XFNGXULQJÀ\E\WHVWLQJ

Figure 12: Movement between frames of iFly Duck the known frame rate the distance traveled LWZKLOHDVHFRQGSHUVRQZRXOGÀLSWKHVZLWFK between each frame from the grid the speed to start the image-taking. Figure 11 shows a of the duck could be determined. To do this, SKRWRWDNHQDVWKHL)O\'XFNÀLHVE\WKHJULG two camera systems were used to take the Because of the amount of human interaction images. Since no 3-D modeling was required, LQ WLPLQJ DQG WKH GLI¿FXOW\ LQ GLUHFWLQJ WKH only one camera system was truly needed, but duck, many attempts were needed to obtain an two were used for a larger capture area. Using appropriate amount of data sets. two camera systems proved a wise choice, After collecting the data sets, a MATLAB because one of the camera systems had a glitch code was used to mark the eye and the tail in during several of the tests. The two cameras each of the images as the duck traveled across were synchronized to provide a way of double the grid. To do this, the images were read checking the results. Paper was printed out with into MATLAB, and then two images were a grid of 0.5 inch x 0.5 inch grid squares and subtracted from each other and thresholded. placed on a poster board and set up on a wall. This left white where the object had moved. 2QHSHUVRQZRXOGODXQFKWKHGXFNDQGÀ\LWDV Since the duck was moving forward, the eye close to the grid as possible without touching and the tail were always moving resulting in

127 New Horizons‡$SULO

Figure 13: Duck with Gathered Points constant white at those areas. An example of L)O\GXFNÀHZPSKRQDYHUDJH$OVRIURP this is shown in Figure 12. Once the white WKHVHSRLQWVWKHDQJOHDWZKLFKWKHGXFNÀHZ spots were indicated by the user, the program ZDV GHWHUPLQHG DQG FRQ¿UPHG IURP VHYHUDO then found the centroid of the spot and then the data sets to be 30o. coordinates of those centroids were recorded: one for the tail coordinates and one for the eye Full Testing coordinates. Figure 13 shows the images from Figure 12 with the gathered points plotted on With the information gained from the DQ LPDJH WDNHQ GXULQJ WKH À\E\ 7KHQ WKH À\E\ WHVWLQJ WKH VSHFL¿FDWLRQV IRU WKH ZLQG number of pixels needed to travel between the tunnel were determined. To accommodate the grid lines was found. It was found, through calculated angle of attack, a new stand was several of the images across the two cameras, built that was be able to change the angle of an average of 49 pixels/0.5 inch was the ratio. the duck between the tests and attach to the Armed with the conversion ratio, the force balance. An image of this test stand is distance the duck traveled between each shown in Figure 14. The test stand was a yoke frame was found by obtaining the difference with an additional surface for the iFly duck to between the coordinates of the eye since it was attach to with the yoke being able to attach to the most consistent point. This would give the the original test stand surface to connect to the number of pixels the duck traveled between force balance. This set-up was then placed into the two frames. The frame rate was known the wind tunnel. Two camera systems were to be 450 frames per second. The distance used but, because of the windows on the wind that the midpoint of the duck travelled was tunnel, the angles needed for dense surface found to be comparable to the distance that modeling were unable to be obtained. The the eye travelled. On average, the two distance FDPHUDVZHUHXVHGWRDOLJQWKHÀDSF\FOHZLWK measurements, from the eye and from the the forces created later in processing. They midpoint, came out to be the same. After some were positioned in a way to look at the front conversions were made, the speed of the duck and back of the bird, so that observations could was found. Across the different data sets, the also be made. LabVIEW was set up to record

128 $OH[DQGHU6KDUS‡)ODSSLQJ:LQJ0LFUR$LU9HKLFOH:LQJ'HIRUPDWLRQ

Figure 14: Wind Tunnel Test Stand

Figure 15: Wind Tunnel Test Set-up the data taken from force balance in the same A few initial tests were taken, with no wind, way as past experiments. An image of the wind with the iFly duck at an angle of 0 degrees. tunnel and the set-up equipment can be seen in This was to make sure, since everything had to Figure 15. be moved down to the wind tunnel room, that the numbers were consistent from past tests.

