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Representations of Australian Aborigines in the Published Works of Colonial Women Writers

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Representations of Australian Aborigines in the Published Works of Colonial Women Writers IN THE EYE OF THE BEHOLDER: REPRESENTATIONS OF AUSTRALIAN ABORIGINES IN THE PUBLISHED WORKS OF COLONIAL WOMEN WRITERS Barbara Chambers Dawson A thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy of The Australian National University, December 2007 i ii Declaration This thesis contains no material which has been previously submitted or accepted for a degree or diploma in any university or other institution. To the best of my knowledge and belief, the thesis contains no material previously published or written by another person, except where due reference is made in the text of the thesis. Barbara Dawson December 2007 iii Notice to Indigenous Readers Some nineteenth and early twentieth-century words and phrases quoted in this thesis are considered offensive by today’s standards. In repeating these words I mean no disrespect nor wish to cause any offence to Aboriginal people. iv Abstract This thesis explores aspects of identity, gender and race in the narratives of six white women who wrote about their experiences with Australian Aborigines. Five of the works relate to nineteenth- century frontier encounters, described by middle-class, genteel women who had travelled to distant locations. The sixth (colonial-born) woman wrote about life in outback Queensland in both the late nineteenth century and early twentieth century. Her perceptions and opinions act as a foil to the five other texts, written by British-born authors. My analysis of these works takes into account current colonial racial attitudes and the nineteenth- century utilitarian urge to ‘educate’. It involves discussion of the influences during the nineteenth century of the Enlightenment idea of ‘man’s place in nature’, of evangelical Christianity and the role of underlying notions of race based on scientific theories. All these aspects inform the women’s works, directly or indirectly. While reflecting ideas about Aborigines expressed in male colonial narratives, these female writers deal with their relationship with Aborigines from a woman’s perspective. I have researched the women’s social and economic backgrounds in order to investigate biographical factors which lay behind their racial views and perceptions. The thesis explores the influences of publishers’ requirements and reader expectations on the way Aborigines were represented in published works. The writer’s need to entertain her audience, as well as to ‘educate’ them, often led her to incorporate the traits and language of popular literary trends. Two of these were English Victorian romantic fiction, and the ‘ripping yarn’ adventure narrative, popular from the late nineteenth century. The incorporation of these literary genres often resulted in conflicting messages, and a confused and ambivalent rendition of Aborigines. Within the dynamics of the male power structure at the frontier, these selected female narratives offer another perspective on interracial relations. The six texts refer to the fractious climate of colonisation. They are told by women mostly constrained within the expectations of ladylike decorum and often strongly influenced by the abiding literary contexts of the nineteenth century. What the writings show is that as women grew to know Indigenous people as individuals, representations of Indigenous humanity, agency and authority replace racial clichés and stereotypes, and literary imperatives. v What might have been is an abstraction Remaining a perpetual possibility Only in a world of speculation. T.S. Eliot, ‘Burnt Norton’, Four Quartets. vi Contents List of Maps viii List of Illustralions viii Acknowledgements xi Introduction 1 1. Sowing the Seeds for Nineteenth-century and Early Twentieth-century Women’s Writing 23 PART A: Adventurers 2. Influences: Early Perceptions of Aborigines: Eliza Fraser 63 3. Literary Excesses: Eliza Davies: Imagination and Fabrication 99 4. Queensland Frontier Adventure: Emily Cowl: Excitement and Humour 141 PART B: Settlers 5. An Early, Short-term Settler: Katherine Kirkland: Silences 193 6. Mary McConnel: Motivated by Paternalism and Evangelism 233 7. Australian-born Settler: Rose Scott Cowen: Bridging the Racial Divide? 283 Conclusion 323 Abbreviations 333 Appendix A 334 Appendix B 336 Bibliography 339 vii List of Maps Map 1: Location of regional maps xiv Map 2: Eliza Fraser 62 Map 3: Eliza Davies 98 Map 4: Emily Cowl 140 Map 5: Katherine Kirkland 192 Map 6: Mary McConnel 232 Map 7: Rose Scott Cowen 282 List of Illustrations Engraving of Eliza Fraser (John Curtis, The Shipwreck of the Stirling Castle, 1838). 62 The long trek south, Fraser Island (Barbara Dawson, July 2005). 