ECO-CHRONICLE 75

ECO-CHRONICLE, Vol.4., No. 2. June 2009, pp: 75 - 84 ISSN: 0973-4155

ASSESSMENT OF GROUNDWATER QUALITY IN BHUNERHERI BLOCK OF PATIALA DISTRICT, PUNJAB, INDIA, IN RELATION TO ITS SUITABILITY FOR IRRIGATION AND DRINKING PURPOSES.

Nibedita Ghosh, Parul Virk, Madhuri Rishi and Naresh Kochhar1

Department of Environment and Vocational Studies, 1Department of Geology, Panjab University, Chandigarh. Corresponding author: [email protected]

ABSTRACT

For the development and management of groundwater resources, the assessment of its quality and quantity is an essential pre-requisite. In this context, evaluation of the quantity and quality of water resources in Bhunerheri block of Patiala district was carried out. Groundwater in the study area was found to be fresh to marginally saline with EC ranges from 670 micromhos/cm to 2390 micromhos/cm. The Electrical Conductivity (EC) level was not uniformly high. The variations in EC levels seem to be related with the non flushing of entrapped water surrounded by clay beds, which + + 2- are predominant in the region. Presence of high concentration of Na , K and HCO3 shows that intense agricultural and urban development activities has placed a high demand on groundwater resources and these resources are at a greater risk of contamination. Based on major controlling factors in categorizing the groundwater for irrigation uses such as Electrical Conductivity, Residual Sodium Carbonate and Sodium Absorption Ratio, more than 40 % of the groundwater samples were found to be unfit for irrigation. The hydro-chemical analyses reveals that the present status of groundwater in Bhunerheri is not very good for irrigation and drinking purposes, except for few locations which may deteriorate in future, as evident from very high percentage of water samples falling beyond the desirable limits of WHO standards.

Key words: Groundwater, Assessment, Irrigation, Bhunerheri, SAR, etc.

INTRODUCTION Ludhiana, 2004), in Patiala only 31.62% Water is acknowledged as a major limiting of groundwater comes under good quality; factor in the socio-economic development remaining 10.56% is saline, 49.72% is of the World, in light of the rapidly expanding sodic and 8.10% of groundwater is of very population. For the development and poor quality. In this context, ground water management of groundwater resources, quality evaluation of rural drinking water assessment of its quality and quantity is an supply and for irrigation purposes in essential pre-requisite. According to the Bhunerheri block was carried out, where latest report released by Central Ground extensive agricultural practices are being Water Board (CGWB), (Times of India, 13th carried out. Water samples for chemical April, 2006), State of Punjab has developed analysis were obtained during Dec 2008 (usage compared to availability) its ground from 27 tubewells and handpumps as water upto 145 % and further there is a shown in fig.2. Samples were analyzed in scope for development. As per the report the laboratory for the major ions (Na+, K+, 2+ 2+ 2- - 2- 2- of natural resource information for Ca , Mg , SO4 , Cl , HCO3 , CO3 and NO3) sustainable agriculture in Punjab (PRC, using standard scientific methods. 76 ECO-CHRONICLE REVIEW OF LITERATURE geochemical assessment of the area can be undertaken. Not much published work is available on the study area, as most of the people have SITE DESCRIPTION done work on regional basis. Some hydrological investigations were carried out LOCATION by Sinha (2002) of Geological Survey of India in the northern parts of the Patiala The study area is located in the south- district. Central Ground water Board (2006) eastern part of Punjab. It is bordered by studied the feasibility of constructing Fatehgarh Sahib district in the North, Roop shallow tube wells in the Rajpura and Nagar district and Union Territory of Derabassi tehsil of the Patiala district and Chandigarh in the North-East and Sangrur under its exploratory programme, drilled district in the South-West . (Fig 2). The area four boreholes in the year 1971-72. In year lies between 29o 47’ and 30º 41’ N latitudes 1982-83, the drilling was again taken up for and 75º 55’ and 76º 56’ E longitudes with construction of further 13 piezometers in the an aereal spread of 3708 km2. It is sub area. Srivastava (1990) discussed the divided into 5 tehsils, 4 sub-tehsils, 9 blocks hydrology of Patiala district while Kumar and and 1110 villages. . Dorka (1989) carried out geological and geomorphologic mapping in parts of Patiala HYDROGEOLOGY District. Mahajan and Abrol (1982) reported various ground water quality patterns The whole of the area of Patiala District is adjoining the River Ghaggar. Uppal and covered by Indo – Gangetic alluvium which Gulati (1965) studied behaviour of consists of sand, clay, gravel, pebble and groundwater table in Sirhind canal area. kankar. The lithology of the area is not Bajwa et al. (2003) divided the state into uniform. A close study of the litho logical four hydro chemical zones based on the logs (PSTC 2005) reveals that except for quality rating. Therefore, it was considered the major units, the sub – surface geology pertinent to work in this area so that a is marked by heterogeneity (fig.3). The first systematic hydrological and hydro unit, i.e. sandy clay occurs upto an average

