Springer Proceedings in Physics

Volume 172 More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/361 Luciano Maiani • Said Abousahl Wolfango Plastino Editors

International Cooperation for Enhancing Nuclear Safety, Security, Safeguards and Non-proliferation Proceedings of the XIX Edoardo Amaldi Conference, Accademia Nazionale dei Lincei, Rome, Italy, March 30–31, 2015

123 Editors Luciano Maiani Wolfango Plastino Department of Physics Department of Mathematics and Physics Sapienza University of Rome Roma Tre University Rome Rome Italy Italy

Said Abousahl European Commission Directorate General Joint Research Centre Brussels Belgium

The European Commission’s support for the production of this publication does not constitute endorsement of the contents which reflect the views only of the authors. Therefore, the Commission cannot be held responsible for any use which may be made of the information contained therein.

ISSN 0930-8989 ISSN 1867-4941 (electronic) Springer Proceedings in Physics ISBN 978-3-319-24320-7 ISBN 978-3-319-24322-1 (eBook) DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-24322-1

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Springer International Publishing AG Switzerland is part of Springer Science+Business Media (www.springer.com) Foreword I

Distinguished Delegates, Colleagues, Ladies and Gentlemen, On behalf of the Accademia dei Lincei, it is my great pleasure to welcome you all to the 19th edition of the Edoardo Amaldi Conferences. I would like to begin by thanking the European Commission, co-organizer of this conference, in particular the Joint Research Centre, and the Italian Ministry of Foreign Affairs for granting its patronage. I also wish to express my appreciation to our Academy fellow, Luciano Maiani for the organization of this meeting, with the precious support of Prof. Wolfango Plastino and all of the Organizing Committee. Lastly, my thanks are due to the distinguished speakers who graciously accepted our invitation to participate. Edoardo Amaldi was President of the Accademia dei Lincei from 1988 until his death on 5 December 1989. He died unexpectedly while he was at work here at the Academy; he had just delivered the welcome address at a Conference on the developments in nuclear physics in Italy. The Amaldi Conferences are named after him because he was to initiate, in 1984, a conference series on disarmament and nuclear non-proliferation. Since then the Conferences’ attention has somewhat shifted from nuclear threat to nuclear safety and the progress that has been made in strengthening and maintaining nuclear safety and security, especially in terms of non-proliferation. In fact, this edition of the Amaldi Conference will concentrate on the international cooperation to enhancing nuclear safety and security, and non-proliferation. I am very pleased that this year’s programme includes not only the participation of countries from past editions, Russia, USA and European countries, but also China, India, Iran, Israel, Japan and Pakistan. I am not an expert on the topic to be discussed today, therefore I will limit myself to saying that although great progress has been made in nuclear threat reduction, constant commitment and responsibility is required by all countries to protect public health and minimize the harmful effects of nuclear activities on society and on our environment.

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Before I conclude, I would like to take this opportunity to express, on behalf of the Accademia dei Lincei, my heartfelt appreciation and gratitude to Prof. Edoardo Vesentini for his commitment and efforts to promote the Amaldi Conferences for many years. Professor Vesentini has always recognized the important contribution that the scientific community, including the science acade- mies, could provide on questions of international security. I thank you for your attention and wish you an open and fruitful discussion, as well as a very pleasant stay in Rome. I now pass the word to Luca Giansanti, Director General for Political Affairs and Security of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs.