129 New Horizons‡$SULO

Figure 16:6LPXOLQNIRXUEDUOLQNDJHDWDQGRIÀDSF\FOH

Once the numbers were found to be consistent, FDQEHVHHQDWGLIIHUHQWVWDJHVRIWKHÀDSSLQJ the angle was changed to 30 degrees with no cycle to see where the most lift is created. After wind. When tests were taken once again, the WKHUH¿QHPHQWDQGV\QFKURQL]DWLRQRIWKHGDWD lift almost tripled. After a few tests were taken LVFRPSOHWHGWKHIRUFHVFUHDWHGGXULQJDÀDS to provide a baseline for the other tests to be cycle can be graphed. Figure 17a shows the measured from, the wind tunnel was turned on forces created for the iFly Duck created at 30 to 3-4 mph. This spread was created because degrees with no wind. The dotted green line the wind tunnel was not designed to accurately shows that the mean lift created is less than go that slow. Many tests were run with the the weight of the duck shown by the red dotted wind and the angle of attack at the calculated line. The blue dotted line shows the average average position. Under these conditions, data thrust created by the duck. All of the average ZDV DOVR WDNHQ ZLWK VSHFL¿F FRQVLGHUDWLRQV lift and thrust components can be seen in Table and parameters to make sure the numbers were 2. Figure 17b shows the same kind of graph but genuine. Through all of those variations the the wind is now traveling at 3-4 mph. As it can numbers stayed consistent. At the end, a few be seen, the lift created is only 0.123 N while tests were taken with the wind up to 10 mph to the weight of the duck is 0.135 N. This very see if there was a correlation of wind speed to small difference is due to the wind not being the amount of lift. consistently at 4 mph. Figure 17c shows the After the data was collected by LabVIEW it wind at 10 mph. The lift created is even higher was then read into MATLAB. From MATLAB, than it was when the wind was traveling at 3-4 WKH GDWD ZDV UH¿QHG DQG WKHQ V\QFKURQL]HG mph, but with the thrust it looked very close ZLWKWKHÀDSF\FOH7KHGDWDZDVV\QFKURQL]HG to 0 mph. This means that 10 mph is as fast as using a four-bar-linkage-system created using the duck will be able to travel. Any faster than Simulink in MATLAB. This system was created 10 mph and then the wind will be pushing the WRPLPLFWKHÀDSSLQJPHFKDQLVPLQWKHL)O\ bird backward, nullifying any lift forces that Duck. Figure 16 shows the Simulink four bar are able to be created. linkage. Because of this, the forces measured

Table 2: Average Lift and Thrust

$QJOH :LQGVSHHG Lift Thrust (degrees) PSK (N) (N) 0 0 0.0263 0.0922 30 0 0.0696 0.0626 30 3-4 0.1230 0.0222 30 10 0.1583 -0.0138

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Figure 17a: 30o with no wind

Figure 17b: 30o with 3-4 mph wind

Figure 17c: 30o with 10 mph wind

131 New Horizons‡$SULO Future Testing forces created. The actual aerodynamic forces In the future, more tests in the wind tunnel DQG ZKHUH WKH\ KDSSHQ DFURVV WKH ÀDS F\FOH need to be conducted. These experiments will need to be found in both the vacuum and would need to get a more precise wind tunnel the wind tunnel. Although the research showed IRUWKHVSHHGVWKHL)O\'XFNÀLHVDW$OVRZH WKDWWKHÀXLGPRYLQJRYHUWKHZLQJVZDVZKDW need to test the different speeds and determine was needed to create enough lift, more research what the correlation is between the wind needs to be done in the wind tunnel concerning velocity and the lift created at different angles. wing shape. With the research done, testing will Since the lift did change by simply changing also need to be done to test the vibrations of the WKH DQJOH RI WKH GXFN ¿QGLQJ WKH EHVW DQJOH iFly Duck and their impact on the forces. All and if there is a correlation between the angle of these tests will need to lead into preliminary and the lift, would allow for the optimization of work for FEA and CFD studies. With these angle of attack and speed for future design of computer models, air frames can be optimized bird-like MAVs. Finding a way to get enough for reconnaissance or any other missions that cameras at the right angles would allow for are needed. dense surface modeling of the wings while the wind is on. This would allow a very accurate Acknowledgments representation of what the wings would look I would like to recognize Alan Jennings for OLNHLQÀLJKWDQGZRXOGEHQHHGHGLQWKHIXWXUH teaching and assisting me with many of the IRUZKHQWKH¿QLWHHOHPHQWDQDO\VLVLVSDLUHG data gathering and processing techniques. ZLWKWKHÀXLGG\QDPLFVRIWKHDLU Many of the MATLAB programs utilized for While I was here 1st Lt. Justin Mason and this study were previously generated by him I took apart an iFly Duck, removed the battery before my arrival to AFIT. Finally I would and attached wires to allow for an external like to recognize Dr. Jon Black and Dr. Joe power source to power the duck. This was Blandino for their guidance in conducting this done to allow for the duck to function inside research and making it possible for me to have a vacuum chamber. We ran initial tests to worked at AFIT. make sure the duck would be able to work in the vacuum and that the electronics would not References short out and the tests were successful. The next >@$RQR+.DQJ&&HVQLN&(66K\\ step is to incorporate the 6 degrees-of-freedom W., “A Numerical Framework force balance into the vacuum and to use high for Isotropic and Anisotropic speed cameras to obtain images to create dense Flexible Flapping Wing Aerodynamics surfaces of the wings while in the vacuum. and Aeroelasticity,” WK$,$$$SSOLHG 7KLVGDWDZRXOGDOORZWKH¿QLWHHOHPHQWPRGHO  $HURG\QDPLFV&RQIHUHQFH, No. AIAA to be tested in its most basic form, helping to 2010-5082, Chicago, IL, June 2010. make it more accurate. Because of my limited >@0DJUHH'-HQQLQJV$$OOHQ&  time here I will be unable to assist with these Briggs, G., Black, J., Trinh, A. T., Pace, T. experiments. H., “Texture Photogrammetry Surface Reconstruction of Membrane Conclusion Wings Using Tracking Cameras,” WK The dense surface modeling done will be  $HURG\QDPLF0HDVXUHPHQW7HFKQRORJ\ DEOHWRDGGVRPHUH¿QHPHQWEXWFRQWLQXDWLRQ  DQG*URXQG7HVWLQJ&RQIHUHQFH, No. of the vacuum chamber tests will be able to AIAA 2010-4358, Chicago, IL, June IXUWKHUUH¿QHDQGFUHDWHDPRUHDFFXUDWHPRGHO 2010. IRUWKH¿QLWHHOHPHQWDQDO\VLV7KHWHVWLQJLQ >@&XUWLV'+³/DVHU'RW3URMHFWLRQ WKH YDFXXP ZLOO DOVR EH DEOH WR ¿QG WKH UDZ Photogrammetry and Force Measurement