Fig.1-2. Map showing location of sampling points in the study area

(Source: Punjab Remote Sensing Centre, Ludhiana) ECO-CHRONICLE 77 depth of 4.18 m, the second at 9 m and of the block is marginal. In deeper aquifers, the third at 17.92 m. The marked variation though the salt contents are low, RSC is on in depth and thickness of the units higher side. The hydro-chemical analyses suggests the alluvium deposits of the area reveals that the present status of have been brought by the nallahs flowing groundwater in Bhunerheri block is not very from the Shivalik Hills. The groundwater good for irrigation and drinking purposes occurs under unconfined conditions at except for a few locations which may further shallow depth. The first aquifer zone deteriorate in future, as it is evident from occurring in the depth, ranging from 12 to the very high percentage of water samples 25 m is mostly not tapped for irrigation falling beyond the desirable limits of WHO due to low yield. standards and almost approaches the maximum permissible limit. 13 out of 27 MATERIALS AND METHODS samples were having values higher than permissible limit for one or more quality The water sampling has been carried out parameters, making them unsuitable for in Bhunerheri block following the standard drinking purposes. One sample each from procedures (APHA, 1995) during December Gagrola and Narangwal villages and six 2008. The ground water samples from hand from Rohar and two from Malikpur village pump and tube wells were collected after were found unsuitable. The hand pump continuous pumping for 10-15 minutes prior based schemes at Hiranagar village in to the sampling.The samples were Bhunerheri block had multiple problems; analyzed for 16 physico-chemical high concentration of sulphate (122.5mg/l) parameters namely odour, taste, colour, turbidity, pH( Electro-metric Fig. 3 Hydrogeology of the study area. method, pH meter), EC (Electro- metric method), TDS (By Factor), Total Alkalinity, Chloride (Argento metric method using potassium dichromate as indicator) Calcium, Magnesium, Total Hardness using Titrimetric method , Sulphate, Nitrate, Fluoride, using spectrophotometric and Na and K using Flame photometric method following standard procedures (APHA, 1995) .

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

In Bhunerhari block 27 water samples were collected from various tubewells and handpumps from different depths on a grid pattern at an approximate interval of 10 km (fig.3). Samples were collected from shallow as well as deeper tubewells. The analytical results of water samples indicate that the groundwater quality in both shallow and deeper aquifers is variable. However, the quality of shallow aquifers in the eastern part 78 ECO-CHRONICLE iron (3.3 mg/l) and high pH (8.7) rendered ranges between 600 mg/l (MehounaTW-3) the water unsuitable for drinking. Two and 2300mg/l at Maghar) which was not handpumps in Dudhansadan and well within the desirable limit. Guthmuda villages had unsuitable waters having high concentration of fluoride (1.98 Total Hardness (TH) mg/l) and high concentration of nitrate As per drinking water specifications (BIS (52.40 mg/l) respectively. From the physico- 1991), the desirable limit in the absence of chemical analysis for 27 samples collected alternative source of water is 500 mg. It from various tube wells and hand pumps ranged between 29.7 to 335.7 mg/l during December 2008, following (Budhanpur)). The samples, irrespective of conclusions were drawn. The summary source have hardness not within the statistics of chemical quality of groundwater permissible limit. in Bhunerheri block is presented in Table 1. Total Alkalinity (TA) Turbidity It varied between 137 and 428 mg/l in Turbidity concentrations ranged between 0 ground water samples. Out of 27 tube well and 3.7 NTU except for one water sample samples, 15 crossed the acceptable BIS from village Mehtabgarh where turbidity was limit. Highest value of total alkalinity (428 25.2 NTU which is more than the acceptable mg/l) was observed in Paror village, which limit (10 NTU). was within the permissible limit. Whereas pH lowest value of total alkalinity of 137 mg/l was observed in village Hassanpur In general waters having pH between 6.5 Kamboan. and 8.5 are categorized as suitable, whereas waters with pH 7.0 to 8.0 are highly Chloride (CI) suitable (ideal) for all purposes. The pH of The desirable and maximum permissible groundwater in this block was in the range limits for chloride in drinking water are 250 of 7.5 to 8.5, irrespective of depth, indicating and 1000 mg/l, respectively .The chloride that the ground water is neutral to slightly concentration ranged between 27.5 and alkaline. Two samples from Budhanpur 211.9 mg/l in tube well samples which is (8.69) and Harana (8.71) water works have quiet low. No water sample in this block had pH more than the desirable limits. values exceeding BIS permissible limit (250 Electrical Conductivity (EC) mg/l) for drinking water.