Lamberto Maffei President of the Accademia Nazionale dei Lincei Foreword II

Presidents, Chairpersons, Excellencies, Ladies and Gentlemen, It is an honour to welcome you to the XIX Edoardo Amaldi Conference, which is co-organized by the European Commission and supported by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and International Cooperation. The close relationship between Science and International Security and the contribution of scientists to the peaceful development of mankind is not a new topic for the Amaldi Conference, being part of the moral heritage of the former President of the Accademia dei Lincei, Edoardo Amaldi. Meeting growing energy demands and mitigating climate change are among the main challenges of today. Projections for global installed nuclear power capacity still indicate an increase by 2030, with different regional developments. Although these projections have been lowered every year since 2010, nuclear power remains an important option for several countries. How to reconcile the increase in nuclear power capacity with the imperative of non-proliferation is the challenge we are going to face in the coming years. The proliferation of nuclear weapons continues to represent a major threat to international security. Despite the efforts made and results achieved in recent years, the existence of proliferation programmes and networks, the difficulty of securing sensitive materials and the risk that terrorists might get access to them remain major challenges to cope with. The IAEA’s system of safeguards is a fundamental component of the nuclear non-proliferation regime and plays an indispensable role in the implementation of the NPT. Italy has firmly supported the continued evolution of safeguards as exemplified by the development of the State-level Concept. Consistent and universal imple- mentation of the SLC will further strengthen the efficiency and effectiveness of the IAEA Safeguards System, thus contributing to global non-proliferation efforts. Moreover, Italy is convinced of the benefits of multilateral approaches to the nuclear fuel cycle. We had hoped to see the IAEA LEU Bank already completed, and look forward to the early conclusion of the Host State Agreement between the IAEA and Kazakhstan.

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The NPT Review Conference is approaching and we should redouble our efforts to achieve a successful outcome. The NPT is the cornerstone of the global nuclear non-proliferation regime, the foundation for the pursuit of nuclear disarmament and an important element in the further development of nuclear energy applications for peaceful purposes. We want to reaffirm our commitment to create the conditions for a safer world for all without nuclear weapons, in accordance with Article VI of the NPT. Any further progress in this field should be based on considering the three pillars of the NPT as mutually reinforcing. In this prospect we reaffirm our full support to the implementation of the 2010 Action Plan which includes concrete steps on nuclear disarmament, non-proliferation and peaceful uses of nuclear energy. Italy is also fully committed to the entry into force of the Comprehensive Test-Ban Treaty that would strengthen the international non-proliferation regime, significantly contributing to the goal of a world without nuclear weapons. In this regard, I particularly welcome the participation of the former Executive Secretary of the Preparatory Commission, Ambassador Tibor Toth, whose leader- ship has been transformational in making the CTBTO and its International Monitoring System fundamental elements of the global Non-Proliferation Regime. Within the framework of the Conference on Disarmament, the negotiations on a treaty banning the production of fissile material remain a priority. This treaty would be crucial to foster both disarmament and nuclear non-proliferation. Italy is part of the Group of Governmental Experts on an FMCT that will conclude its work soon with the aim of revitalising the negotiations on this Treaty. Taking into account the lessons of the Fukushima-Daiichi Nuclear accident, we attach the utmost importance to the worldwide implementation and continuous improvement of the highest standards of nuclear safety. In 2014, the Council of the European Union adopted a renewed Directive to strengthen the safety framework for nuclear installations. It sets the objective of preventing accidents and, should they occur, mitigating the consequences and avoiding early and large radioactive releases. The Vienna Declaration on Nuclear Safety was recently adopted at the Diplomatic Conference of the Convention on Nuclear safety held in February under the able chairmanship of Ambassador Rafael Grossi who is also attending this Conference. This Declaration is a further milestone in the process of strengthening nuclear safety in the wake of the Fukushima-Daiichi nuclear accident and contains a series of principles to guide countries in the implementation of the objectives of the Convention. The Nuclear Security Summit process added a political dimension to the global dialogue on nuclear security. It has fostered the concept of nuclear security as a global issue to be addressed on a global basis. In Washington there was agreement on the need to face the challenges of nuclear security, especially the threat of nuclear terrorism. In Seoul new lines of action were indicated. In The Hague further progress was achieved. We have recognized that nuclear security is a shared objective, requiring sus- tained and effective international cooperation. Therefore, each state is responsible Foreword II ix both for its domestic nuclear security regime and to others for effectively fulfilling its national responsibilities. In The Hague we discussed how to carry the global dialogue on nuclear security forward beyond the NSS process. Special attention will be paid to this issue at the 2016 Summit, to be held in the United States. There will surely be a need for many years to come for continued high-level dialogue on improving nuclear security. Increasingly, over the past few years, Italy has paid special attention to educa- tion, training and institutional capacity building as essential elements for fostering international peace and security. The International School on Nuclear Security, established in 2010 with the IAEA and the International Centre for Theoretical Physics (ICTP) in Trieste, will hold in 2015 its fifth annual training course. The School is highly regarded by developing and emerging countries as it provides professionals with knowledge of the international legal framework on nuclear security, raising awareness on illicit trafficking in nuclear and other radioactive material. Educational efforts should lie at the root of any strategy, which aims at strengthening a global response to WMD threats and preventing non-state actors from gaining access to sensitive material and knowledge. For this reason, we announced a high-level event entitled The Nuclear Security Summit 2016 and Beyond: the Role of Training and Support Centres, and Centres of Excellence organized by the Italian Ministry of Foreign Affairs, and the Italian National Agency for New Technologies, Energy and the Environment in cooper- ation with IAEA and the European Commission. The Event will take place in Bologna, during 7–8 May 2015. We will continue to allocate funds for safety and security in our national pro- grammes for the decommissioning of nuclear plants and the management of radioactive waste. As announced in The Hague, Italy and the United States of America have jointly completed the removal of a significant amount of excess highly enriched uranium and separated plutonium from Italy, and plan to continue to work to eliminate additional stock of special nuclear material. Presidents, Chairpersons, Finally, I would like to pay tribute to you and to your staff for the excellent organization of this Conference and for the exceptionally high level of the keynote speakers and panellists, who will provide us with abundant food for our thoughts. I wish you an interactive and fruitful debate.

