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Pax Genes in Embryogenesis and Oncogenesis View metadata, citation and similar papers at core.ac.uk brought to you by CORE provided by E-space: Manchester Metropolitan University's Research Repository Genes… J. Cell. Mol. Med. Vol 12, No 6A, 2008 pp. 2281-2294 Pax genes in embryogenesis and oncogenesis Qiuyu Wang a, Wen-Hui Fang a, b, Jerzy Krupinski c, Shant Kumar b, Mark Slevin a, Patricia Kumar a,* a School of Biology, Chemistry and Health Science, Manchester Metropolitan University, Manchester, United Kingdom b Department of Pathology Sciences, Manchester University and Christie Hospital, Manchester, United Kingdom c Servicio de Neurologia, Hospital Universitari de Bellvitge, Barcelona, Spain Received: March 4, 2008; Accepted: June 10, 2008 • Introduction - PAX3 in neurogenesis and neuroblastoma • PAX proteins and embryogenesis - PAX3 splicing and tumours • PAX genes and cancer • PAX2 in tumourigenesis • PAX3 gene in embryogenesis • PAX5 in tumourigenesis and cancer • PAX8 in tumourigenesis - PAX3 in myogenesis and RMS • PAX and the treatment of cancer - PAX3 in melanogenesis and melanoma • Summary Abstract The paired box genes are a family of nine developmental control genes, which in human beings (PAX) and mice (Pax) encode nuclear transcription factors. The temporal and spatial expressions of these highly conserved genes are tightly regulated during foetal develop- ment including organogenesis. PAX/Pax genes are switched off during the terminal differentiation of most structures. Specific mutations within a number of PAX/Pax genes lead to developmental abnormalities in both human beings and mice. Mutation in PAX3 causes Waardenburg syndrome, and craniofacial-deafness-hand syndrome. The Splotch phenotype in mouse exhibits defects in neural crest derivatives such as, pigment cells, sympathetic ganglia and cardiac neural crest-derived structures. The PAX family also plays key roles in several human malignancies. In particular, PAX3 is involved in rhabdomyosarcoma and tumours of neural crest origin, including melanoma and neuroblastoma. This review critically evaluates the roles of PAX/Pax in oncogenesis. It especially highlights recent advances in knowledge of how their genetic alterations directly interfere in the transcriptional networks that regulate cell differentiation, proliferation, migration and survival and may contribute to oncogenesis. Keywords: transcription factor • PAX • oncogenesis • embryogenesis Introduction The paired box (PAX/Pax) transcription factor family encoded by complete or truncated version of a homeodomain (HD) (Table 1). developmental control genes is characterized by a highly con- The temporal and spatial expressions of PAX genes are tightly reg- served paired-box DNA-binding domain (PD). This domain was ulated. Expression is primarily observed during embryonal devel- initially identified in the Drosophila pair-rule segmentation gene opment, being switched off during later phases of terminal differ- paired (prd). Since that time, PAX/Pax homologues have been dis- entiation of most structures. Specific mutations within a number covered in numerous species from nematodes and sea urchins to of the PAX/Pax genes lead to a range of developmental abnormal- human beings [1–3]. At present, nine paired box genes are known ities in both human beings and mouse. Several members of in mice (Pax1 to Pax9) and human beings (PAX1 to PAX9), divided the PAX family, especially subgroups II (PAX2, PAX5 and PAX8) into four subgroups based on two additional motifs, the presence and III (PAX3 and PAX7), play key roles in human malignancies, or absence of a conserved octapeptide (OP) distal to the PD and a such as renal tumours, lymphoma, medullary thyroid carcinoma, *Correspondence to: Professor Patricia KUMAR, United Kingdom. School of Biology, Chemistry and Health Science, Tel.: (ϩ44) 161 247 1218; Fax: (ϩ44) 161 247 6365 Manchester M1 5GD, E-mail: [email protected] doi:10.1111/j.1582-4934.2008.00427.x © 2008 The Authors Journal compilation © 2008 Foundation for Cellular and Molecular Medicine/Blackwell Publishing Ltd Table 1 Paired box transcription factor family Subgroup/ Chromosome Structure Expression during devel- Syndromes/diseases associated with PAX/ PAX gene location opment Pax genes Human Mouse PD OP HD TD Human syn- Mouse knock-out dromes/diseases phenotype 1 20p11 2 + + Ϫ + Sclerotome, thymus Klippel–Feil syndrome, Disturbed skeletogenesis Skeleton Jarcho–Levin syn- drome, salivary gland tumour I 9 14q12-13 12 + + Ϫ + Sclerotome, Skeleton, No thymus, no parathy- Oligodontia, esophageal cranio-facial, teeth, thymus roid glands, no teeth, carcinoma, Jarcho-Levin craniofacial and limb syndrome defects 2 10q25 19 + + Truncated + CNS, kidney, eye, ear, Renal–coloboma syn- Renal-coloboma syndrome mammary gland drome (papillorenal syndrome), renal cell carcinoma, Wilms’ tumour, breast cancer, Kaposi sarcoma 5 9p13 4 + + Truncated + CNS, B lymphoid, testis Large cell lymphoma, No B-cells, brain defects lymphocytic leukaemia, II medulloblastoma, neu- roblastoma, astrocy- toma 8 2q12-14 2 + + Truncated + CNS, kidney, thyroid Thyroid dysplasia, thy- Hypothyroidism, neural roid follicular carci- crest defect noma, Wilms’ tumour, cancer of placenta, ovarian serous tumours 3 2q35 1 + + Complete + CNS, NC, muscle Waardenburg syn- Sp, Spr, Spd, Sp1H, Sp2H, drome, RMS, Ewing’s Sp4H sarcoma III 7 1p36.2 4 + + Complete + CNS, NC, muscle RMS, Ewing’s sarcoma, Neural crest defect melanoma, squamous cell lung carcinoma 4 7q32 6 + Ϫ Complete + CNS, pancreas Silver–Russell syn- No pancreatic‚ ␤, ␦-cells drome, Wolcott–Rallison syndrome, diabetes, insulinoma IV 6 11p13 2 + Ϫ Complete + CNS, eye, nose Aniridia, cataract, Small eye, no pancreatic glioblastoma multi- ␣-cells, brain defects form, anaplastic glioblastoma, astrocytic glioma PD, paired-box DNA-binding domain; OP, octapeptide; HD, paired-type homeodomain (absent in subgroup I PAX proteins and truncated to a single helix in subgroup II PAX proteins); TD, proline–serine–threonine-rich transactivation domain; CNS, central nervous system; NC, neural crest and RMS, rhabdomyosarcoma. Refer to text for further structural and functional details. 2282 © 2008 The Authors Journal compilation © 2008 Foundation for Cellular and Molecular Medicine/Blackwell Publishing Ltd J. Cell. Mol. Med. Vol 12, No 6A, 2008 rhabdomyosarcoma (RMS) and melanoma [4–6]. In this review, transcriptional activity of PAX gene products promotes cellular the roles of PAX genes in cancer are critically evaluated, in partic- transformation. Alterations in PAX genes of subgroups II and III ular those of PAX3 and PAX2. are often associated with an unfavourable outcome, and knock- down of their expression in cancer cells leads to apoptosis. In contrast, PAX genes in subgroups I are either less often involved PAX proteins and embryogenesis in cancer or their expression is indicative of a more favourable outcome. So far, PAX1 (subgroup I) has been found by DNA PAX proteins can mediate DNA binding or transcriptional activa- microarray analysis to be up-regulated only in human salivary tion through distinct domains. The PD that makes sequence-spe- gland tumours [18]. The other member of subgroup I, PAX9, is cific contacts with DNA is composed of 128 amino acid residues. expressed in normal epithelium of the adult human oesophagus Several PAX proteins possess a second DNA-binding domain, the and is absent or significantly reduced in the majority of invasive paired-type HD, which consists of highly conserved 60 amino acid carcinomas and pre-cancerous epithelial dysplasias [19]. residues. The HD shows strong homology with similar domains in With regard to subgroup IV, overexpression of PAX4 has been other homeobox type gene products. Strong cooperative interac- linked to insulinoma and lymphoma. PAX4 is expressed in the tions occur between the PD and HD on DNA binding [7]. However, early pancreas but later expression is restricted to ␤-cells and is the PD can bind to the target DNA independently and with high absent in mature islets [20]. PAX4 is highly expressed in human affinity. In contrast, an independent binding of isolated HD cannot insulinomas [21]. In vitro studies show that PAX4 controls insuli- be detected. Most PAX proteins also contain an OP motif located noma cell survival through up-regulation of the anti-apoptotic between PD and HD. Deletion of the OP in some PAX/Pax indicates gene, BCL-XL [22]. Demethylation in the promoter region of it has a transcriptional inhibitory activity [8]. The transactivation PAX4, leading to its overexpression, has been observed in primary domain (TD) is a proline, threonine- and serine-rich region at the lymphoma [23]. The forced expression of PAX4 gene in HEK293 carboxy terminus of PAX that has been shown to mediate tran- and SHSY/610 cell lines enhances cell growth. Thus ectopically scriptional regulation [4, 9]. expressed PAX4 may have oncogenic roles in vivo by de-regulat- PAX proteins have been implicated as regulators of embryoge- ing cell proliferation and survival signals. PAX6 is expressed nesis and as crucial factors in maintaining the pluripotency of throughout the pancreatic bud during embryogenesis but not in stem cell populations and cell-lineage specification during devel- the mature pancreas. The expression of PAX6 occurs in primary opment [6, 10, 11]. Mutations of PAX are associated with major pancreatic adenocarcinomas and cell lines [24]. The overexpres- developmental defects. For instance, PAX2 and PAX8 double sion of Pax6 in transgenic mice promotes ductal and islet cell pro- mutants show
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