The groundwaters having EC less than Sulphate (SO4) 2000 micromhos/cm (µmhos/cm at 25o C) The desirable limit of sulphate is 200mg/l are generally considered as fresh water. The and maximum permissible limit is 400 mg/ electrical conductivity of ground water l. Water containing high concentration of samples ranged between 670 µmhos/cm SO coupled with high magnesium or (Harana) and 2390 µmhos/cm (Rohar 4 sodium lead to intestinal irritation and Jagir). In Chuhat EC is around 1440 µmhos/ laxative effect. In the study area, irrespective cm and RSC is 3.96 meq/l indicating that of water sources, sulphate concentrations water is marginally unfit up to certain in the water samples ranged from 52.85 to depths. 246.8 mg/l. Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) Nitrate (NO3) Total dissolved salt concentration is the Groundwater with excess nitrate consumed primary indicator of the total mineral content by human being particularly infants is likely in water and are related to problems such to be a health hazard and may cause as excessive hardness TDS concentration Methaemoglobinemia (Blue baby) disease. ECO-CHRONICLE 79 Table 1: Chemical quality of groundwater in Bhunerheri block, Patiala

Dep Milli gram per liter (mg/l) No. Location th pH CO3 HCO3 NO3 (m) TDS Ca Mg Na K Cl S04

1 Majal Kalan 45 8.11 965 4.0 7.2 192.5 1.400 96.28 0.78 205.96 0.93 68.85

2 Mehtabgarh 60 9.2 1490 23.8 14.4 190.0 3.400 116.9 0.78 256.71 0.40 65.65

3 Rohar jagir 40 8.29 680 31.7 33.7 162.5 4.200 55.02 0.00 392.31 0.07 113.7

4 Kulle Majra 45 8.36 1470 31.7 28.9 95.00 3.400 27.51 0.00 313.85 1.34 61.65

5 Chuhat 78 7.89 1040 67.5 33.7 75.00 22.00 34.39 0.00 372.70 1.12 75.30

6 Gagrola 30 8.4 685 43.6 33.7 144.8 7.000 68.77 0.00 343.27 5.75 92.10

7 Bhunerheri 107 7.99 715 35.7 31.3 110.0 6.200 34.39 0.00 372.70 0.49 62.45

8 Arhu kalan 20 8.27 625 55.6 36.1 107.5 7.200 82.53 0.00 343.27 0.44 68.05

9 Ratta kheri 37 8.29 1490 7.9 4.8 142.5 1.800 48.14 0.39 199.66 0.68 65.65

10 Thakurgarh 48 8.45 955 39.7 16.9 114.9 6.000 34.39 0.00 294.74 0.52 65.65

11 Mehouona 37 8.35 600 4.0 4.8 159.7 4.400 61.90 0.78 176.54 2.82 62.45

12 Julah kheri 38 7.6 755 7.9 7.2 137.5 1.600 68.77 1.18 147.12 0.44 52.85

13 Maghar 15 8.0 2300 23.8 12.0 174.9 2.400 75.65 0.00 255.00 0.63 114.5

14 Mashigan 18 7.65 2240 7.9 7.2 127.3 1.600 48.14 0.39 186.35 0.40 64.85

15 Dudhan sadan 20 8.15 1500 39.7 21.7 150.0 3.200 82.53 0.00 264.81 0.25 154.5

16 Harana 21 8.71 1200 19.8 9.6 207.3 2.400 110.0 0.00 225.58 0.48 148.1

17 Pur 72 7.7 1600 4.0 4.8 200.0 1.000 82.53 0.78 186.35 0.62 121.0

18 Nauranghwal 21 8.0 620 16.0 6.1 209.9 2.346 57.07 0.20 313.75 0.18 94.14

19 Hiranagar 44 8.7 680 19.8 9.8 214.9 2.600 94.65 0.00 274.62 0.37 122.5

20 Ghuram 45 7.8 825 4.0 4.9 162.5 1.400 89.40 0.78 166.73 0.21 76.90

21 Ghuthmuda 45 7.85 620 6.0 2.4 180.0 1.0 82.53 0.39 205.96 52.4 65.65

22 Dhundi majra 20 6.8 715 7.9 42.6 192.4 7.429 130.4 0.00 338.27 0.38 132.0

23 Budhanpur 30 8.69 860 39.7 45.0 255.8 7.429 211.9 0.00 328.26 0.19 246.8

24 Ram Nagar 95 7.99 715 35.7 31.3 110.0 6.200 34.39 0.00 372.70 0.49 62.45

25 Arnauli 32 7.6 755 7.9 7.2 137.5 1.600 68.77 1.18 147.12 0.44 52.85

26 Chirvi 60 9.2 1490 23.8 14.4 190.0 3.400 116.9 0.78 256.71 0.40 65.65

27 Hajipur 30 8.4 485 43.6 33.7 144.8 7.0 68.77 0.00 343.27 5.75 92.10

Minimum 15 6.8 600 4.0 2.4 75.00 1.0 34.39 0.00 147.12 0.19 52.85

Maximum 107 9.2 2300 67.5 45.0 255.8 22.00 211.9 1.18 392.31 52.4 246.8

Apart from the geological sources, nitrate schemes were within acceptable limit of 1.0 is contributed to groundwater by industries, mg/l. Water schemes at village Paror (3.19 sewage, animal wastes and agricultural mg/l), KhakaIam Kalan (1.8 mg/l) and activities The nitrate concentration in the Thakurgarh (1.74 mg/l) fall in the third water samples from this block varied category. During random sampling at Ratta between 0.19 and 52.40 (Guthmuda) mg/l. khera & Mehtab garh the field results were almost similar to that of laboratory analysis. Fluoride (F) The fluoride concentration beyond the permissible limit of 1.5 mg/l was found in The fluoride concentrations in all the many tube wells making water unsuitable groundwater samples, except eleven for drinking purpose. 80 ECO-CHRONICLE Calcium (Ca) Magnesium (Mg)

