Review of General Psychology © 2009 American Psychological Association 2009, Vol. 13, No. 3, 242–251 1089-2680/09/$12.00 DOI: 10.1037/a0017152

Purpose in Life as a System That Creates and Sustains Health and Well-Being: An Integrative, Testable Theory

Patrick E. McKnight and Todd B. Kashdan George Mason University

Purpose—a cognitive process that defines life goals and provides personal meaning—may help explain disparate empirical social science findings. Devoting effort and making progress toward life goals provides a significant, renewable source of engagement and meaning. Purpose offers a testable, causal system that synthesizes outcomes including life expectancy, satisfaction, and mental and physical health. These outcomes may be explained best by considering the motivation of the individual—a motivation that comes from having a purpose. We provide a detailed definition with specific hypotheses derived from a synthesis of relevant findings from social, behavioral, biological, and cognitive literatures. To illustrate the uniqueness of the purpose model, we compared purpose with competing contemporary models that offer similar predictions. Addressing the structural features unique to purpose opens opportunities to build upon existing causal models of “how and why” health and well-being develop and change over time.

What do volunteer services, social support, pet care, and reli- purpose offers direction just as a compass offers direction to a gious attendance have in common? Recent studies indicate that navigator; following that compass (i.e., purpose) is optional. Liv- people participating in these activities live longer than those who ing in accord with one’s purpose, however, offers that person a do not. Volunteers had a 60% lower mortality rate compared with self-sustaining source of meaning through goal pursuit and goal nonvolunteers (Oman, Thoresen, & McMahon, 1999). Providers of attainment. Furthermore, purpose is woven into a person’s identity social support had a 50% lower mortality rate than those who and behavior as a central, predominant theme—central to person- neither received nor provided social support (S. Brown, Nesse, ality as well. Vinokur, & Smith, 2003). Hypertensive people who owned pets Purpose, therefore, helps organize several areas of research had lower blood pressure and lived longer, as compared with (e.g., meaning and goals) across many disciplines (e.g., social, non–pet owners (Allen, Shykoff, & Izzo, 2001). Finally, frequent behavioral, biological, and cognitive science). Our intent here is to religious service attendees had longer lifespans compared with provide a fuller explanation of a relatively neglected, relevant nonattendees or infrequent attendees (Strawbridge, Cohen, Shema, mechanism for longevity, general health, and well-being. Unlike & Kaplan, 1997). What these findings have in common appears to other mechanisms that are important contributors to healthy living be longevity; however, purpose may link these behaviors. We such as supportive social relationships (House, Landis, & Umber- hypothesize that purpose leads to longer life span, fewer health son, 1988), positive affect (Cohen & Pressman, 2006), optimism care problems, and greater life satisfaction. Purpose, from our and hope (Segerstrom, 2005), and self-determined pursuits (Deci perspective, is not something merely to attain, but rather is an & Ryan, 2000), purpose is contingent on the existence of a clearly important predictive variable of physical health and mental health. defined mechanism that people devote effortful advances toward Furthermore, our conceptualization of purpose does not rule out (i.e., appetitive). The presence of a purpose is expected to lead to other routes to healthy living. However, when present, purpose is greater persistence than other important life goals because a cen- central to a person’s life narrative. Neglecting its presence can lead tral, self-organizing life aim resonates across time and context. to erroneous conclusions about “how” and “why” people behave as they do. Differentiating Purpose From Religiosity and Meaning

The concept of purpose exists in both the lay and social science What Is Purpose? literatures as either religiosity (Warren, 2002), spirituality (R. Purpose is a central, self-organizing life aim that organizes and Emmons, 1999) or meaning (King, Hicks, Krull, & Del Gaiso, stimulates goals, manages behaviors, and provides a sense of 2006; Klinger, 1977; Wong & Fry, 1998; Steger, Frazier, Oishi, & meaning. Purpose directs life goals and daily decisions by guiding Kaler, 2006). the use of finite personal resources. Instead of governing behavior, Common among these perspectives is personal agency (Frankl, 1963; deCharms, 1968)—a view of behavioral action (Carver & White, 1994) and attribution (Vallerand, Deci, & Ryan, 1987)— that we hold as central to purpose as well. These perspectives Patrick E. McKnight and Todd B. Kashdan, Department of Psychology, George Mason University. differ in many ways from purpose. First, purpose is not essential to Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to well-being as suggested by Frankl (1963) and Warren (2002). Patrick E. McKnight, Department of Psychology, George Mason Uni- Frankl’s perspective is that personal agency is an essential deter- versity, MSN 3F5, 4400 University Drive, Fairfax, VA 22030-4444. minant of mental and physical health that can be changed (e.g., via E-mail: [email protected] therapeutic means or “logotherapy”); religious faiths typically hold

242 PURPOSE IN LIFE 243 that same perspective. A person may be healthy for genetic reasons Both higher-order and lower-order goals come from a purpose. that have nothing to do with personal agency or purpose. Second, We expect that people who have a purpose in life would move religious faith (Warren, 2002) is not necessary for purpose. Pur- seamlessly from goal to goal or manage multiple goals simulta- pose, in the religious or spiritual sense, serves as an outcome of neously. Conversely, a person without purpose may achieve a goal faith. Those who have faith reap gains by acting in accord with but after that achievement find it difficult to readily identify religious/spiritual teachings to reach some desirable end (e.g., another goal. Goals, therefore, are central to and are produced by eternal salvation). Purpose may come from other nonfaith bases— purpose. such as goodwill toward others—and exert a powerful influence on “Goals provide a sense of meaning and purpose in life” (R. a person’s life. Third, purpose gives a person a sense