Nati onal identityies in Czech mu sıc

edited by arts and th eat re i nstitu te | czech music co un cil prague 2012 Nati onal identityies in Czech mu sıc

prague 2012 Content

Dohnalová lenka A Definition Map of the Distinguishing Features of “National Identity” ...... 6

Jurková ZuZana Meditation on Identity in Czech National Music ...... 10

kratochvíl MatěJ supported by Ministry of Culture Cr Ethnomusicology and National Identity ...... 19

kaňka Petr Finding and Losing ...... 23

JanDová JarMila Meaning and Value of Contemporary Folklore Activities from the point of View of the folklore Association of the Czech republic ...... 30 ©2012 Arts and Theatre Institute First edition kroePer anDreas ISBN 978-80-7008-292-8 No: IDU 649 National Identity — An Example of J. J. Ryba ...... 35 MoJžíšová olga e Legacy of Bedřich Smetana — e Development and Changes in His Reception ...... 38

gabrielová JarMila Antonín Dvořák as a Czech National Composer? notes on How His Work and personality Were received ...... 44

havlíková helena e Flight of an Imprisoned Eagle — paradoxes of national identity in the Context of performances of leoš Janáček’s operas in the Czech republic and Abroad from 1996 to 2011 . . . . 54 břeZina aleš “…My Music Is Czech; I Cannot Hide this Fact, Can I?“ 20 th Century political tremors and their immediate influence on Changes of perception of b. Martinů and His Work ...... 73 raušer Jaroslav Czech Identity Original or Production or Both? Editorial Note descartes’s famous Quote “I Think, Therefore I Am” Can be Altered to “I Communicate, Therefore I Am” ...... 80 ThIs AnThology originated at the conference organized by the Music section of the Arts and Theatre Institute and the Czech Music Council. It has a double direct purpose: 1. To map the topic of identity in the field of music within a bigger project called Mapping of Cultural and Creative Industries (DF 11 P01VV031) elaborated by the Arts and Theatre Institute. 2. The outputs can be applied in the prepared project The year of Czech Music 2014, coordinated by the Music section of the Arts and Theatre Institute. As for experience from the previous event (in 2004), we can claim that this discus sion is useful because the topic of “national identity” and the way it is perceived raise emotions. Moreover, the topic is not synthetically elaborated even in musicology. The anthology should be open at least in its electronic version, i.e. we are going to address people from the Czech Republic and abroad, who have something to say about this topic. Contributions of a more general nature can be found at the beginning of the anthology followed by those of historical sequence as well as genre and discipline. In the electronic version, you will be able to find documentation of discus sions and commentaries on the contributions.

( 5 ) We can say that the Internet and so-called ‘virtual reality’ have extended the A Definition Map possibilities of experiments with identity (A. Ševčíková, D. Šmahel). Politicians, in particular, experiment with identity on the level of traditionally larger groups of the Distinguishing Features (i.e. a nation) which results often in devastating consequences, yet artists perform of “National Identity” experiments as well.
I think that an “image of oneself” has an important information value when we merge all these levels and understand their mutual connections, their hierar - chy and dynamics. It is common knowledge that pressure on the character of lenka dohna lová identity causes opposite tendencies in the subconscious and a social “shadows”. It is interesting to follow historic shifts and manipulations of identity perceptions with different authors and topics — e.g. Smetana –Dvořák or Janáček –martinů and their works. We can make a general note: the freer a person is in his mind, the LeT me BrIeFLy introduce a topic orientation scheme for the discussion, which more operative, conscious and integrated is his identity. It serves rather as a con - is an important part of our meeting knowing that the scheme is a certain operative scious operative support in practical life than an rigid obstacle in the develop - simplification of the problem. There are many books about a general definition ment. of “identity”. The following definition can serve as a reminder: Identity is, at least Speaking about “national” culture (music), I think it is necessary to distin - partially, “an explicit theory of itself.” (D. mosman). It is connected with self - guish formal general features which are easy to identify and are used in adminis - -reflection and self-presentation (D. Šmahel). I would add: in fact, identity as an tration or lexicography, and informal features. intellectual construct has more sometimes hidden layers influencing each other: 1. relatively objective , i.e. what a person/group “is like” based on psycho logical O ForMal general Distinguishing Features and sociological research and observation, controlled methods of self -reflection. e.g. This layer includes research of unconscious processes. The result corresponds citizenship the Cr-territorial concept with the level of knowledge of sociology and psychology. nationality Czech 2. subjective a) how a person/group interprets and feels itself: on a national level, residency ≤183 days/year i.e. the nation of “DIy guys”, “musicians”, “complainers” e.g. the artist -resident can national language Czech feel as if he belongs to the new environment or s/he can relate only to their coun - the place of origin of a work the Cr try or see oneself as a “nomad” or “cosmopolitan”. b) how a person/group is pre - sented (in front of oneself and the others). A person/group often suppresses or Commentary: there are different approaches from the point of view of professional life and private projects their “shadow” to the others and emphasizes their imperfections but life practice. some states (nations) tend to include artists and artefacts in “their group” more than a) does not always equal b). The difference between a) and b) is amplified by the others do. marketing and Pr. An artist is stylized for marketing purposes, yet this stylization does not always draw from his/her feeling and self-image. Identification with If we speak about lexicology practice then Austrian, German and American lexi - construed identity can be either beneficial or it can destroy the inner integrity cography and journalism tend to absorb and include residents and their works of an artist. more than the Czech disciplines, for instance. Czech lexicography and journalism 3. how the others see (interpret) a person/group — this is a subjective/inter-subjec - rather exclude artists who work abroad for a longer period of time (both emi - tive factor (e.g. “Aryan” interpretations of various nations). We can work with grants and residents), including the period after 1989 when we cannot say it is be - surveys of the ministry of Foreign Affairs which show the difference between cause of some political doctrine. And vice versa: it does not really want to include “how” we are interpreted and our own “self-image”. foreign residents in the Cr (see the situation of foreign artists in the Cr as seen

( 6 ) ( 7 ) by journalist P. Slabý). Formal characteristics sometimes clash with content and scious and semantic function (e.g. violation of declamation or a song as a sign of axiological ones: e.g. speaking about the culture of minorities and residents. exotic or mental specificity of a character, tension between symbolism of melody Therefore , informal features consist of those we are unable to identify immedi - and its music adaptation — e.g. the case when the group Czech rAPublic altered ately. They either need an analysis or rely on some author’s declaration and moti - the anthem). Naturally, some features are included spontaneously and uncon - vation. sciously. examination of a “national identity(ies)” situation, not only in music, is neces - O inForMal Features oF national iDentity Mostly drAW froM sary to understand in historical and regional contexts; an ethologic point of view tradition/archives shared tradition of regional habits, opinions, tangible heritage, is inspiring, too. According to K. Lorenz, one of the “deadly sins” of the people (Foucault) reflection of tradition, rituals etc. is “separation from tradition” and its shallow scientistic understanding. It leads education language education, so-called education in humanities to the fact that contributions or risks of “whatever, which is present in culture (including art) for a long time, eventually gains the character of a superstition or doctrine” value orientation acknowledgement of the importance of so-called native country, (K. Lorenz: Eight Deadly sins, Reprint Ed. 1973, pp. 60 –61 ). its history as well as structure and value hierarchy in the region, Let us add, that a tradition is mostly maintained through rituals. We must hierarchy of key symbols etc. suppose various degrees of historical, regional, social and individual perceptive - ness of the topic. O froM tHe MusiCAl point of VieW, it eMbodies Current general discussions prove that the younger generation does not re - subject matter national and regional mythology in particular, history, “national heroes”, flect this topic named “identity” but when we “translate” it into more specific top - current events and feelings in the region ics (a relation to home, language, specific artworks etc.), it is easier to understand idiomatics tectonics, melody, rhythm, instrumentation etc. and perceive more vividly. The method of mapping of this phenomenon not re - symbolism spontaneous or conscious application of music and music-language duced to the map of folklore traditions and current folklore or maps of authors symbols and features (an anthem, quotations of national and folk songs and periods would be very useful as a basis for a deeper social discussion. of the region etc.) relation to a language both on “langue” and “parole” levels about f. de saussure, accents, phraseology (declamation, songs etc.) spontaneous use relates mostly to folklore, non-professional and naive art. It hap - pens in a syncretic and non-concise way, with “mistakes”. One text in the anthol - PhDr. LenkaDohnaLová ,Ph.D. is a coordinator of inter - ogy is dedicated to folklore, however, we can refer to the definition of folklore fea - national annual‘ projects Years of Czech Music (2004, 2014), Martinů tures with P. Janeček (e.g. in Folklor atomového věku , 2011, p. 115): it is an “open Revisited 2009, the commissioner of the Czech exhibition at MIDEM structure of stereotypical forms within certain culture”. Folklore is “collectively in Cannes and WOMEX. Since 1992, she has been a secretary of the shared”, it grows from spontaneous varied improvisation; aesthetic and artistic non- governmental organisation Czech Music Council and the director of the function does not dominate. It is connected with a life context and it is syncretic. international competition of electroacoustic music Musica Nova. She is currently participating Functional structuralism seems to be the best tool for the definition of folklore. in the research project of the Arts and eatre Institute called Mapping of Cultural and Creative Conscious use is mostly about folklorism and professional creation. Subject Industries DF 11 P01VV031. She also promotes Czech music abroad at the Music Section of matters are selected consciously (see Czech national school, especially the Arts and eatre Institute (CD anthologies, collections, a portal and www.czechmusic.or g) B. Smetana) as well as symbolically. A declamation principle or observation of and produces pilot projects. specific speech utterances (Janáček) are cultivated consciously. Unlike the sponta - neous use of these distinguishing features, violation of a relation has often con - Ç [email protected]

( 8 ) ( 9 ) self to be a Rom (I do not discuss the question whether a Rom and a gypsy are the same) Meditation on Identity and the others see him the same way, sang a song.” The following paragraphs are an attempt to delimitate terms in the heading. in Czech National Music At the end, I give one example of how it is possible to handle a similar topic. Let us start with the concept of Czech national music 4. many ethnomusicolo - gists recommend researching and specifying what music actually is because this
zuzana jurková is different in each culture. The greatest examples can be Anthony Seeger’s Why suyá sing about music of Amazon Suyá Indians or Bruno Nettl’s texts about Arabian culture (1992, 2001), which has an ambivalent relation to the concept of music. Therefore they classify phenomena we consider music in various terms; BeFOre I STArT with the meditation, I would like to specify my starting points. the calls to prayer ( adhan ) which sometimes sound like Baroque opera arias are I will deal with a discourse I understand as mainstream of contemporary musicol - not music. ogy formulated by the International Council for Traditional Music, society for Ethnomusi - If someone claims that we do not need to discuss questions like this in our cology and European seminar in Ethnomusicology 1. Several hundred people who cultural context, I would like to mention the conclusion we came to with my stu - attend conferences, write articles in the journals of these societies, and are mem - dents two years ago in moravia during the Carnival. Various vocal, instrumental bers of editorial boards make quite a homogenous ethnomusicological organism. and vocal-instrumental companies with their audiences performed for several I consider the definition of contemporary ethnomusicology by Kay Kaufman days in a little town. yet only one formation — brass-band music — was called Shelemay to be the shortest one: “Ethnomusicology is a discipline uniting research “music” as if one genre can be “music as such”. Let us leave this luring clue with of music with the attitude and methods of anthropology” 2. saying that our concept of music is not insecure and we do not have to deal with I recommend a comprehensive article by Adelaida reyes “ What Do Ethnomusi - marginal phenomena enriching our audio environment (like the Family Frost jingle cologists Do? An old Question for a new Century” 3, which is a written version of the reminding us of bellman’s sounds) regarding the depth of our topic. author’s Seeger lecture at Columbia University in march 2008. An introduction to The majority of contemporary anthropologists understand the concept of this topic can be illustrated by a short conversation in my course about romani a nation to be a construct (which has become social reality for a certain period of music which I teach at the Faculty of Humanities, Charles University, Prague. In time). However, they do not agree on what it actually means. On the one hand, the mid-semester, we finished reading about North-Indian Doma (linguistic rela - there are no doubts that the Slavník dynasty considered themselves to be the tives of european roma) and played their music; we travelled the whole of the Přemyslid dynasty, although they would have become this dynasty if they had not Balkans and saw the film of (non-rom) emir Kusturica The Time of gypsies (1998), been slaughtered. Images of an objective and material basis of a nation (often con - which had an essential influence on the world’s interest in Balkan roma; we read nected with Blut und Boden , i.e., blood and soil), so-called primordial or essential Carol Silverman’s article about managers’ influence on “Gypsy music” at world attitudes (being the opposite of the constructivist ones) have been long out of music festivals and Speranta radulescu’s article about “nationality, identification, date. classification and acceptance of classification” (2003). One student heaved a sigh: Historian and historical anthropologist miroslav Hroch (2009) thoroughly de - “I thought I would learn what Romani music actually is and it is just more complicated.” scribes historical conditions of the origin of the nation concept in europe. When I answered something along the lines that this was quite common in music: he summarizes scholarly attitudes of the late 20th century and early 21st century we keep defining criteria and eventually we can say this: “ Vojta, who considers him - towards national issues, he lists three basic concordant features:

1 www.ictmusic.org; Society for Ethnomusicology: http://webdb.iu.edu/sem/scripts/home.cfm; http://www.esem-music.eu 4Iwould like to emphasize that I do not consider the term “Czech national music” to be 2 Shelemay 2006: XXXI. a terminus technicus ; therefore I suppose there is no clearly defined corpus of “Czech national 3 Reyes 2009. music”. The contributions in this collection confirm my opinion.

( 10 ) ( 11 ) 1) a nation cannot be defined by ethnic features (language, culture); stand them taxonomically) and the aspect “who considers whom for whom” often 2) a nation was accepted as an original political and social community only when its spoken about in the anthropological literature as emic vs. ethic dichotomy: Paul members were aware of political belonging and considered it to be of value; Nettl considered himself a Czech Jew but many Czech speaking Czechs thought of 3) regarding the previous point, there is a clear connection to “nationalism” as him as German or a German Jew — and they would not consider him to be a part a subjective condition… (p. 21). Knowledge of belonging and agreement with it as of the Czech nation. And so on. essentialist concepts of a nation are out of date, being constitutive for a nation and its coexistence in some kind of pas-de-deux with too — like the essentialist concept of “national” (and also, by the way,+ specific nationalism are the constructive elements. However, it is easy to imagine a whole ethnic) music”: legitimacy of the adjective lies neither in rhythms nor intervals nor range of belonging to the (let us say Czech) nation as a positive value: various primarily in a birthplace or the language of an author or listeners. It lies in their generations as well as those who have strong regional bounds have national be - mutual agreement. The most cogent summary of this issue is a quotation from longing in a different place in their personal hierarchy… (my students claim that the above-mentioned article “What is Gypsy music? On belonging, identification, their “Czech identity” awakens when they are “somewhere else” — this is a com - attribution, the assumption of attribution” by Speranta radulescu (2003): Identifi - mon feature of an identity and we will speak about it later. “Somewhere else” is, cation, attribution and assumption of the ethnic attribution of musics are only local and as far away as possible, european identity is as strong as the Czech one). Let us temporary… which does not mean … that they are less worthy of our attention (p. 84). summarize it: there is a phenomenon of some belonging to a nation in the con - If the concept of “Czech national music” is ambiguous, the content of the sciousness of the majority of our cultural environment but the importance of this term identity is even more difficult to formulate 6. In the recent decade, many social phenomenon — its intensity and contents — are very variable. and humanities scholars have agreed with rogers Brubaker that it is too ambiva - The last member of this conceptual group is the term Czech . It can be a bit lent a term which is divided into “hard” and “soft” meanings, essentialist connotations and cheap to remind us of two adjectives tschechisch — böhmisch/Czech-Bohemian not constructivist qualifiers to serve requests of social analysis. (Brubaker 2004: 29). Let us only “in relation to a language or an area inhabited by people who spoke differ - have a short look at its development periods to find the form useful for the topic ently” 5. recently, I talked to Bruno Nettl (born 1930) about the German -speaking of Czech (national?) music. Czech identity of his youth in Prague (it was in connection with his remembering Psychoanalyst erik H. erikson (1902 –1994) promoted the issue of identity; his father Paul who considered himself a Czech — meaning böhmisch — Jew). so -called “ego-identity” is the internal and deep “core” of a person; it is a core According to Bruno, his parents did not want to admit that Germans would have which keeps developing but the essence is “the feeling… allowing one to feel oneself the right to arrogate Goethe’s language. The Nettls and certainly many others as something with continuity and identity and act accordingly” (erikson 2002: 41). After were “aware of their belonging” to the Czech nation and “they considered it to erikson, social sciences deal with the term identity as well: it appears in a referen - be valuable”. tial groups theory (merton), in social constructivism (Berger and Luckman), in in - The ambiguity of the term “Czech” can be illustrated in many other cases; for teractionalism (erving Goffman) and social anthropology. There is a strong accent instance, is Horňácko folklore “Czech”? I allow such intellectual showing offonly on a collective aspect of identity; in other words — dynamism which forms identity here — I would never dare to ask a cymbal player from the Horňácko region if he through human relationships. According to Jenkins, the basis of humanity is rela - plays “Czech music.” Another example may come from my friend — an American tionships, therefore interactions or meeting new people are essential for creating born in New york who spent a lot of years in Prague with her husband. When he identities. According to Berger and Luckman, identity is always a result of dialectics died, she asked for a permanent residence permit and gave as a reason for obtain - of an individual-society relationship. People keep socializing all the time; therefore ing the permit that she had a Czech heart. Here we can see agreement with be - their identity keeps changing and recreating. longing to a Czech nation. We should also remember what erikson and the others spoke about: “the is - As we can see, “Czechness” has linguistic aspects (with their historical devel - sue of identity” is an issue of the postmodern world. Judith Howard (2000), for in - opment), aspects of the relation between the local and regional (we can under - stance, assumes that identity earlier based much more on ascribed statuses than

5 Another meaning of these words can have stylistically different use — like the English version 6Iwould like to thank my student Zita Skořepová Honzlová for inspiration for the “identity” Czech — Bohemian. topic.