132 $OH[DQGHU6KDUS‡)ODSSLQJ:LQJ0LFUR$LU9HKLFOH:LQJ'HIRUPDWLRQ for Flapping Wing Micro Air Vehicles,” Master’s thesis, Department of Aeronautical and Astronautical Engineering, Air Force Institute of Technology, 2950 Hobson Way, Wright- Patterson AFB, OH, March 2009. >@)LW]JHUDOG79DOGH]03UHLGLNPDQ6 Balachandran, B., “Thin, Flapping wings: Structural Models and Fluid- Structure Interactions,” WK$,$$   $60($6&($+6$6&6WUXFWXUHV  6WUXFWXUDO'\QDPLFVDQG0DWHULDOV  &RQIHUHQFH, No. AIAA 2010-2962, Orlando, FL, April 2010. >@-HQQLQJV$$OHUGLQJ,9-%ODFN- “Flapping Wing Force and Deformation Analysis” UG$,$$$60($6&($+6  $6&6WUXFWXUHV6WUXFWXUDO'\QDPLFVDQG  0DWHULDOV&RQIHUHQFH, No. AIAA 2012- 1637, Honolulu, Hawai’i, April 2012. >@:LGKLDULQL6@7KLS\RSDV&³,PSRUWDQFHRI:LQG Tunnel Test in Design Process of Micro Air Vehicles: QG760(,QWHUQDWLRQDO  &RQIHUHQFHRQ0HFKDQLFDO(QJLQHHULQJ, Krabi, Thiland, October 2011. >@1DNDWD7/LX+7DQDND<1LVKLKDVKL N., Wang X., Sato, A., “Aerodynamics  RIDELRLQVSLUHGÀH[DEOH)ODSSLQJ:LQJ Micro Air Vehicle” '¶D]]R/LEUDU\,VVXH , December 2011.

133 1HZ+RUL]RQV‡9ROXPH‡1XPEHU‡$SULO

Curricular Suggestions

ne of the goals of the New Horizons editorial board and the Institute Writing Program is to encourage professors to use New Horizons manuscripts as course materials and as Oreferences for class instruction. Listed below are some curricular suggestions developed by the faculty editors and cadet copyeditors for the manuscripts featured in Volume 7.

Natural Sciences

Frederick Dawson, “The Effects of Estrogen Deprivation on the Vascular Development of (PEU\RQLF=HEUD¿VK Danio rerio)” ‡ Discuss how this manuscript employs statistical graphics in support of its conclusions. Select one or two graphs, and describe in your own words what these graphs tell the UHDGHU:RXOG\RXVXJJHVWDQ\PRGL¿FDWLRQVWRWKHZD\WKHH[SHULPHQWDOUHVXOWVZHUH presented? ‡ After reading this manuscript as well as the manuscript “The Effects of Nitric Oxide on WKH6HQVRU\0RWRU)XQFWLRQVLQWKH'HYHORSLQJ=HEUD¿VK´GLVFXVVWKHVLPLODULWLHVDQG differences in the experiments.