Luca Giansanti Director General for Political Affairs and Security of the Italian Ministry of Foreign Affairs Foreword III

Thanks to the Accademia Nazionale dei Lincei for the organisation of this con- ference and to all speakers and participants for coming and contributing to a lively and stimulating discussion. In 2013, the world’s 392 GW of installed nuclear capacity accounted for 11 % of electricity generation. This share has declined gradually since 1996, when it reached almost 18 %, as the rate of new nuclear additions (and generation) has been outpaced by the expansion of other technologies. After hydropower, nuclear is the world’s second largest source of low-carbon electricity generation. The accident in Fukushima has changed public perception and the nuclear energy policy in some countries; however, the contribution of nuclear electricity to the world’s energy needs will remain probably around the values of today. As in most OECD countries, the focus of the nuclear industry in the EU is changing. We are moving from a phase of mainly operation of existing power plants built 30–40 years ago, to a phase of replacing or prolonging ageing capacity, with increasing activities in the back-end of the cycle, such as decommissioning and radioactive waste management. Therefore, as part of the Energy Union Package which was adopted on 25 February 2015, the Commission will be looking into these recent developments in the framework of a Commission Communication for an Illustrative Nuclear Program, a so-called PINC. This Communication will present a picture of the EU investments needs in nuclear, taking into account current developments. As a reliable low-carbon energy source, nuclear energy will continue to deliver an important contribution to the decarbonisation objectives of the Energy Union. Moreover, the Energy Union foresees further improvements for the security of supply of nuclear energy, the EU should also ensure it maintains its technological leadership in the nuclear domain and has the world’s safest nuclear generation. Fostering research and innovation will be an essential element in ensuring the EU maintains its technological leadership in the nuclear domain. In support of the achievement of these goals, the colleagues from the Joint Research Centre of the European Commission are leading an important part of the R&D Euratom Program where safety, security, safeguards and non-proliferation are core areas.