of meaning Emmons, 1999, pp. 3). We hold that purpose works in the opposite that may not always be recognizable nor easily articulated. Self- causal direction by causing well-formed, organized goal structures report measures probably miss what we mean by purpose because and meaning. Simply having a goal will not necessarily indicate a many people may label or associate their behaviors as purposeful. purpose. People may have an extensive hierarchy of goals; that Fourth, purpose may not necessarily be available to every per- hierarchy does not mean that the person has a purpose either. At a son. There are individual differences (e.g., cognitive ability) that single point in time, goals that are higher in the hierarchy offer an likely limit purpose formation. A person who is unable to grasp adequate, temporally dependent indicator of a person’s identity. abstract concepts might find it difficult to generate a purpose since Understanding the totality of a person or what motivates them to purpose requires insight, introspection, and planning (Carver & do what they do across time and context (i.e., a person’s life Scheier, 2002). General cognitive ability may be altered not just by narrative; McAdams, 2001) requires an even higher level con- inherited general intelligence, but also by injury (e.g., traumatic struct. Given these features, one person’s purpose cannot be an- brain injury), disease (e.g., dementia), or neglect (e.g., Korsakoff’s other person’s goal. Purpose is at the highest level of analysis and syndrome brought on by alcoholism). Finally, purpose is not a provides some degree of centrality in a person’s identity; the same mere product of faith, meaning, or personal agency. Meaning does cannot be said for goals. not always drive purpose; rather, meaning probably drives the Our perspective on purpose is consistent with behavioral con- development of purpose. Once a purpose becomes developed, gruence models of personality that suggest people derive the purpose drives meaning. In short, purpose and meaning have a greatest positive experiences when they participate in activities temporal, bidirectional relationship. When these faith-based or congruent with their habits and predispositions (i.e., dominant meaning-focused approaches move beyond processing and inter- personality traits) and the least pleasure when there is discord preting reality to explicitly acknowledge motivated planning and (Coˆte´ & Moskowitz, 1998; Lyubomirsky et al., 2005; Sheldon & acting, they begin to offer what we refer to as purpose. Purpose Kasser, 1998). In addition, goal self-concordance refers to the shares several common threads with these other approaches in- degree to which goal pursuits are congruent with intrinsic values cluding personal agency, prioritizing goal-relevant behaviors, and and dominant behavior tendencies. Numerous studies have dem- goal setting. onstrated that people make better progress toward their goals (e.g., Sheldon & Elliot, 1999), show greater psychological health (e.g., Differentiating Purpose From Goals Kasser & Ryan, 1993), and display more cognitive flexibility and depth of processing (e.g., Grolnick & Ryan, 1987), when their Purpose and goals are not synonymous. Goals are more precise actions are self-determined and fit with dominant traits. We believe in their influence of proximal behaviors (Carver & Scheier, 1998). that our model is an extension of this work by postulating a latent “Goals focus on a specific cognitively represented endpoint and underlying factor that increases the strength and consistency of serve to guide the individual’s behavior toward or away from that behavioral congruence, goal self-concordance, and other psycho- end point” (Elliot, 2006, p. 113). Purpose provides a broader logical processes and assumptions that account for well-studied motivational component that stimulates goals and influences be- relations in various life domains. havior. Purpose does not necessitate a designated outcome to be attained, but it must motivate the person to be goal oriented. Elliot Further Clarifications (2006) further clarified the role of goals in the motivation process by excluding the hierarchical influence we ascribe to purpose. Three Dimensions of Purpose Reasonable goals have terminal outcomes; purposes, like values, do not have necessary terminal outcomes (Wilson & Murrell, Our previous discussion may suggest that purpose is a binary 2004a). condition where a person either has a purpose or does not. Instead, Goals can serve as an organizing framework for other subgoals purpose lies along a three-dimensional continuum—scope, (Elliot, Gable, & Mapes, 2006). Similarly, purpose stimulates strength, and awareness. Scope refers to how ubiquitous the pur- many smaller, consistent goals. Some might argue that purpose, pose is in a person’s life. A purpose that is central to the person’s from this standpoint, merely represents a higher-order goal that life and influences all actions, thoughts, and emotions ought to be stimulates lower-order goals (cf. hierarchical goal structures; considered to have a broad scope. Scope dictates the extent the Carver & Scheier, 1998). Purpose drives the higher-order goals purpose influences action under different contexts and conditions. from our perspective. Once a person satisfies a higher-order goal, To an extent, scope may dictate organization and context sensitiv- another goal that is logically consistent with the purpose becomes ity. A purpose with a broad scope will be less organized but also relevant and stimulates the production of other logically consistent influence a greater range of behaviors across a wider context (for lower-order goals. Thus, purpose becomes the supraordinate goal work on personality integration, see Rogers, 1951; Sheldon & manager. Kasser, 1995). 244 MCKNIGHT AND KASHDAN