Ben Sykes, “The Effects of Nitric Oxide on the Sensory-Motor Functions in the Developing =HEUD¿VK Danio rerio)” ‡ Read this manuscript and a manuscript from one of the other disciplines (Engineering, Humanities, Social Sciences). Discuss similarities and differences in the writing styles ZLWKWKHIROORZLQJIDFWRUVLQPLQGRUJDQL]DWLRQEUHYLW\XVHRI¿JXUHVDQGJUDSKLFV GHVFULSWLRQRIH[SHULPHQWDOSURFHGXUHVDQGOLWHUDWXUHUHYLHZ:KDWVLJQL¿FDQWVW\OLVWLF differences did you notice? What similarities did you observe? What conclusions might you draw about disciplinary writing conventions based upon these observations? ‡ ,QYHVWLJDWHZK\]HEUD¿VKDUHXVHGDVDUHVHDUFKVSHFLPHQDQGLQZKDWVFLHQWL¿FUHVHDUFK DUHDV]HEUD¿VKPRVWFRPPRQO\XVHG

Humanities

John Bolen, “Operational Art Goes Digital” ‡ *LYH D VKRUW VSHHFK RQ KRZ \RX H[SHFW WHFKQRORJ\ WR DIIHFW ZDU¿JKWLQJ LQ WKH QHDU future. ‡ In small groups, select a potential enemy combatant. If you were to conduct a cyber- attack on this enemy, what targets would you focus on to create the most damage? Why? ‡ Throughout history, military leaders have used information to gain an upper-hand on the enemy. Such information gathering can be considered the root of information warfare. In small groups, list some examples of early information warfare. Share your examples with the class.

134 Curricular Suggestions Stephen Caskey, “Kicking the Hornet’s Nest” ‡ After reading this manuscript as well as the manuscript “Understanding the Danger of a Nuclear Iran,” discuss whether the US needed/needs to intervene in either case; one author argues that the US has no pressing national interest in Iran, while the other manuscript examines a case in which the US clearly felt it had a pressing national interest. Have US interests changed? What are our national interests in the Middle East? ‡ The author implies that it was US intervention in Iran that led to the rise of radical Islam. Do the facts really support this contention? Have other US interventions led to similar results? Discuss intervention as a policy. ‡ Write a mock “state of the union” address in which you take on the role of the president addressing the nation about Iran’s current status as a Middle East power/threat.

Sean McCauley, “ Ceci n’est pas une redaction de mi-semestre” ‡ The author lays out the argument that alienation is ingrained deeply in “modern” life. ,Q VPDOO JURXSV GLVFXVV LQVWDQFHV IURP \RXU RZQ H[SHULHQFHV WKDW HLWKHU FRQ¿UP RU disprove this idea. ‡ 7KH(FRQRPLVW, among many other periodicals, publishes a “happiness index” gauging the relative satisfaction of people in different countries. Find one or more of these “happiness indices” and use them as a basis for creating a “VMI Happiness Index” (or a “VMI Alienation Index”). ‡ Conduct a mock trial for Camus’ Meursault.

Abhimanyu Trikha, “Disaster at Arausio” ‡ The author states that the battle is a case study for the Roman and Germanic ways of war, but scholars have long debated whether “ways of war” exist. Using the article as DPRGHOEUHDNLQWRJURXSVDQGDWWHPSWWRGH¿QHDVEHVW\RXFDQWKH³$PHULFDQZD\RI ZDU´3URYLGHFRQFUHWHH[DPSOHVWKDWVXSSRUW\RXUJURXS¶VGH¿QLWLRQ ‡ Compare and contrast the leadership styles of the Roman leaders. Which style was more effective? Why?

Matthew Wendler, “Atticus Finch and ‘The Dude’s’ Impact on American Masculinity” ‡ List your role models, and discuss what qualities led you to select these people. Then, in small groups, agree upon a set of qualities that makes someone a good role model. Discuss how characters in contemporary literature, cinema, and television either do or GRQRW¿WWKHVHTXDOLWLHV ‡ Using this manuscript as a starting point, debate the question: does art imitate life, or GRHVOLIHLPLWDWHDUW"$JUHDWGHDOIRULQVWDQFHKDVEHHQPDGHRIWKHLQÀXHQFHRIYDULRXV media (e.g., violence on TV, the misogynism of rap music, the permissive or even lewd EHKDYLRUGHSLFWHGLQPRYLHV EXWGRWKHVHPHGLDUHDOO\LQÀXHQFHRXUOLYHVRUPHUHO\ UHÀHFWWKHP"

Cabell Willis, “Neo-Confederates on Your News Feed” ‡ The author makes a claim that “the North” did not and does not preserve a memory of the war. In groups, do research to determine if this really is the case. ‡ In groups, debate the nature and extent of the right of free speech in the United States. At what point does an opinion become so harmful or hateful that the right to express it does not exist?