( 12 ) ( 13 ) on acquired ones did not provide an individual with the possibility of choice and tive identity. 11 ethnomusicologists like Turino (2008) or Shelemay (2001) prove thus did not bring ambiguities and frustrations connected with a decision. In other it often founds this collective identity. If we use interactionalists’ (like Goffman’s) words: the more we ask about identity, the more complicated the answer is. vocabulary, identity is relational and situational (it depends on the relation to (This conclusion is useful for the topic of music, too). whom and when we apply the given element). It almost literally repeats the Authors from the field of intercultural psychology see the change of identity above- mentioned statement by Speranta radulescu about music: from the avail - in a similar way: real “subcultures” 7 appear in connection with industrialism and able arsenal of styles, interpretations, etc, I choose those I want to represent them they influence themselves; this is called acculturation 8. Their members prone to and those I am convinced the others — “the audience of my identity performance” manifestations and values of various subcultures must have an attitude or decide — accept as my “business card”. If something like this happens, it will connect me among them: they become acting actors. At this moment, identity as a dynamic with those with the same “business cards” and differentiate us from the others. process appears and it is the result of individual thinking, evaluation and acting. However, it will be a link valid here and now. erving Goffman and his famous text translated into Czech as Všichni hrajeme divadlo In the last part of my meditation, I would like to go back to the original topic (We All Play Theatre) 9 (1999) is a perfect example. The author speaks about a dra - I redefine as “how does music give evidence to who we Czechs are?” I do not have a sim - matic metaphor of a society where individuals play their roles of self-presentations ple answer but I want to list one example which is a great guideline from my eth - for the others who are the audience. At the same time, everybody is a member of nomusicological point of view. It is Adelaida reyes’s book Music in America (2005). the audience who evaluates (and thus influences) the performance of the others. It belongs to the Global music Series Experiencing Music, Expressing Culture with edi - It is natural that the “role of an actor” and the “role of the audience” do not touch tors Bonnie C. Wade and Patricia Shehan Campbell. Fifteen volumes in this series upon behaviour of an individual but define the behaviour of groups, too. speak about music cultures of various size — from the relatively small Bali (Lisa It is clear that this concept of identity, i.e., questions “Who am I/who are we, Gold: Music in Bali ) to the great area of the middle east (Scott marcus: Music in whom do we belong to, whom do we differ from?” is very close to “ascribed” the Middle East ). Two volumes are written by the main editors: they compare musi - and “adopted” music with its accent on immediate changeability and accord of cological classification (Wade: Thinking Musically , 2004) and music pedagogy an “actor” and “audience” (emic and ethical perspective in anthropological termi - (Campbell: Teaching Music globally, 2003). nology). How is the relation of music and identity perceived from the point of Before I speak about Music in America in detail, I would like to foreshadow view of ethnomusicology? a context it belongs to. Since the 1990s 12 , the Garland publishing house has pub - music is often understood to be an important means of integration of a per - lished a monumental ten-volume edition The garland Encyclopedia of World Music , son with oneself 10 as well as an excellent social activity ideal for expressing collec - which is unprecedented (it reminds me of mGG but the contents and style are very different). The third volume The United states and Canada (ed. ellen Koskoff, 7 Not in the sense of the Chicago school as “subversive” social groups but as lower items of 2001) has 1400 pages and almost one hundred authors contributed to it: it is the social structure. biggest volume of all. The text is divided into two main parts: the first one speaks 8 They define it according to Herskowitz (1936) Acculturation comprehends those phenomena which result when about music according to social and cultural context (Issues of Identity, Processes groups of individuals having different cultures come into continuous first-hand contact with subsequent changes in the original culture pattern on either or both groups.” and Institutions, Crossing Borders and Fusion); the second part is organized re - 9 As if the Czech title (the English original name is The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life ) proves gionally and culturally (music of Native Americans; The United States: Afro-Ameri - Goffman’s critics to be right — he presents people as cynical. We should emphasize that it is a sociological, not a psychological metaphor and Goffman does not understand “theatre” philosopher and semiotics researcher G. S. Peirce. Turino sees the basis of personal as pretending something which does not exist but selecting from one’s own “repertoire of integration in semantic snowballing: the same music piece/activity/style provokes various roles” the one which is suitable: a role of the mother of a small child, certain professional reactions during various occasions and it has various meanings. Yet the previous meanings position, customer role etc. are important as well, therefore various historical levels of a personality interconnect when 10 Turino 2008: 3 ff. lists some arguments about the integrative role of art. One draws from a piece appears again. anthropologist Bateson (1972) and his perceptions of the world on various levels; the others 11 Music and dance are keys to identity formation because they are often a public presentation of the deepest feelings draw from the flow concept devised by psychologist Csikszentmihalyi about non-rational and qualities which make a group unique . Turino 2008: 2 experience when performing art, especially music. The third circle of arguments links to 12 The first volume — Africa (ed. Ruth Stone) — was published in 1998.

( 14 ) ( 15 ) can music; Central and South American Tradition in the USA; european Tradition the Daughters of the American revolution (DAr), prevented African-American in the USA; Asian Tradition in the USA; Canada: Quebec, Ontario, British Colum - marion Anderson from singing in their concert hall. Then the First Lady, eleanor bia, North Canada). The huge volume has exactly the same purpose as other en - roosevelt, resigned her membership of the organization and F. D. roosevelt made cyclopaedias: in it we can find basically everything connected with music of the the above-mentioned speech. One year later (1939), Anderson sang spirituals North American continent (the index has 65 pages). yet I cannot imagine that at a huge meeting at the Lincoln memorial in Washington. This example — even anyone would be able to deduce or synthesize an answer to our question. though minor in the context of American music culture — illustrates plasticity/dy - This is the main aim of Music in America by Adelaida reyes (who is one of the namism, i.e., the change in understanding limits which separate US (Americans) authors of the Garland encyclopedia) with one hundred and twenty pages: she from THe OTHerS and a change of what US means. speaks about identity issues. The main theoretical starting point is configuralism, eventually, reyes deals with the issue of a unifying point of view — a vision. a famous example known from ruth Benedict’s Patterns of Culture (published in She has been led by history confirmed by the image of configuralism that beneath 1934, Czech edition 2003). The main idea of configuralism is the fact that cultures the surface are unifying forces that pull the parts into a whole that is not merely the sum choose only some phenomena, although they have an unlimited number at their of its parts (p. 92). The necessary condition of this vision is an extended definition disposal. The mode of operation of these selections is so-called patterns of cul - of music. reyes thinks that orientation on a process , which is a bridge between ture; these tendencies in selection make culture more than a summary of its phe - reality and vision, is the basic principle of American music culture (she supports nomena. The second unuttered concept is merriam’s (1964) famous concept of this in subchapters about the contribution of technological devices; the change “music as culture”: music has the same forms/is determined by the same patterns of perspective offered by John Cage and popular music as vox populi — a specific as the whole culture. Therefore we can assume that the study of music reveals ten - non-elitist American concept of real folk music). dencies (i.e., “modes of operation” and identity) of a whole culture. The fact that Instead of a conclusion: I am convinced that, these are not fixed elements but tendencies provides plasticity of culture — in 1) we cannot search for “Czech identity” in music or our identity in intervals, other words, dynamism of (collective) identity. scales, rhythms, etc., because they change in space and time. If we are inter - What are the main features of American cultural patterns? reyes offers three ested in Czech identity, we need to look for it in music as an activity (and corre - of them: diversity, the issue of identity, and unifying interactions among parts — sponding audio products); E pluribus unum. The meaningfulness of the selection is explained like this: 2) here beneath the surface are unifying forces that pull the parts into a whole that is not An adequate need of identity appears where diversity prevails, which is a fea - merely the sum of its parts (reyes 2005:92). The nature of thee forces is definitely ture of the individuality a nation takes care of as well as the multiculturalism worth researching. a country promotes. The questions “Who is an American ” and “What is American?” prevail. Unity is an expression of identity on a national level (reyes 2005: 4). bibliograPhy —— — The basic method of presentation is using “snapshots” — minor phenomena bateson, Gregory, 1972: “style, Grace, and information in primitive Art.” in steps to an Ecology of Mind. of music life: two songs put in contrast, which in different periods functioned like london: Verso. national anthems; a story from a record company, or the origin of one unusual berger, peter – luckman, thomas, 1999: sociální konstrukce reality. Pojednání o sociologii vědění. musical instrument. reyes places these snapshots in a very dense cultural context. brno: Centrum pro studium demokracie a kultury. It seems that context prevails at some moments: this is when she explains the benedict, ruth, 1934: Patterns of Culture. new york: Houghton Mifflin. change in how American Presidents addressed the nation. When F. D. roosevelt brubacker, rogers, 2004: Ethnicity without groups. Cambridge and london: Harvard university press. (President from 1933 to 1945) allegedly changed the traditional “ my fellow Ameri - Campbell, patricia s., 2003: Teaching Music globally. new york – oxford: oxford university press. cans ” to “ fellow immigrants” 13 , he essentially contributed to the change of American erikson, erik H., 2002 (1950): Dětství a společnost. praha: Agro. self-perception. There is a story about how the patrician women’s organization, The garland Encyclopedia of World Music: The United states and Canada (ed. ellen Koskoff), 2001. Goffman, erving, 1999: Všichni hrajeme divadlo. sebeprezentace v každodenním životě. 13 The accuracy of this quote has been doubted recently; however, it has become a part of the praha: nakladatelství studia ypsilon. national legend and, therefore, its meaning has been verified.

( 16 ) ( 17 ) Howard, Judith, 2000: “social psychology of identities.” Annual Review of sociology 26: 367–393. Hroch, Miroslav, 2009: národy nejsou dílem náhody. praha: sociologické nakladatelství.nettl, bruno – Capwell, Ethnomusicology Charles – bohlman, philip – Wong, isabel – turino, thomas, 2001: Excursions in World Music. upper sadle river, new Jersey: prentice Hall. and National Identity nettl, bruno, 1992: The Radif of Persian Music: studies of structure and Cultural Context in the Classical Music of Iran. Champaign, illinois: elephant + Cat. radulescu, speranta, 2003: “What is Gypsy Music? (on belonging, identification, Attribution, and the
Assumption of Attribution)”. in Romská hudba na přelomu tisíciletí/Romani Music at the Turn of the matěj kratochvíl Millennium, (ed. Z. Jurková), praha: slovo21, pp. 15–20, 79–84. reyes, Adelaida, 2009: “What do ethnomusicologists do? An old Question for a new Century.” Ethnomusicology 1, pp. 1–17. reyes, Adelaida, 2005: Music in America. new york – oxford: oxford university press. DISCUSSIONS ON THe CONCePT of a nation and nationalism have recently seeger, Anthony, 2004: Why suyá sing: A Musical Anthropology of an Amazonian People. urbana – Chicago: appeared on the Czech political scene more often than they used to. It is typical university of illinois press. for discussion participants not to lose much time to specify what they mean by shelemay, Kay Kaufman, 2006: soundscapes: Exploring Music in a Changing World. new york – london: “nation”. On the contrary, ethnologists, anthropologists and sociologists do not W. W. norton. participate in public discussions much, although we can say that ideas about na - shelemay, Kay Kaufman, 2001: “toward an ethnomusicology of early Music Movement: thoughts on bridging tional identity are their job description. In fact, here is one of the possibilities how disciplines and Musical Worlds.” Ethnomusicology 1, pp. 1–29. the humanities can remind us of their importance for society and show their abil - silverman, Carol, 2007: “trafficking in the exotic with ‘Gypsy’ Music: balkan roma, ity to analyze similar difficult and ambiguous phenomena like national identity. Cosmopolitanism, and ‘World Music’ festivals”. in Balkan Popular Culture and the ottoman In my text, I would like to discuss an issue of how to examine possible illustrations Ecumene: Music, Image, and Regional Political Discourse , (ed. d. buchanan), scarecrow press, pp. 335 –364. of national identity using an example from the field I work in — ethnomusicology. turino, thomas, 2008: Music as social life: The Politics of Participation. Chicago and london: Chicago university press. I want to show that music as a demonstration of national identity has always been Wade, bonnie C., 2004: Thinking Musically. new york – oxford: oxford university press. given attention but the attitude has considerably changed. An example from Czech history will illustrate that it is possible for researchers to learn about these national demonstrations of a specific identity and yet also have a hand in mould - ing this identity.

Transformationsinethnomusicologistresearch

doc. PhDr. ZuZanaJurková ,Ph.D. is an associate professor ethnomusicology is a relatively new field, which is actually still solving the problem of ethnomusicolo‘gy and head of the Institute for ethnomusicology at the of its position within other disciplines. It is somewhere between ethnology and Faculty of Humanities of Charles University, Prague. She studied ethnology musicology. Whereas it is commonly taught at musicology departments in the and musicology at Charles University. Recipient of Fulbright scholarship Czech republic, it is often independent in other countries. On the one hand, the (1998). She has conducted fieldwork among the Roma in the Czech Republic magic prefix “ethno-“ seems to define this discipline, yet it is a problem on the and Slovakia and is currently conducting research on music in the urban area (Prague). other hand; it can be summarized in a question: if musicology deals with some ethnic music, does it mean that there is any “non-ethnic” music without national Ç [email protected] identity which is a subject of the “standard” musicology? The development of musicology forced us to ask these kinds of questions. Although every definition says that “musicology deals with music in all its forms”,

( 18 ) ( 19 ) it is clear that a vast majority of research is engaged only with a strictly limited Phonographiccommission field if we look at musicologist outputs or study plans at musicology departments. musicology without a prefix is very ethnocentric and its subject of research is eu - In an ideal world, ethnomusicology — like other sciences — would research the ropean artistic music in the past several centuries. Other music “is left” for ethno - object of its interest objectively. The common problem of humanities is that they musicology. The main differences lie mostly in methodology. In contrast with his - cannot examine their object as biologists using their microscopes. Humanities are torical musicology or various streams of music analysis, ethnomusicology does always stronger than sciences with their time, political and social situations. even not examine music as an isolated phenomenon but it is interested in it as a part if we ignore extreme cases of manipulation, there is still enough space for influ - of a specific culture. It asks a question: why do these people make and listen to encing scientists’ work by time. A perfect example is the Phonographic Commis - such music, how do they project their identity in it as individuals and as a group — sion, a project which took place from 1929 at the Czech Academy of Sciences defined as a nation or otherwise? and Arts. The original and announced aim was to preserve vanishing dialects and At the beginning, when musicology had no name and used the term ‘com - sound manifestations in the republic and this aspect was emphasized in notes parative musicology’, the engine for the research was desire to search about uni - about the project in contemporary media. “The Academy has done a great deal of versal elements, i.e. what various world cultures have in common. Later, the focal work for recording Czechoslovak folk songs, songs from serbian Upper and lower lusatia point moved to differences in cultures. ethnomusicologists gradually focused and folk music and mainly Czechoslovak dialects. The more the national individuality with on smaller groups, they studied nations as well as specific social classes within dialects and folk songs will be vanishing, the more the importance of this work will be grow - nations. It can be seen in texts written by musicologists in various periods. They ing. (Přítomnost/Presence 1935) “This activity of the Czech Academy is definitely praise - started with synthetic essays about material from all over the world and moved worthy. The quicker pace we will take, the more successful it will be.” (České slovo/Czech to detailed studies of music in small societies based on a long-term stay of a re - Word 8th June 1933). searcher on a specific place. The group of what musicology can deal with was The effort to use these records for promotional purposes and representation growing — from music of nations perceived as the primitive or exotic ones to of image of Czechoslovak culture was beneficial for saving vanishing cultural a more general concept. Today we can see that ethnomusicology can deal with forms. even though it was not explicitly said, it was a kind of a political action any music, including art european music. The development also provoked discus - which wanted to show what belongs to Czechoslovak culture, define “the rest” sions as to whether ethno is still justifiable here because emphasizing ethnic iden - and promote the image of national identity. Only Slavic ethnic groups were in - tity was perceived as a thing from the past. We can say that during a detailed cluded in recording plans of the commission, so there are no songs by Germans, research of the relation between music and cultural identity, musicology found Hungarians or Jews living in Czechoslovakia at that time. The “Slavic character” of that terms like nation and ethnic group can mean something completely different. the collection is emphasized by including the Sorbs, i.e. the Slavic group living in Therefore some researchers have recently proposed to call the discipline Sachsen and Brandenburg. The representatives of the Sorbs aimed to be annexed “music anthropology” or “cultural study of music). 1 yet the term ethnomusicology to Czechoslovakia after the First World War, we cannot ignore a political tone of is still widely used. this decision, which was not written anywhere. Specific research of contemporary musicology deal with various topics. The Phonographic Commission had no political task they should have fulfilled To foreshadow to a great extent, I will list topics of several recent research: in their work. It was mostly about contemporary atmosphere when reinforcement changes of the russian national anthem as a reflection of creating the identity national state identity was understood as a natural task of all institutions. We can after the fall of the Soviet Union, modern popular music of Native Americans, deduce political context from minor notes in materials like a letter to the Chancel - music technology as a means to maintain national identity of Vietnamese emi - lor’s Office at the Conservatory of music in Prague: “one side of the disc lasts three grants. minutes; therefore it is necessary to bear this in mind when selecting purely Czech literature. (underlined in the original text). Profesor Zubatý wrote to matica Slovenská 1 For example. Clayton, M. — Herbert, T. — Middleton, R. (eds.): The Cultural Study of Music: in 1929: “The Academy is also happy that the matter will be handled by our friends a Critical Introduction . Routledge 2003. and French professionals and the enterprise will not be dependent on germans.

( 20 ) ( 21 ) Promotion of our songs abroad (with the help of the Pathé company in Paris) deserves our attention.” Finding These little things illustrate contemporary atmosphere where support of national culture was understood as a natural part of work of institutions like the and Losing Czech Academy of Sciences and Arts and publicly active personalities. Although researchers in the Phonographic Commission did not act very objectively, they managed to save a lot of material about culture in Czechoslovakia. We can criti -
petr kaňka cally acclaim their efforts when we know the context. 2 This case can be a proof that ethnomusicology (and humanities in general) is more or less under the influ - ence of its time and social atmosphere which we have to bear in mind when read - ing researchers’ work. IDeNTITy IS A NATUrAL group of bindings, contexts, information and feelings that I perceive, solve and use every day in projection to my task; sexual identifica - tion with a male part of the population as well as all those banal linguistic means resulting from the definiteness of my mother tongue, belonging to a certain group of spiritually-oriented fellow citizens or those I do not know and I can only guess Mgr. MaTěJkraTochvíL ,Ph.D . is an ethnomusicologist we have the same principles or interpret a similar moral principle above or in us. working in the Et‘hnological Institute in Academy of Science of CR. He is All of these things influence my behaviour, my relationship to people and even specialised in historical sound recordings of folk music and contemporary problems, which are closest or furthest in public space. I am definitely more inter - music. Actually, he is a chef editor of the journal for contemporary music ested in the analysis of my personal experience than wanting to list and synthesize His Voice. axioms which have been gathered by other thinking human beings — identity can Ç [email protected] have sociological, psychological and cultural sources, therefore an attempt to make a synthesis seems to me like deviating from the main issue where I see my beneficial effect in trying to provide an authentic digression, i.e. the ability to be subjective and have self-reflection. Identity is a vanishing point from my present to the past when the point of observation is a point of intersection of the twist of the perspective to the future. Identity is a group of experiences which make exceeding sense in my relation to the present, they create a big group of information, where I can build my conclu - sion I keep verifying. Identity is created by a vast number of signs I decode through senses — visually and by hearing — and in my brain, this process per - ceived as feelings can evoke images and associations to events I know only indi - rectly: from books or narration. In a sense, I can speak about a kind of heritage from my predecessors. I am an observer with certain experience where education plays a big role. emotions, experience and passion are important, too. Our social consciousness differs as well as our reactions and impulses. I, personally, consider the state when 2 A selection from recordings made by Phonographic commission released in the form of anthology of 5 CD with booklet named Folk Music in Czechoslovakia 1929 –1937 listening to the national anthem in public space to be the most special. I remem - (Ethnological Institute of Academy of Science CR, 2009) . ber the mixture of anger, guilt and shame when paying homage to this symbol of