Strength may be described best as the tendency for the purpose range of environmental and internal cues relating to one’s to influence the actions, thoughts, and emotions in the domains that purpose, intermediate goals derived from that purpose, behav- are relevant to its scope. A strong purpose is one that powerfully iors reflecting the implementation and pursuit of these goals, influences purpose relevant behaviors. Scope and strength dictate internal thoughts and feelings associated with purpose congru- the extent to which the purpose influences longevity, health, and ent activity, and the meaning associated with each of these well-being. A purpose characterized by broad scope and great elements. When one of these elements is activated, the rest of strength ought to have a more pronounced effect on those out- the network can become activated. For example, a person with comes. Thus, the more central a purpose is in a person’s life and a religious-based purpose viewing a sacred artifact may activate the more that purpose influences the actions, thoughts, and emo- all the memories of religious activities, historical events, or tions of that person, the more likely that person will benefit from feelings associated with being religious (for related findings, having that purpose. Moreover, a broad, strong purpose will bring see Hicks & King, 2008). The individual elements in this about resiliency to obstacles (for evidence to support a similar network can be activated in a relatively effortless manner and synergistic model, see Koestner, Lekes, Powers, & Chicoine, their interconnectedness allows them to constantly reinforce 2002). People without structural frameworks to integrate and or- and reactivate one another. Scope and strength, therefore, relate ganize goals display lower levels of health and well-being (Donahue, Robins, Roberts, & John, 1993; R. A. Emmons, 1991). to awareness by influencing the cognitive load. Scope and strength lead to stronger structural frameworks. Awareness decreases cognitive load by integrating motivation Scope and strength are orthogonal descriptors; although it might and behavior into a person’s cognitive architectural framework. be easy to imagine these qualities being related for most people. A We do not mean to imply that the integration is complete and thus person may have a single purpose that is both broad in scope and a habit. Instead, awareness provides the person with a vast con- strong in influence. However, there is no reason to suspect that a nection of related, context-sensitive, behavioral tendencies. The person will likely have that type of purpose rather than some other connections are stochastic rather than deterministic by nature, thus combination of scope and strength. Perhaps a more realistic ex- allowing the person to shift among many behavioral tendencies pectation is that the average person will have multiple, small scope with relative ease. purposes that are all relatively weak influences on behavior. When a person is not aware of a purpose but still influenced by Finally, awareness (i.e., the “contents of consciousness” ex- that purpose, there exists greater cognitive load and less efficient plored by Gray, 1995; Jackendoff, 1987) reflects the extent to resource allocation (i.e., the distribution of resources such as which a person is aware and can articulate her purpose. A person energy and time to a given task). The person requires more time may be aware of a purpose to the extent that the purpose is and effort to sort through the various behavioral options in each available and salient. Additionally, scope and strength influence context. When a person is aware of a purpose, that purpose will awareness. Consider a simple analogy of gravity. The force of likely be triggered by many environmental contingencies and gravity on earth is all-encompassing (broad in scope), but weak. pursuing the purpose requires less effort. Therefore, awareness We go about our daily lives without paying much attention to influences both behavioral flexibility and efficient resource gravitational forces. If, however, we were instantly transported to allocation. Jupiter—a planet with twice earth’s gravitational force—our Awareness may also increase the strength between purpose and awareness of gravity would increase substantially. Simply put, a the positive outcomes such as health and well-being (for a review purpose that is both broad in scope and strong in influence ought of indirect support, see K. Brown, Ryan, & Creswell, 2007). to be available to the person. Purpose consistent behaviors can be activated and can provide motivation for action outside of con- scious awareness. People can be unknowingly influenced by in- Pursuing Multiple Purposes formation when it is incidentally activated by meaningful environ- mental and internal cues. “Nonconscious” influence appears to be A person may have multiple purposes with each in entirely particularly strong when the cues are relevant to goals that are different domains and each completely independent of other pur- highly integrated into the self (such as those derived from a poses. Multiple purposes may be beneficial to a point, but after that purpose) (Bargh & Barndollar, 1996; Kruglanski et al., 2002). point only serve to reduce the resources for any single purpose. For Researchers have shown that people primed with information example, a person who pursues a single purpose may become about personally relevant goals experienced greater well-being and disheartened if the obstacles become too great to overcome. If that progress toward those goals compared with people with frag- same person had several purposes—each within different mented goals (Burton, Lydon, D’Alessandro, & Koestner, 2006). Additionally, people in the midst of goal pursuit automatically domains—then she may shift from the currently impeded purpose evaluated goal-relevant stimuli as being more positive than goal- to other more feasible purposes. Shifting between purposes facil- irrelevant stimuli (Ferguson & Bargh, 2004); no such effects were itates the ongoing pursuit of purposeful living and thus may found for people who already accomplished their goals. increase the positive benefits that result. Too many purposes, Scope and strength relate to awareness in both obvious and however, may lead to constant switching between purposes and subtle ways. We suspect that people with a strong purpose never lead to any progress. Thus, the dilution of effort may reduce possess vast, interconnected networks of memories, emotions, the positive benefits we ascribe to purpose (Zhang, Fishbach, & and behaviors; this process represents the cognitive component Kruglanski, 2007). The problem addressed by multiple purposes is of the architectural framework (e.g., Nelson & Fivush, 2004). one of sustainability balanced by the pull of efficient resource The memories integrated into this network include a broad allocation. PURPOSE IN LIFE 245