135 New Horizons‡$SULO ‡ In groups, debate whether the government can, should, or has the ability to regulate the Internet in cases such as this. ‡ Should Facebook groups make a more deliberate effort to protect their members’ identity? Why or why not? What protections does/should Facebook offer such groups? ‡ The Internet has both been lauded as a space for renewing democratic participation and critcized for creating “echo chambers” in which like-minded people interact only with other people who share their opinions. In groups, discuss the Internet’s effects on democratic participation.

Social Sciences

Micah Coate, “Understanding the Danger of a Nuclear Iran” ‡ After reading this manuscript as well as the manuscript “Kicking the Hornet’s Nest,” discuss whether the US needed/needs to intervene in either case; one author argues that the US has no pressing national interest in Iran, while the other author examines a case in which the US clearly felt it had a pressing national interest. Have US interests changed? What are our national interests in the Middle East? ‡ 7KHDXWKRUDUJXHVWKDWGRLQJQRWKLQJLVDYLDEOHRSWLRQ'HEDWHERWKWKHVSHFL¿FTXHVWLRQ of whether the US needs to do anything in this case and the broader question of whether WKH86VKRXOGEHDFWLQJDV³ZRUOGSROLFHRI¿FHU´,VSDVVLYLW\DYLDEOHIRUHLJQSROLF\"

Engineering

John McDonald, “Compressive Strength Analysis of Mortar Mixes Consisting of Recycled Plastics” ‡ Propose structures or applications, besides any listed in the article, which could be constructed from the recycled materials tested in the paper, based on the performance parameters given. ‡ Propose other materials or additives that could be tested in future research projects for applications in concrete mixes such as those described in the article. ‡ In groups, choose an object to make using plastic-based mortar mixes. Select the mix best suited for your object, build it, then test its effectiveness. ‡ Give an oral sales pitch on plastic-based mortar mixes to a construction company.

John Partin, “Using Correlations of Real-Time Vehicle Emissions and VISSIM Multimodal

7UDI¿F)ORZ0RGHOHG(PLVVLRQVWR3UHGLFW1HLJKERUKRRG6FDOH$LU4XDOLW\DQG12X Exposure Levels” ‡ Describe how air quality affects the health of people in cities and how social and economic outcomes might be improved with a reduction in pollution levels. ‡ Conduct an air quality assessment of your own neighborhood or school campus during a ORZWUDI¿FSHULRGDQGFRPSDUHWKLVZLWKWKHUHVXOWVREWDLQHGGXULQJDKLJKWUDI¿FSHULRG

136 Curricular Suggestions Alex Sharp, “Flapping-Wing Micro Air Vehicle Wing Deformation and Force Measurement in Wind Tunnel” ‡ Integrate the lift curve generated from the wind tunnel testing results from this research and determine the net positive lift generated by the iFly duck device tested in this research. ‡ 8VHFRPSXWDWLRQDOÀXLGG\QDPLFVWRFRPSXWHWKHGUDJIRUFHRQWKHLÀ\GXFNLQRUGHUWR estimate the speed at which the model could travel based on the thrust data given in the article. ‡ Alter the shape of the wing (sketch it out), then hypothesize how the results might differ. ‡ In groups, discuss how you might deploy or protect against MAV technology during warfare.

137 1HZ+RUL]RQV‡9ROXPH‡1XPEHU‡$SULO

About the Contributing Editors

Louis Blair, the Mary Moody Northen Visiting Professor at VMI, directs the National Security Program in the Department of International Affairs. He has also served as Executive Secretary of the Truman Scholarship Foundation; Mayor of Falls Church, Virginia; and Senior Policy Analyst, 2I¿FHRIWKH3UHVLGHQW¶V6FLHQFH$GYLVRU

Joyce Blandino holds a bachelor’s degree from the University of Illinois and a master’s degree and a Ph.D. in biomedical engineering from the University of Virginia. She has taught classes in the biology departments of James Madison University, Washington and Lee University, and the Virginia Military Institute. She presently serves as an Assistant Professor in the Department of Mechanical Engineering at the Virginia Military Institute.