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This goes hand in hand with the need to strengthen and train our human resources, as well as ensuring the availability of an experienced workforce taking into account the changes in focus in the nuclear industry. This should be a top priority, whether a country chooses to continue the use of nuclear energy, to phase out, or to embark in a new built programme. At the EU level, the JRC monitors European human resources in the nuclear field, develops nuclear knowledge management and has established a comprehensive training programme which includes nuclear safety, nuclear security and nuclear safeguards. In the field of safety, large strides ahead have been made already at the EU level in ensuring that we operate the world’s safest nuclear generation, moving our region to a world leader when it comes to the level of nuclear safety standards. Comprehensive risk and safety assessments (so called ‘stress tests’) of EU NPPs were conducted between 2011 and 2012, and we significantly strengthened the existing EU legislative framework on Nuclear Safety, on Radioactive Waste Management and on the protection of workers, patients and the general public across Europe against the dangers arising from the exposure to ionising radiation. Together, these measures will ensure that the nuclear energy industry in the EU will operate to the highest standards worldwide. In the area of nuclear and radiological security, significant progress has been made in the implementation of the EU security strategy (2003) and EU strategy against the proliferation of weapons of Mass destruction (2003). Progress is also made through the implementation in recent years of the EU-internal CBRN Action Plan (2009). Moreover, as demonstrated by the ongoing negotiations with Iran, non-proliferation remains a key issue, demonstrating the usefulness of an efficient and effective safeguards system, such as the one existing under Euratom. We are moving ahead well in the individual fields of safety, security and safe- guards. However, at the political level, safety, security and safeguards remain in separate hands. Safeguards are implemented by international and national author- ities through an international treaty, while safety and security are important national responsibilities. One year after the Fukushima event, the nuclear security summit in Seoul (March 2012), in its final statement, highlighted the nexus between safety and security. For example, both safety and security aim at protecting the public and the environment from accidental or intentional releases of radioactivity. An increased cooperation between the different actors involved in this field would lead to an optimal use of the resources available. This is specifically relevant in times where available resources are shrinking. As such, important opportunities for exploiting synergies between these different fields remain untapped. Nonetheless, we are already moving ahead in certain fields, such as the outreach activities conducted by the EU under the Instrument for Nuclear Safety Cooperation, and the Instrument contributing to Stability and Peace under which the recently created CBRN Centres of Excellence are funded. Foreword III xiii

The new EU strategy for implementation of these instruments is to ensure that synergies between safety and security actions is sought to the maximum extent possible, and some activities are already taking the new strategy into consideration. This is a good example, on which we should build. Synergies could be obtained in further cooperation in the external dimension of nuclear safety, such as con- ducting nuclear stress tests with neighbouring countries (Belarus, Armenia, Turkey), cooperating in the support of Regulatory Authorities in countries embarking in nuclear energy, remediation of uranium legacy sites, training, addressing the Chernobyl legacy and increasing Emergency Preparedness in our neighbourhood. In the field of Nuclear security and nuclear safeguards, the Euratom Treaty can be used as a model of excellence by other regions worldwide interested in applying a supranational approach in safeguards. We can do more to cooperate in the fight against illicit trafficking of nuclear and radioactive materials, and to further enhance the implementation of the EU CBRN action plan. Also in the field of cyber security, important questions are arising due to increased terrorist threats. We could explore how we can all cooperate to address such issues. These are just a few rudimentary ideas—and there is much left to discuss. This is why I am very happy to be present here, and to hear your points of view on this important topic. I would like to end my intervention by encouraging you to profit from the—Iam sure—very interesting and high-level discussions that the intervention of this impressive panel of speakers will trigger. Do not refrain yourselves from pas- sionate, open and frank debates. Thank you!

