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A) General Features of the Society ^ Some Knowledge of the Social Life of People During the Period Being Reviewed Can Be Derived

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A) General Features of the Society ^ Some Knowledge of the Social Life of People During the Period Being Reviewed Can Be Derived a) General Features of the Society ^ some knowledge of the social life of people during the period being reviewed can be derived from information contained in Inscriptions# numismatic sources# and literature including the accounts left by foreign pilgrims. A very general picture that emerges is of a ccranunity of individuals - honest and hard working# among whom interactions were polite and governed by rules of social conduct# who were pious and orthodox as far as religion was concerned^# and who held learning and education in great respect. Pa Hien's writings are informative as regards the societal norms and customs of the people. Guests and learned individuals# held in high esteem, were treated well as in the case of an honoured monk who was received with due hospitality* Yuan-Chwang' writing about his own experiences on his arrival at Nalanda Mahavihara# mentions the special seat and other facilities he was offered. Various references in Kalidasa's works also support the claim that visitors were# as a rule# treated with utmost 46 hospitality. Guests were considered as gods# worthy of 4 worship • On arrival# an honoured guest was first offered water to wash his feet, then asked to grace a seat made of cane-weed^/ following which he would accept offerings of rice# honey# fruits etc. Sources provide considerable information on the various modes of greeting and salutation. It was considered custcxnary for a disciple to touch the feet of his preceptors; similarly a son was respected to touch his parents feet in return for which he received their 7 blessings • Various norms governed interactions between people - while talking to elders and respected members of the ccwimunity# people were expected to address them courteously and even bow before them. Among people of the same social status# the practice of embracing one W another# particularly when parting# was ccamnon,’«nhen A' distinguished people were greeted reverentially# they were expected to reciprocate with affection and sincere concern for their well-being# To portray a picture of social interactions governed by stringent rules of conduct and etiquette would be rather unjudicious. It is not the case that societal norms controlled all public demeanor# to the extent of being repressive. 47 Contemporary literature and some sculptures depict people# rejoicing-dancing/ drinking and participating in sports and other festivities - on certain occasions. On certain festivals free interaction was permitted between men and women* b) Caste-System There are legendary references in our ancient literature to the origin of the caste system. Four orders of society are described in the celebrated purusha- su]^» as emanating from the sacrifice of the primeval Being^®, They are i Brahmana# Rajanya# Vailya and ^ d r a and are said to have originated from the mouth, the arms, the thighs and the feet respectively of the creator. It was actually the religious and Metaphysical justification for the status ascribed to the Four important castes of Society, which was essentially based on principles of the division of labour in the early Vedic society* Tftian-Chwang^^ not only refers to the four v a m a s or class divisions of society prevalent in his period, but also clearly describes the different duties associated with each vama. Study, worship and giving of gifts were common to the three higher castes, as distinguished from the ludras who were regarded socially inferior, Manu^^ laid special en^hasis on the preservation of the caste 48 system by the king. In his view the kingdom could survive and prosper only as long as the purity of castes was maintained* The varna ideals, expressed by Manu were exemplified by Kings during the period under review* For instance# King Samudra Gupta has been described as “The supporter of the real truth of the scriptures'* in his Allahabad pillar Inscription^^, which suggests that he enforced the purity of caste# as prescribed by the Dharmalastra* Dharmapala*s Scrupulous regard for the rules of caste is mentioned in the Monghyr copper-plate — 14 of Devapala • Kings generally honoured the Brahmanaso Some of the Gupta rulers appointed learned Brahmanas as their ministers* The Karamdanda Inscription^^ belonging to the reign of Kumara Gupta I contains the names of some Brahmana ministers who served the Gupta Kings* Even the Pala rulers, who were Buddhists, appointed Brahmana ministers* The Badal pillar Inscription mentions the names of Brahmana ministers of Pala rulers* Some of the names of these ministers were Garga, Darbhapani and Kedaramisra* Honouring the Brahmanas by offering food was considered to be one of the acknowledged ways of gaining 17 religious merit * This was the main reasons for the 49 great respect that the Brahmanas enjoyed during this ♦ period. The rulers# who followed the Dharma Sastras^, never