Stephen J. Blank is Research Professor of National Security Affairs at the Strategic Studies Institute of the United States Army War College.

Bob ColemanLV$VVLVWDQW'HDQRIWKH&ROOHJHRI$UWV 6FLHQFHVDWWKH8QLYHUVLW\RI6RXWK Alabama in Mobile.

Bradley Lynn Coleman is the George J. Collins, Sr., Chair in Military History and director of WKH-RKQ$GDPV¶&HQWHUIRU0LOLWDU\+LVWRU\ 6WUDWHJLF$QDO\VLVDW90,%HWZHHQDQG 2012, he served as command historian at U.S. Southern Command, the Department of Defense headquarters for U.S. forces in Latin America and the Caribbean.

Christopher S. Lassiter is an Associate Professor of Biology at Roanoke College. He received his Ph.D. in genetics and genomics from Duke University. His research interests include the effects of steroid hormones on embryos. He teaches courses on development, immunology, cell biology, and the National Parks.

Laurie Lyda currently holds a visiting assistant professorship in the Department of English and 5KHWRULFDW*HRUJLD&ROOHJH 6WDWH8QLYHUVLW\6KHHDUQHGKHU3K'IURPWKH8QLYHUVLW\RI North Carolina at Greensboro.

Kristen Pond is an Assistant Professor in the English Department at Baylor University. She specializes in Victorian literature with research interests in ethics, narrative, and gender. She teaches courses on British literature and the 18th- and 19th-century novel.

Wayne G. Shear holds a bachelor’s degree in naval architecture from the U.S. Naval Academy, a master’s degree in civil engineering from the University of Colorado, and a master’s degree from the Naval War College. He retired as the Commander of the Naval Facilities Engineering Command with the rank of rear admiral in the U.S. Navy Civil Engineer Corps and now instructs classes in construction management for the Department of Civil Engineering at the Virginia Military Institute. He is licensed as a Professional Engineer.

138 About the Contributing Editors Matthew Swenty holds a bachelor’s degree and a master’s degree from the University of Missouri–Rolla and a Ph.D. in civil engineering from Virginia Tech. He worked for several years as a researcher on transportation structures at the Turner-Fairbank Highway Research Center in Mclean, Virginia. Prior to his time in graduate school, he worked as a structural engineer in the Bridge Department at the Missouri Department of Transportation. He is licensed as a Professional Engineer and currently serves as an Assistant Professor at the Virginia Military Institute.

139 1HZ+RUL]RQV‡9ROXPH‡1XPEHU‡$SULO

About the Authors

John Bolen, VMI Class of 2014, is a History major from Carlisle, Pennsylvania. Upon graduation, KHSODQVWRFRPPLVVLRQLQWRWKH86$UP\DQGVHUYHDVDFDUHHURI¿FHU

Stephen Caskey, VMI Class of 2015, is an International Studies major from Shreveport, Louisiana. Upon graduation, Caskey will be commissioning as a second lieutenant in the United 6WDWHV$UP\+HLV$LU$VVDXOWTXDOL¿HGDQGKDVUHFHLYHGWKH*HUPDQ$UPHG)RUFHV3UR¿FLHQF\ badge. While at VMI, Caskey has participated in the Pre-Law Society and Company Cadre.

Micah Coate, VMI Class of 2012, was a double major in International Studies and Modern Languages from Petaluma, California. While at VMI, she participated in several VMI clubs and activities including Women’s Rugby, the Character Counts mentor program, VMI Cheerleading, and the VMI Theatre Club.

Frederick Dawson, VMI Class of 2013, is a Biology major and a Spanish minor from Aaronsburg, Pennsylvania. After graduation, he hopes to delay his service in the United States Army in order to attend dental school.

Sean McCauley, VMI Class of 2013, is a double major in English and History and a minor in Spanish. In his spare time, he enjoys questioning reality. After graduation, he plans on attending law school before commissioning in the Judge Advocate General (JAG) Corps.

-RKQ -RKQQ\ :0F'RQDOGVMI Class of 2015, deployed to Kuwait with the Florida National Guard in 2010 prior to attending VMI and is now a sergeant in the Virginia National Guard. He performed undergraduate research in the summer of 2012 under the direction of the Civil and Environmental Engineering Department as part of VMI’s Summer Undergraduate Research Initiative.

John Partin, VMI Class of 2014, is a Civil and Environmental Engineering major from Richmond, Virginia. He did the research for his New Horizons manuscript over the summer of 2012. He is currently in the National Guard and will commission as a second lieutenant when he graduates.

Alex Sharp, VMI Class of 2013, is a Mechanical Engineering major. He holds the prestigious rank of the Regimental Band’s Drum Major and is responsible for commanding the band during parades. He is also a member of the VMI Emergency Response Team and is commissioning in the United States Air Force following graduation.