( 22 ) ( 23 ) statehood after August 1968. Since then, I have had an ambivalent relationship imised by victory (of a national team, success of individuals or specialized to a very touching act which changed from an early pathetic state of child’s pride groups). that I belong “somewhere” into a very strong feeling of identification with When analyzing those phenomena, I identify myself with interpretation of processes in society during the Prague Spring. At that time, we competed who Bělohradský’s non-self-evident states and lives of nations. Weak identification with would be a guard at the headstones of Czechs, who died in may 1945 in Nusle. nationality or its ambivalent changes have accompanied me for my whole life. We wanted to be a part of this geo-political unit. I did not mind that I was born as Does it still matter? And what are its qualities? How does such inconsistency influ - a Czech, I share common history with the others and I even selected some parts ence our decisions and deeds? I wanted to build my own future on — in my time and the space bestowed to me. I may try to find the answer for the last question because models of relation It seems that everything was streaming to my consciousness and mind with under - to topics that I have transformed in various forms in the creative process left standing the language, observing the neighbourhood and questions resulting traces in them and their contents and I can reconstruct them after many years. from it. I was born a Czech and I thought it was nice to be a Czech. relation to a topic is present in every act of interpretation, it acquires its dimen - However, the loss of sovereignty after August 1968, tragic and unsolvable ax - sion with the thesis and copies author’s gestures. In a sense, relation is an archi - ioms drawing from the occupation hit me in sensitive spots. reflections springing tect of a “window” — it is filmmakers’ favourite image used by an author to handle from the clash of the personal and the social evoked chaos; in other words, I expe - the topic, look at public space and oneself. rienced the clash of small and big history. Pragmatism of a small nation seemed to I met one of the relation models in connection with the project of Czech Tele - me as cowardice, Palach’s death put the finger of his unbelievable sacrifice on the vision greatest Czech . my essay contains the word “losing”. I have dealt with it in wound of elite apathy and ideals crumbled very fast. I knew that we had betrayed the Fight for Dvořák affair where Zdeněk Nejedlý wanted to remove the composer ourselves and our future would be only a result of the impact of this state. Public from Czech culture or at least weaken his position. Aesthetic distances were pro - space lost authenticity and characters did not act instantly, i.e. they did to commu - jected in terms “Czech and non-Czech”. Can a person like Dvořák be so far from nicate ideas, only safe phrases, masks hid emotions and individuality like special- cultural history to lose identity? It seems impossible today but emil radok was purpose costumes. Non-identical safety seemed very dangerous to me because it erased from Czech culture although he is a significant co-author of Laterna was not true. Therefore, identity is the tendency towards verity which can be inter - magika and an author of famous “kinetic mosaic”. Dvořák emerged from the changed with the term “sense/meaning”. processes of losing and finding as a stronger personality and strangely enough, The great world theatre opened the stage for another act of the play about we saw the essence of this process in his life and work. erasing of important 20th century european history. When I saw the movie Mistři/Champions (direc - Czechs (see Bohuslav martinů’s fate) is quite common in Czech humanities and tor m. Najbrt, screenplay by r. Geisler, B. Tuček, m. Najbrt) after many years, aesthetic, although the causes at the beginning are not identical, yet weakening of I became more serious when I saw the revelation of irreconcilable disintegration democratic environment, interpretation disorientation or the loss of state sover - of identity because the authors reflected my inner decline of solidarity with the eignty, as I have already spoken about, play important roles. Have we been able to flag, anthem and representation of the Czech republic. The fans did not sincerely keep strong identity with Dvořák’s work due to his fame and proved by perform - support their team, they experienced torture of estrangement from themselves ances of his works? I would say yes not only because no one is a prophet in his and their country. Have all of us experienced this absurd paradox? I do not think own land. Identity is closely connected with views from the outside — “other iden - so because “the one, who does not jump, is not Czech”. I have not tried to fulfil tities” — which want to adopt or appropriate heritages of personalities we con - the criterion of Czech identity because I did not want to jump in a crowd. Why are sider to be “ours”. we able to wish — even metaphorically — for our own defeat? Because we have We live in the time of capital devoutness, we live in the time of extreme indi - not admitted — forgive it without atonement? vidualism and egoism. Criteria of identity keep changing according to viewer’s I reckon we can think about the state of extirpation, un-identity or revolt economic position. Do they really follow what can be sold, used in Pr and adver - against it or something that fulfils it at the given moment as if many conventions tising or uttered during a political argument? It seems that contribution of music and lies prevail in more important things in public space which should be legit - and art is marginal in this interpretation key; beauty is an addition to utility of

( 24 ) ( 25 ) a product, spiritual dimension is abstract that cannot be measured. yet my per - tural features, divided us at that moment. Therefore there were differences in sonal experience reminds me that cultural works react to political situation in the models of acceptance or non-acceptance of loss of artist’s sovereignty and de - time of their origin by dealing with topics related to Czech history or spirituality mands for free interpretation and original works. as inalienable space of every person. I was really touched when I researched Vladimír Sommer while working on I could explore the influence of politics on identity after 1989 when it was the documentary Tones for the numb World . Sommer was a person who underwent suddenly possible to apply another interpretation of identity with cultural environ - the period of adoration of the totalitarian Communist regime and its refusal after ment in our country. But a professional discussion has never reached the point Palach’s death. I have written a number of studies about Sommer I recommend to to address essential axioms we could agree on in public space. Which works mys - everybody, who would like to doubt the turn “from Saul to Paul”. Sommer’s identi - tified, manipulated with their signs that respondents were not able to recognize fication with the Communist regime had deep social roots. It was connected with causes of social and spiritual conflicts? What does the uninterrupted rush from his experience of living in the Protectorate where deformation of life and human a critical opinion actually mean? It began in normalization in Husák times with qualities was so intensive that it was not without consequences. Husák’s normal - consumers’ acceptation of works from the time of totality and continued with ization appeared to be very dangerous for the future that illusion about proletariat frightful trends due to commercial and kitsch products of nowadays? What does dictatorship and its beneficial effect proved wrong. In Sommer’s life and work, displacement of category of freedom from the content of work mean? Is it possi - there was a double standard in morality and civilian attitudes like in Shostakovich’s ble that a work which formally originated for celebration of some anniversary fate. I would have been very happy if the composer had talked about it, yet he in the calendar of a totalitarian state would not be modified by the process? What did not want to; in the early 1990s, he felt that “people are not telling truth so why was the situation with interpretation performances in public space on the occa - should he”. sions of celebrations, holidays and anniversaries? All these questions are con - An artist could not reconcile with the lack of interest in analysis of collabora - nected with interpretation of identity. These questions should be discussed in tion that “there was no social demand or will to tell the truth”. Sommer’s experi - public space and media should pamper them, if we wanted to cultivate identity ence was totally different — my faith in conservative values where individualism, according to an old and vanishing key. We see only censorship, lack of education diligence, abilities and competitiveness lead to fulfilment of life had to be re-evalu - and misunderstanding. ated. Conservative values in Dvořák’s sense — “God, love, family, music (art) and As a dramaturge at Czechoslovak Television in December 1989, I asked country” started to be defined differently in the environment of global capitalism rudolf Firkušný to shoot a documentary for TV. I perceived this act to be revival of and mass culture; my identity was not valid anymore. identity of music performers with free public space where music is performed and Although I am not able to unbind from links to signs that have formed me in performers select works for their content, originality and spiritual dimension, not this environment, I relate to them differently; they were set in general motion and for ideological reasons. The film The Return of the non-Prodigal son was directed by their mirroing in experience of the late 20th and early 21st century inspire us for Jaromil Jireš (and it is not important that the Věstník newspaper listed it as “The other interpretations. Cultural history has not stopped being the degree of our return of the Prodigal Son”. It is a paradox — the proof-reader knew the meaning deeds in the present but the need to substitute the period of delight with the pe - of the Biblical saying about the prodigal son but what he did not know what to do riod of critical reason is more emphasized. Critical reason seems to be a universal with “non-prodigal”? Identity was preserved by “non-prodigal sons”, although guarantor of what we call the search for truth, critical opinion or historical point they “got lost” in foreign countries or in isolation. At that time, I knew about em - of view. Verified patters resisting destruction play a great role in this process be - barrassment of music journalists when they saw the topic closely connected with cause they measure our words and deeds by their works and influence of author’s a great name of rafael Kubelík. I knew very well that they were embarrassed and gesture. We are more interested in myths and myth-creating processes as if the afraid of pressure from normalization personalities and artists who succumbed to process of identity loss opened the way for new identity which is not so limited by the pressure of dictatorship and did not want to be confronted with identity of space of our mother tongue we use for communication. Why are there polarized Firkušný or Kubelík. Giving publicity to this topic was the cause of fear. Self-reflec - blocs of being open to europe or isolated from europe? Do we feel a strong need tion of the past, where we could apply different criteria for interpretation of cul - to know the sources of europeanism when illusions about identity connected with

( 26 ) ( 27 ) nation, country or one interpretation of (national) history? Do media behave like of signs decays, understanding a language is weaker and general education de - structures integrated in this process or do they obstruct it in the name of preserva - cays as well. We all aspire for global “equality” in public space (we can buy every - tion of these myths which provide those who have power with key positions in thing). We can even change our sex if we find out that we are not what nature economics and politics? (God) determined us to be. Then we can do what characters in my movie A documentary is a key creative method for nowadays. As a structure, it of - “now It Is Finally Me” do. fers a potential of recording the experience of reality where interpretation using yes, it is finally me who found his identity despite obstacles and determina - critical reason can have many formal forms but it does not lose importance for an tions due to exploration of my genetic and social roots, it is me due to subjective author’s gesture in public space. However, media today choose gatekeepers who faith in rightness of the equal chances model and using critical reason, due to my mediate intensity of communication between authors and audiences. I experi - faith in justice. enced it myself because the topic of the Brixi family in a high-quality screenplay has no chance to be realized. It is only pars pro toto tested by me; I use this to de - fine flabbiness of producers to higher culture, history, spirituality and otherness, i.e. topics which say more complicated facts about life than we are used to. But is this not alarming? Why is it not strange that professional newspapers and maga - doc. Mgr. PeTrkaňka , film director, dramaturgist, screenwriter, zines do not revolt, analyze this flabbiness and do not catch this parody on culture producer and ped‘agogue. He studied history and theory of music, theatre and services in the act in public space when culture changes into Pr and service to in- film at the Charles University in Prague. Author and director of TV projects: groups? There is discontinuity of interpretations which allow us to change our ori - Hello Music and Terra Musica, Ten Centuries of Architecture, awarded entation in what we call identity. It is also identity — overlapping of interpretations, films: Santini’s Church of St. John of Nepomuk at Zelená Hora (1997), signs, artefacts, myths and history — we traditionally relate to due to education In Search of Janáček ( 2003), The God’s Finger Touched Me (about composer Josef Suk, 2006), and language. Distance between one credible interpretation and its further shift The Gentleman Josef Škvorecký ( 2008). Producer and screenwriter of the new documentary postpone the chance to change models of society in a more general sense, not Wherever I look, I miss my face there (about Czech poet Karel Hynek Mácha). Head of the only cultural one. We need to destruct “greatness” of the present by questions Department of Media Studies –Literary Academy of Josef Škvorecký, Prague, Chairman of the connected with greatness of the past. We need dishonest canonized speech and board — The Association of Czech Film Directors and Screenwriters we need to use it when it loses and suppresses its real content. Authorship was once very important, yet it slowly vanishes from public space. Ç [email protected] It is too individual (see this paradox in the time of tense individualism?) to serve trends of mass culture. Canonized forms and criteria empty not only spiritual con - tent of things but they take back their signs of identity, those are special and unique. There is great magic of identity in this simple detail — variability of signs was at the beginning of great european culture. If the vanishing point, where I see the key to identity, is connected with authorship, we reached an essential question of content and definition of the term identity. repression of authorship in public space has caused a significant move in understanding identity with the 1990’s gen - eration and the following ones. By studying the issue of elites, we can reach inter - esting conclusions but we cannot agree on them. motion (or weird automatic mo - tion) of society and re-structuralizing of hierarchy of values, the meaning of the term identity keeps changing. It seems it weakens its former ability to divide and connect individuals as if it becomes neutral. Its content narrows because reading

( 28 ) ( 29 ) Let us remember what folklore is. etymologically, it is the lore of the folk, the age- Meaning and Value old traditions and wisdom of rural communities. It is true that traditional rural com - munities have almost disappeared from modern industrialized nations. However, let of Contemporary Folklore Activities technological civilisation be as developed as possible, all human beings experience certain basic situations from birth to death, which are the same anywhere on earth.
from the Point of View of the Folklore Association And folklore is tightly connected with these situations. It is not originally an aes - of the Czech Republic thetic creation or an ornament on the surface of life. Its numerous manifestations do not even have a predominantly aesthetic function. We know it well from folk songs. The folk song is functionally connected with all the typical situations in the jarmila jandová life of the individual and of the whole community. In the collections of songs from Bohemia, moravia and Silesia we find cycles thematically related to birth, love, marriage, work, various rituals, war, rebellion against oppression, illness, old age, We CANNOT speak about Czech musical folklore but about the musical folklore of death; folk songs are also bound with annual and family holidays, rites and customs Bohemia, moravia and Silesia, and that only roughly. We would have to consider of the year cycle (often in association with dance), and they record memorable many regional and local identities and start with a reflection on the place of folklore events . Some of the above-mentioned situations have vanished from the life of music and folklore in general in the lives of contemporary societies we call the devel - modern society but many of them are permanent. This is one of the reasons why oped ones. folklore activities can still attract attention. In October 2011, an itinerant exhibition of the Folklore Association of the Czech Another reason is that folklore is of collective nature: it is collective and mostly republic entitled Czech Republic: A Treasury of Folk Traditions at the heart of Europe was anonymous creation for sharing. The image of a solitary artist or viewer does not presented in the seat of the Council of europe in the conviction that it was in accor - match with folklore; you can go to theatre, cinema or concert hall alone but you dance with one of the main aims of this international organization — to attain a greater cannot participate in a folklore festival by yourself, even if you come unaccompa - unity among its members — since folklore is one of the factors which can contribute nied. Somehow or other you will end up being drawn in. to a better mutual understanding among various human communities. It is also important to note that folklore manifestations often unite what political It is true that many people consider folklore to be something obsolete, a relic of development has divided. Political boundaries are movable and unstable, whereas the past in developed modern societies. Then there are discussions as to whether it folklore boundaries are comparatively stable. Take for example the moravian-Slova - is meaningful to maintain folklore activities and if so, in what form? We can hear the kian borderline: the present-day political frontier makes no sense from the point request for authenticity (but what is meant by that?) and an opinion that contempo - of view of folk traditions. On both sides of the northern part of the border people rary folklore activities are not folklore anymore but folkloristics or folklorism. Another can hear songs in the mixolydian mode, while in the southern part it is the lydian. doubt is that folklore manifestations seem to be so unique and often exotic, so linked Several recent across-the-border festivals (in this area as well as between moravia to places and cultures where they originated — how could they help rapprochement and Poland, moravia and Austria or Bohemia and Poland) prove that dwellers on of people from differently developed societies in various parts of the world? both parts of the border feel this and wish to renew old relations of affinity. The However, we often hear members of foreign folk groups at our festivals say that Folklore Association thinks that the above reasons of the vitality of folklore help folklore brings them new friendships and a better understanding of each other. Is it explain why the Czech republic has been experimenting an unprecedented revival just because the folklore manifestations are so colorful, attractive, entertaining, or of folklore manifestations over the past 20 years, and why folklore activities attract simply because the participants share similar interests? It certainly may be so, but so many children and young people. Dozens of festivals are held all over the coun - the true cause lies deeper. The fact is that folklore is deeply rooted in life. It is con - try (the Folklore Association alone organizes or co-organizes over sixty of them), nected with all the basic life experiences which are common to people all around in addition to celebrations, concerts, get-togethers at the dulcimer, days of folk the world. musicians and other events.

( 30 ) ( 31 ) Let us return to the question how authentic this activity is. According to the clas - ideas lead to increased cultivation of some rather neglected instrumental groupings sic definition of folklore, it would only be authentic if the shepherdesses’ call-songs (such as the folk bands without a dulcimer); or various forgotten elements are re- (halekačky ) were sung on the pastures, if the UNeSCO-listed conscripts’ dance introduced, such as old musical instruments. One example is the renewed “screech - v erbuňk were performed when recruiting new soldiers for the imperial army, if the ing band” (“skřípácká muzika” ) in the Czecho-moravian Highlands (consisting of outlaw ballads (z bojnické ) were sung when ”the merry men went a-marauding” etc., peculiar local fiddles and a double-bass) — a strange, rough musical manifestation and when only untrained singers and musicians sang and played folk music. As soon which forces the perceiver to listen differently. even this kind of music is played as we transfer any folklore manifestation onto the stage and make it a bearer of pre - today by trained musicians. To summarize, contemporary work with music folklore dominant aesthetic function, it will no longer be authentic. From this point of view, and new creations inspired by folklore do not go against its spirit. This happens we could doubt the authenticity of most of music folklore productions nowadays. only when something really inappropriate is brought to it — intellectual attitudes, We would also have to define some historical time limit after which the folklore man - affectations, constructions, meditations, artificial rhythms; or when artificial arrange - ifestations would not be authentic anymore. What if someone established it in such ments cancel some typical or essential feature like rubato in moravian music. a way that the modern concert dulcimer (the Hungarian cimbalom ) had no place in Folklore activities nowadays draw attention to the exceptional diversity of our folk bands because it is not the original historical dulcimer? It is also true that most music folklore which amazes foreign visitors, or bring it back to the awareness of members of music groups which perform at all the above-mentioned events are listeners, while allowing those who care about it to realize or recall the folklore fea - more or less trained musicians and singers due to the Czech system of basic music tures which belong to their home. These features are one of the factors of identity schools and conservatoires. Some ensembles feature really professional musicians many people are looking for. For example, the lydian mode belongs to the mora - or even virtuosos. These professionals sometimes get together with musicians who vian-Slovak frontier in its southern part, the mixolydian mode is found more to the are only just learning. A great example is the nation-wide competition called Little north. When a native from those parts hears a song in a familiar mode or music Singer (Zpěváček ), which was created by the Folklore Association. Five or six thou - with a familiar rhythm or special harmony, such as the so -called moravian modula - sand children participate on regional levels and the finalists go on to the great final tion, it touches him or her. A big number of of folk groups in the Czech diaspora in Velké Losiny, where they are accompanied by top folk orchestras like the Brno testifies to such a feeling. moreover, the awareness and experience of the idiosyn - radio Orchestra of Folk Instruments (BRoln ) or the orchestra of ondráš , the Artistic crasy of various folk music features can retroactively influence the perception of ensemble of the Czech Army. Such a constellation can hardly be called authentic. classical music, because many Czech composers have worked with folklore ele - Is the share in music education for better or for worse? We think it is for better. ments. An interesting situation is when the listener is a foreigner with previous This fact helps develop the musical feeling of children and young people. Today knowledge of Czech music. I know several Latin American listeners familiar with there is a remarkable number of child choirs and bands, we have child leading Czech music for whom attending our festivals and other folklore events was reveal - violinists and dulcimer players, both boys and girls; in fact, almost three quarters of ing because it allowed them to perceive the musical thought of composers as the 14,000 Folklore Association members are children and young people. There is Janáček or martinů in a different way. also a role of radio as an important media partner of the folklore movement. radio We have talked about festivals, celebrations, concerts, which are undoubtedly listeners have learnt to listen to folk music and expect more from the folk musicians. powerful activities; but somebody could ask what the relation of folklore and real Similarly, visitors of festivals and other folklore events are increasingly more de - life situations is. Folklore music still accompanies all main annual customs and tradi - manding. We think it is definitely for the better that both folk group members and tions like Christmas, Carnival, easter, harvest celebrations, vintage; there are many audiences are more musically educated. A special case is when contemporary folk - places where people still (or rather: again) expel morana (the pagan goddess of lore activities are performed by older people who did it authentically when they winter and death) from the village, open and consecrate springs, organize the were young — they don’t seem to feel deprived of anything. Whitsuntide ”little queens” (královničky ) rounds and celebrate the UNeSCO-listed Folklore manifestations not only have changed, they even have to change if they ride of the Kings. We should not forget the kermesses and saint patrons’ feasts — are to correspond with the main feature of folklore — to be a part of life. They can they are celebrated in many villages. They are often costumed feasts which really accept influences of the present, and they do so. On the other hand, improved musi - belong to the life of the village and are usually interconnected with various contem - cal training of the performers, competitiveness and the need to come up with new porary features.