Value Judgments of Purpose When strivings come from a central life aim, become a person’s identity, and manifest in a person’s routine behaviors, then SDT We believe that there is minimal utility in designating a purpose moves closer to our notion of purpose. as “good” or “bad” without defining social conditions that support Many SDT researchers refer to self-concordant strivings as the or hinder their pursuit. A purpose that is consistent with well- optimal framework for pursuing desired life aims. Self-concordant established social values tends to produce intermediate goals that strivings are defined as the “extent to which people pursue their set become easier to accomplish over time (Triandis, 1989). Even of personal goals with intrinsic interest and identity congruence though there may be intermittent conflict with external forces (e.g., rather than with feelings of introjected guilt and external compul- antagonistic people), goal-related progress and achievement is sion” (Sheldon & Kasser, 2001, p. 153). From this operational generally facilitated and rewarded by society. In contrast, purposes definition, it is assumed that these strivings are linked to people’s inconsistent with social values ought to produce intermediate goals central, enduring interests and values (Sheldon & Elliot, 1999). that become more and more difficult to achieve because social However, this assumption has not been measured or studied. What forces actively thwart their achievement. Moreover, the cultural has been assessed is the degree to which strivings are intrinsically violations and sanctions increase with each successive goal. A motivated and self-determined. We argue that the explicit connec- person’s purpose may not necessarily be socially acceptable, but tion to core values and the centrality of strivings to a person’s we expect a different outcome over time for purposes that run identity characterize the elements of what we are describing as contrary to social norms. Thus, social acceptance of purposes purpose. In our view, all variants of purpose are self-concordant likely affects the person who lives for the purpose by imposing or strivings but most self-concordant strivings do not reflect a reducing barriers. When barriers are increased, we expect people purpose. to experience far greater stress when pursuing a purpose. Those In contrast to SDT, TMT provides a different motivational without a purpose might find other activities or pursuits to satisfy framework that focuses on the inevitability of death. Attempts to them if the resistance gets too great (Segerstrom, 2005). What cope with this existential dread leads to an indulgence in dominant separates those with purpose is the increased stress but the will- cultural ideas, symbols, and behaviors to ward off anxiety (So- ingness to persist toward that purpose (recently referred to as grit; lomon, Greenberg, & Pyszczynski, 1991). In this model, people Duckworth, Peterson, Matthews, & Kelly, 2007). develop and pursue goals, meaning, and growth opportunities to avoid death-related anxiety. When the threat of death is salient, The Science of Purpose people respond by adapting safe, cultural world views. This is a theoretically rich framework and a number of creative experiments As supportive evidence for the different aspects of purpose, we ruled out alternative explanations (e.g., Pyszczynski, Greenberg, turn to related theories in social psychology, cognitive neuro- Solomon, Arndt, & Schimel, 2004). However, a number of critics science, evolutionary theory, psychoneuroimmunology, and eco- (e.g., Muraven & Baumeister, 1997; Ryan & Deci, 2004; Snyder, nomics. The following review is not meant to be exhaustive but 1997) argue that the comprehensiveness of the model is also a rather an empirical background that supports our description of weakness, and priming mortality in college students with brief purpose, underlying mechanisms, and consequences for the laboratory stimuli may not be applicable to how people act in individual. everyday life. It is hard to argue against the importance of self-preservation as Purpose in Social Psychology a fundamental human motivation. Yet, suggesting that all other motivations stem from anxiety avoidance may go too far. People Purpose might be difficult to disentangle from existing motiva- often focus on other issues while experiencing anxiety; the re- tional theories. By contrasting purpose with self-determination sponse ranges from acceptance to avoidance (S. Hayes, Follette, & theory (SDT; Deci & Ryan, 2000) and terror management theory Linehan, 2004). Furthermore, it is unlikely that human beings (TMT; Greenberg, Pyszczynski, & Solomon, 1986) we make a exhibit a continual stream of nonconscious awareness of mortality case for incremental validity. SDT suggests that satisfying feelings that guides everyday behavior. In the advent of work suggesting of autonomy, competence, and relatedness are essential to facili- that approach and avoidance motives are relatively independent at tate personal development and psychological well-being (Deci & psychological, social, and biological levels of analysis, TMT pro- Ryan, 2000, p. 228). Additionally, SDT helps explain why per- ponents concluded that defensive protection against anxiety cannot sonal strivings may have differential influences on well-being. The fully account for growth-oriented processes, purpose in life, and benefits of striving are compromised when a person feels con- well-being (Pyszczynski et al., 2004). Recent evidence suggests that trolled by external or internal pressures (e.g., caregiver wishes, mindfully aware individuals fail to show defensive reactions to death- guilt), ill-equipped to be successful, or unsupported by others related thoughts and feelings, such that TMT is less relevant to this (Assor, Roth, & Deci, 2004; Gagn, 2003; Sheldon & Krieger, subset of the population (Niemic et al., n.d.). As data are collected 2007). Despite potential overlap between purpose and SDT, we do in the context of naturalistic environments over time, we will gain not believe purpose is reducible to manifest indicators of well- a better understanding of which set of circumstances, and for being. Working toward strivings congruent with central values has whom, is TMT effective at understanding day-to-day motivation been shown to be the most successful route to enhancing well-being and behavioral tendencies. To date, it is unclear how long TMT (Koestner et al., 2002; Sheldon, 2002). When strivings are self- effects linger and whether insights are gained into purpose-related selected and well-integrated with a person’s preferences or per- planning, persistence, progress, and benefits. sonality traits (Sheldon, Ryan, Deci, & Kasser, 2004; McGregor & Purpose does not seem to be reducible to either SDT or TMT. Little, 1998), the opportunity for substantial benefits are increased. The development and pursuit of purpose can certainly