failed to honour the Brahmanas* Saraudra Gupta gave away hxindreds and thousands of cows and crores of • 18 gold coins by way of gifts to Brahmanas • His son and successor Chandra Gupta 11# made at least two gifts, one in aid of a Brahmanical institution and another for the - 19 construction of a hall for the Brahmanas • The Karam- •• 20 danda Inscription also records grants of land and • • Agraharas to the Brahmanas as financial aid in the perfozmance of expensive Vedic ceremonies like Agnihotra and Pancha-Mahayajnas* According to a much later tradition preserved in the Baidyanatha dhama Templa^^, the later Gupta King Adityasena of Magadha performed horse sacrifices and Tuladana and distributed money to the Brahmanas, The pala rulers, though Buddhists, made liberal grants to the Brahmanas, For example, Dharmapala granted — 22 land to them for the worship of the Brahmanical gods • 23 — The Monghyr Grant of Devapala was issued to record the grant of a village named Mesika to a Brahmana named Vihekarata Misra in the 33rd year of the King's reign. Even though little is mentioned in the records about the Kshatriyas as a separate caste, it can hardly be doxibted that they occupied the next important place in Society, 50 While describing the four divisions of society# Yuan- Chwang^^ writes “The second order is that of Kshatriyas* the race of Kings; this order has held Sovereignty for many generations and its aims are benevolence and mercy*“ * • 2 5 Kalidasa , says that a Kshatriya boy used to received necessary training in archery# From these and many such references it is evident that they were the class of warriors whose duty was to defend and protect the people of the country* The Vaisyas occupied the next important position in the social set-up* People of diverse occupations constituted this group-rendering a reletively heterogenous composition* This was the case in earlier times and continued to be so during this period* Vjfsyas were generally agriculturists# cattle-rearers and merchants* •• » 26 27 •• Kalidasa uses the terms Sresthi , Vanija and Sartha- • • • 28 # 29 vaha for Vaisyas* Yuan-Chwang describes thisclass of society as ''traders/ who barter commodities and pursue gain far and near*'* The Vaisya community was in a position to offer financial support, through deeds of charity, for various causes. The hospitals in Pataliputra where free medical attention was offerred, were financed by the Vaisya coramxinity^®* The same was also t3rue of many temples monasteries and free feeding houses. The 51 Vaisyas were organised into guilds that controlled# industrial and cotninercial activities in the Country^^o The ^dras constituted the last group, whose subordinate position was due to the fact that they 32 earned their livlihood by serving the higher castes being servants, their social status was low. Several restrictions governed their interactions with higher castes. For instance# the Vishnu-Smriti^^ asserts that the first three castes must not travel in the company of feudra. ^ d r a s were derived all access to wealth, Manu^^ states that a ^ d r a must not acquire wealth because thereby he causes pain to the Brahmanas. The socially inferior position of Sudras is brought out clearly in a reference in Manu^^ to the Chandalas : "the Chandalas should have their houses outside the villages# Vessels used by them shall not be used by others, their wealth consists of dogs and asses# their clothes should be the garments on corpses# they should take their food in broken vessels# their ornaments should be made up of iron# they should incessantly roam# they should not enter towns and villages at night# they have to carry the corpses of those who have no relatives# they are to be hangmen when the King so orders# they may take the clothes# ornaments and beds of persons that are to be 52 hanged* ** Reference? to the Chandalas living in Bihar are invariably occur in the copper-plate grants of the Pala rulers^^* Chandalas or Doms were regarded as • « untouchables. Social life in the period under review was governed by societal laws formulated and established before© Epigraphical and literary sources contain some information iL on aspects like marriage/ re-marriage# slavery and the practice of Sati. The lack of evidence makes it difficult to establish the extent to which the Purda system prevailed in Bihar, Tuan Chwang# who gives a picture of the Hindu society in 7th century A.Do nowhere refers to the Purda system. On the contrary, he mentions that RajyasrI# the widowed sister of Harsha, used to visit her 37 brother’s court without a veil . We find references to 38 women bathing in rivers indicating that there were no restrictions on their appearing in public* Women were never prevented from going out on business* Besides# this, the sculptural representations of female figures of the period give absolutely no indication of the existence of the Purda system* However, it has been recorded in Kalidasa's "Sakuntala”^^ that sometimes wc«nen, especially if married, did keep their faces veiled while out on a journey* But 53 we have no reason to believe that Purda system ever become wide spread.
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