Gerassimos Thomas Deputy Director General of the Directorate-General for Energy of the European Commission Foreword IV

It is a great privilege to address so many knowledgeable experts on this important topic. I am very grateful to President Lamberto Maffei and Prof. Luciano Maiani for having invited me to the prestigious Accademia Nazionale dei Lincei and for giving me the opportunity to see so many dear friends, including Ambassador Luca Giansanti, Director General for Political Affairs and Security of the Italian Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Italy. I would like to greet you all by saying that I am convinced that the issues that the various sessions will address are of fundamental importance. No one can deny having ever reflected upon what happened when for the first time this type of nuclear arms was first developed. Throughout history, scientific and technological progress has always led some countries to believe that they could threaten others thanks to their superiority, and the question has always been whether the possession of nuclear arms increases or reduces the probability of war. To begin with, when they were first developed, the belief was that as long as they were present on both sides they would function as a deterrent, through the sheer terror of the consequences of actually using them. The problem shifted to that of proliferation in an uncontrolled arms race involving both sides. Following the disasters of the Second World War the hope was for a long-lasting period of peace, but what actually emerged was an instable equilibrium that we refer to as the Cold War. At that point it was decided that those nations with nuclear arms would keep them and the focus was on how to stop other countries from acquiring them. This resembles the oligarchic closure in Venice in the year 1297, better known in history books as the Serrata del Maggior Consiglio, when the Venetian Republic decided by Decree that only descendants of those already in office could be voted into the Council. Today’s Conference will help to change this view, based on all the events that have occurred in recent years. It is of vital importance to carry out research on the geographic distribution of the nuclear weapons. The technology behind them has made enormous progress, and there has also been a proliferation of regional conflicts.

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We must now ask ourselves whether the deterrent effect of nuclear arms has indeed worked as a deterrent of escalation, especially during the Cold War. In a perfect balance of power the risk of war approaches zero. This situation was in fact quite simple: the stability paradox meant that the Cold War actually resembled the long-term peace following the Second World War. Even if smaller nations were to have a nuclear arsenal, perhaps the stability paradox can still apply. This needs to be analysed in detail. The problem shifts dramatically if nuclear arms fall in the hands of terrorist groups or nations, where the established rules no longer apply. The emergence and the interweaving of unresolved regional issues have helped to destabilize the accepted approach towards nuclear proliferation. There is an urgent need for innovative studies on these new aspects and I am certain that the sessions planned during this conference will address these and other aspects of the problem, and pave the way for a safer world in the near future. I wish you all a very successful conference.

Umberto Vattani President of the Foundation Italy–Japan Preface

The XIX Edoardo Amaldi Conference—International Cooperation for Enhancing Nuclear Safety, Security, Safeguards and Non-proliferation—was held in Rome, Italy, during 30–31 March 2015, organized by the Accademia Nazionale dei Lincei and the European Commission—Directorate-General Joint Research Centre, under the patronage of the Italian Ministry of Foreign Affairs and the support of the European Commission—Directorate-General for International Cooperation and Development. For more details, see Appendix: Program of the XIX Edoardo Amaldi Conference. Nuclear Safety, Security and Safeguards (the 3S) and Non-Proliferation play a key role in the build-up and maintenance of the verification regime and the progress towards a nuclear-weapon-free world. This is of particular significance this year, since 2015 marks the 70th anniversary of the first nuclear-weapon test (Trinity, 16 July 1945) and the destruction of Hiroshima and Nagasaki (6 and 9 August 1945). Also, four years have passed after the Fukushima Nuclear Power Plant accident and its environmental consequences, and an important rethinking of the ways civil nuclear energy can be still exploited is underway. In the spirit of Amaldi’s intuition, the Conference was proposed as a forum where eminent scientists, diplomats and policy makers could compare national perspectives and update international collaborations, while discussing how Science beyond Boundaries may enhance nuclear non-proliferation policies. A total of 30 plenary speeches have been presented by lecturers from interna- tional organizations: European Commission, International Atomic Energy Agency, Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty Organization, Pugwash Conferences on Sciences and World Affairs, and from 14 countries: Argentina, Belgium, China, Finland, France, Germany, India, Iran, Israel, Italy, Japan, Pakistan, Russia, United States of America. Talks have illustrated the political, institutional and legal dimension of the nuclear 3S, of the Non-Proliferation Regulation Systems, of the Nuclear Test Ban Treaty and have addressed the current challenges by attempting to identify possible solutions and future improvements.