In drinking water the desirable limit of The magnesium concentration ranged calcium is 75 mg/l and permissible limit in between 2.4 and 45 mg/l in tube well the absence of alternative source of water samples. The highest value being at is 200 mg/l (BIS, 1991). Excessive intake of Budhanpur village. Ground water samples calcium may lead to the formation of kidney/ from 3 locations were in permissible limit gall bladder stones. The calcium (31-100 mg/l) and remaining 12 samples concentration in water samples ranged were within the desirable limit of 30 mg/l. 7 between 4.0 and 67.5 mg/l (Chuhat), samples, each from Dhundimajra, Gagrola, irrespective of the water resource and depth Chuhat, Arhukalan, Bhunarheri and Rohar of bore well. The calcium concentration at jagir had crossed the permissible limit, Chuhat (67.5) and Arhukalan village (55.6) making the water sample unsuitable. had exceeded the BIS limit. Fig.4-5. Variation in EC and RSC of groundwater in Bhunerheri block

Fig. 6-7. US Salinity diagram showing classification of groundwater ECO-CHRONICLE 81 Table2. Summary statistics of EC, RSC, SAR and TH of groundwater in Bhunerheri block Sample Location RSC (meq/l) SAR EC TH (mg/l) No. (µmhos/cm at 250C)

1 Majal Kalan 4.42 1.74 1460 39.6

2 Mehtabgarh 4.18 4.39 1090 118.9

3 Rohar jagir 4.36 4.21 2390 218.0

4 Kulle Majra 4.88 6.62 1800 198.2

5 Chuhat 1.96 6.48 1440 307.1 6 Gagrola 1.72 5.00 1440 247.7 7 Bhunerheri 3.88 5.53 1560 218.0

8 Arhu kalan 4.36 8.14 1649 287.3

9 Ratta kheri 4.78 8.69 1200 39.6

10 Thakurgarh 4.62 12.07 1390 168.4

11 Mehouona 2.36 4.03 1360 29.7

12 Julah kheri 2.46 3.96 1300 49.5

13 Maghar 2.12 3.91 1315 109.0

14 Mashigan 1.72 3.90 1715 49.5

15 Dudhan Sadan 2.42 4.05 1310 188.3

16 Harana 1.72 2.60 670 89.2

17 Pur 1.98 8.08 1110 29.7

18 Nauranghwal 2.36 8.44 1110 65.1

19 Hiragarh 4.36 8.44 1320 90.1

20 Ghuram 2.24 8.22 1110 40.0

21 Ghuthmuda 4 .16 8.44 1120 29.7

22 Dhundi majra 2.12 8.36 1310 285.2

23 Budhanpur 4.36 8.44 1420 335.3

24 Ram Nagar 1.78 3.91 1312 108.3

25 Arnauli 2.12 8.09 1118 28.6

26 Chirvi 3.92 6.48 1440 307.1 27 Hajipur 1.56 8.14 1649 287.3 Minimum 1.56 1.74 670 29.7

Maximum 4.88 12.07 2390 335.3 82 ECO-CHRONICLE Table 3. Distribution of water samples in different EC and RSC ranges in the study area

% of water samples with EC(µ/cm) % of water samples RSC Total Marginally <2000 2000-4000 >4000 Fit Unfit fit <2.5 59.26 0 0 59.26 2.5-5.0 0 40.74 0 40.74 >5.0 0 0 0 59.26 40.74 0 Total 59.26 40.74 100

SUITABILITY OF WATER FOR IRRIGATION RSC concentration in Bhunerheri block ranges from 1.56 to 4.88 meq/l (Kulle Majra). The various characteristics mentioned The distribution pattern of RSC shows that above along with several other factors are only 60 % of water sample falls under taken for classification of water for irrigation. suitable category, while remaining 30-40% Distribution of EC, RSC and SAR are are under marginal condition, which are considered as major factors for categorizing more prone to the problem of salinity hazard the groundwater for irrigation purposes. in the area in future due to more Various classifications are taken into anthropogenic activities. Other than salinity consideration for the categorization of water problem, excessive sodium content in water samples. The earliest classification was makes it unsuitable for soils containing suggested by U.S salinity laboratory staff exchangeable Ca2+ + Mg2+ ions. The Na+ (1954). Another classification was content in water is expressed in terms of suggested by Wilcox (1955) which was %Na+. Modified Wilcox’s diagram was based on electrical conductance and plotted to classify the groundwater suitability percent sodium. According to this, %Na can in terms of EC and %Na + (Fig.7). The be calculated using following equation: concentration of soluble salts in irrigation water can be classified in terms of electrical conductivity (EC) and expressed as mmhos/ cm at 25 oC. The pattern of electrical conductivity and residual sodium carbonate in the study area is shown in fig 4-5. Out of Where all ionic concentrations are 27 groundwater samples 11 samples expressed in mg/l. showed the distribution EC more than 2000 µ mhos/cm. The electrical conductivity of the The relative abundance of Na+ with respect study area varied from 670 µmhos/cm to - o to alkaline earths and the quantity of H CO3 2390 µmhos/cm at 25 C. This shows that 2- and CO3 , in excess of alkaline earths, has only 17.3% of the samples fall in excellent special significance in assessing the to good category and 47.8% of the samples suitability of water for irrigational purposes. fall in good to permissible category. Therefore, the RSC concept of Eaton (1950) is very important for categorizing the The Na+ hazard in the irrigated water is suitability of water for irrigational use .RSC expressed in terms of SAR (Richards, is calculated by using following equation: 1954). In the groundwater of the study area, the value of SAR varied from 1.74 to12.07 - 2- 2+ 2+ RSC = (H CO3 + CO3 )-( Ca +Mg ) (Thakurgarh). The SAR values were plotted against EC on a semi –logarithmic graph Where all ionic concentrations are (Fig 6). On this graph, groundwater expressed in meq/l. samples having EC values up to 5000 µS/ ECO-CHRONICLE 83 cm could be plotted. The Summary REFERENCES statistics of EC, RSC, SAR and T.H of groundwater in Bhunerheri block is American Public Health Association, 1995. presented in table 2. Standard methods for the examination of water and wastewater. Amer. Publ. Health CONCLUSION Assoc., Washington D.C., pp. 79 - 85.

