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Durham E-Theses CORE Metadata, citation and similar papers at core.ac.uk Provided by Durham e-Theses Durham E-Theses Lead production on the northeast periphery: A study of the Bowes family estate, c.1550-1771 BROWN, JOHN,WILLIAM How to cite: BROWN, JOHN,WILLIAM (2010) Lead production on the northeast periphery: A study of the Bowes family estate, c.1550-1771 , Durham theses, Durham University. Available at Durham E-Theses Online: http://etheses.dur.ac.uk/558/ Use policy The full-text may be used and/or reproduced, and given to third parties in any format or medium, without prior permission or charge, for personal research or study, educational, or not-for-prot purposes provided that: • a full bibliographic reference is made to the original source • a link is made to the metadata record in Durham E-Theses • the full-text is not changed in any way The full-text must not be sold in any format or medium without the formal permission of the copyright holders. Please consult the full Durham E-Theses policy for further details. Academic Support Oce, Durham University, University Oce, Old Elvet, Durham DH1 3HP e-mail: [email protected] Tel: +44 0191 334 6107 http://etheses.dur.ac.uk 2 Lead production on the northeast periphery: a study of the Bowes family estate, c.1550-1771. John W. Brown Abstract This is a study of a family estate‟s relationship with a high value mineral product. It aims to fill a knowledge gap in the extractive industry‟s history in the Northeast by examining the lead production process on Bowes‟ lands. The behaviour of the landowner as mineral lord and the extent of any individual‟s role is the over-arching theme. It involves the study of the gentry as entrepreneur, and the key role of the estate steward. The economic relationship between the region and the nation is also illuminated through the Bowes family‟s activities in both the North-East and London. The main focus is on the Bowes estate between 1720 and 1760 as this was the period when George Bowes was actively involved in developing the lead mining industry on his estates in North-East England. The chapters that follow examine the Bowes family‟s relationship with lead between 1550 and 1771. Chapter 2 attempts to establish the roots of this relationship in the sixteenth century; Chapter 3 focuses on the swing to inactivity in the lead business during the first half of the seventeenth century, followed by less passive involvement from the late 1670s into the early eighteenth century. The period of George Bowes patriarchy then becomes the focus of the thesis: Chapter 4 discusses the organisation and management of lead production on the Bowes estate in the mid- eighteenth century; Chapter 5 the development of lead mining; Chapter 6 smelting and related activities; Chapter 7 the lead market and carriage; chapter 8 the role of George Bowes; and Chapter 9 the transitional period between 1760 and 1771 prior to the arrival of the London Lead Company. Lead production on the northeast periphery: A study of the Bowes family estate, c.1550-1771 John William Brown Doctoral Thesis Department of History University of Durham 2010 CONTENTS Abbreviations Glossary Weights and Measures List of tables List of maps page Chapter 1 Introduction 1 Chapter 2 Merchants and Mining: sixteenth century foundations 16 Chapter 3 Retrogression and Revival: 16111-1711 47 Chapter 4 Management, Mindset, and Monopsony 78 Chapter 5 The Mineral, the Mines, and the Men 131 Chapter 6 Mills, Metallurgy, and „Makings-Out‟ 180 Chapter 7 Markets, Movements, Merchants, and Money 1740-60 204 Chapter 8 George Bowes – Progressive Patriarch 235 Chapter 9 The Lady‟s Lead 281 Chapter 10 Conclusion 309 Appendix 1 326 Appendix 2 328 Appendix 3 330 Appendix 4 332 Bibliography 333 Abbreviations AgHR Agricultural History Review DCRO Durham County Record Office D/St Strathmore Papers catalogue reference at DCRO EcHR Economic History Review GLOSSARY Adit An inclined tunnel driven, sometimes to drain a mine, into a hill or valley side to access the lead vein Adventurers Shareholders in a mine Assay A test of ore for concentrate and silver Bail, Bole, Baal hill A smelting place consisting of stone on three sides which was fired using wood and lead ore Bing Eight hundredweight of lead ore Bingstead A storage area where lead ore was dumped before smelting Bingtale Contract with miners for payment by weight of washed ore Blackwork oxidised lead smelted in a bole, part left for the second firing, and part smelted in an oven Bouse Ore directly from the mine undressed Bucker Flat-headed hammer to break waste from ore on the knock stone Concentrate Lead ore dressed ready for smelting Crosscut Level between two veins driven through dead ground Cupola Old name for smelting furnace Deadwork Driving through ground where there is no ore Dress To remove waste materials from ore ready for smelting Fathomtale Contract with miners for payment by distance driven Flat Horizontal ore deposit Fother, fodder, fudder Weight by which smelted lead was sold. This measure varied Galena Lead sulphide (PbS), the most commonly found ore of lead Gangue Waste materials attached to lead ore Gavelock Iron crowbar used for stirring the contents of an ore hearth Gin Horse driven machinery for lifting out of mine Groove, grove Old term for a lead mine Hush Removing surface materials using a rush of water to reveal a lead vein Kibble Bucket for ore Knock stone Large flat round stone upon which ore was broken using bucker Lease Agreement of more than a year between the mineral lord and adventures or miners to work Level Driven from mine shafts to form galleries for working Liberty The area where the miner was permitted to find and mine for ore Meer Area or tract of land, measured in yards along the vein, where mining was permitted Mine shop Lodgings for lead miners Ore hearth Furnace where peat (or coal) was used as fuel, blown by water-powered bellows, for smelting lead Pig Cast lead piece in the form of an oblong with round ends Rake Vein of lead in a vertical fissure running across the land Slag Waste material produced in both bole and ore hearth smelting which could be re-worked to make slag lead Slag hearth Furnace with hotter temperature to re-work slag and a make slag lead, which was less pure than ore hearth lead Smelting mill or house Building containing ore and slag hearths, water-powered Sough Tunnel or adit for draining a mine Stamps Machine for reducing size of ore before smelting Stemples Short timbers across the lead vein as platforms for waste Stoping Working overhead vertically up he lead vein Stowe Wooden windlass positioned over s shaft for raising ore Tack Usually a one-year license to explore for lead Tontale Contract with miners for payment by weight of lead smelted Turnbole A variation on the bole, developed in Durham, whereby the furnace could be revolved to face the prevailing wind WEIGHTS & MEASURES There is a broad range of weights and measures in the British lead industry, the origins of which are probably regional. Those outlined below apply to the Bowes estate and the northeast in general during the period covered by this thesis, and should not be taken as standard for the rest of Britain.1 In the eighteenth century: 14 lbs = 1 stone 16 stones = 224 lbs = 2 hundredweights (cwt) 1 ton = 20 cwt = 160 stones = 2240 lbs Lead ore: 1 poke = 112 lbs = 8 stones 1 horse (load) = 2 pokes = 224 lbs = 2 cwt 4 horse (loads) = 8 pokes = 1 bing = 896 lbs = 64 stones = 8 cwt Metallic lead or pig lead: Fother or fodder or fudder was generally used as a measure when lead was sold, but there were variations according to the local market/port: Newcastle 2352 lbs = 21 cwt Stockton 2464 lbs = 22 cwt Lead was smelted into pieces or pigs: 16 pieces or pigs = 1 fother 1 Weights and measures used on the Bowes estate are confirmed in D/St/B2/162 LIST OF TABLES page Table 1 List of Leased Lead Mines 1657-1711 72 Table 2 List of Tacks and Leases for Lead Mines on Bowes Land 143 1727 – 1756 Table 3 Lead mines Operated by Bowes or in partnership listed by 145 earliest date & record type Table 4 List of Mines/Workings Indicating Chronology of Activity and 148 Category of Operator Table 5 The pattern of mining expenditure at Isabell-mea-Hill 1742-46 169 Table 6 Ore productivity for mining expenditure at Isabell-mea-Hill 171 1742-45 Table 7 Productivity -ore per man -for three mines 172 Table 8 Total lead Ore Production 1741-1759 by weight in bings, horses, 174 and pokes Table 9 Lead smelted and delivered to the staith at Newcastle upon Tyne 196 during the period1741-1760 Table 10 „Makings Out‟ – the yield from lead ore in 1741 198 Table 11 Prices of bought-in lead ore from leased Bowes mines and other 210 mines Table 12 Duty ore received by Bowes at various times 212 Table 13 The price of ore sold 214 Table 14 The local prices of pig lead per fother 1741-1760 216 Table 15 Pieces of pig lead smelted, sold, and cumulative „stock‟ at the 220 staith and elsewhere 1741-46 and 1757-60 Table 16 Sales of pig lead 1741-1746 and 1757-1760 in pieces and Newcastle 224 fothers Table 17 Lead mining expenditure on the Bowes estate, including partners, 242 during 1731-1758 page Table 18 Bowes‟ lead mining expenditure by mine for ore production, 243 including partners, 1731-1758 (excluding carriage and smelting) Table 19 Expenditure on smelting1741-46 and 1757-60 255 Table 20 Costs of carriage for lead ore and smelted lead 1741- 46,1751, 262 &1757-60 Table 21 The value of lead produced at Newcastle market prices 1741-60 272 Table 22 Estimated profits from lead 1741-46, 1752, and 1757-58 273 Table 23 Tacks and lease granted 1761 to 1771 286 Table 24 Lead ore output 1763/4 and 1765/6 292 Table 25 Expenditure on carriage and smelting in 1763/4 and 1765/6 293 Table 26 Prices of Pig Lead per Fother 1760 to 1800 295 Table 27 Pig Lead Output, Deliveries, and Stock measured in Pieces 297 - 1761 to 1768 LIST OF MAPS The Lead Mining Districts of England and Wales opposite page 18 The Pennine Mining Fields opposite page 22 Upper Teesdale opposite page 137 Copyright The copyright of this thesis rest with the author.
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