( 32 ) ( 33 ) And finally, the festivals, those artificially created folklore events, usually have an ending which is similar to typical old-time situations. “The real thing” often National Identity — starts after the end of an evening programme. musicians, singers and dancers from several ensembles meet spontaneously at various places, interchange their An Example of J. J. Ryba instruments and create new groupings together with the visitors, who often stand up and sing to the musicians to make them follow, and an authentic popular mer - rymaking is soon on.
andreas kroeper These moments are the best confirmation of the meaning and value of con - temporary folklore activities in the Czech republic. It is more than “getting back to the roots”. It is a confirmation of prevailing cultural rootedness. IF We ASK one of the contemporary composers marie de Alvear (born 1960), Translated by J. Jandová whose works are in the repertoire of Czech conductors, about her national iden - tity — whether she feels like a Spanish composer — she answers she is Spanish and German. Not half Spanish and half German. Her father is Spanish, her mother JarMiLaJanDová ,Ph.D. is Associate Professor of literary is German. We do not have any problem with her identification, it was she, who theory at the National University of Colombia, Bogota. J. Jandová studied used the words. If someone dared interpret her national identity in a different Spanish and Eng‘lish philology at Charles University in Prague and has way, she could defend herself. lectured in English literature and Spanish and English versology at several Let us first talk about the term “national identity”. it is connected with nation - Colombian universities.Her research interests include the semiotics of art; ality, which does not have to be linked to citizenship according to the ID cards of she has translated into Spanish selected works of Jan Mukařovský and other scholars belonging some european countries. Therefore a Finnish composer can be Swedish. It is not to the Prague School. She has also worked as violinist in the Bogota Philharmonic Orchestra. a secret that there are cases where national identity appears to be very flexible, As member of the Folklore Association of the Czech Republic she has created the itinerant when someone tries to get a grant or other support… international exhibition on Czech, Moravian and Silesian folklore entitled Czech Republic: Composers, who lived centuries ago, cannot defend themselves anymore, A Treasury of Folk Traditions at the Heart fo Europe. especially those, who were böhmisch , not Czech. It could seem to be a petty issue Ç [email protected] but acquisition of their names has been a trick how to enrich national cultural her - itage. There are other tricks as we can see in the renowned music dictionary New Grove — “mozart, Austrian composer”. If there were no mozartkugeln, music his - tory would develop differently… I have chosen the example of renowned composer ryba, whose most famous piece is performed as “rybovka” — a terrible name evoking something between fish soup and a Christmas cake… This piece has not been perceived as a part of mass ordinary but a funny game about the manger where the plot is more than liturgical meaning and succumbs to contemporary needs. everyone, in fact, who plays some musical instrument (regardless of their skills) dares play it even in public. I could express myself less nicely: this piece is simply highly popular. I am aware of the fact that “popular” comes from “populus” and “pleb”. ryba’s signature was Jakob Johan — Johan with one “n”– according to con - temporary German spelling, the name Jan has a bad spelling. In our country, he is

( 34 ) ( 35 ) celebrated as Jakub Jan. There are many possible answers to the question of why gist point of view, it is important that weekend lessons and evening events were the composer is called differently in Bohemia. We can interpret sources in differ - open to the general public. The dance craft had a strict repertoire with ninety ent ways and under various circumstances — for instance when someone applies dances! When we read their list, we are a little bit confused: for a grant. Why is Jakob Johan called Jakub Jan if Ferenc Liszt, the composer menuet Damur, Lafrans, Anschu, Burgund, Paspje spanier, Pastorell, Prager whose important anniversary we celebrate this year, is not as famous as František marionett, Laschursch. No Czech dance appears on the list. excitement about mouka/Franz Flour in Bohemia? Francophone dances came to Bohemia, too. But I am sure everybody agrees that From the point of view of historical correctness, we must ask this question. we cannot make a serious conclusion that ryba was called Jean-Jacques or had yet I feel a bit embarrassed that it is me — a German — who must ask it. It has a different national identity. been ignored in Bohemia for quite a long time. However, there was a similar dis - cussion in Germany — Jan Jiří Benda is not Johann Georg, his son František An - tonín was baptized as Franz Anton in Berlin. Leoš remains Leoš. I want to draw attention to the fact that Josef mysliveček is still Josef mysliveček, not Giovanni, despite his Italian success as Il divino boemo. This paradox continues when going through ryba’s correspondence. If we anDreaskröPer-hoffMann studied musicology, history quote it according to academic rules, i.e. in original language, it could seem that and philosophy in‘Heidelberg and Brno as well as Performance Practice ryba wrote only in German. We do not find many Czech documents in ryba’s let - of Early Music in Salzburg. In 1991 he co-founded the Academy of Early ters. Another paradox is that his first significant printed Czech production Music at the University of Brno, remaining its leader until 2004. From (12 songs) was published by Zwölf böhmische Lieder. Nevertheless, ryba’s con - 1994 –2000 he was artistic director of the Haydn-Festival at Lukavice tribution to Czech music terminology during the National revival should be ap - castle, from 2001–2007 director of the Open-Air-Waldbühn-Opera in Arosa (Switzerland), preciated much more. 2008 head of the Opera Society Zürich, since 2009 artistic director of the Modern Dance festival His book Počáteční základové (1817) lists the author’s name as Jan Jakub ryba. TanZeiT-ZeiTanZ Chur and since 2011 artistic director of Härjedalens Kulturcentrum (Sweden). Can we consider this to be the beginning of making his name Czech? Then an in - He appeared as a flutist and conductor in various chamber music groups and orchestras, wrote correct sequence of names should be considered to be right. more than 40 musicological studies, recorded 27 CDs and taught at master classes in Germany, I do not want to ask the question whether ryba perceived himself as a Ger - Austria, the United States of America and Greece. man or Czech. yet I do want to use the example of marie de Alvear and suggest Ç [email protected] he felt German and Czech. There is another question: was national identity an es - sential question for ryba? Therefore I would like to ask: can we find an answer in his music? Is it Czech? Who has set criteria to define it accordingly? Is the setting of these criteria only a vain, obsolete and chauvinist attempt? Or walking on thin ice? Does his national music or dance music blow a whistle? What if someone or - dered it? Looking at ryba’s dance music, we must say that ryba was not Czech or Ger - man but he was probably French. Dance music performed by ordinary people or craftsmen in Prague, where ryba studied, was regulated by a dance craft. The fact that a book about his club appeared in 1788 with the aim to mediate social dances on Sundays and holidays to sons and daughters of shoemakers, millers and oth - ers, proves the importance of this fact in the capital of Bohemia. From the sociolo -

( 36 ) ( 37 ) periods of their development, i.e. music of our classic composers, is one of the e Legacy of Bedřich Smetana — main indicators of the state of a nation or society.

the Development and Changes fromsmetana’sdeath(1884)to1918
in His Reception Despite general appreciation and many honours at the end of Smetana’s life, his legacy was not perceived in the way it deserved: at the beginning, there was map - ping of the sources, publishing of his works, musicologist understanding of the olga mojžíšová Smetana issue, yet there were still gaps in performances — even twenty years later, all his operas were not part of common repertoires. An important landmark was the International music and Theatre exhibition in Vienna in 1892 — it brought the first great international success of Smetana’s We SHOULD NOT be afraid to say that Bedřich Smetana is one of the most sig - work and it became an important feedback for locals. A suggestion for opening nificant music symbols connected with our national identity in a field of music the Smetana museum appeared as soon as 1893 and the first cycle of Smetana’s whose legacy we perceive as an unquestionable part of our cultural heritage. operas took place in the National Theatre. regular Smetana cycles had been re - Why? peated in the National Theatre since 1904 and it was only then when all his operas Smetana intentionally conformed his work and other activities to foundations were included in its repertoire. Since then, the way of introducing Smetana’s of modern Czech music and life (it is confirmed by his correspondence and mem - works has become a prestigious issue of every new director of opera. ories of his contemporaries) — he gradually realized his aim during his activities in Another landmark was 1909 (25 years from Smetana’s death) and it was per - music life. No other Czech musician interconnected his activity and work with the ceived as the first great anniversary. The Board for Bedřich Smetana’s monument needs and ideas of one’s time so tightly and broadly. He started to realize his pro - (later The Bedřich Smetana Society) was founded and it became an institution for gramme in a remarkable time — in early 1860s when the political situation allowed the Smetana programme. the development of modern Czech society in political, economical, linguistic and The third important event was the big Smetana exhibition in 1917 with ac - cultural fields. Culture and art (including music) were perceived as an important companying concerts and an opera cycle of the National Theatre — we could say it demonstration of national-emancipation efforts and political ambitions in society, was the first Smetana festival. It was a big manifestation corresponding with the and an important means of their representation. Smetana fulfilled this expectation atmosphere of the ending of the First World War where Smetana’s music played and mission. He was appreciated by the Czech general public during his life and an essential role — ideas of Czech statehood and national peculiarity were empha - was ascribed a role of the author of national music. sized as well as “national revivalist” aspects. Performances of Smetana’s pieces Although confirmation of Smetana’s role in the foundation in the context of were extremely festive moments of a manifest nature and were forms of protests, Czech music development has never been questioned, a relation of the music and too. We can say that non-musical power of Smetana’s music was fully demon - Czech general public to his legacy underwent development on a more general strated in this exceptional time and became one of the important factors in the level as well as in productions and reception of his work. We can distinguish be - process of establishing independent Czechoslovakia. tween clear periods defined by important and critical historical events which de - termined this relation and changed it positively and negatively. I will try to fore - 1918—1938 shadow a brief overview of this development and to talk about characteristics of its main periods and landmarks. Some of them deserve attention, although they The Smetana “cult” (in a positive way) came to life during the war, continued after seem funny nowadays, some of them may be an inspiration to us. The relation to the foundation of Czechoslovakia and culminated with celebrations of the 100th cultural heritage and the fact how they realized their identity in certain historical anniversary of Smetana’s birth in 1924. They took place in the whole republic and

( 38 ) ( 39 ) on all levels of social and music life — in Prague and small villages, from top pro - Smetana’s work were highlighted and used intentionally. Performances of fessional interpretation performances to amateurs. The peak was performances of Smetana’s works were manifestations resulting in the banning of some pieces. all Smetana’s concerts and operas, representing Czech art with important ensem - Growing interest in Smetana could be seen in other fields — for instance, intensive bles. Presence of foreign delegations, numerous productions of Smetana’s works publishing activities: other volumes of the critical edition are published as well as abroad and Smetana-related celebrations in some countries provided an interna - the first two volumes of a critical piano work which were published for the second tional dimension to the anniversary. monuments and plaques in Smetana-related time in the very same year. The general public was extremely interested in lectures places and a great exhibition in Prague were included in the celebrations, as well. about Smetana and his work in the Bedřich Smetana museum. We can consider these celebrations to be the absolute peak of Smetana activities, On the other hand, there were efforts to abuse Smetana’s importance and which have not been equalled since. It may be surprising that only one voluntary popularity for their own propaganda — they wanted to shift interpretation of group was the initiator and coordinator. Czech music including Smetana’s works towards interconnection with German The following period until the 1930s brought certain relaxation: the results music and promotion of Protectorate cultural policy. One of its peaks was were less pompous events and a shift in activities in new fields that focused on Smetana celebrations in 1944 organized by Protectorate administration. long-term tasks. The Bedřich Smetana museum was founded in 1926 and was the first specialized music museum in our country as an institution for future work in Theturnofthe1940sand1950s the area of collections and musicology and educational activities. Publishing activi - (“inthespiritofsmetana’slegacytowardsnewaims”) ties were on the rise — numerous practical editions and adaptations as well as a project of a cumulative critical edition of Smetana’s work that started to be pub - There was an essential change in this period — classic music heritage, especially lished in the 1930s. A growth of professional musicologist production dealing with Smetana’s legacy, was an object of intentional ideology and politics — a simplified Smetana continued between the wars. Generally, Smetana’s work became a stable synonym of advancement and folksiness, a certain norm used to negate every - and essential part of orchestras and interpreters. thing that did not correspond with ideological postulates at that time; it was basi - yet we need to ask the question of what the basis of the relation to Smetana’s cally against principles of independence and originality Smetana built his work on. legacy was. Firstly, it was a relationship which developed naturally and sponta - The Bedřich Smetana Society was dissolved, like many other associations and neously, and affected all classes in Czech society. It was not state administration clubs; directive attitudes and centrally managed activities were commenced and that initiated it but they were civic associations, leagues and clubs and natural in - they resulted into a project of the Smetana Five-year Plan with the aim to promote terest of individuals. Production of national classic music (including Smetana) was Smetana’s work in all social classes, i.e. on all levels of cultural work, publishing a matter of national and professional prestige for interpreters, orchestras and in - activities and the field of interpretation. Despite some stupid and overrated re - stitutions, therefore Smetana’s work became a commonly and frequently per - quests and ideas, the project consisted of many useful tasks like the restart of formed part of their repertoire. From the point of view of the whole society, there projects from the previous periods, e.g. publishing activities. Artificially created were historically conditioned national pride, patriotism, naturally cultivated re - cult and ideology which distorted the image of Smetana have vanished today, spect, respect for values and tradition, as well as general active and passive knowl - however, we can still feel something negative about the privileged author, who edge of Smetana’s work, i.e. mature, educated and experienced audience. is ideologically connected with that time. In the following decades, he still had certain exceptional and privileged position that was a bit ideological but it has ThesecondWorldWar brought many positive things from the point of view of performances, reception and promotion. A vast part of his work was played quite often. In the National Smetana’s legacy did not work very clearly with two opposite fields of interest and Theatre, all his operas in high-quality interpretation were on the repertoire (great each of them chose only what was suitable for its needs. singers, strong opera management), new productions were linked to each other Speaking about the Czech point of view, the situation was analogical to the and some non-Smetana periods appeared only in some cases and periods. A sta - end of the First World War — non-music and national political aspects of ble part of a concert repertoire was Smetana’s orchestral, piano and choir work

( 40 ) ( 41 ) due to the extensive network of high-quality amateur choirs. We must not forget tral piece has not appeared in dramaturgic plans of the Czech Philharmonic Or - about discography, operas made into films, critical editions, exhibitions, festivals chestra or FOK for a long time. A similar situation is in the field of choirs because and competitions. the number of amateur choirs has dropped. Smetana’s piano works appear very A premise and a positive result of this state was prevailing good knowledge rarely at concerts; there are only some interprets specializing in his production. of Smetana’s work, educated audiences, natural respect for Smetana and other On the other hand, we can see the change in audiences nowadays — high-quality national classic composers, i.e. continuation of that had existed here in the inter - and educated listeners are very hard to find because of a generation gap and in - war period. The negative aspect was deeply rooted in an untouchable image of sufficient music education. Bedřich Smetana as a national composer, who became an icon and symbol with As a result, knowledge of Smetana’s work and his importance has lessened; no place for different or critical point of view based on new interpretations or the situation when Bedřich Smetana is only a historical entry in a dictionary for new music and historical Czech and european contexts. most of the people is not so unreal. Generally, the attitude towards Smetana’s legacy can represent a certain model of a gradual loss of a relation to generally after1989 valid values which are parts of our national identity, natural respect and the need to cultivate and maintain them. Therefore, we can experience a situation in which In fact, there was an analogical situation with the time when Smetana entered we dispose of attributes of our national identity gradually and voluntarily. music life — a radical change brought relaxation in politics and a possibility to de - velop a new society after decades. Culture — or classical music — has not acquired their representative positions but they have been “something special”. In this con - text, a relation to Smetana’s legacy and work has experienced a negative develop - ment during the last twenty years. We cannot analyze it here in greater context, however, I will highlight the most significant moments drawing from confrontation PhDr. oLgaMoJžíšová studied musicology and history of the with previous periods. In the 1990s, the preceding period was dying away and an theatre on Facult‘y of Arts, Charles University, Prague. Since 1979 is working essential change came with the beginning of the new millennium. in the National Museum, Prague — Czech Museum of Music: in 1979 –1991 The main field where this change is visible is Smetana’s operas and concerts, as a curator in the Music Archives Department, since 1992 as a head of fewer titles and fewer performances. All Smetana’s operas appeared in the reper - the Bedřich Smetana Museum. She prepared new complete catalogue toire of the National Theatre during the past twenty years (older productions of the Bedřich Smetana collection, commented digital facsimiles of some B. Smetana’s works and new premieres), the overall number of performances was between 45 and 50 (Dvě vdovy, Libuše, Hubička). Author of the new permanent Bedřich Smetana Museum (80 in season 1993/4). Since 1998, there is an obvious decrease in one half exhibitions (Prague 1998, Jabkenice 2003), including the guides. Now she is preparing the (about 20 –30 performances per year). The Bartered Bride dominates the repertoire complete critical edition of Smetana’s correspondence. (libuše is performed only on state holidays), new productions of other titles do Ç [email protected] not have a very long life. A significant phenomenon is a problematic nature and quality of productions. Legitimate efforts to introduce a different and non-tradi - tional attitude were not accepted very well by the general public. Its cause is not only deeply rooted tradition with older and more conservative audience who ac - cept innocent deviations critically, but also general attitude of theatre-makers who focus on a text, not a score. In the concert repertoire (with the exception of chamber music), Smetana’s works appear very scarcely. Orchestral music is limited to My Country, usually only at the beginning of the Prague Spring or another official event; Smetana’s orches -

( 42 ) ( 43 ) of “Czech national music” but he thought it was natural to compose for Czech Antonín Dvořák audiences and Czech institutions (Provisional Theatre) or being inspired by Czech texts when he is Czech and lives in Prague. as a Czech National Compose r? The issue of identification and belonging to Czech national society had be - come topical for Dvořák since the late 1870s — it was the time when he started to
Notes on How His Work and Personality be famous abroad in German-speaking countries thanks to the support coming from Vienna and Germany (eduard Hanslick, Johannes Brahms, Fritz Simrock). Were Received It was a coincidence that it was also the time of growing national tension in the Habsburg monarchy, which forced many passive or nationally neutral people to have an opinion and participate actively in the support of some national identity. jarmila gabrielová As we know from documents, Dvořák proudly declared his Czech identity in pub - lic and realized his loyalty and responsibility to young Czech culture. This is the reason why he repeatedly refused well-meant advice and recommendations from eduard Hanslick to move from Prague to Vienna and compose works for “the IN THe FOLLOWING text, I deal with the double aspect of Antonín Dvořák and big”, i.e. German audiences. However, he had never been a fanatischer Böhm/fa - his music “being Czech”, i.e. how the composer perceived and presented himself, natic Czech man ( Joh. Brahms in his letter to Fr. Simrock, 1887) — a fighter against as well as how he and his music was perceived and appreciated by his colleagues everything, which is not Czech, i.e. everything, which is German at that time — al - and friends. I draw from a commonly accepted opinion that the term “national though he repeatedly encountered negative attitudes because of his Czech iden - identity — being Czech” as a personal feature includes various levels: a native lan - tity. He was really unhappy about growing hatred between Czech and German guage, citizenship, relation to one’s native country (region), intentional belonging communities in Bohemia, or Prague. This may be the reason why he felt much with a specific national society and sharing its values; “national music” freer in england and later in the United States, at least at the beginning, where (“Czech national music”) is not a “style” but “reception” category. I talk about national problems in Central europe were not interesting for anybody. In england, the period of the composer’s life between 1841 and 1904 with partial overlaps to which understood the term “nation” as a “political nation”, he was both Antonín 1918 and the following decades with short notes about the contemporary state. Dvořák and an ambassador of young Czech culture. He intentionally composed works, that were later ordered from england ( The spectre’s Bride op. 69, symphony Thepersonal(individual)level in d-minor op. 70, saint ludmila op. and Requiem op. 89) for British audiences and ofDvořák’sczechidentity as promotion of Czech music — and for the glory of God: Today I finished the second movement from Andante of my new symphony and I am so happy and delighted during this There is no doubt that Dvořák’s native (first) language was Czech — his “national work as I have always been and I hope I still will be because my motto is: god, love, home identity” was natural in this respect. This is how his situation was different from country! And this is the only way to a happy ending! (about composing Symphony position of Bedřich Smetana, a composer, who was one generation older, and No. 7, from his letter to Alois Göbl, 31st December 1884) other Czech composers of the late 19th century. Dvořák was an Austrian citizen Dvořák demonstrated his Czech (and Slavic) identity by trying to communi - for his whole life and he had also been its political representative from 1901 — cate in his poor english instead of perfect German, which would be acceptable he was a member of the Herrenhaus in the Parliament in Vienna. Speaking about and natural for his British partners. He expressed his ideas — with arguments of a feeling of belonging to contemporary Czech society as sharing its values and ac - contemporary Czech politics and national ideology with the reference to the Hus - tive participation in its benefit, it seems that Dvořák had not dealt much with this site tradition — at the end of the interview for British Pall Mall gazette from October question until mid-1870s; he actually did not consider it important to declare his 1886 ( From Butcher to Baton) , after the premiere of oratory saint ludmila at the attitudes in public. As a composer, he did not want to be perceived as an author Leeds festival. An unknown journalist asked him his opinion about the english as