The hydro-chemical analyses reveals that Bajwa, M.S., Singh, N.T., Randhawa, N.S., the present status of groundwater in and Brar, S.P.J., 2003. Under groundwater Bhunerheri block is marginally fit for quality map of the Punjab state Jour. Res. irrigation and drinking purposes, except for Pb. Agri. Univ., Vol.12, pp. 117-122. few locations which may further deteriorate in future, as it is evident from very high Bureau of Indian Standards, 1999. Indian standard specification for drinking water. pp percentage of water samples (39%) falling 1- 4. beyond the desirable limits of WHO standards. Water supply scheme from Central Ground Water Board, 2006. Report three tube wells and three hand pumps in on development of groundwater resources Gagrola village were found to be unsuitable in Punjab state, Times of India, 13th April, for drinking purposes. The tubewell based 2006, 3 P. schemes at Guthmuda had concentration of nitrate (52.4 mg/l), whereas that of Gill, G.S., Kochhar, N., Tuli, N and Dadwal, Harana and Mehtabgarh had high pH (i.e. V., 2005. Geochemical studies on 8.71 and 9.2 respectively). Presence of high groundwater from parts of Bathinda district concentration of Na+, TH and HCO3 shows (Punjab) and Sirsa district (Haryana). that intense agricultural and urban Journal of Applied Geochemistry. Vol. 7, pp. development has placed a high demand on 248-255. groundwater resources and these resources are at a greater risk of Kanwar, J.S. and Mehta. K.K., 2007. Toxicity contamination .Based on major controlling of fluorides in some well waters of Haryana factors in categorizing the groundwater for and Punjab. Ind. Jour. Agr. Soc.38, pp. 881- irrigation uses, such as EC, RSC and SAR; 886. around 41% of groundwater samples were found to be unfit or marginally fit for irrigation Kumar and Dorka, B. S., 1989. Reports on purposes. geological and geomorphological mapping of Patiala-Rajpura Sirhind area, Patiala ACKNOWLEDGMENTS district, Punjab, GSI, Unpublished report, 21 p. Authors would like to extend thanks to the Department of Environment Science and the Mahajan, G. and Abrol, D.P., 1982. Quality of Department of Geology, Panjab University, Groundwater adjoining the river Ghaggar. Bull. Ind. Geol. Assoc. Vol.15, No.1. pp. 51- Chandigarh for providing laboratory and 57. library facilities. The authors also extend their sincere thanks to the laboratory staff Punjab State Tube well Corporation, 2003. for their assistance in carrying out chemical Report on water quality and hydrogeological analysis of water samples. The Senior condition in Patiala District. Pp.1-59. Research Fellowship granted by the University Grants Commission, New Delhi, Punjab Remote Sensing Centre, Ludhiana, to Ms. Nibedita Ghosh for carrying out this 2004. Report on Natural Resource research problem, which is part of her Ph.D. Information for Sustainable Agriculture in programme, is duly acknowledged. Punjab. pp. 43-68. 84 ECO-CHRONICLE Richards, L.A. (Ed.), 1954. Diagnosis and Canal areas. Jour. Geophy Union, Vol.2, improvement of the saline and alkali soils. No.4, pp. 179-195. Hand book, U.S. Department of Agriculture, No. 60, 160 p. U.S. Salinity Laboratory Staff, 1954. Diagnosis and improvement of saline and Sinha, B.P.C., 2002. Report on the alkali soils. U.S. Department of Agriculture, systematic hydrological studies in northern Hand Book, 60 p. parts of Patiala district, Punjab, G.S.I.Unpublished report. 27p. Water Resource and Environment Directorate, 2004. Report on Assessment Srivastava, C.P., 1983. Unpublished report of Ground Water Potential and Quality of on Hydrology of Patiala District, Punjab Patiala District. pp. 1-68. State. Central Ground Water Board, North Western Region, Chandigarh, pp. 23-44. Wilcox, L.V., 1955. Classification and use of irrigation waters. U.S. Dept. Agri.Circ. No. Uppal, H.L. and Gulati, A.D., 1965. 969. 19p. Behaviour of groundwater table in Sirhind ECO-CHRONICLE 85