Ben Sykes, VMI Class of 2013, will graduate in May with a B.S. in Biology with a concentration in biochemistry and molecular biology. A native of Centerville, Virginia, he is a member of the ,QVWLWXWH+RQRUV3URJUDP+HEHJDQKLVUHVHDUFKRQ]HEUD¿VKDWWKHHQGRIKLVIRXUWKFODVV\HDU

140 About the Authors Manu Trika, VMI Class of 2013, was born in St. Louis, Missouri. He is currently pursuing a degree in History. While attending the Institute, he co-founded VMI Ballroom Dance Club, VMI Theatre, holds the position of CIC for the New Market Firing Party, and is the Crew Chief of Cadet Battery. Although he is a non-commissioning cadet, after VMI Trika wishes to pursue a career in the military, law enforcemnet, or another government agency.

Matthew Wendler, VMI Class of 2015, is a Biology major who is also seeking a minor in Writing. He plays bagpipes in the Regimental Pipes and Drums and is the bass guitarist for the VMI Commanders. He has represented the Institute on the Club Ice Hockey team for two years and also is a member of the VMI Emergency Response Team.

Cabell Willis90,&ODVVRIJUHZXSLQ&KHVWHU¿HOG9LUJLQLDDWWHQGLQJ7KH&ROOHJLDWH School in Richmond. A member of the Institute Honors Program, he is pursuing a B.A. in History, with minors in Writing, Philosophy, and the French language. As a dedicated runner, Willis competes for VMI’s NCAA cross country and track teams three seasons a year. He serves as a member of the S-2 Regimental Staff, supporting the academic standards of the corps. His passion for writing manifests itself both in and out the classroom: he serves as the Associate Editor for Prose on 6RXQGLQJ%UDVVDQGZULWHVUHÀHFWLYHO\LQKLVVSDUHWLPH8SRQJUDGXDWLRQKHKRSHV to continue his education in graduate school and law school. “Neo-Confederates on Your News Feed” is a research paper for a class on Southern literature and culture, intended to examine an element of Southern cultural distinctiveness.

141 1HZ+RUL]RQV‡9ROXPH‡1XPEHU‡$SULO

About the Copyeditors

Taylor Armstrong, VMI Class of 2013, will graduate with a Bachelor of Arts in Biology, a minor in Spanish, and a concentration in Ecology, Conservation and Organismal Studies. While at VMI, she was a member of the NCAA Division I women’s soccer team. She is from Stafford, Virginia. Following graduation, she plans to go into environmental work with the State of Virginia or enter into the realm of the independent schools to teach science. She copyedited Cadet Sykes’s manuscript.

Lindsey Carty, VMI Class of 2013, is from Fredericksburg, Virginia, where she attended Riverbend High School. While at VMI she is majoring in Psychology. She co-edited Cadet Willis’s manuscript.

Lucas Champion, VMI Class of 2014, is an English major from Fairfax, Virginia, where he attended Robinson Secondary School. He hopes to commission in the U.S. Army after graduation DVHLWKHUDQDUPRURUHQJLQHHULQJRI¿FHUHYHQWXDOO\ZRUNLQJWRZDUGVORJLVWLFV$IWHUKLVWLPH in the military, he hopes to return to Robinson to teach. He co-edited Cadet Trikha’s manuscript with Cadet Curry.

Max Zorin Curry, VMI Class of 2013, was born and raised in San Antonio, Texas, and attended John Jay High School. He is an English major and plans on commissioning in the United States Army after graduation. During his cadetship, he wrote for 7KH&DGHW newspaper, served as the paper’s Op-Ed Editor from 2012-2013, was appointed President of the VMI College Democrats, and served as the Public Relations Chair for the Class of 2013’s Fundraising Committee. He co- edited Cadet Trikha’s manuscript with Cadet Champion.

Flora Edelbrock90,&ODVVLVIURP&HQWUHYLOOH9LUJLQLDDQGDWWHQGHG:HVW¿HOG+LJK School. She is an English major and a Writing minor. Upon graduation, she will commission in the United States Army. She copyedited Cadet Dawson’s manuscript.

Campbell Henkel, VMI Class of 2014, was born in Richmond, Virginia, and attended St. Christopher’s High School. At the Institute, he is pursuing a Bachelor of Arts degree in English and has competed as a pitcher on VMI’s Division I NCAA baseball team for the past three years. Upon graduation, he plans to pursue a career in baseball, but would eventually like to attend JUDGXDWHVFKRROZLWKLQWKH¿HOGRIVSRUWVPDUNHWLQJDGYHUWLVLQJ+HFRS\HGLWHG&DGHW:HQGOHU¶V manuscript.