72 The soggy, boggy ground on the banks of the Noosa River near Fig Tree Point where Eliza Fraser is thought to have been found (Barbara Dawson, July 2005). 74 Eliza Davies (Frontispiece, Story of an Earnest Life). 98 Eliza Davies in boat, Aborigines left foreground (?J.M. Skipper, 111 ‘Extreme point at the junction of the Murray with Lake Alexandrina. Victoria the Lake in the distance. Expedition going up the River, December 1839’, from a sketch by Governor Gawler). viii Thomas and Emily Cowl, ‘The Event of their Golden Wedding’ (Some of My Experiences). 142 Katherine Hamilton, later Kirkland (J.K. Wilson, reproduced in Hugh Anderson. The Flowers of the Field, 1969). 192 Katherine Kirkland, ‘In Her Later Years’ (Life in the Bush, c.1995). 196 Trawalla homestead (Barbara Dawson, August 2004). 202 Katherine’s dairy (Barbara Dawson, August 2004). 207 David and Mary McConnel (Memories of Days long gone by). 232 Bulimba homestead, now located in the Brisbane suburb, Bulimba (Barbara Dawson, June 2006). 239 Cressbrook homestead, Dungibara left foreground (Conrad Martens 1851, reproduced in Susanna De Vries, Strength of Spirit: Pioneering Women of Achievement from First Fleet to Federation, 1995). 248 Mary McConnel with her family at Cressbrook, 1885 (John Oxley Library). 250 Rose Scott Cowen (Frontispiece, Crossing Dry Creeks). 282 Farm buildings, Tambo station (Barbara Dawson, June 2006). 285 ‘My beloved West’ (Barbara Dawson, June 2006). 298 ix x Acknowledgements Many people have been with me on my long and winding road as I researched and wrote this thesis. My greatest debt is to my supervisor, Dr Tim Rowse, for his careful reading of my drafts and for applying his expert conceptual eye to the final submission. I thank him for his courtesy and accommodation in spite of his hectic round of academic and administrative commitments. I likewise thank my supervisory panellists, Professor Tom Griffiths and Emeritus Professor, F.B. (Barry) Smith: Tom for the thoughtful eye he cast over the development of the thesis and particularly for his encouragement during its early stages. His six-monthly ‘Morning Conversations’ brought together his many PhD candidates for discussion and camaraderie which supported and enriched our academic endeavours; and Barry for his eagle eye for precision and detail (which sent me off to clarify words, spellings or statements, and to generally qualify, decipher, disciminate and distinguish). I am grateful to Tim, Tom and Barry for sharing with me their immense historical knowledge which increased my historical understanding of my subject and deepened my historical analysis. I am grateful to the History Department of the Reasearch School of Social Studies at the Australian National University for the weekly departmental seminars, and for the various student and visiting scholars’ programs. I especially thank Professor Barry Higman who helped me grapple with early conjuncuntions of literature and history; Professor Ann McGrath, Director of the Australian Centre for Indigenous History, for her generous sharing of scholarship and for her friendly encouragement; and Dr Margaret Steven for her ideas and interest. Amongst the Visiting Fellows who assisted me in my journey were Professor Marika Ainley, Professor Emerita of Women’s Studies, University of Northern British Columbia, and Adjunct Professor of Environmental Studies at the University of Victoria, Canada, Dr Gordon Briscoe (ANU), Dr Julie Evans (University of Melbourne) and Professor Chris Lloyd (University of New England). The opportunity offered by the xi ANU to contribute to the 2003 ANU-Charles Darwin University History Colloquium engendered valuable discussion with other research scholars, as did the 2004 ANU-Yale University Narrating Frontier Families Symposium, organised by Ann McGrath. I also thank department administrators, Kay Nantes, whose thoughtfulness eased the burdens of a student’s life and, in the later stages, Karen Smith, for her expert technical assistance. To fellow PhD scholars, past and present, who contributed friendly discussion in corridors and seminar rooms over the years of my part-time candidature, thank you for your friendship and support, and especially Dr Kirsty Douglas, Dr Rani Kerin, Dr John Thompson, Dr Malcolm Wood; and Karen Fox, Ingereth Macfarlane (editor, Aboriginal History), Helen Pfeil, Tiffany Shellam and Jo Weinman. Rani and John helped me again in the ‘format’ stage, prior to submission. I am also grateful to Jenny Sheehan, Cartographic Services, ANU, for drawing my maps. My work colleagues at the Australian Dictionary of Biography (along the corridor) have continuously supported me and I especially thank General Editor, Dr Di Langmore, Darryl Bennet (Deputy General Editor) and Dr Gail Clements. What would researchers do without the accommodating, friendly and efficient staff of libraries and archives? I thank Andrew Sergeant, Mary Gosling and all the National Library
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