ECO-CHRONICLE, Vol.4., No. 2. June 2009, pp: 85 - 100 ISSN: 0973-4155

REMOTE SENSING AND GIS STUDIES FOR THE CONSERVATION AND MANAGEMENT OF COASTAL ENVIRONMENTS

Dharanirajan, K.,1 Ramanujam, N.,1 Ramesh, R.,2 Gurugnanam, B.,3 Yacob1 and Manoharan.1

1 Department of Coastal Disaster Management, Pondicherry University, Port Blair, Andaman. 2 Department of Environmental Remote Sensing and Cartography, Madurai Kamaraj University, Madurai, Tamil Nadu. 3 Department of Earth sceiences, Annamalai University, Chidambaram, Tamil Nadu.

Corresponding author: [email protected]

ABSTRACT

Coastal environment plays a vital role in natural resources conservation as they are characterized by productive habitats and rich biodiversity. South Andaman (part) has a coastline of 759.36 km with enriched biodiversity. It is endowed with a very wide range of coastal ecosystems like mangroves, coral reefs, sea grasses, etc., which are characterized by distinct biotic and abiotic properties and processes. The coastal areas are assuming greater importance in recent years, owing to increasing human population, urbanization and accelerated developmental activities. Remote sensing and GIS techniques are useful in providing practical and cost-efficient outputs for environmental protection, especially protection of coastal environments. The present study was carried out to delineate and characterize the coastal environmental changes of South Andaman using IRS-1B 1993 and IRS-1D LISS III 2003, as these environments and its resources are rapidly degrading. In this study, for the conservation of the coastal ecosystem, CRZ map has been prepared and CRZ rules were recommended. Keywords: coastal environment; Landuse; coral reef; mangroves; seagrass

The coastline in South Andaman too is INTRODUCTION dotted with sensitive and fragile ecosystems such as wetlands, estuaries, seagrass Coastal zones are among the world’s most beds, mudflats, sandy beaches, mangroves diverse and productive environments. The and coral reefs. place where the waters of the seas meet the land – the coasts – are indeed unique The wetlands of the study area are environments. They include complex responsible for maintaining productive ecosystems such as estuaries, coral reefs, fisheries not only by way of catch but as mangroves, sandy beaches, sea grasses etc. They are unique in a very real economic feeding, spawning and nursery grounds as sense too as they are sites for port and well. They also serve as a buffer for the harbour facilities and are locations for mainland against the ocean storms and industrial processes requiring water protect the coast from erosion. The two other cooling, such as power generation plants. important components of the coastal The coasts are also valued as they form environment in the study area are coral reefs sites for resorts and vacation destinations. and mangroves. Coral reefs are the most 86 ECO-CHRONICLE productive marine ecosystem with annual degradation, coastal landforms, shoreline gross production rates in the range of 2000- changes, tidal boundaries, brackish water 5000 gC / m2 (Mann, 1982). Pelagic fish areas, suspended sediment dynamics, production from coral reef can be quite high, coastal currents, oil pollution etc. These up to 20 tonnes / m2/ year (Marten and data sets are in spatial as well as in non- Poloviar, 1981), and heavily fished coralline spatial formats and thus are difficult to shelves are able to produce sustained integrate conventionally. The Geographic harvest of 4-6 tonnes / m2/year (Munro, Information System (GIS) is a powerful tool 1985). to assemble, analyze, store, utilize, manipulate and disseminate scientific and Mangrove serves as nurseries for oyster technical data. Remote sensing and GIS culture, shrimp culture, shell fish, fin fish, techniques thus can be used to monitor crabs and snails. Mangrove leaves are these coastal environments in real time used as a dry-season fodder, and their manner and suitable management wood is an excellent fuel and, in some measures can be derived. The present cases, used as timber. Mangroves are also study is an attempt in this direction. used for production of posts, poles, dye, tannin, salt, sodium carbonate, incense Study area wood, thatching material and alcohol. Seagrass is another important constituent The study area is (Southern part of South of wetland ecosystem in South Andaman. It Andaman) located between 11° 27’ 00" and is used for food supply, breeding and 11°45’00" N and 92°30’00" and 92° 46’ 47" nursery grounds for a wide range of E and it is shown in Figure 1. The island invertebrates (crustanceans , mollusces covers a total area of about 44 191.76 ha. and echinoderms), fishes, reptiles and and the total shore length of the island was mammals including certain endangered found to be 759.36 km, according to IRS species. The other important ecosystems 2003 satellite data. are sandy beaches. The sandy beaches are used for water extraction, recreation, Methodology agriculture, sand mining and extraction of minerals. The methodology adopted for the assessment of coastal environmental Coastal environments, especially wetlands, changes in the study area was based on mangroves, salt marshes and sea grasses analysis of spatial and aspatial data. are rapidly being cleared for urban and Coastal landuse map were prepared on recreational activities in the study area 1:25 000 scale based on SAC guidelines. (Dharanirajan, et. al., 2007). Measures and Digitized maps were edited, labeled and magnitude of coastal environmental projected. Polygonic projection was changes are difficult to obtain as past data adopted for area calculation. Detailed flow are scarce. The knowledge about the aerial chart is given in Figure 2. extent, condition and destructive activities of the coastal ecosystem are vital for the RESULTS AND DISCUSSION formulation of coastal management programmes. Socio-economic environment