( 44 ) ( 45 ) a “music nation” and a statement that they lacked “musical feeling”. Dvořák an - acceptanceofDvořákandhisworks swered he was not able to judge it but he said that his own experience with eng - bycontemporaryviewersandcritics lish listeners and cast at his concerts did not confirm this. He follows: speaking about music, the English resemble the slavs in politics — they are young nations but there is response of Czech audiences and critics to Dvořák and his works were almost great potential in the future. Twenty years ago, we were nobody, now we feel our national always positive throughout his whole life. When Dvořák broke through as life is awaken. Who knows what will happen? Those great times from five hundred years a composer in the 1870s, his works were welcome. Since the 1880s, you could ago when all of Europe looked up to powerful Czechs and slavs which I belong to, and I am read positive reactions in newspapers which were proud of Dvořák as a person proud might return… who is world-famous and promoted his nation and country abroad. most of his During his three-year stay in the United States (1892—1895), Dvořák demon - opera works were appreciated, however, we hear some of them very scarcely strated another aspect of his Czech identity, which had not been so strong or now, although they were very popular back then: historical opera Dimitrij , op. 64 overwhelming before: his relation to Bohemia as his home country. In the first which was selected for the series of opening performances when the National year, he was still full of expectations and perceived new stimuli, admired technical Theatre was re-opened in 1883 and it was performed as the third piece after developments in cosmopolitan New york, yet he felt happy in the Czech commu - Smetana’s libuše and the tragedy salomena by forgotten Bohumil Adámek nity close to Spillville and other places in the mid-West he visited with his family (1848 –1915). Dvořák’s dramatic overture hussite op. 67 was performed in the and young American colleague Jan Josef Kovařík in summer 1893. During his stay morning on 18th November 1883 (before libuše ) in the National Theatre. The in Spillville, he realized that he would not like to stay in the United States forever fact, that the memorable opening concert of the Czech Philharmonic Orchestra being buried so far from his home country: …spillville is a purely Czech village founded on 4th January 1896 in Prague consisted only of Dvořák’s pieces, is common by spielmann from Bavaria… he died four years ago and when I went to the church this knowledge. morning, I passed his grave as well as graves of other Czech people who rest in peace Dvořák was also honoured many times — he was appointed a honourable there… I heard the Czech newspapers claimed I wanted to stay here in America. oh, never!… doctorate of the Charles University (Charles-Ferdinand University) and he was (from his letter to emil Kozánek, September 1893). a member in the newly founded Czech Academy of Sciences and Arts in 1890. Dvořák’s homesickness and desire to go home got even more intense after he He was also an art director of the Prague Conservatory from mid-1901 until his had returned to New york in autumn 1893 and during early 1894, when the finan - death. Dvořák’s younger colleague and friend Leoš Janáček belonged to his great cial situation of his American patron and founder of the National Conservatory in admirers and promoters in Brno. At the end of Dvořák’s life and during years after New york Jeanette Thurber radically worsened, therefore his own financial situa - his death, music aesthetician and critic Otakar Hostinský and his school led by tion and salary as a director of this institution were very uncertain. Dvořák spent Zdeněk Nejedlý started to have objections. the summer of 1894 in Bohemia. He terminated his contract and returned home Speaking about a foreign point of view, we need to distinguish between terri - in April 1895. tories, languages and specific political situations where Dvořák’s productions took In the period after his return to Bohemia, the composer’s intention to “stay place. home”, compose works for Czech audiences and promote “the idea of national Firstly, let us speak about evaluation and acceptance of Dvořák’s pieces in music” seemed to be growing. It actually meant to focus on operas, which Dvořák Vienna, which was not a foreign city at that time: it was the capital of a multina - really did in early 1898 and he explicitly expressed his opinion in the last interview tional monarchy and the seat of the Habsburg ruler. Various nationalities living printed in Vienna newspapers Die Reichswehr on 1st march 1904 (two months be - in this city reflected the situation in the whole monarchy. In the late 19th century, fore he died): …during the last five years, I have written nothing but operas. I want to deal Vienna tended to become a German city — unlike emancipation efforts in coun - with operas more intensively if god wants me to do so not because of vanity or desire to be tries in the monarchy — in the field of “high” culture including music. Dvořák’s famous but I consider opera to be the best thing for the nation as well. A lot of people from relation to Vienna and the means how his production were accepted there from various social classes listen to this music very often; if I had composed a symphony, I might the late 1870s to his death were inconsistent. On the one hand, Dvořák was sup - have waited many years before it had been performed here… ported and appreciated (he received state scholarships for poor talented artists

( 46 ) ( 47 ) from 1875 to 1879, was supported by Johannes Brahms, critic eduard Hanslick of Dvořák until nowadays. Based on brand new Moravian Duets and slavonic and conductor Hans richter): he received state honours like the Knight of the Dances, series 1 , Louis ehlert criticism in nationalzeitung from 15th November 1878 emperor’s order of the Iron Crown 1889 or Litteris et Artibus 1898) and was dealt with the fact that Dvořák’s music was nothing profound ( Ergrübeltes ) or af - elected the long-life member of the Herrenhouse. Dvořák always held all these fected ( gemachtes ), which is more than welcome today; it is not so deadly serious tributes high and we can only speculate what would have happened, if he had (furchtbar ernst ) like the majority of contemporary [German] music; he claimed to 1918 and had seen the political campaign of “de-Austriation”. that “naturalness and beauty” ( natürlichkeit und Anmut ) spring from Dvořák’s music On the other hand, influences of specific political events, i.e. growing national and it radiates with “natural music intuition, freshness of music invention and mu - disputes and anti-Semite movement in the monarchy and the capital affected sical feeling” ( eine natürliche musikalische Intuition und eine naturfrische der Erfindung reception of his music. Let us remember efforts of no effect to perform Dvořák’s und der Empfindung ) which “is rare now” ([ist] heute eine seltenheit geworden ). — operas in Vienna in the early 1880s and troubles of conductors Hans richter We read similar characteristic in the texts of eduard Hanslick: “The apparently (1843 –1916) and Gustav mahler (1860 –1911). Dvořák was aware of these prob - innocent, yet powerful magic which is typical for composer’s talent is called lems, he did not want to give in to it but he was no fanatic. In his letter to Hans naivety. What a valuable dowry!” ( naivität heißt der scheinbar so harmlose, in Wahrheit richter from 20th October 1884, he gave advice and asks: …yesterday I read pro - so mächtige Zauber, welcher dem Talente dieses Komponisten innewohnt. Wie selten ist grammes of philharmonic orchestras in Viennese newspapers and I was excited to find my heutzutage diese Mitgift! ). piece there. I am happy that you remembered me, however, I have some objections about Latter literature about Dvořák (including the Czech literature) suggests, that “slavonic Rhapsody” because the audience in Vienna is a bit prejudiced about a piece with Dvořák himself agrees with characteristics, and writers often quote Dvořák that a slavic topic… Therefore I would like to ask you, my dear friend, to select another piece he is a simple Czech musician . However, we must still think about the context where of mine. I would suggest some newer things like a dramatic overture “hussite”(“hussite” the composer said this: it is not a public statement but a quote from private corre - can be left out and you can call it just “Dramatic overture”)… I would be very happy if you spondence — a reply to lumír choirmaster Bohumil Fidler in Příbram. Dvořák did thought about it and let me know how you decided… not know him personally at that time and he probably sent Dvořák a letter where even eduard Hanslick (1825-1904), who was born in Prague and had Czech he admired him and his art. Dvořák admits that [Fidler’s] humbleness is a bit over - ancestors, understood Dvořák’s intense expression of Czech identity and thought rated when a writer talks to him like he was a half-god he had never considered it was some freakiness or a special hobby. It could be seen in his mostly positive himself. Then he continues: …I am a simple Czech musician, who does not like this kind reviews: legends op. 59 are specific because of their exotic smell of Czech flowers… of exaggerated demeaness. Despite the fact I know this big musical world, I will remain Hanslick’s latter rejection of Dvořák’s symphonic poems The Water goblin, who I have been — a simple Czech musician… In other words, Dvořák wanted to get The noon Witch, The golden spinning Wheel and The Wild Dove op. 107–110 inspired closer to the addressee he later met — at this occasion, he did not formulate any by Karel Jaromír erben’s ballads describes another chapter in Dvořák’s accept - art motto for the general public but he expressed his human humbleness and ance in Vienna (and Germany). helpfulness. Germany, or Berlin, utilized Dvořák’s way to international fame in the late Since the 1890s, positively-meant characteristics — formulated under the 1870s. Berlin publisher Fritz Simrok took the recommendation of his “exclusive impression of occasional works from the late 1870s (see above), i.e. no cantatas, author” Johannes Brahms seriously and started to publish Dvořák’s pieces, too. symphonic poems or chamber music — began to be understood the other way The first positive reviews in newspapers made Dvořák famous in Germany and round in the context of after-Wagner modernism. They soon began to interpret abroad and his works — at least some of them — became popular very soon. what “Czech national music” is — due to reviews of Smetana’s The Bartered Bride Ambiguous acceptance of refusal of some later works, impossibility to perform, performed at the international music and theatre exhibition in Vienna in 1892. negative criticisms and other events had to do with contemporary political situa - It means that Dvořák and Czech music in general equalled simple “musicianship” tion and ideology of Great Germany. which does not lack beauty and sensualness but possesses “naivety” and “intu - The first critical reviews of Dvořák’s works in Berlin newspapers formulated ition” instead of demanding intellectual and philosophical reflection; in other ideas which later became constant and influenced understanding and evaluation words — provincial country “un-education” instead of urban sophistication. In the

( 48 ) ( 49 ) context of growing German nationalism and chauvinism in the late 19th century tional music” in his most famous Symphony in e-minor From the new World op. 95. and early 20th century, it could be a strong argument for a statement that Czechs Contemporary and posthumous American reception expressed in critical reviews (Slavs) were an inferior race proved by their “naive” and “primitive” art, especially and a number of performances of various instrumental, vocal or melodramatic music. adaptations are proof. Speaking about contemporary reception of Dvořák’s works in england (Great Britain), we need remember that continental europe, especially Central europe, Posthumousreception—nowadays—future was an exotic country for the majority of the english (Britons) in the mid 19th cen - (shortnotes) tury. They did not know the contemporary national situation and they were of no interest. This is why they could perceive Dvořák “the way they wanted”, i.e. The so-called “fight against Dvořák” foreshadowed in some Otakar Hostinský’s independently on the above-mentioned local Central european context. They essays and expressed by some of his students, especially Zdeněk Nejedlý, is learnt about his music at the turn of the 1870s and 1880s through “popular” a one-hundred-year affair. Therefore we need to understand them in their histori - works ( slavonic Dances etc.) — the same situation was in Germany. yet they soon cal context, i.e. on the background of German aesthetic discussions and disputes got excited about his long and serious spiritual works — the landmark was the first (see above). The controversial personality of Zdeněk Nejedlý needs not be performance of stabat Mater op. 58 in London in march 1883. Therefore they in - “demonized”. We should distinguish and reflect on periods differently: the period vited him for repeated concert productions and inspired him to compose his top until the First World War, 1920s (the interwar period) and the period after the cantatas, oratories and symphonies from the 1880s (see above). It seems that Second World War. We must bear in mind that aesthetic and critical discussions Dvořák was attractive for english (British) audience as an artist and a person — took place more intensively in the past than nowadays — let us remember some not a member of a small Central european national community without its own texts by F. X. Šalda, the contemporary of Nejedlý , who was definitely not the state as well as a representative of its culture. They appreciated how he managed only prejudiced and influential author. If we speak about music history and criti - to work his way up to international fame — or, in other words, “from butcher to cism, Theodor W. Adorno (1903-1969), German sociologist, philosopher and baton” (see above). cultural critic, resembles Nejedlý the most in his style of arguments and influence The audience in the United States of America perceived Dvořák as the em - on understanding history of music (20th century european music in this case). bodiment of the “American dream” about how the way to success is open to Both Otakar Hostinský (1847–1910) and Zdeněk Nejedlý (1878–1963) knew everyone regardless his/her nationality and social class. President and patron of about contemporary German aesthetical discussions or fights between advocates the National music Conservatory in New york Jeannette Thurber (1850 –1946) of music “advances”, i.e. followers of “New-German” school and richard Wagner knew european music very well and invited Dvořák because she wanted him and their virtual and real enemies. Both of them wanted Czech music to partici - (as a renowned composer, who managed to represent and promote his original pate in the “progressive” development embodied by Bedřich Smetana and to be “national style” in the world) to start something like a “national American com - perceived as serious and intellectually demanding by Czech and, mainly, German poser school” in America. Dvořák took this task seriously. During his short stay in audiences. They refused words like “simple”, “naive” or “uneducated” ascribed the USA, he was intensively thinking about it and he wrote down his thoughts in to Antonín Dvořák as the most internationally famous Czech composer. Whereas the article Real Value of negro Melodies printed in the new york herald in may 1893. young Zdeněk Nejedlý spoke about his objections of Dvořák during the com - He also spoke about his opinions in an interview published in the very same news - poser’s life in the criticism of the Rusalka opera published in Rozhledy magazine paper in December 1893 in connection with the premiere of his symphony From in may 1901 and in history of Czech Music in 1903, Otakar Hostinský expressed his the new World. His idea that future American national music should draw from opinion after Dvořák’s death in Antonín Dvořák in the Development of our Dramatic music of former black slaves and native Americans were very unconventional and Music from 1908 and Czech Music 1864-1904 from 1909. revolutional even for the liberal, intellectual and social environment in New york. The so-called “fight against Dvořák” started at the anniversary of Dvořák’s regardless the above-mentioned ideas, we can say that the composer real - 70th birthday in 1911 and then more intensively in the mid 1912 as a reaction of ized and fulfilled at least one part of his vision or expectations of “American na - German press “more of Dvořák” formulated after the performance of his works

( 50 ) ( 51 ) at three concerts in Pyrmon, Lower Saxony. The anti-Dvořák position was repre - sented by Otakar Hostinský’s followers from the Prague Czech University — Prof. PhDr. JarMiLagabrieLová ,csc. Since 1975, she Nejedlý, Josef Bartoš, Vladimír Helfert and Otakar Zich. The opponents were worked for the today’s Institute of Musicology of the Faculty of Arts, Charles Dvořák’s students and his fans from the Prague Conservatory, who were not able University in Prague as lecturer, Assistant Professor and Professor. Between to formulate their arguments so quickly, eloquently and fiercely. Fights stopped 1990–2002, she was Deputy Head, between 2002–2012 Head of this quite quickly at the beginning of the First World War in 1914. Institute. Since January 2003, she also has been Head of the Department of Speaking about contemporary or recent reception of Antonín Dvořák and his Music History of the Institute of Ethnology of the ASCR, and also Deputy Head of this Institute. works, I can refer to two questionnaires done by markéta Hallová and Jörn-Peter In the academic year 1993–1994 she was visiting lecturer at Copenhagen University; between Hiekel in 1991 and 2004. Almost all Czech composers evaluate Dvořák’s work 1997–2001, she was President of the Czech Musicological Society. In her research, she concentrates positively and they do not hide their admiration for him — even those we did not on the history of the 19th–20th century music and works of the leading Czech composers of that expect regarding their work (marek Kopelent, Peter Graham). Almost all of them period (Bedřich Smetana, Antonín Dvořák, Josef Bohuslav Foerster, Josef Suk, Bohuslav agree that they appreciate his “professionalism”, certitude in composing and bal - Martinů, and others). ance of forms. Klement Slavický and Jan Hanuš considered Dvořák’s Czech iden - Ç [email protected] tity as an important value in 1991. I ask the final question regarding the year of Czech Music 201 4: if the event takes place, how will we present and promote Dvořák and his work? Will we stay in an easy position and will we “sell” Dvořák as a “fresh” and “naive” typical Czech author of slavic Dances and some other hits or will we try to introduce him in a dif - ferent light even if it cost more money and effort?

note — bibliograPhic reFerences —— — Quotes from dvořák’s letters are taken from Milan Kuna et al: Antonín Dvořák. Correspondence and Documents , vols. 1–4, prague 1987–1995. other quotes are taken from the book by Klaus döge: Dvořák. leben. Werke. Dokumente , 2nd revised and extended edition, Zürich-Mainz 1997. i was inspired by Jarmil burghauser: Antonín Dvořák. Thematic Catalogue. Bibliography. An outline of his life and Works , 2nd edition prague 1996, and “classical” four-volume monograph by otakar Šourek The life and Work of Antonín Dvořák , especially Volume 3, 2nd edition prague 1957. the answers of contemporary Czech composers in the questionnaire from 1991 and 2004 are published in books: Klaus döge — peter Jost (ed.): Dvořák-studien , Mainz 1994, and Jarmila Gabrielová — Jan Kachlík (ed.): The Work of Antonín Dvořák (1841–1904). Aspects of Composition — Problems of Edition — Reception, prague 2007.