be 246 MCKNIGHT AND KASHDAN influenced by the ingredients inherent to SDT or TMT but until 1989), optimized personnel selection (Novick & Ellis, 1977), and evidence suggests otherwise, we are proponents of equifinality— decision outcomes (Baron & Kemp, 2004). purpose can be the end state of numerous motivations and devel- People motivated by purpose ought to act in ways consistent opmental pathways. As discussed previously, we also do not with efficient economic resource allocation. That is, those people believe purpose is reducible to other singular motives such as will take on the tasks that they can do, and do better than others, needs. The inclusion of purposeful living as an explanatory vari- while delegating tasks that are more easily accomplished by others. able in facilitating particular actions is best viewed as a comple- Purpose, therefore, may be a manager’s most powerful tool to get ment in the hierarchical structure of self-regulation and personality workers to operate at peak efficiency. (for a similar viewpoint, see Little, Salemla-Aro, & Phillips, 2007). The Marine Corps and coaches already know the power of Lastly, we emphasize that purpose offers an incremental contribu- purpose when it comes to efficient individual effort. Marines are tion to both SDT and TMT. Both SDT and TMT probably offer taught a priority of values that dictate action—“God, country, and better short-term, proximal predictions, as compared with our the Corps.” These priorities give purpose and meaning to all theory of purpose. Those proximal predictions, however, may be actions. Additionally, Marines are trained to work as a team with accounted by purpose if all contingencies were known. Purpose a common purpose, but their individual actions are to be circum- may be a broader theoretical perspective that adds to predictions of scribed to their specific specialty. Doing another Marine’s job is a how a person will view her life in the broadest context possible as dereliction of duty; efficient action is essential to the success of the opposed to any single time point (McAdams, 2001). Thus, the Corps. The reason why Ricardo’s theory is relevant to our discus- incremental contribution is one of scope and, perhaps, magnitude sion is that efficiency may be the most important indicator of in prediction. purposeful living (Gollwitzer, 1999) and economics broadens the scope of efficiency beyond just the evolutionary context into realm Purpose in Evolution of everyday behaviors.

Scientific inquiry may be broadened into evolutionary theory Purpose in Psychoneuroimmunology where work on efficient resource allocation (Cichon, 1997, 2001) offers a simple explanatory mechanism for longevity. Resource Optimal resource allocation may also pertain to immune func- allocation involves the distribution of scarce resources (e.g., en- tioning; purpose ought to serve as a buffer in stressful times. The ergy) to important processes. Organisms thrive when they adapt to psychoneuroimmunology literature (e.g., Ader & Felten, 2007) changing environmental conditions and perish when they fail to suggests that chronic stress reduces immune response. Compro- adapt. Resource allocation serves as one mechanism for adapting mised immune function tends to be most dramatic in people to changing environmental conditions. Purpose may provide the engaged in demanding activities due to unpredictable and uncon- causal force for efficient resource allocation; people living with a trollable events. Where purpose becomes relevant is that unpre- purpose tend to shift resources (i.e., physical, biochemical, neural, dictable and uncontrollable events ought to be maximally stressful and cognitive) according to the greatest need. Those who have the for those behaving without the luxury of a central, motivating life ability to use resources efficiently tend to be most adaptive and aim. More efficient allocation of resources leads to greater persis- have the greatest longevity. People motivated by a purpose ought tence at difficult tasks; purpose leads to a surplus of resources to to be more efficient resource allocators and thus avoid environ- protect against threats to immune response. Based on a large body mental conditions that inhibit purpose-motivated behavior. The of research, we know that the most vulnerable family caregivers efficient resource allocator diverts energy—in the broadest for older adult patients with dementia are those who tend to have sense—away from barriers toward alternative solutions. less social support, more care demands, and fewer respites. These vulnerable caregivers exhibit diminished immune responses Purpose in Behavioral Economics (Bauer, Vedhara, & Perks, 2000; Redwine, Mills, & Sada, 2004; Mills, Adler, & Dimsdale, 2004). The sum of these findings Optimal resource allocation may be manifested in economic suggests that chronic stress with no sense of control leads to a behavior. In particular, we hypothesize that through the appetitive deteriorated immune functioning. process of purposeful living, an individual becomes a more effi- Caregivers are living with an incredibly important goal, to cient resource allocator with time and energy. That efficiency may support their loved one throughout a terrible degenerating process. not merely be a biological or physiological mechanism but rather What we are suggesting is that purpose may contribute to the an overarching process that governs many facets of behavior such heterogeneous health outcomes of caregivers. Caregivers with the as economic effort. Efficient resource allocation from an econo- most compromised immune functioning may be those who accept mist’s standpoint may parallel David Ricardo’s (1817) theory of the responsibilities, but do not recognize these efforts as part of comparative advantage with nations. Ricardo’s theory stipulates purpose. When obligation, coercion, or guilt motivate caregiving, that optimal resource allocation comes from a country producing goal-related effort increases without translating into greater goal- goods that are most efficiently produced by that country and related joy, meaning, or progress (for reviews, see Little et al., importing goods that are most efficiently produced elsewhere. 