Remote sensing data, because of its There has been a wide variation in repetitive, multi-spectral and synoptic population growth since 1951 when the total nature, has proved to be extremely useful in population of the study area was 7789 providing information on mangrove (Directorate of Economics & Statistics ECO-CHRONICLE 87 1999). Immigration has become a regular and many natural bays and coves. The feature since 1951. Small villages and important tourist places within the study area townships have started flourishing due to are Port Blair town, Cellular Jail, the harbour facilities and slow progress of Anthropological Museum, Fisheries shipping and other transport facilities. The Museum, Naval Marine Museum, Chatham total population of the study area is 93138 Saw Mill, Zoological Garden, Mount Harriet, in 1981 and 128138 in 1991 and is Sipighat Farm, Viper Island, Corbyn’s Cove increasing by 37% at a growth rate of 3.7% (Beach) and Ross Island. per annum. When compared with the total population, the town of Port Blair alone Physical environment occupied 53% in 1981 and (53 183) 42% in Meteorology 1991 showing 22% of growth from 1981. The decadal change in growth rate of the The climate of the study area is tropical with areas varied from (+) 20% to (+) 330%. distinct wet and dry seasons. The climate Among all the villages of the study area, the is broadly divided into two season viz. wet villages adjacent to the Port Blair town and monsoon (southwest monsoon during May- in the vicinity of harbour areas had September and northeast monsoon during tremendous growth due to the influence of October-November) and dry season urban activities. In general, the population (December-April). During the monsoon of the study area is concerned, the growth periods, heavy winds ranging from 40 to 120 rate of rural population is 2.2% and that of km per hour and incessant heavy rains are urban area is 3.7% per annum. observed. In the past years the islands had been lashed by storms and cyclones on a Occupational structure number of occasions, causing severe damages. The average annual rainfall is Owing to the physical barriers, the 3180 mm. The mean temperature readings availability of agricultural land is less. are ranging from 22.8°C to 29.8°C. These Hence, the number of people engaged in islands have a humid climate and the mean primary activities is also less. The workers humidity ranges between 70 and 80%. involved in the primary and secondary activities are 5.8% and 9.6% respectively. Air quality About 65.4% were non-workers and about 19.1 % of the people are engaged in other The atmospheric air is unpolluted and is activities. fresh. The concentrations of Respirable Particulate Matter (RPM) ranged from 14- Amenities 48 µg/m3. Suspended Particulate Matter 3 (SPM) levels ranged from 30-106 µg/m . SO2 Medical facilities are available in Port Blair and Oxides of nitrogen (NOx) were found to town and its adjacent villages. About 60% be well within the limit of 80 µg/m3. Carbon of the villages do not have the basic medical monoxide (CO), HC & Particulate Lead facilities, telephone connections, postal and levels in the study area were found to be telegraph as well as market facilities, for below the detectable limits of 114.5 µg/m3, which they depend on the nearby places. 65 µg/m3 and 0.05 µg/m3 respectively. All

All the villages in the study area are monitored RPM, SPM, SO2, NOx, CO, HC & provided with potable water facilities. Particulate Lead levels in the study area were found to be very well within their Places of historical and tourist importance respective 8/24-hly. mean National Ambient Air Quality (NAAQ) norms for residential, The study area has many tourist attractions rural and other areas (Andaman harbour due to its natural beauty, thick forest cover works 2002). 88 ECO-CHRONICLE Figure 1. Figure 2.

Satellite data (IRS-1B 1993 & Ground truth India IRS-1D 2003) SOI Toposheet

Andam Classification system Andaman & Nicobar an Islands Islands Image interpretation key

Image Analysis

Preliminary maps

Field Check

Correction / Modification

Final Maps

Base map detail from SOI toposheet

Accuracy estimation

Comparison of maps 1993 Area calculation &2003

Inventory

Change detection maps (Long term, seasonal)

Coastal ecosystem extent, condition and rate of change Figure 3. Fig. 1. Location map of the study area Fig. 2. Methodology for coastal wetland mapping Fig. 3. Coastal wetland map (1993) ECO-CHRONICLE 89 Noise levels pre-tertiary period comprising mainly of sandstone, shale, conglomerates and grits. In the study area, the ambient noise levels These sedimentary rocks are overlined by (Leq) were found to be within the MoEF the igneous rocks of both plutonic and norm of 55 dB(A), except at Phoenix Bay for volcanic origin. In addition, there are recent night times (Andaman harbour works 2002). and sub-recent deposits on the raised Phoenix Bay falls under the industrial area beaches that fringe the coast. category and the noise being generated due to dry dock activities persist through out the day. Relief