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The role of international cooperation and of the scientific community actions have been considered, in connection with the effectiveness in the implementation of international controls in critical areas, on technology foresight and the ongoing evaluation of current capabilities. Several contributions have underlined the need that national procedures be implemented under the supervision of international organizations, well represented in this Conference. The role of the international organizations should increasingly be focused on promoting cooperation beyond bondaries, as presented in a case study in which the scientific community has demonstrated how science can over- come the absence of political and diplomatic relations in critical areas. Better synergies between international organizations and academies have been advocated, finalized to a greater involvement of the scientific community to identify the best implementation processes inherent in nuclear 3S and Non-Proliferation, to the training of future generations and the development of new strategies for the global security. The Conference stressed that global security is a common fundamental target for scientists, diplomats and policy makers and, in the context offered by the Accademia Nazionale dei Lincei, the participants have been able to compare dif- ferent experiences and discuss future strategies for an effective international cooperation, along the lines advocated long ago by Edoardo Amaldi. Two discussion panels concluded the Conference: • Panel I: Scientific and technical challenges to the effective implementation of the scientific and technical challenges to the effective implementation of the 3S (Safety, Security and Safeguards) approach. • Panel II: Role of international cooperation and scientific community actions for enhancing nuclear safety, security, safeguards and non-proliferation. In the introductions by the panellists and the ensuing discussions from the floor, the urgence of a visible progress of the Non-Proliferation Treaty and of a con- structive discussion among the different actors on the nuclear scene has clearly emerged. Positive indications were given and auspices were made concerning the con- clusion of the multilateral discussion on the Iran nuclear program, ongoing in Lausanne on the same days as the Conference. They were interpreted as good omens for the signature of a positive agreement, which was in effect announced two days after the conclusion of our works. Plans for the future include continuation of the biannual Amaldi Conferences and, possibly, an open forum, in alternate years, to stimulate further analysis on Nuclear Safety, Security, Safeguards, as well as non-proliferation studies and applications towards a nuclear-weapon-free world. The editors would like to thank all authors for their effort during the preparation of the papers and express their gratitude to the President of the Accademia Nazionale dei Lincei, Prof. Lamberto Maffei, the Director General, Dr. Ada Baccari, and the Staff, Dr. Pina Moliterno and Dr. Marco Zeppa, for their com- mitment and efforts to promote the XIX Edoardo Amaldi Conference. They also Preface xix thank the Director-General of the European Commission Joint Research Centre, Mr. Vladimir Šucha, and the Staff, Mrs. Ivana Oceano, and jointly the Director-General for Political Affairs and Security of the Italian Ministry of Foreign Affairs, H.E. Ambassador Luca Giansanti, and the Staff, Counselor of Embassy Emanuele Farruggia, for their fundamental support to the XIX Edoardo Amaldi Conference.

Rome-Bruxelles Luciano Maiani Chair XIX Edoardo Amaldi Conference Said Abousahl Co-Chair XIX Edoardo Amaldi Conference Wolfango Plastino Scientific Secretary XIX Edoardo Amaldi Conference Contents

Perspectives on Nuclear Safety and Security ...... 1 Maurizio Cumo, Michael Kuske, Tim Andrews and Benoît De Boeck

Nuclear Safeguards and Non-proliferation ...... 15 Takashi Onishi, Nobuyasu Abe, Eric Pujol and Rafael Mariano Grossi

Scientific Community Actions to Shape National Perspectives Towards a Better Synergy Between Nuclear Safety, Security and Safeguards ...... 31 Götz Neuneck, Giovanni Bruna, Jean Jalouneix, Raymond Jeanloz, Vladimir Rybachenkov, Zhao Wuwen and Merav Zafary-Odiz

Scientific Community Actions to Shape National Perspectives Towards Nuclear Security Current and Future Challenges ...... 61 Gianfranco Incarnato, Ramamurti Rajaraman, Tehmina Janjua and Ali Asghar Soltanieh

Scientific Community Actions to Shape Enhanced Nuclear Safeguards and Non-proliferation Policies...... 77 Reza Mansouri, Willem Janssens, Eliezer Rabinovici and Paolo Cotta-Ramusino