Glen Ingham, VMI Class of 2012, was raised in Fort Valley, Virginia, and will be graduating with a Bachelor of Arts degree in English. He is pursuing teaching licensure in the state of Virginia and is a member of the VMI Brazilian jiu-jitsu team. He co-edited Cadet Sharp’s manuscript with Cadet Wendler.

142 About the Copyeditors Adam Marsh, VMI Class of 2015, is a Biology major from Middlebrook, Virginia. Upon graduation, he will commission in the U.S. Army. He plans to go to medical school after the army and pursue a career as a general practitioner. He is a member of the VMI trap and skeet team. He copyedited Cadet Bolen’s manuscript.

Mary Meidenbauer, VMI Class of 2013, was raised in Hampton, Virginia. She is an English major and a German minor. Upon graduation, she will be accepting a commission in the U.S. $UP\DVDVLJQDORI¿FHU6KHFRS\HGLWHG&DGHW0F&DXOH\¶VPDQXVFULSW

Sean Murphy, VMI Class of 2014, is a History major and Writing minor from Greenwood, Indiana. Upon graduation, Murphy will commission as a second lieutenant in the United States 0DULQH&RUSV+HSODQVWRSXUVXHJURXQGLQWHOOLJHQFHDIWHU¿QLVKLQJ7KH%DVLF6FKRRO 7%6  While at VMI, Murphy has participated in the basketball club and company cadre.

Nathan Sitzman, VMI Class of 2016, was born in New Palestine, Indiana, and attended New Palestine High School. Sitzman is an International Studies major and a member of the VMI Glee Club. He plans on commissioning in the U.S. Army upon graduation. He copyedited Cadet McDonald’s manuscript.

Connor Sullivan, VMI Class 2015, is from Poquoson, Virginia, and attended Poquoson High 6FKRRO6KHLVSXUVLQJD%DFKHORURI6FLHQFHLQ%LRORJ\DQGLVRQWKH1&$$ZRPHQ¶VULÀHWHDP She plans on commissioning in the U.S. Navy in the medical corps. She co-edited Cadet Willis’s manuscript.

C. Russell Timmons, VMI Class of 2014, is an Applied Mathematics major and Writing minor from Richmond, Virginia. He will graduate in May of 2014 with Institute Honors. Upon JUDGXDWLRQ7LPPRQVSODQVWREHFRPHDFRPEDWV\VWHPVRI¿FHULQWKH8QLWHG6WDWHV$LU)RUFH He copyedited Cadet Partin’s manuscript.

Matthew Wendler, VMI Class of 2015, is a Biology major who is also seeking a minor in Writing. He plays bagpipes in the Regimental Pipes and Drums and is the bass guitarist for the VMI Commanders. He has represented the Institute in the Club Ice Hockey team for two years and also is a member of the VMI Emergency Response Team. He co-edited Cadet Sharp’s manuscript.

143 1HZ+RUL]RQV‡9ROXPH‡1XPEHU‡$SULO

The Institute Writing Program

he Institute Writing Program seeks to equip cadets for both academic success and participation in the full range of rhetorical occasions they will encounter in their lives Tas citizens and professionals. The program links three important components of the 90,FXUULFXOXPDULJRURXVJHQHUDOHGXFDWLRQVHTXHQFHLQ¿UVW\HDUFRPSRVLWLRQ :5DQG 102); a thriving Writing Across the Curriculum initiative, which requires cadets to complete two additional “writing-intensive” courses prior to graduation; and an interdisciplinary minor in writing for those who wish to pursue advanced training in technical, professional, or creative writing.

Cadets’ study in the writing curriculum is supported by professional and cadet consultants in the VMI Writing Center, who work individually with cadets at any stage of a writing project. The Institute Writing Program also showcases writing by cadets by sponsoring annually a writing contest, as well as the publication of two journals, 7KH6RXQGLQJ%UDVV, which features creative ZRUNV²SRHWU\¿FWLRQDUWDQGSKRWRJUDSK\²E\FDGHWVDQG1HZ+RUL]RQV90,-RXUQDORI 8QGHUJUDGXDWH :ULWLQJ, which highlights the full range of academic writing done by cadets across disciplines.

In addition, the Institute Writing Program features local workshops, a nationally regarded symposium for professors of rhetoric and composition, and presentations on Post each year featuring writers in all genres.

6RXUFH: COL Christina R. McDonald, Institute Director of Writing, 232 Scott Shipp Hall, Virginia Military Institute. [email protected]

144