‘( 52 ) ( 53 ) creativity. The theatre is a living artistic organisation which understands tradition as impos - e Flight ing a task and duty to find constantly new interpretation and an endeavour to achieve the highest artistic quality.” 2 We can ask why the preamble appeared in the National of an Imprisoned Eagle Theatre’s statute after such a long time. The National Theatre (with all its disputes concerning the origins and future development) had been understood as a na -
Paradoxes of National Identity in the Context tional symbol so there was no need to deal more intensively with national identity before the accession to the eU. Only when we became “a part of european cul - of Performances of Leoš Janáček’s Operas tural space”, the founder learnt that there was something like specific national in the Czech Republic and Abroad from 1996 to 2011 identity and it should be protected, taken care of, and developed. Paradoxically, at the moment when it was incorporated in the statute, the National Theatre clashes with its fulfilment because the share of Czech operas in its repertoire has helena havlíková been reduced to one third and it is even less than a number of mozart perform - ances. I have not chosen clear personalities of “founders” of romanticism Bedřich NATIONAL IDeNTITy is easier to define negatively: “The one who does not jump Smetana who intentionally conformed his production to an ideal of a national is not Czech!” We can feel it positively when the Czech anthem is heard at the Czech opera or Antonín Dvořák who perceived this task intuitively among com - Olympic Games and various World Championships and we are then proud and posers who can help clarify the term “Czech national opera” for my essay moved that we are Czech. What are the magical bounds which knot the group about national identity. It is Leoš Janáček whose operas are deeply rooted in in such a way we consider ourselves a “nation”? They are a native language, land - Czech/moravian language and music but still their performances reached the scape, tradition and continuation in generations of predecessors who lived in long chronic clash between their vivid receptions in the world and reserved, this area. Childhood memories. First love. Smells, food, humour, weather. Shared embarrassed, cold and negative receptions in our country. People say “a prophet experience. Folk song melodies. Why is it that we recognize them after several is not welcome in his own country but the secret of Czech “embarrassment” of times? And why do we recognize music by Czech composers from the 1850s the moravian master and his popularity in the world is closely connected with to the early 1910s? the topic of national identity. We must also ask a question whether this paradox Let us say that there are historians and journalists who think there are no is not part of our national identity. “nations” because they are artificially made constructs of “representatives of Leoš Janáček was characteristic because of his pithy and impulsive animalistic the enlightenment and revivalists”. 1 The problem with those who deny national personality and inimitable music style linked with moravian folk songs and lan - ideas is that they do not feel or realize slight but important differences between guage. Using melodic invention deeply rooted in folklore and original application the terms state — nation — country — family, which we use to search for our of themes from folk language, Leoš Janáček’s result was atypically formed music (and national) identity. with natural impact in its laconicism and conciseness in operas and other vocal In the contemporary statute of the National Theatre, national identity is pieces as well as instrumental music. mentioned in a newly completed preamble valid since 2007 when Václav Jehlička Janáček insisted on authenticity of music which is visible in his adaptations was the minister: “The national Theatre is the Czech Republic’s representative stage. of folk songs. Apart from them, Janáček collected so-called speech melodies of It is one of the symbols of Czech national identity and a part of the European cultural arena. folk language; these were situational imitative moments in one’s speech. He also It is a bearer of national cultural heritage and at the same time an arena for free artistic recorded bird songs, noises and sounds which drew his attention. He considered

1 See Dušan Třeštík Češi. Jejich národ, stát, dějiny a pravdy v transformaci. Texty z let 1991 –1998 . 2AStatute of the National eatre [online]. [retrieved 2011-11-21] First edition. Appendix: Brno 1999. http://www.narodni-divadlo.cz/uploads/assets/statut-nd.pdf

( 54 ) ( 55 ) speech melodies to be psychological characteristics of a person: “A word behind the If not stated otherwise, the overviews of Czech performances from 1945 are curtain through which our soul looks and observes the others. A word in its melody is em - elaborated from the databases of the Arts and Theatre Institute, the National The - bossment of life bulging in both sides.” melodies then became an important part of his atre in Prague and the National Theatre in Brno. A list of foreign performances is unique opera style. He was among the first ones who composed music inspired by a summary and comparison of data from www.operabase.com, the most compre - natural stream and rhythm of speech. After a negative experience with librettists, hensive website, which has been collecting data about opera theatres, perform - Janáček wrote his own text to Jenůfa and all operas starting with Katya Kabanova . ances and artists from all over the world since 1996 (it only includes the National Thanks to his theatre instinct, he managed to form his operas into fast, compen - Theatre and State Opera in Prague, Janáček Opera in Brno and the National dious and dense music dramas. moravian-Silesian Theatre in Ostrava, incomplete data), from www.universaledi - For many important foreign artists, encounter with Janáček’s production was tion.com since 1996, operated by the Universal edition as the owner of copyright, perceived as a miracle which influenced them for the rest of their lives. Janáček’s publisher and lessor of scores and website www.theoperacritic.com, which has rootedness in national identity and opera tradition is not missing in their argu - been collecting reviews of opera performances since 2000. It is surprising that ments. Sir Charles mackerras: “ The main reason for Janáček’s popularity is theatricality Leoš Janáček Foundation in Brno does not have any database of Janáček’s opera of his operas and intensity he looks into the souls of human beings, especially women. Ex - performances. It is necessary to realize that a list of Czech theatre performances treme colourfulness of his music is connected with Janáček’s kinship with nature — it attracts should be complete, the foreign bill includes maximum information retrieved from viewers. And a system of repeating rhythmical phrases and melodies facilitates orientation the above-listed databases and the real number may be higher 4. in his music. Janáček actually devised minimalism before the Americans did. he is a big romantic — there is nothing more romantic than Katya or Jenůfa.” Jan Latham-Koenig: During a sixteen-year period (1996 –2011), Janáček’s operas were staged in almost “he showed how emotions, nationality and originality can be connected in a very original six hundred performances (sorted by a number of productions) : way — everything comes out from his soul.” Christopher Alden: „Janáček links to original reasons which created opera and germany 145 : Canada 10 : lithuania 2 brings it back to its roots.“ great Britain 76 : russia 6 : Hungary 2 France 58 : sweden 6 : Greece 2 Janáčekmaps(1945) 1996 –2011 3 usA 58 : portugal 5 : bulgaria 1 Czech Republic 39 : denmark 3 : China 1 Let us start from a hypothesis that Janáček’s operas (nine of them plus a scenic Austria 22 : finland 3 : Chile 1 performance of The Diary of one Who Disappeared ) are staged more frequently spain 21 : ireland 3 : south Africa 1 abroad than in the Czech republic, and let us go through austere statistical data switzerland 20 : israel 3 : Mexico 1 to confirm or refute our feeling that Janáček’s operas are neglected in the Czech italy 19 : luxembourg 3 : Monaco 1 republic. It is actually not a feeling — every theatre manager can confirm this the netherlands 15 : poland 3 : norway 1 because s/he always makes sure to balance expected (and real) low visit rate belgium 13 : slovakia 3 : new Zealand 1 of Janáček’s piece with some “well-established” performance by Verdi or some Australia 11 : Argentina 2 : other “reliable” composer. Czech artists participating in performances of Janáček’s Japan 10 : brazil 2 : total 573 operas confirm apparent clash between vivid reception of Janáček abroad and much more distanced reception in the Czech republic. 4 There are big differences in the above-listed databases of foreign performances and they are not comprehensive and complete. It was often difficult to decide whether to stage a pice as a new or renewed performance or a rerun (e.g. www.operabase.com lists more compact 3 Maps of Janáček’s opera performances from 1996 to 2011 by countries and years blocks of performances as individual items in the “performance” category; “new production” (and opera companies in the Czech Republic) by countries and works. Appendix No. 1 is not a new performance on a new place with another conductor and cast). The terms and Appendix No. 2. premiere, renewed production and rerun are understood differently, so we use Czech

( 56 ) ( 57 ) Germany is the leader in this period speaking about the number of performances If we compare the number of reruns according to www.operabase.com, Leoš (it is a country with the highest number of opera performances in the world) Janáček is the most frequently performed opera composer in the world (including followed by Great Britain; the Czech republic is on the fifth place. It is clear that the Czech republic). If we leave out the criterion of composers and a number of Janáček is popular mainly in “the West”; his operas are not frequently staged in reruns in the Czech republic (taking into consideration inaccuracies in this data - Slovakia, russia or other Slavic countries despite Janáček’s inclination towards base), the situation is completely different: Smetana is the leader with twice as russia and Slavic nations in general. many reruns as Janáček.

A number of Janáček productions by cities is even disappointing for Czech towns O coMPosers anD a nuMber oF returns 1996 –2011 (sorted by a city with three plus performances) : Total : in the CR Janáček 2991 : smetana 543 london 32 : nantes 6 : birmingham 3 smetana 1555 : dvořák 537 berlin 19 : barcelona 5 : brussels 3 dvořák 1175 : Janáček 255 paris 16 : Venice 5 : dallas 3 Martinů 306 : Martinů 91 Vienna 14 : Hannover 5 : dublin 3 new york 13 : Chicago 5 : Gent 3 The world importance of Leoš Janáček as a opera composer is visible in compari - brno 13 : Köln a .r. 5 : Copenhagen 3 son with opera composers from different countries. If we take the number of Amsterdam 12 : lyon 5 : liege 3 reruns according to www.operabase.com and do not take into consideration düsseldorf/duisburg 11 : Milano 5 : leipzig 3 a number of operas and size of countries, Janáček is not as popular as Puccini Prague 11 : stuttgart 5 : long beach 3 (the world’s most frequently performed opera composer), Bizet, richard Strauss, Cardiff 9 : Geneva 5 : luxembourg 3 Tchaikovsky or Benjamin Britten, but he outweighs massenet, ravel (twice), Weill, sydney 9 : ostrava 5 : Maastricht 3 musorgsky, Berg, Stravinsky or Prokofyev. He beats Giordano, Schostakovich, tokyo 8 : Aix-en-provence 4 : Munster 3 Debussy, Orff, Bartók and Schönberg. Janáček belongs to a group of composers Glyndebourne 7 : Antwerp 4 : osnabruck 3 with a high rate in performances “out of the country of origin” — like Bizet, Zürich 6 : darmstadt 4 : philadelphia 3 Schostakovich, Puccini, musorgsky, Britten or massenet with more than 85% frankfurt a .M. 6 : Houston 4 : salzburg 3 of reruns. outside their home countries. On the contrary, German and Austrian Glasgow 6 : Kassel 4 : strasburg/Mulhouse/Colmar 3 composers are taken care of in “their” countries and the share of foreign perform - Hamburg 6 : lisbon 4 : tel Aviv 3 ances is below 50% or 10% with leading representatives of national romanticism leeds 6 : saint petersburg 4 : toronto 3 schools in Poland, Hungary and Germany (Lortzing). Madrid 6 : rouen 4 : toulouse 3 We can summarize that there is no other analogical “small” country whose München/so 6 : san francisco 4 : Warsaw 3 composers (regardless the number of operas) managed to massively and con - : pilsen 3 stantly penetrate the world opera repertoire and we are just behind opera “super - power” Italy, Germany-/Austria, France and russia. We are on the same place like Great Britain, before the USA, and followed by other countries like Spain. 5 criteria for the list of Janáček’s opera performances. Another problem was listing cities and Composers with a higher number of operas are naturally “advantaged” in a number of new performances with opera companies which tour — English Touring Opera the above-mentioned overviews. When comparing operas and a number of their (London, Buxton, Wolverhampton, Bath, Oxford, Cardiff, Bristol, Cambridge, Lincoln etc.), Opera North, Dutch Opera Zuid (Den Bosch; Venlo; Heerlen; Tilburg, Breda; Maastricht; Eindhoven; Rotterdam; Utrecht) or Opéra national du Rhin, which performs in Strasbourg, 5 See the chart of statistics of composers and a number of performances according Mulhouse and Colmar. to www.operabase.com in 5 seasons 2005/06 –2009/10 in Appendix No. 4.

( 58 ) ( 59 ) reruns, we can see that only The Bartered Bride by Smetana (914 reruns abroad) processes and tough Stalinist repressions 1949 –58, the average sank to 3.8 and and The Water nymph by Dvořák (643 reruns) were successful abroad, whereas continued to decrease in 1959 –69 of “functional socialism” and liberalization Janáček is the leader with his four operas — Jenůfa, Katya Kabanova, The Cunning until the Prague Spring to 2.91. During normalization (1970 –89), the average little Vixen and The Makropulos Affair. 6 decreased to 2.45 and continued to fall to 2.41, the lowest post-war figure, after Production of Leoš Janáček’s operas has oscillated since the after-war period the Velvet revolution in 1990 –2011. (1945) when a network of opera theatres in the Czech republic, which works until nowadays without essential changes, was established. An overall degressive trend This drop is even more visible when comparing a number of Janáček’s opera is apparent here. The most frequent years of new productions were the 20th and reruns in the National Theatre in Prague because the productions were in 30th anniversaries of Janáček’s death. One hundred years from his birth (1954) the repertoire for a long time, therefore the National Theatre had 4 –5 pieces did not provoke any extraordinary rise in interest. yet the 150th anniversary form “in stock”. Speaking about “basic” operas, new interpretations followed after Janáček’s birth was an opportunity to stage Janáček’s complete opera works at the last performance. the International Music Festival Brno in 2004 performed by the Janáček Opera of the National Theatre in Brno ( Jenůfa, The Makropulos Affair, From the house of the Dead, O nuMber oF inscenations oF Janáček’s oPeras Katya Kabanova and The Cunning little Vixen ), the National Theatre in Prague in the national theater 1945 –2011 / totals and trend 50 (The Excursions of Mr. Brouček and Destiny in a concert version) and the Chamber Number of inscenations Trend 45 Opera of the music Faculty of the JAmU ( The Beginning of a Romance ). There was 40 no new production in 1979, 1982, 1991 and 2007. 35 If we trace production of Janáček’s operas in bigger units of post-war periods, 30 25 the most frequent ones were the three postwar years of 1945 –48 with an average 20 number of 4.75 performances per year. At the beginning of Communism, political 15 10 5 O nuMber oF inscenations oF Janáček’s oPeras in cr 1945 –2011 0 13 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 Czech inscenations Trend 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 0 0 0 0 0 12 0 4 4 4 5 5 5 5 5 6 6 6 6 6 7 7 7 7 7 8 8 8 8 8 9 9 9 9 9 0 0 0 0 0 1 5 7 9 1 3 5 7 9 1 3 5 7 9 1 3 5 7 9 1 3 5 7 9 1 3 5 7 9 1 3 5 7 9 1 11 In the following picture, you can see the frequency of reruns of the pieces in 10 9 the National Theatre in Prague since 1945: 8 7 24 Jenůfa Katya Destiny Little Vixen 6 22 Makropoulos Excursions House of the Dead Diary 5 20 4 18 3 16 2 14 1 12 0 10 1 9 7 5 3 1 9 7 5 3 1 9 7 5 3 1 9 7 5 3 1 9 7 5 3 1 9 7 5 3 1 9 7 5 8 1 0 0 0 0 0 9 9 9 9 9 8 8 8 8 8 7 7 7 7 7 6 6 6 6 6 5 5 5 5 5 4 4 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 6 4 6 See the chart of selected operas in Appendix No 5. The selection of opera is made according 2 to statistics about the most frequently played operas in the last five seasons 2005/6 –2009/10 0 1 9 7 5 3 1 9 7 5 3 1 9 7 5 3 1 9 7 5 3 1 9 7 5 3 1 9 7 5 3 1 9 7 according to www.operabase.com with the focus on operas of Janáček’s contemporaries, 5 1 0 0 0 0 0 9 9 9 9 9 8 8 8 8 8 7 7 7 7 7 6 6 6 6 6 5 5 5 5 5 4 4 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 basic operas of so-called national schools and 20th century operas. 1

( 60 ) ( 61 ) If we look at rerun frequency of Janáček’s operas in the National Theatre in O nuMber oF inscenations oF Janáček’s oPeras Prague since 1945, the leader is Jenůfa followed by The Cunning little Vixen and in the cZech rePublic anD abroaD 1996 –2011 Katya Kabanová . The National Theatre in Prague has not staged Janáček’s early 50 operas The Beginning of a Romance and Šárka yet. Šárka Beginning 40 nuMber oF inscenations oF Janáček’s oPeras Diary O House of the Dead 30 in the national theater 1945 –2011 / by title Excursions 450 Makropoulos 440 Jenůfa 20 400 Little Vixen 329 Little Vixen 350 Destiny 299 Katya 10 300 Katya Makropoulos 250 Jenůfa Excursions 0 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 200 1 9 9 9 9 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 9 9 9 9 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 109 House of the Dead 0 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 150 2 97 78 Diary 100 24 9 Destiny 18 50 17 0 16 15 If we return to staging Janáček’s opera by a number of productions during sixteen 14 years (1996 –2011), there is a clear rise in the anniversary years of 2004 and 2008 13 (and 2009) and a scissors-like trend: whereas the number of productions rises in 12 11 the world, it declines in the Czech republic. Whereas staging of Janáček’s pieces 10 is dramaturgically successful abroad, Czech restraint (of theatre managers and 9 audience) is getting deeper, especially after 1989 when opera theatres started to 8 7 act “capitalistically”. 6 5 O nuMber oF inscenations oF Janáček’s oPeras 1996 –2011 / by years 4 3 50 2 40 1 30 0 1 0 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 9 8 7 6 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 9 9 9 20 9 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 9 9 9 9 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 1 1 abroad 1 10 in Czech Rep. 0 Jenůfa Katya Destiny Little Vixen Makropoulos 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 Excursions House of the Dead Diary Beginning Šárka 9 9 9 9 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 9 9 9 9 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 50 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 45 abroad 40 According to a number of Janáček’s opera performances in 1996 –2011, the most trend abroad 35 frequent piece was The Cunning little Vixen in the Czech republic and Jenůfa 30 abroad. It is not a bad conclusion from the point of the search for national identity 25 26 27 34 18 32 30 40 34 49 32 26 34 40 45 29 38 20 — Laca, who mutilated his sweetheart, is a problematic character. envy/jealousy 15 in Czech Rep. are important characteristics and we are able to understand Laco, but a question 10 3 2 4 0 3 2 3 4 4 1 2 0 5 1 4 1 trend CR arises whether Jenůfa was able to forgive him. The Little Vixen full of life domi - 5 0 nates the Czech repertoire.

( 62 ) ( 63 ) O nuMber oF inscenations oF Janáček’s oPeras 1996 –2011 Janáčekasanexport“product”—andwhatelse? 160 150 Despite initial spurns, refutes and misunderstandings, Janáček managed to suc - 140 ceed in the whole world. Can we get the maximum of this fact from the point of 130 view of promotion of Czech national culture and our national identity nowadays, 120 abroad 110 when opera belongs to strongly globalized art “disciplines” using Czech (and Slo - in Czech Rep. 100 vak) artists — conductors, directors, stage designers or soloists, who (should) 90 have a comparative advantage in using Czech (i.e. the language used mostly in 80 70 Janáček’s performances?) Are Czech staging patters for Janáček’s interpretation or 60 have our “local” productions become marginal? Do we have anything to offer? 50 According to available data, Czech and Slovak artists participated in one third 40 30 (29%) of foreign performances of Janáček’s operas (they surely do not belong 150 136 106 64 35 16 12 870 20 to a group which demands high royalties). When Gabriela Beňačková started 10 9 11 72112312 to retreat from her career, the tenors took over surprisingly enough: Peter Straka, 0 Jenůfa Little Vixen Katya Makropoulos House of Diary Excursions Šárka Destiny Beginning Štefan margita in more than twenty versions, Aleš Briscein and miroslav Dvorský the Dead in about ten performances, Jan Vacík and Ludovit Ludha with eight productions; The conclusion from the above-mentioned facts is clear: Janáček’s operas are per - these singers perform on stages considered to be prestigious — e.g. the Bavarian formed all over the world including Australia, Japan, Canada — even Argentina, State Opera in munich, metropolitan Opera in New york, National Opera in Paris, mexico, New Zealand or South Africa. We can summarize that Janáček is a reli - Teatro real in madrid, German Opera Berlin and Berlin State Opera (Unter den able export item and precious Czech heritage in comparison with other Czech Linden), La Scala in milan, Opera in Zürich etc. opera composers as well as composers from bigger countries with a long opera eva randová and Ivan Kusnjer rank among soloists, who managed to play tradition. Thanks to Janáček’s operas, thousands of productions and millions of in several Janáček’s pieces and belong to a senior generation; eva Jenis, Dagmar viewers are introduced to Czech culture. Pecková, Helena Kaupová and eva Urbanová represent middle-aged singers and The absolute number of performances does not consider the size or number Hannah ester minutillo and martina Janková are the young ones. Then there are of citizens in the country. If we use a mathematical operation and compare the fifty soloist who have appeared in one up to three performances (or more in co - number or productions and inhabitants (in millions), the Czech republic is the production series) without drawing attention to themselves. Here goes another absolute leader, therefore we need to revise our hypothesis about more frequent paradox about Janáček: if the soloists, who established themselves in foreign the - staging of Janáček’s operas abroad: atres, are cast in Janáček’s characters in the Czech republic, their performance can be even despised by critics. Czech rep. 3.71 : belgium 1.19 : denmark 0.56 yet it is not a rule that there are only several soloists who have rights for Austria 2.68 : the netherlands 0.91 : Australia 0.51 Janáček’s characters or Janáček’s roles are ascribed to inferior singers. A wide switzerland 2.53 : france 0.88 : portugal 0.47 range of names and nationalities includes renowned artists like Anja Silja, Karita Germany 1.77 : sweden 0.65 : spain 0.46 mattila, Angela Denoke, Catherina malfitano or Jorma Silvasti we can call regularly Great britain 1.22 : finland 0.57 : italy 0.31 cast “specialists” in Janáček. Our singers are not very successful in world opera business concerning It is surely difficult to count so straightforwardly (the ratio does not take into con - Janáček, but there is an even worse situation with our directors. Only Jiří Nekvasil sideration a number of reruns and size of theatres), yet it does not sound so cruel as the opera manager of the National Theatre succeeded with staging five per - from the point of view of the values. formances in cities which do not belong to prestigious ones from the point of view