Scientific and Technical Challenges to the Effective Implementation of the “3S” (Safety, Security and Safeguards) Approach...... 89 Said Abousahl, Anne Harrington, Elina Martikka, Tapani Honkamaa, Tapani Hack, Timo Wiander, Marko Hämäläinen and Stamatios Tsalas

xxi xxii Contents

Role of International Cooperation and Scientific Community Actions for Enhancing Nuclear Safety, Security, Safeguards and Non-proliferation...... 107 Luciano Maiani, Daniel Iracane, Francesco Calogero and Giovanni De Santi

Appendix: Program of the XIX Edoardo Amaldi Conference ...... 119

Index ...... 125 Contributors

Nobuyasu Abe Japan Atomic Energy Commission, Chiyoda, Tokyo, Japan Said Abousahl European Commission, Directorate General Joint Research Centre, Brussels, Belgium Tim Andrews Department of Nuclear Safety and Security, International Atomic Energy Agency, Vienna, Austria Giovanni Bruna Institut de Radioprotection et de Sûreté Nucléaire, Fontenay-aux-Roses, France Francesco Calogero La Sapienza University of Rome, Rome, Italy Paolo Cotta-Ramusino Pugwash Conferences on Science and World Affairs, Rome, Italy Maurizio Cumo European Academy of Sciences and Arts, Salzburg, Austria Benoît De Boeck Bel V, Anderlecht, Belgium Giovanni De Santi European Commission, Directorate General Joint Research Centre, Institute for Energy and Transport, Petten, The Netherlands Rafael Mariano Grossi Nuclear Suppliers Group, Vienna, Austria Tapani Hack Radiation and Nuclear Safety Authority, Helsinki, Finland Anne Harrington U.S. Department of Energy, National Nuclear Security Administration, Washington, DC, USA Tapani Honkamaa Radiation and Nuclear Safety Authority, Helsinki, Finland Marko Hämäläinen Radiation and Nuclear Safety Authority, Helsinki, Finland Gianfranco Incarnato Directorate General for Political Affairs and Security of the Italian Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Rome, Italy

xxiii xxiv Contributors

Daniel Iracane Commissariat à l’énergie atomique et aux énergies alternatives, Paris, France Jean Jalouneix Institut de Radioprotection et de Sûreté Nucléaire, Fontenay-aux- Roses, France Tehmina Janjua Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Islamic Republic of Pakistan, Islamabad, Pakistan Willem Janssens European Commission, Directorate General Joint Research Centre, Institute for Transuranium Elements, Ispra, Italy Raymond Jeanloz University of California Berkeley, Berkeley, USA Michael Kuske Directorate-General of the European Commission Energy, Brussels, Belgium Luciano Maiani Accademia Nazionale dei Lincei, Rome, Italy Reza Mansouri Iranian National Observatory, Tehran, Iran Elina Martikka Radiation and Nuclear Safety Authority, Helsinki, Finland Götz Neuneck Institute for Peace Research and Security Policy, University of Hamburg, Hamburg, Germany Takashi Onishi Science Council of Japan, Minato-ku, Tokyo, Japan Eric Pujol Department of Safeguards, International Atomic Energy Agency, Vienna, Austria Eliezer Rabinovici Hebrew University Jerusalem, Jerusalem, Israel Ramamurti Rajaraman Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, India Vladimir Rybachenkov Center for Arms Control Energy and Environmental Studies, Moscow, Russia Ali Asghar Soltanieh Institute of International Political Studies, Tehran, Iran Stamatios Tsalas Directorate-General of the European Commission Energy, EURATOM, Luxembourg, Luxembourg Timo Wiander Radiation and Nuclear Safety Authority, Helsinki, Finland Zhao Wuwen Center for Strategic Studies, Chinese Academy of Engineering Physics, Beijing, China Merav Zafary-Odiz Israeli Atomic Energy Commission, Tel Aviv, Israel