2007). Comparative advantage is simply a means by which nations were hypothesized to be more economically more efficient. The theory Purpose in Emotion Research applies to individual action just as it applies to nations. Ricardo’s theory applies to decision models and action efficiency (Shafir, Another aspect of optimal resource allocation pertains to man- Osherson, & Smith, 1993), models of power over others (Tanaka, aging emotions. A person pursuing a purpose may often find PURPOSE IN LIFE 247 obstacles to purpose-consistent behaviors. In those situations, re- that distinguish trajectories of resilience, recovery, and functional maining task focused, thinking about how to overcome the obsta- impairments observed by Bonanno. The findings summarized in cles leads to successful pursuit of that purpose (S. C. Hayes, this section forms a bridge between the emotional response liter- Luoma, Bond, Masuda, & Lillis, 2006; Segerstrom, 2005); emo- ature and the mental health literature. Furthermore, these points tional instability interferes with goal pursuit (Berenbaum, Ragha- provide testable hypotheses that may readily accommodate our van, Le, Vernon, & Gomez, 2003; Johnson, 2005; Linehan, Bohus, investigation into how purpose offers resilience and recovery. & Lynch, 2007). The expression “grace under pressure” serves as the best exemplar of our point. Soldiers who remain calm during The Consequences of Purposeful Living heated battles because they stay focused may be less likely to perish. Moreover, those same soldiers may be less affected by Physical and mental health serve as outcomes directly influ- combat throughout life than soldiers without the capacity for enced by purpose and as the fundamental aim of our synthesis. No optimal resource allocation. direct empirical evidence ties our model of purpose to these outcomes. Instead, we discuss indirect evidence to support our Can purpose buffer the impact of extreme stress in terms model. Our interest in synthesizing various areas of research was of resilience or speedier recovery? to derive a parsimonious explanation of the underlying processes that influence health and well-being—both physical and mental. Recent empirical findings of positive outcomes after trauma Purpose likely affects both areas positively and we expect that experiences (Bonanno, Rennicke, & Dekel, 2005; Wilson & Mur- people who have purpose likely live healthier and happier lives. rell, 2004b) provides some clarity. The premise of this work is Purpose ought to influence immune functioning, energy levels, simple; a person’s framework for understanding the world, other and optimism. These expectations lead us to predict that purpose people, and the self are disrupted after traumatic experiences. As a has direct effects on both physical and mental health (cf. self- result, people work to reconstruct their knowledge structures (e.g., concordant strivings; Sheldon & Kasser, 2001). Physical health sense of personal justice and illusion of personal control, Janoff- benefits come not only from our expectations of better immune Bulman, 1992; Park, Cohen, & Murch, 1997). People engage in a functioning but also from more active, healthier lifestyles. process of meaning-making to rebuild a coherent framework of Mental health benefits come from a “buffer” against life cir- who they are and how their lives operate in larger social systems. cumstances that often lead to mental health problems. The buffer Contrary to decades of research suggesting that trauma survivors may be mechanistically related to the motivating forces underlying generally experience profound, lasting problems, Bonanno’s work purpose. A person dedicated to a purpose ought to be more prone (e.g., Bonanno, Papa, Lalande, Zhang, & Noll, 2005), in particular, to purpose consistent behaviors and less prone to those behaviors provides evidence that resilience tends to be the most common that are either irrelevant or counter to the purpose. trajectory in the aftermath of traumatic events. Drugs and alcohol might serve as a relaxation outlet for most Resilience is characterized by minor stress reactions followed people, but the abuse of those substances leads to substantial by a quick return to normal functioning. This work leads to two deterioration in goal directed appetitive behavior (e.g., Muraven, logical questions; what are the critical ingredients of resilience and Collins, & Nienhaus, 2002). Similarly, anxiety disorders, while can these ingredients be instilled to increase the likelihood of beyond the control of the individual, are mediated by exposure; we adaptive outcomes? expect purpose changes exposure through the mechanism of ap- Purpose serves as one, but not the only, potential explanatory petitive motivation. Finally, eating disorders tend to run counter to variable of how a person can become resilient. Flexible use of the notion of self-sustaining activity expected from purpose. Dis- various coping strategies to meet particular situational demands turbances in eating would be expected but the pathological distur- predicts resilience (Bonanno et al., 2005; Block & Block, 1980). bances expected with the disorders ought to be remedied by This finding diverges from variable-centric research that focuses help-seeking, self-help, self-control, or self-preservation. More- on the greater utility of specific strategies (active vs. passive over, if optimal resource allocation tends to be the underlying coping; e.g., Carver, Scheier, & Weintraub, 1989; Penley, To- mechanism involved with purpose, then these disorders would be maka, & Wiebe, 2002; Suls & Fletcher, 1985). People with access expected to be the least prevalent with people living with a to a large set of self-regulatory tools, with an ability to flexibly purpose. Thus, we expect purpose to have a broad effect on both apply them, are in an optimal position to navigate life challenges physical and mental health functioning. and sustain high levels of healthy functioning. The absence of disorder and disease does not inherently indicate As mentioned previously, our conceptualization of purpose that a person is psychologically healthy. That is, aside from acute mandates flexibility and offers an overarching framework by stress, positive and negative experiences are often relatively inde- which to predict and understand stress responses. Resilient stress pendent (Cacioppo & Berntson, 1994; Carver, Sutton, & Scheier, responses observed by Bonanno and colleagues show the same 2000). adaptation that we hypothesize with purpose. Research focusing on Health psychology conceptualizes function in two-dimensional posttraumatic growth provides additional insights into how people space, with negative impairing problems as one dimension, and may react to and accommodate stress or trauma. In particular, positive enriching experiences as another dimension. Thriving or research addressing the process of personal growth and its