( 64 ) ( 65 ) of opera (due to coproduction of Jenůfa with operas in riga and Dublin). The rest It is a question for music theoreticians how this method expanded or limited (martin Otava, Václav Věžník, Josef Průdek) seemed only to be scraping the barrel his music expression — yet we cannot impugn that it was an attempt to reach The leading opera theatres and festivals invite directors David Pountney, who the core of national identity “in a musical way”. Here may also lie one part of an belonged to the most popular director of Janáček’s operas, Nikolaus Lehnhoff, answer to a question why Janáček is accepted more warmly abroad than in the robert Carsen or David Alden. Janáček’s operas are also basic material for “provo - Czech republic; Janáček’s music is “natural” and ranks among “non-opera” music cateurs” like Claixte Bieito or Spanish group La Fura. because it is a opera-like dialogue we conduct every day in our native language, Conductors are a different story. Jiří Bělohlávek and Jiří Kout managed to get yet “opera” is perceived as something festive. This may be one of the reasons of into the elite — taking into account the number of productions and importance of (apparently) smaller interest in Janáček’s operas in our country. theatres. They have conducted in the metropolitan Opera, Teatro real in madrid, We can ask the question whether Janáček’s bond with native language can be German Opera in Berlin, festival in Glyndebourne, Washington, San Francisco, transferred to other languages. max Brod contributed to international popularity Geneva, Helsinki, St. Gallen etc. young generation conductors (Tomáš Hanus of Janáček’s operas due to his translations of librettos into German. On the other and Tomáš Netopil) started to search for their places, too. hand, we may ask whether the price for this was not too high regarding artistic In the international context, Jiří Bělohlávek is the most desired conductor of and composer’s intentions. We are happy to say that the Czech language prevails Janáček (14 productions) followed by Sir Charles mackerras, whose opera career while staging Janáček’s works abroad. Let us add it is Czech on a high level and dedicated mostly to Janáček ended in the period we deal with. Jiří Kout staged even clearer than messy pronunciation of native speakers. What else should 11 productions followed by two German conductors with international career a small nation wish for? and eight productions — Nikolaus Lehnhoff and Lothar Koenings. Leading world Janáček’s preferred Czech authors (with two exceptions) for his operas: conductors in the specific period conduct Janáček’s operas — Pierre Boulez, Julius Zeyer — Šárka , Gabriela Preissová — The Beginning of a Romance, Jenůfa , Seiji Ozawa, Simon rattle, esa-Pekka Salonen, Ingo metzmacher or John eliot Fedora Bartošová — Destiny , Svatopluk Čech — The Excursions of Mr. Brouček , rudolf Gardiner. Těsnohlídek — The Cunning little Vixen and Karel Čapek — The Makropulos Affair . From the point of view of national identity, all titles (except Destiny ) draw from lit - Janáčekonwingsandinthecageofczechnationalidentity erary works which deal with the essence of Czech character in depth. They were mostly texts (except Destiny ) which succeeded as individual works. Let us remem - When trying to find out how Janáček’s operas are connected with the issue of ber that Janáček was the first person in the world to set “a comic book” to music national identity, we cannot ignore a method of making an opera drawing from (as it is common nowadays in film). One of the craziest works for opera libretto one of the basic recognizing elements of national identity: a language. The word is The Excursions of Mr. Brouček — it is a little miracle that this satiric work, where ‘jazyk’ (language) meant “nation” in early Old Czech. 7 We have already discussed knowledge of Czech history is necessary, is performed in the world. the situation when he elaborated a completely new method of “speech melodies” There are two titles where Janáček was inspired by russian authors because drawing from rhythm of speech, its declamation and intonation. he felt strong connections and similarities of Czech mentality with Slavic one and There is probably no other composer in our republic, who would penetrate russian in particular: Katya Kabanova is written according to The storm by Alexander specifications of a language and songs like Janáček. He transposed what he con - Nikolayevich Ostrovsky and From the house of the Dead is inspired by The house of sidered to be the basis of his native language to a structure of his music produc - the Dead by Fyodor mikhailovich Dostoevsky. Janáček studied russian, he travelled tion, therefore Janáček’s search for the essential — an essence of a native language to russian and he was an active member of the russian Circle in Brno until 1915. — is a unique, original and distinctive example of an attempt to understand and It is clear that he systematically tried to capture the essence of “what Czech express “national identity” in music. is” from various points of view and he wanted to incorporate it in his Slavic con - cept of “what Czech is”. The fact that he is the seventeenth most frequently per - 7 Dušan Třeštík Češi Jejich národ, stát, dějiny a pravdy v transformaci. Texty z let 1991 –1998 . formed opera author in the world is a great achievement for Czech opera. First edition. Appendix: Brno 1999.

( 66 ) ( 67 ) The most frequently performed Czech opera author in the Czech republic and allowed comparing various staging and interpretation attitudes. The ambition is Smetana followed by Dvořák, Janáček and martinů; this fact should not be per - was for Brno to become a european cultural metropolis similar to Salzburg ceived as some intentional discrimination of this composer. The cause does not (mozart) or Bayreuth (Wagner) in future. The director of the National Theatre in works themselves — their value is commonly accepted. The reason is not pro - Brno Daniel Dvořák wanted Brno to become a place of reference in Janáček’s motion either: opera theatres started to understand the meaning and importance interpretation. The former manager of the Brno opera, Tomáš Hanus added: of a communication mix as one of the basic marketing tools for a music theatre as “The festival and live Janáček tradition are an open door for Janáček to introduce our city well. It is difficult to judge whether using provocative methods of guerrilla market - abroad. I want Brno to fall for Janáček like other big cultural metropolises in the world.” ing was a reason why ambitious festival biennale Janáček Brno in 2008 managed to As you can see, the organizers did not lack ambitions, yet the result was the draw bigger attention after the poor visitor rate in the first year (in contrast with above-mentioned failure in visitor rate. even Brno was infected by refusal of the International Festival Brno Moraviam Autumn with the tradition since 1996 with Janáček, although the Czech audience does not have this opinion. Attractiveness a low visitor rate). It was a full house and you could see young people in the audi - of Janáček is less opulent, yet deep and real, beautiful. Conductors Oldřich Bohu- ence. An illegal event with police intervention called “Janáček is everything to Us” ňovský in Jenůfa (Opava) or Bohumil Gregor in The Makropulos Affair (the National on the square in Brno irritated conservative audiences; director of the festival and Theatre in Prague), who performed only The Cunning little Vixen (the National The - the National Theatre Daniel Dvořák put paper faces of marilyn monroe, Pamela atre in Prague) from 1996 to 2011, were able to express the animal-like ferocity in Anderson, Charlie Chaplin, The Beatles, Jesus, the Pope and Hitler on Janáček’s Janáček’s works. In our period, there have no equivalent followers except for Jiří head. There was also “Leoš’s test in music” with answers “Cool — you can survive Kout. The great Janáček soloists are Peter Straka (Laca, mazal), Štefan margita it — It threatens the life of me” — you could win free tickets. (Laca), Jan Vacík (Laca, Brouček), Jaroslav Březina (Brouček), Gianluca Zampieri (Laca, Albert Gregor), Christina Vasileva (Katya), Helena Kaupová (Jenůfa), ThepuzzleofstagingJanáček’soperasintheczechrepublic eva Dřízgová (Little Vixen) or eva Urbanová (Kostelnička, Kabanicha). Space for specific scenic interpretation of these laconic operas may seem small, yet we need Janáček’s operas cannot do with negligence and routine, which are fine for fancy to get rid of established procedures interpreted as untouchable. romantic scores and are so popular in our country. Sir Charles mackerras “suf - It is not necessary to reject authentic interpretation of a folk ballad as we fered” from this as a conductor of The excursions of mr. Brouček in the National know it from michael Tarant in Jenůfa Ostrava or efforts to relieve this opera of Theatre in 2003. Here goes an excerpt from a review: “ sir Charles Mackerras did not decorative folklorism through partial clearance of situations (Jiří Nekvasil in the negate his extent experience with leoš Janáček’s operas he has been promoting so inten - National Theatre). An example, that it is possible to stage Janáček as a visual sively and successfully for many years.he can feel Janáček’s toughness, gusts of music en - poem, was Destiny by robert Wilson in the National Theatre in Prague (he used ergy and colourfulness of lyrical dulcification. Instrumental conversions in mood became the same principles of his direction style when staging Katya Kabanova in 2010). music glue of the performance. Even the conductor like him, however, did not manage to Are Czech viewers (and opera journalists) less open-minded than those force the national Theatre orchestra to perform as accurately as under the guidance of Jiří abroad? Are Czech viewers exhausted, lazy, deaf to musical dramas which pene - Kout and balance acoustic ratios in order to prevent the soloists with less expressive voice trate to the bone and are so popular in Germany, Great Britain, America or Aus - from vanishing in lavish orchestral music. he also had to put up with the fact that under - tralia regardless “obligatory” national heritage? It is not possible to believe this, standability of the text, which is essential in Janáček, was impossible for Jitka svobodová although we can admit that viewers would be more conservative because they in her key three-role of Malinka, Etherea and Kunka.” 8 have less experience with opera modernism and directors’ experiments. Viewers The long-lasting puzzle of Janáček’s reception was exposed during the first are also less curious about “the original guy somewhere from exotic moravia” as year of the festival organized by the city of Brno as an honour to “its” music genius Janáček is probably perceived in countries exotic to us. Are Czech viewers (and since the 80th anniversary of his death. Having chosen the National Theatre in opera journalists) so hypercritical about Czech performers and intolerant about Brno as the main organizer, the festival was great presentation of Janáček’s works the foreign ones? Janáček performances by famous directors — most welcome abroad — are accepted in a more reserved way. The production of The Makropulos 8 Helena Havlíková Pokulhávající pan Brouček . Lidové noviny 22. 12. 2003. Affair staged by Charles mackerras and Christopher Alden in the english National

( 68 ) ( 69 ) Opera was nominated for the prestigious Laurence Olivier Award (which eventu - port item and yielding business. Sir Charles mackerras and mark Audus (with his ally went to Alden’s brother David for Jenůfa in the english National Opera). This “detective search” for the version of Jenůfa performed in Brno in 1904) wanted to performance staged in coproduction in the National Theatre in Prague in 2008 get to “ur-versions” which are frequently discussed and demanded. The National was received with many stipulations and it did not even get in the prestigious poll Theatre in Brno tried to draw attention to discovering original versions at the sec - of the Theatre Newspapers with participation of 120 critics (unlike La Finta Giar - ond Janáček Brno 2011 when they showed the original version of The Excursions of diniera directed by the Herrmanns). It got 3,5 –4,5 points in the Top Productions Mr. Brouček (without the second part — The excursion to the 15th Century) and published by the Theatre Newspapers. The most appreciated was Britten’s Death Šárka (with piano only) for the first time. in Venice directed by yoshi Oida and staged by Hilary Griffiths in the State Opera History repeats itself: during the twenty years after 1989, we totally lost our in Prague. Only one critic “remembered” Jenůfa (Brno 2004) directed by David chances to conquer the world with the “basic product” and ability to creatively de - Poutney in coproduction with the Vienna State Opera; nobody nominated The velop it. We are neither able to promote Janáček at home, nor export him abroad Excursions of Mr. Brouček staged by Sir Charles mackerras with Jan Vacík and Peter where the demand is higher than in our country. (Actually, websites about Janáček Straka (the National Theatre Prague 2003). are better in english and the website of the Leoš Janáček Foundation does not Another aspect when searching for reasons of Janáček opera’s reserved re - work and moreover, they are not user-friendly). We can laugh at the fact that ception in the Czech republic was summarized by Jiří Bělohlávek: “It is a sad result some foreign soloists cannot pronounce “ř” or tongue-twisters “přesně za čtrnáct of neglected care of aesthetic and spiritual education. When listeners are not used to accept - dnů/exactly in a fortnight”, sling mud at the staging team that they do not know ing the whole spectre of impulses offered by the present and the past without intentionally the facts and criticize everything from behind. yet this does not change the fact nurtured perception of values; their ability to perceive shrinks to several famous pieces.” that these are foreign conductors, directors, stage designers, light designers, This school-like argument does not clarify popularity of Janáček’s operas abroad choirmasters, soloists and dramaturges, who are able to stage Janáček’s operas and staging in countries like China, mexico, Chile or New Zealand. The account as breathtaking music dramas. can apply with great territorial limitations — we can apply it to viewers in Ger - The list of viewers’ favourite productions cannot be ordered by law. Our many, Austria, england and France, not much in Italy and definitely in the above- opera theatre network funded from public money must protect our cultural her - mentioned “exotic” countries. itage. There is no doubt that master Janáček reached the essence of our national Statistical data prove that after 1989, there was a decline in Janáček produc - identity in the way it interconnected him with the country forever. It is a paradox tions from the post-war average 4.75 performances per year to 2.41. In the mid- that its discovery/exploration awaits us in Janáček’s case. 90s, it looked like more frequent productions of Janáček’s operas are counterpro - In his essay 9 about Janáček, milan Kundera blames max Brod and his first ductive. repetition of old-fashioned productions with neglected performances monograph about Leoš Janáček of naivety “Prague musicology uses to show hatred discouraged those, who wanted to find their way to Janáček and frustrated those to a composer from the countryside. he wanted to prove that Janáček belongs to national who escaped to foreign recordings. The style of staging has started to change in Czech tradition and he is worth great smetana, an idol of Czech national ideology.” the past 16 years, yet foreign directors without unimpugnable credit were invited He blamed Brod of “being dazzled by Czech polemics that almost all world music inobtru - (David Pountney, robert Wilson; Christoph Alden, James Conway, Pamela sively vanished from his book.” According to Kundera, “Brod did not use his position of Howard) as well as foreign soloists (Jormi Silvasti, Anja Silja) and those who regu - a non-Czech to put Janáček into a big cosmopolitan context of European music — the only larly perform abroad (Peter Straka, Štefan margita, Jan Vacík). However, this did context where he can be defended and understood; he confined him in a national horizon, not become “medicine” for Janáček abstinence. Sir Charles mackerras was not separated him from modern music and confirmed his isolation… Janáček will always suffer very successful in the Czech republic. Attempts to get rid of traditional interpreta - from provincionalism he was condemned to by his fellows and confirmed by Brod (inge - tions and search for others (in comparison with German theatres) were not suc - niously and misunderstood).” even globetrotter Kundera succumbed to flagellant cessful either — they were mostly tame performances ( little Vixen by the Caban provincial smallness. energy of Janáček’s operas managed to overcome artificially brothers or Tomáš Šimerda’s Katya Kabanova ). built obstacles of self-doubt. Despite Kundera’s pessimistic prognoses, openness Czech publishers missed the chance to publish scores of Janáček’s operas of interpretation and successful reception of Janáček’s operas in the world is clear. during his life. It was Universal edition in Vienna that used Janáček as a great ex - Whereas we imprison him voluntarily in our neurotic discontentment with every -

( 70 ) ( 71 ) thing out of the average and saying dirty things about everything. According to Ladislav Holý 10 and sociologic researches about stereotypes of Czech national “…My Music Is Czech; character in 1990 and 1992, discontentment is typical for Czech people. The present development of staging and reception of Janáček’s operas is I Cannot Hide is Fact, Can I?“ yet another confirmation of a dilemma of our national identity: yes, we like to be th proud of successful productions of Janáček’s operas abroad (or criticize them
20 Century Political Tremors and Their narrow-mindedly), but we drown our creative development and enrichment Immediate Influence on Changes of Perception of cultural tradition in envious self-centred provincionalism. Nevertheless, only a little seems to be enough — we should follow our heart instead of rational con - of B. Martinů and His Work structions when searching for our identity. When staging Janáček’s operas, there is a great metaphor with an injured eagle, which is released from his cage in the opera From the House of the Dead. aleš březina We imprison Janáček and his operas in the cages of dilemmas of our national identity. The eagle flies high in the world.

Editorial note: Written for the project: Mapping of Cultural and Creative Industries (DF 11 P01VV031). ONe OF THe mAIN topics of the 20th century is emigration and the issue of iden - Published without appendixes. tity. The world had never been so irreconcilably polarized before and many com - posers were forced to leave the country where they had been born. It had a great influence on the development of individual composers and reception of their work. In my short contribution, I would like to partially explain this using an exam - ple of Bohuslav martinů. The relationship of B. martinů to his country underwent PhDr. heLenahavLíková studied musicology. She writes on several phases: opera for leading‘ newspaper (Lidové noviny/People’s Newspaper), journals (Harmonie/Harmony, Hudební rozhledy/Music Review) and periodicals 1890—1919 (or Czech Music Quarterly, Svět a divadlo/The World and Theatre) in the His first significant performance as a composer was connected with a concert in Czech Republic and abroad (Opera News). She contributes articles to opera honour of the 1st anniversary of the foundation of the independent Czechoslova - guide-books, prepares opera programs for radio and TV (weekly Opera Panorama for Czech kia — they played his cantata Czech Rhapsody which was written in a tense atmos - Radio 3 — Vltava), and writes CD sleeve-notes, theatre program essays and entries for opera phere and he later dissociated himself from it (he did not even list it in records of dictionaries (The New Grove Dictionary of Opera, among others). She is the member of the jury his works). martinů was then an avid fan of T. G. masaryk and a member of the for the respected Czech theatre award Thalia. She served as Artistic Consultant to the European Sokol movement in Polička. section of the Prague International Festival between 1991 and 1994. 1923—1931 Ç [email protected] Leaving for Paris in 1923, he concluded the previous period once and for all and martinů became a european composer who was interested in international issues, like most of his Parisian and Berlin colleagues. In his famous text about a premiere of Smetana’s The Bartered Bride in Paris, he openly criticizes “ prázdné 9 Milan Kundera Nechovejte se tu jako doma, příteli . First edition. Atlantis : Brno 2006, pp. 43 –45. vlastenčení” — a narrow-mindedness in the horizons of Czech music and cultural 10 Ladislav Holý Malý český člověk a skvělý český národ . First edition. Sociologické nakladatelství : public. Praha 2001, pp. 73 –75.

( 72 ) ( 73 ) 1931—1936 more intensive engagement in political events gradated in the late 1930s — the At the end of 1920s, the economic crisis had a bad impact on music composers as munich crisis. At first, he was not successful when trying to join Czechoslovak well. In martinů’s works, we can trace Czech topics which are frequent — the most forces in France (he was rejected due to his age and importance) — he decided famous works are to compose cantata “Field mass” with Jiří mucha’s text inspired by the Bible — Špalíček, The Miracles of Mary and Theatre Behind the gate ; all of them premiered and he also got involved in politics actively as a non-official minister of culture in Czechoslovakia. It was a very rational decision motivated by art and economy. of the Czechoslovak exile government. In his book The Compulsion to Compose , 1 martinů, who had been living in Paris for nine years at that time, decided to move James rybka neglects martinů’s activities in the Czechoslovak national committee towards “what is Czech” in his programme. In his autobiography from 1945 writ - and does not speak about the composer’s engagement before and during the war ten in an er-form, the composer emphasized that “he suddenly returns to Czech when martinů became one of the symbols of temporarily non-existing Czecho- demonstrations — folklore after half-Time periods […] he leaves a seemingly universal opin - slovakia. ion to get closer to folk Czech feelings […] and composes new, simple and almost national song without any orchestral embellishments, modern music complications; he uses simple 1941—1945 means to compose music linked directly with classic Czech production.” He was aware of this fact: I managed to find a draft of a letter from 1942 in the un - We should not understand these words literally — as I wrote elsewhere, the known part of martinů’s estate in the archive of Paul Sacher Foundation in Basel. text is not purely Czech — plays and fairy tales selected by the composer appear “My pieces are much more important for us than for others in this moment, especially when in many other nations’ heritage in a more or less altered versions and martinů I managed to gain a position where I can work for promotion of our art with great results. was definitely aware of this fact. According to Šafránek, martinů’s inspiration for He offers a counter-value: “When I get home, I will keep some manuscripts of orchestra Špalíček could be traced back to his visits to Belleville, the folk quarter of Paris, pieces and I will give them to the state — therefore I can at least return my support here. An - especially in rue du Temple where “ordinary audience reacted directly and loudly other solution could be that I would give my author’s fees of some of my operas to the state to what they saw on the stage.” Lucien Dubech’ Illustrated History, a three-volume and I would pay my debt.” […] Two pieces originated in American exile; they are com - book, was found in the composer’s estate; the first two volumes were published monly known as “war theatrology” with Double Concerto . They were orchestral in 1931, i.e. in the time when martinů started to work on Špalíček. martinů learnt work Lidice in 1943 which reacted to the destruction of the village in summer a lot of information about medieval folk theatre, its forms and main topics. The 1942 and Symphony No. 3 from 1944 which tells the story of the author’s excite - composer was inspired by Dubech’s Theatre History three years later when he ment about the invasion of Normandy. composed his opera The Miracles of Mary , a cycle of medieval mystery plays which martinů later spoke about as a sequel of the ballet Špalíček. In an article, pub - 1945—1948 lished in “National Theatre” magazine when Špalíček premiered, martinů says: Unfortunately, the end of the war was not very lucky for martinů because he could “My aim was to create a folk and scenic play, i.e. folk theatre.” We can add: universal folk not return to Czechoslovakia as he was planning and preparing for — he submit - theatre experimenting with significant Czech features. ted a proposal for transfer of publishing rights of his American pieces to the Not all Czech composers were happy about martinů’s affection for Czech mu - Czechoslovak State Publishing House (paying his imaginary debt for regular finan - sic — it was the time when martinů started to call Czechoslovakia “a Czech dumpling cial support provided by the Czechoslovak government). As we all know, he even - with French sauce”. As you can feel, his experience with european music avant- tually did not return because of his work engagements, a life-threatening injury in garde in the 1920s was very intensive and he developed this experience in future 1946 and the events of February 1948. periods in many other experiments. 1948—1959 1938—1940 The situation of Czech exile artists was much worse compared with German ones. If martinů’s inclination towards Czech topics in the early 1930s was motivated A vast part of those, who managed to return home in a three-year democratic in - pragmatically and by desire to experimentally widen his style of composition, his 1 Scarcrowpress 2011.

( 74 ) ( 75 ) termezzo from 1945 to 1948, left the country again in February 1948 after the Talich. 6 He also knew about the execution of Dr. Vladimír Clementis in 1952 who Communists took over and condemned themselves to oblivion. Only after 1989, helped him solve some problems with the Czechoslovak ministry of Foreign Affairs the Czech general public was able to learn about significant personalities of Czech in 1946. 7 moreover, he could not see how some Czech music personalities hated and world culture like Karel Husa or Karel Boleslav Jirák and face their work. his “cosmopolitan” concept of production using esthetical terms at first, yet it was martinů is the same case — it is possible to evaluate work of Bohuslav martinů, continually transformed into political nature. 8 martinů decided to live in exile after the author, who lived mostly abroad. The topic of his relation to the states where he had considered all the above-mentioned facts and observed the political situa - he lived (Czechoslovakia, France, the USA, Italy and Switzerland) was neglected tion in his country very carefully, 9 however, he refrained from any political action. and it now enriches perception of the classical 20th century composer with many He associated himself with neither the Communist regime in Czechoslovakia, nor new aspects. 2 was he interested in compatriotic organisations in the United States of America martinů’s reaction to the Communist putsch in February 1948 was very because he never wanted to be a member of any organisation (it is a case based warm, yet open. He would have loved to return to Prague as an acknowledged on the philosophy of refusal in his opinion). He wrote about it in one of his letters and successful composer 3 who could leave foreign cultural centres but he could home (to Polička): “Radio Free Europe gabbled about poet V. [nezval?] but I do not know not overcome growing fear from the political development in Czechoslovakia. what they spoke about. They keep blabbing all the time, I am not planning to participate in He wrote to Paul Sacher in his letter from early April 1948: “ Encore les évén - this.” 10 A growing number of attempts of Czech exile organisations to enthuse the ments ont bien changé nos plans, je ne pense pas à aller à Prague en ce moment, même world famous composer brought martinů to a more resolute decision: “… nobody que nous avions déjà les réservations pour le bateau. C’est aussi longtemps que je ne vous has ever managed to own me — and even the fellows will not succeed.” 11 ai pas écrit, à cause de toutes les nouvelles, j’ai encore remis la lettre pour plus tard, pour martinů had the same distanced opinion about American politics. In one of voir plus clair dans la situation, mais je suis au fond toujour au même point. ” 4 He added his letters, he listed one of the reasons for being so careful: “ speaking about the situ - that he would not return home because of his health condition (he was recovering ation, you may know something from newspapers. They are too touchy about states behind from the injury in 1946) and doubts about legitimacy of changes in his country: the Iron Curtain, as they say. Although the situation got better a little, it can get worse “… je ne sais pas si je me sentirais bien là-bas en ce moment, tout change tellement .” 5 overnight and they really like to control your political opinions. It all looks like taking a big New negative news from Czechoslovakia confirmed his opinion that he risk and I have to think about it carefully.” 12 should not return. He observed from the distance how the new regime removed An interesting thing is that the effort to dislodge B. martinů to the periphery his close friend and chief conductor of the Czech Philharmonic Orchestra Václav after the war had its version in the democratic countries where martinů was often played and well known before the war. I can list two out of four reviews published

2 Michael Henderson talks about this topic in his recent work The Case for Bohuslav Martinů , in Czech Music, e Journal of the Dvořák Society for Czech and Slovak Music , vol. 18, No. 2, Winter 1994, 6 Records of their relationships and help Martinů offered and provided to Talich at the turn pp.133 –145 of the 1940s and 1950s are to be found in their correspondence published by Milan Kuna 3 In the 1940s, Martinů was one of the most internationally acclaimed conductors. This had Bohuslav Martinů’s Letters to Václav Talich , in: Musicology VII, 1970, No.2, pp. 222 –247. a great influence on his position in Czechoslovakia and he was aware of that. In late April 7 Vladimír Clementis was the state secretary at the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of 1948, he mentioned it to Paul Sacher, the famous Swiss conductor and patron: “…pour Czechoslovakia. He was the Minister of Foreign Affairs from Jan Masaryk’s death in 1948 le moment, je suis là-bas toujours considerer come un famous czech composer et bien entendu, to 1950. on m’attend pour rentrer comme professeur à cette Académie de musique.” [“I am 8 Martinů was exposed to numerous attacks from musicologist and historian Zdeněk Nejedlý acknowledged as a famous Czech composer, they expect me to be the Professor at their and his supporters. Nejedlý was also involved in aggressive anti-Dvořák and anti-Janáček Academy.”] Bohuslav Martinů-Paul Sacher correspondence is now stored in Paul Sacher disputes and became the minister of culture in the Communist government. Foundation in Basel, Paul Sacher’s collection. (The quote was used as a courtesy of the 9 He also carefully mentions it in his letter to the family from 14th November 1956: owner). “I have information, too, much more than you do.” 4[“The events brought changes to my plans, I think I am not going to Prague now, although I have already booked 10 A letter to his family in Polička from 14th May 1955. (The quote was used as a courtesy of the owner) my ticket. I have not written for so long because of a lot of news, I was postponing it when I orientated better in the 11 A letter to his family in Polička from 1st April 1957. (The quote was used as a courtesy of the owner) situation but I am still where I was in the end.” ] It is a letter quoted in the previous note. 12 A letter to his family in Polička from 13th March 1956. 5 [“ I do not know if I felt good there, everything is changing.” ] It is a letter quoted in the previous note. (The quote was used as a courtesy of the owner)

( 76 ) ( 77 ) after the premiere of sinfonie concertante in Basel in 1950 — martinů is spoken conclusion about as a romanian composer (probably because of his surname which sounds Using the example of martinů, we can realize that national identity is nothing romanian) — it did not happen in any other pre-war premieres and it proves igno - defined but it is a process of a continuous development and adaptation of various rance of a new generation of critics brought up in the world in front of and behind impulses. The extent of its success also shifts limits of national identity. Another the Iron Curtain where all countries lost their individuality and belonged to either question is whether this issue is topical even for contemporary composers or eastern or Western blocks. whether we are in post-national time. In the late 1950s after the deaths of J. V. Stalin’s and his Czech colleague Kle - ment Gottwald, there was a slight political liberalisation. One of the consequence in the field of culture was a growing number of performances of exile composer Bohuslav martinů’s pieces inspired by folk texts, therefore it was a kind of a return to composition starting points in the 1930s when many of them were piece works of Czech interprets, e.g. four cantatas with Bureš’s texts, Brigand songs , Primrose Mgr. aLešbřeZina studied violin at the Pilsen Conservatory etc. yet it is necessary to say that his religious compositions were not played in and musicology a‘t universities in Prague, Basel and Berlin. Since 1994 Czechoslovakia and his works from the 1950s with non-Czech topics were almost he has been the Director of the Bohuslav Martinů Institute in Prague. unknown because they express his inclination to the european cultural heritage — He has published in Czech and foreign magazines and miscellanies a number let us name at least operas The greek Passion, The Marriage, Mirandolina, cantata of studies about 20th century music, primarily concerning the life and work Mount of Three lights and oratorio The Epic of gilgamesh . of B. Martinů. In 1998 he reconstructed the first version of Martinů’s opera The Greek Passion, Growing popularity behind “the Iron Curtain” caused problems for Bohuslav which was premiered at the 1999 Bregenzer Festspiele in Austria in a co-production with the Royal martinů in his second home — the USA during Senator mcCarthy’s time. martinů Opera House Covent Garden. As a composer he wrote several scores for Czech movies and theatres mentioned it in his letters home: “ A journalist [from the new york Times] sent me a let - as well as an opera Tomorrow There Will Be…, which has been performed at the National Theatre ter; he says that our government wants me to go home, claims I am the best composer alive in Prague since April 2008 and later filmed. Březina is member of various international and asks whether I want to return. I answered carefully because you never know when jour - musicological societies and artistic boards. www.martinu.cz nalists adapt what you say, so I wrote to him that the government has not invited me offi - Ç [email protected] cially (which is true) but I received an invitation from the Czech Philharmonic orchestra I was a member of and there is nothing strange about the fact they play my works because my music is Czech. I cannot hide this fact, can I?” 13 In 1957, martinů clearly expressed his opinion about specific problems which can arise because of close contacts with his former home: “ There will be a problem with our passports because we have been in Europe for too long and they do not like this in America.” 14 To stop all complications, martinů decided to make a radical step: in the letter to his family in Polička, he announced he would not send any other compositions to Czechoslovakia because “I do not want to support something I do not agree with.” 15

13 A letter to his family in Polička from 14th November 1956. (The quote was used as a courtesy of the owner) 14 A letter to his family in Polička from 21st August 1957. (The quote was used as a courtesy of the owner) 15 A letter to his family in Polička from 27th Marz 1957. (The quote was used as a courtesy of the owner)

( 78 ) ( 79 ) Czech Identity: czechcommercialmedia media are responsible for distribution, identification and feedback as well as Original or Production or Both? manipulation. A primary aim of media is to mediate, not create information. The majority of news is manipulated and mixed to tabloid bollocks, propaganda,
Descartes’s Famous Quote “ I Think, Therefore I Am ” modified and concealed truth to get great numbers in sales. Unfortunately, ma- nipulation is deeply rooted in Czech society and foreign stock holders are inter - Can Be Altered to “ I Communicate, Therefore I Am ” ested in financial profit, not values which are essential in society. They are not interested in the issue of morals, justice and rights or national identity. They in - vested their money to get rich and moved out of the country. jaroslav raušer media bring something new to life: the lifestyle of one person becomes a new value for someone else. This leads society to greater individualization. Things, that MUsIC Is A BAsIC communication channel — it brings and shares opportunities for emo - were taboo 20 years ago, are common nowadays. This is the reason why music tions. If it is supported by a good text, it is able to establish human interaction where other styles and trends are cloned so much — they have their own local sub-styles and art disciplines have their limitations. Music can evoke a strong physical effect, infinite subtle derivates. Almost all audiences are strongly diversified and are identified with one expressions and deep emotional experience. It depends only on the skills of composers and style (sub-style) only — and only temporarily. The development of a sub-style can interpreters. Everyone can remember and find out that s/he can easily match specific music vanish in two years. Listeners do not understand other styles, therefore they are and an experience in his/her life to preserve these experiences. Findings of recent research not interested. A music style disadvantages itself by its own dynamic creative de - showed that listening to favourite music creates dopamine, a hormone for pleasant feelings, velopment because it remains without local media effects — Czech media demand in the brain. It does not matter if it is classical or pop music, jazz or world music. It is com - guaranteed mass fulfilled by obtrusive commercial music, not development mon knowledge that music composers offer great business and job opportunities, however, trends. moreover, music often works as innocent padding and a stupid song only they do not get adequate financial compensation in the Czech Republic… emphasizes an advertisement which comes after. And the other way round — a great song would embarrass the very same advertisement. each commercial ra - Developmentlogicofczechpopularmusic dio lives from the money of advertisers. Writing, recording and producing a hol - low song is much cheaper, you do not have to make much effort and you spent Popular music was associated with the political dissent for a long time. The state shorter recording time than when you try to produce something original and in - kept demonstrating the determination to find and get its share in managing “its” teresting. you have to work more intensively with details and this costs money. favourite music group or song. music groups or songs favoured by the state were People, who want to sell media space and refuse a song above the average as po - used for populist national feeling through socialistic globalization of “local” folk tential competition. Dramaturges, who are helpless how to refuse something, usu - culture. From a certain point of view, we feel the period of normalization until ally say: “This is not shallow enough for our listeners and it is in Czech. And if Czech is oK, nowadays. Strong emotions jeopardized the others by naturalness; all non-official why is it not funny?” or: “It is a beautiful song, it is melancholic but our format does not al - and spontaneous music events were controlled and watched, all texts were cen - low it.” It is only a matter of time when marketing corporate psychopaths and artist sured and had to be authorized… managers come to a conclusion that it will be great when the best songs will be The world is different now because it is motivated by a combination of infor - included in radio jingles! mation and joy. After being unable to upgrade older means of communication, The whole original production and creative process (for ignorance of media) the world now deals with electronic technologies. Application of mechanisms took place out of sight. This is why musical national identity is hard to define with of power have remained the same in our country, censorship was substituted the young Czech generation. Due to this fact, identity in social networks is demon - by clientelism because Czech media are owned by mostly foreign investors. strated as technological revolt and social conspiracy. music and the Internet are

( 80 ) ( 81 ) considered to be an ideal medium for spreading its ideas and values. Hypocrisy tax manager will divide your royalties in a way you financially support stockhold - can be easily revealed… ers and Czech mainstream. In a day or two, you work can be downloaded via tor - rents and various pirate servers like “ulozto.cz” against your will. you can be satis - overburdenedaudiences fied with how skilful you are. you will not buy new music software or hardware which are essential for future high-quality development. you royalties will not It is not easy for Czech audiences to understand music, they need their communi - even pay for the energy your PC consumes. ties, friends, local trendsetters, they are not interested in discovering something new. We can trace a local identity maintained by clubs — those neglected clubs Musicidentity financed by selling beer from international companies. The social effect of gather - ing is stronger than an effort to discover original and interesting culture. People Who is interested in national identity today? It is difficult to speak about Czech do not understand music much; there is a huge gap in perception, acceptation identity in popular music when texts are mostly in english. However, the dynamiz - and understanding between a good musician and a listener without music educa - ing topic of Czech original music has priority. We can trace efforts to search for tion. This fact is brilliantly used by cheap commercial “fluff” in media. They artifi - authentic Czech identity in older folk music and the hip-hop community who is cially maintain the interest of the audience in obtrusive commerce. As Jaroslav sometimes very brutal in judgements about contemporary society in its radical Hutka once said: “silence does not penetrate noise…” lyrics. Only several Czech indie/rock/punk groups have their repertoire only in Czech. The audience adores them and has the very same opinions. overloadedmassmedia “Domestication” from the US (dixie, swing, jazz, blues, rock’n’roll, Britpop, rave or r&b) caused erosion of national identity and creates a growing effect of many journalists are flooded by sources of information, press releases, topics english-Czech folklore. However, I think that our music can be distinguished from and requests of friends, bosses etc. This is why they choose simple texts which other non-Slavic nations and it is an essential part in creating national identity. Is it are easy to read. Clientelism can be traced here as well. the responsibility of Americans or Britons? It is only up to us to accentuate origi - nal music which always belongs to our music or cultural heritage. overloadedpublicityprovidersandcustomersinmedia Being Czech, I do not understand why we let our authors to live rough and be overshadowed by our neighbours. The issue of Czech music identity will prob - People who order space in media for businesses, governmental and non-govern - ably remain unsolved as well as Czech music export. It is clear that Czech produc - mental organizations, advertisers and sponsors have many more requests for tion has its provincial limits and it is not as great and attractive as other songs in optimal time of broadcasting than they are able to fulfil. This is why advertising a global context. But it is primarily a matter of education, conditions, music struc - is so expensive and only those with international capital can afford it because tures, investments and motivation. It is surely great to be original and creative Czech and local commercial radios and music televisions ask for too much money. but creativity does not lie in negation of something else but it is about situations A simple song is a demanded good because of favourableness, not quality… in which a person learns about something in detail and then evaluates it. Creative activities are much more demanding than criticism. Unprofessional criticism and ambiguityofcreativefreedom no support have discouraged almost all creative people in our country I have had the possibility to meet. We do not need recording companies, expensive studios or “mastodon” music companies anymore. you can make a song at home which will be shared with conclusion 45 million people on the planet. If you are a young Czech author, you will proba - bly get nothing for it. Czech radios will not play it and it will be difficult to promote It is good to support media competition or regulate monopoly plundering. In fact, it — you will probably not get on TV (no matter if local or Czech TV). A collective it has always been about a competition of values, not property. The one who offers

( 82 ) ( 83 ) a deeper meaning of life, therefore more valuable life, is the winner. Culture the - ory can offer a lot even in the issues of national identity. yet a question remains: where should we make it public? Where should we publish unpleasant questions about a cure of our Czech popular and concert music? establishment of national Czech and regional “postmodern” identity and the concept of authenticity and aesthetics mean productivity. But it is nothing difficult. Communication among people on local, regional and state levels would be enough. A discussion must start among authors, composers, performers, theoreticians, promoters and teach - ers. If this discourse starts, public media will have to reflect it. suggestion

All Czech institutions should help when searching for contemporary Czech creative identity, reflect creative industries and compare them with foreign countries. Pub - lic institutions are responsible for greater creative isolation which means a zero contribution to the state budget from the export of contemporary Czech popular music. music is synergy, full incorporation of stanzas and refrains, dynamic and resonant spots which emphasize melodies and harmonies, arrangement, audio and frequency analyses, staging, instrumentation (after many hours of thorough preparation), searching, discovering, writing, composing… The basis is definitely high-quality education for all children and young people, a possibility of professional education and an offer of great teachers. I communicate, therefore I am.

JarosLavraušer , a musician, producer, promoter, tutor, publicist. 1990–‘2006 cofoundator and manager of the independent venue Palac Akropolis, 2000 –2005 pedagogue of Theatre Academy of Arts, manager of international projects, EuroConnections, Move Festival, Entermutimediale. Since 2009 owner of Move Association — orientated to international music development, since 2010 cofoundater and director of Institute for modern music Ç [email protected]

( 84 ) NATIONAL IDENTI TY/IES IN CZECH MUSIC Arts and Theatre Institute | Czech Music Council Prague 2012 editor Lenka Dohnalová trans lation eliška Hulcová cover graphic design David Cígler www. yearofczechmusic.cz www. czechmusic.org ww w czechmusic.org