rele- optimal functioning would reflect low levels of negativity and high vance to clinical outcomes and practice (e.g., Joseph & Linley, levels of positive functioning (Keyes, 2005; World Health Orga- 2006; Tedeschi & Calhoun, 2004) offers potential mechanisms of nization, 1946). Using this framework, it is worthwhile to consider stress response. While the personal growth research is consistent a broader set of benefits that might be linked to purpose. One of with purpose, the research fails to offer any testable hypotheses our primary hypotheses is that acting in congruence toward one’s 248 MCKNIGHT AND KASHDAN purpose has a spillover effect into other life domains that only tive processes in the midbrain or lower. The reason we emphasize serve to enhance psychological, physical, and social well-being. this point is to differentiate purpose from primal motivations such Additionally, purpose leads to more behavioral consistency within as food, safety, and pleasure. Most organisms possess primal and beyond occupational routines (e.g., engaging in activities to motivations (such as those defined by the pleasure principle or reduce work–family psychological conflict or enhance overall vi- needs Freud, 1933; Murray, 1938) that get typically described as tality and engagement in life). universal traits. If these motivations are universal then there cannot Purposeful activities often require exercising character strengths be any individual differences that lead some to not have those such as courage and justice that result in challenges against other essential needs and others to have more essential needs. Our people or established norms. These stressful activities serve as definition of purpose would eliminate the opportunity for organ- substantial contributors to an engaging and meaningful life. In isms who do not possess these higher-order cognitive processes to response to these more effortful activities, people living with a have a purpose. Similarly, the requirement for a purpose to be a purpose may often prefer periods of restoration and leisure to build higher-order cognitive process eliminates the ability for critics to up their regulatory resources to return to a capacity that allows argue that a person living a hedonistic existence could be con- them behavioral continuity toward their purpose. This is not to say strued as a person living with a purpose. It is true that the person that for a person with purpose, the majority of activities in life are is living with an appetitive, goal-directed motivation, but the fact directly or indirectly related to their purpose. Rather, a purpose is that the motivation stems from a more primitive drive eliminates it intrinsically motivating and relatively effortless, and it is mood from fulfilling our essential elements of purpose. enhancing to engage in activities that are congruent with one’s We suspect that people meeting the boundary conditions, but purpose. With notable exceptions, activities consistent with a lacking purpose live less satisfying lives than those who fail to purpose would be desirable, selected, and scheduled during auton- meet the boundary conditions. The absence of purpose in the lives omous periods. These activities would often have the secondary of able individuals might provide a partial explanation for sub- benefit of elevating the reward potential of subsequent events. stantial elevations in the prevalence of depression, feelings of These secondary benefits might be a function of purpose related emptiness, and suicide in the elderly (Richman, 1993; Rucken- activities being less likely to exhaust limited self-regulatory re- bauer, Yazdani, & Ravaglia, 2007). Just because a person is able sources such as energy, attention, stamina, and executive function- to form a purpose does not mandate that a purpose will be formed ing capacity (Muraven & Baumeister, 2000). In fact, engaging in and sought after; recognizing this absence of purpose can lead to self-determined, satisfying experiences, such as living in accord suffering. In contrast, people unaware of the nature of purposeful with a purpose, might increase people’s endurance during mentally living might be immune to this form of suffering. and physically challenging activities and sustain their vitality in These requirements might be thought of as necessary ingredi- the aftermath (e.g., Moller, Deci, & Ryan, 2006; Muraven, Gagn, ents, but none sufficient to create or indicate the presence of & Rosman, 2008). purpose. That is, if any essential element is missing then purpose cannot be present; if all four requirements are met, it does not Essential Elements of Purpose necessitate that purpose is indeed present.

There are several required elements for purpose—elements that Summary and Future Directions form the basis of our definition. First, purpose stimulates behav- ioral consistency; serving as the motivating force to overcome Our aim was to develop a comprehensive view of a single, obstacles, to seek alternative means, and to maintain focus on the causal agent that might account for a loosely aligned set of out- goal, in spite of changing environmental conditions. People who comes. That single agent we called purpose. We defined what live with a purpose might be more consistent in their behaviors— purpose was and how it might be differentiated from other theo- both public and private. Also, behaviors ought to be resilient to retical constructs. In addition, we addressed expected criticisms changing environmental conditions or obstacles (cf. perseverance about the theoretical similarity with existing models such as TMT against barriers Segerstrom, 2005). Second, purpose generates and SDT and hold that what we propose is not only different but appetitively (i.e., approach oriented) motivated behaviors. Greater also integrative within those two theoretical systems. Our work in appetitive motivation suggests a stronger purpose. Third, purpose this area has just begun. Collaborations with experts from areas stimulates psychological flexibility. Purpose leads a person to be within and outside psychology will only help to test our theory and more flexible in light of changing demands, obstacles, and oppor- other related theories to bring about a better understanding of tunities. The literature concerning posttraumatic growth and resil- human agency. Those collaborations might be enhanced by start- ience illustrated this requirement. People find ways to avoid the ing with a few critical hypotheses that hold the fabric of these hardships by being able to flexibly manage their environment (both theories together. In their classic book, Goldstein, Heller, and physical and psychological). By avoiding these hardships, people Sechrest (1966) listed many testable hypotheses that were critical experience fewer psychological and physical problems that may to the study of psychotherapy. In that vein, we propose to do the befall people without purpose. Fourth, purpose fosters efficient same. Our aim is to stimulate research in this area and to help rule resource allocation and leads to more productive cognitive, behav- out incomplete models. Also, we aim to stimulate research that ioral, and physiological activity. may help refine and synthesize the growing body of literature that The fifth and final essential element—perhaps the most funda- documents the effects of personal initiative, goal-directed behav- mental aspect of purpose—is higher-level cognitive processing. ior, individual perseverance, personal strivings, and need for cog- That is, a purpose involves a higher level of cognitive processing nition, among others. The following list offers a set of critical by the cerebral cortex and not driven solely by lower-level cogni- questions that serve to refute our model of purposeful living. PURPOSE IN LIFE 249

Purpose leads to behavioral consistency and thus leads to the Bargh, J. A., & Barndollar, K. (1996). Automaticity in action: The uncon- following hypotheses: (a) random sampling in naturalistic settings scious as repository of chronic goals and motives. In P. Gollwitzer & J. ought to show that people living purposeful lives tend behave Bargh (Eds.), The psychology of action: Linking cognition and motiva- consistent with a purpose; (b) purpose influences both vocational tion to behavior (pp. 457–481). New York: Guilford Press. and avocational decisions throughout life; and (c) the creation of Baron, J., & Kemp, S. (2004). Support for trade restrictions, attitudes, and understanding of comparative advantage. Journal of Economic Psychol- goals consistent with ones purpose may be critical to differentiat- ogy, 25, 565–580. ing between real purpose and illusory purpose. Bauer, M. E., Vedhara, K., & Perks, P. (2000). Chronic stress in caregivers Purpose creates more psychological flexibility leading to the of dementia patients is associated with reduced lymphocyte sensitivity to following hypotheses: (a) people pursuing a purpose ought to be glucocorticoids. Journal of Neuroimmunology, 103, 84–92. less susceptible to avoidance behaviors such as procrastination Berenbaum, H., Raghavan, C., Le, H., Vernon, L., & Gomez, J. (2003). A compared to those who are merely goal-directed; (b) purpose taxonomy of emotional disturbances. Clinical Psychology: Science and motivates people to persist rather than quit in face of difficult Practice, 10, 206–226. situations; and (c) purpose ought to differentiate those who re- Block, J. H., & Block, J. (1980). The role of ego-control and ego-resiliency spond to traumatic events in a flexible manner from those who in the organization of behavior. In W. A. Collins (Ed.), Development of respond in ways that may lead to psychological distress or func- cognition, affect, and social relations: The Minnesota symposia on child tional impairment. psychology (Vol. 13, pp. 39–101). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. Bonanno, G. A., Papa, A., Lalande, K., Zhang, N., & Noll, J. G. (2005). Purpose leads to greater efficiency in resource allocation leading Grief processing and deliberate grief avoidance: A prospective compar- to the following hypotheses: (a) purpose enhances rebound capac- ison of bereaved spouses and parents in the United States and the ity through more efficient resource allocation; (b) the refractory people’s republic of china. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychol- period following any stressful event will be shorter for those with ogy, 73, 86–98. purpose; and, (c) people who live with a purpose will be less prone Bonanno, G. A., Rennicke, C., & Dekel, S. (2005). Self-enhancement to illness and report fewer symptoms even when ill. among high-exposure survivors of the September 11th terrorist attack: Purpose leads to lower stress levels and greater satisfaction with Resilience or social maladjustment? Journal of Personality and Social life, leading to the following hypotheses: (a) stress and satisfaction Psychology, 88, 984–998. will be dictated by the level of congruence between the purpose Brown, K., Ryan, R., & Creswell, J. (2007). Mindfulness: Theoretical and the opportunity to fulfill that purpose; (b) purpose buffers foundations and evidence for its salutary effects. Psychological In- against psychological or physical suffering during uncontrollable quiry, 18, 1–26. Brown, S., Nesse, R., Vinokur, A., & Smith, D. (2003). Providing social hardships; and (c) purposeful living produces longer-term, durable support may be more beneficial than receiving it: Results from a pro- benefits as compared with nonpurposeful living. spective study of mortality. Psychological Science, 14, 320–327. Purpose has clearly definable characteristics leading to the fol- Burton, K. D., Lydon, J. E., D’Alessandro, D. U., & Koestner, R. (2006). lowing hypotheses: (a) general intelligence, introspective abilities, The differential effects of intrinsic and identified motivation on well- perceived competence, and perceived self-determination affect the being and performance: Prospective, experimental, and implicit ap- likelihood that people will have a clearly defined purpose; (b) proaches to self-determination theory. Journal of Personality and Social social values affect the difficulty of achieving purpose-motivated Psychology, 91, 750–762. intermediate goals; and (c) people who are aware of their abilities Cacioppo, J., & Berntson, G. (1994). Relationship between attitudes and and can form a purpose , will suffer more than those who are either evaluative space: A critical review, with emphasis on the separability of unable to form or lack the insight of the importance of purpose. positive and negative substrates. Psychological Bulletin, 115, 401–423. Each of the above hypotheses represents a critical test of our Carver, C. S., & Scheier, M. F. (1998). On the self-regulation of behavior. New York: Cambridge University Press. proposed model for the measurement, formation, maintenance, or Carver, C. S., & Scheier, M. F. (2002). Control processes and self- impact of purpose in life. They represent critical tests of our organization as complementary principles underlying behavior. 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