Water quality Physically, the entire A & N islands are made up of young Fold Mountains and are a Water samples have been analyzed during continuation of the Arakanyoma. All the hill November 2002 in the study area. The pH ranges in the study area are dome shaped, values in the surface and bottom coastal forest covered, running parallel to each water ranged between 7.84 - 8.14 and 7.92 other from north to south. The highest peak - 8.16. The surface water temperature was in the mountain ranges within the study area 28.4 - 28.9°C and bottom water was found is Mt. Harriet with an altitude of 365m. The to be 28.5 – 29.2°C. The salinity ranged township of Port Blair is at an altitude of 20- from 32.5ppt to 34.9 ppt. Dissolved Oxygen 150 m. In general, the altitude increases content was found to be 4.4 - 5.4 mg/l at from west to east and the plains within the surface and 4.2 - 5.2 mg/l at bottom. Turbidity study area are very scarce, except pockets ranged from 1.7 – 4.3 NTU in surface water along the valley floor. and 1.0 – 2.1 NTU in bottom water. Drainage While comparing the values with the IS: 7967 norms (tolerance limits for sea water In general, almost all the drainages are very quality after receiving discharges), all young and terminate their first or second stations were found to be well within the order stream with primary stream within a norms (except BOD & Total Coliforms). short distance. The primary streams runs Discharges of untreated domestic sewage for a shorter distance and disappears or mixing with harbour waters might be the empties into the sea. Therefore, the reason for high BOD concentration and the drainage patterns in the study area are not total Coliform counts in the water. Although well developed and thereby most of the the marine water quality is marginally streams are non-perennial and nallahs. A polluted, the quality is restored due to the noteworthy feature of the drainage system dilution in the marine environment of the study area is that perennial rivers are (Andaman harbour works 2002). The water almost absent and the water problem quality parameters, except coliforms are constitutes a permanent crisis in the study within the prescribed IS: 10 500 Norms for area. drinking waters. Disinfection by proper method needs to be done before the water Soils is supplied from these sources (Andaman harbour works 2002). The soil is either insitu on the hill ranges or deposited in the valleys or along the coast Land environment as transported soil. Along the coast, the soil is sandy and contains shingles and old Geology corals etc. It is extremely porous. In the valley and in the lower slopes of hills, the Most part of the study area is covered by soil is clayey loam. On the hills, it is stiff rocks of sedimentary origin belonging to the clay and dark red loam. 90 ECO-CHRONICLE Figure 4.

Figure 5.

Fig. 4. Coastal wetland map (2003)

Fig. 5. Satellite imagery showing sand over reef

Fig. 6. Dense mangroves near Sipighat

Figure 6. ECO-CHRONICLE 91 Landuse pattern flats. The mangrove forests are salt tolerant forest ecosystem of the tropical and sub The study area covers an area of 44 191.76 tropical inter-tidal regions of the world. ha. (441.9sq.km) which includes forest, These forests check the soil erosion along plantation, built-up land with agriculture, the coastal margins. They are excellent mangroves, sandy beach and reef area nesting and breeding grounds for fishes, (Table. 1). The settlement and regular crustaceans, molluscs, birds and reptiles. agricultural practice is being carried out They provide excellent fuel wood with termite using only 34.39% of land. This is because resistant timbers. The use of mangrove of the undulating topography that restricts wood as a source of fuel for households is the availability of land for agriculture. Hence, fairly widespread in these islands. most of the people are engaged in Rhizophora, Bruguiera, Ceriops, Heritiera, secondary and tertiary activities. Along the Lumnitzera, Cynometra, Avicennia, coast, well developed settlements were Sonneratia, etc., are preferred for fuel. The clearly identified at Port Blair, Chidiatapu, excellent sandy beaches with gently sloping Wandur and Bamboo flat. These nature are highly suitable for swimming, settlements spread over an area of 10 snorkeling and reef watching. 596.67 ha (24.22%) in 1993 and 13 922.72 ha (31.5%) in 2003. Over a period of 10 years Biological environment the urban area has increased due to the increasing human population. The notified Coastal environment agricultural plantation in 1993 was 1078.02 ha. and this has decreased to 873.88 ha. A total of 11 species of phytoplanktons and Nearly 204.14 ha. was converted into 6 species of zooplankton were present settlement with agricultural land. The (Andaman harbour works 2002). The affected areas are Beechdera, Mohwadera, crevices of rocks provide shelter to various Bindraban, Wimberly Ganj, Bamboo Flat and juveniles of perches, lobsters and crabs. Panighat. Sea urchin Echinometra sp. was observed. The sea cucumbers Holothuria atra and H. In general, about 49.36% of the study area scabra were present. Among gastropods, is under forest cover and has been a specimen of Lambis sp. was seen. Fishes categorized as one of the highest potential particularly juveniles were represented by productivity zones owing to favorable climate Lutjanus sp., Epinepheles sp. and Murina and terrain conditions. It appears as bright eels. The other fishes like Balistis sp., red to dark red in tone on the satellite Scarus sp., Siganus sp. and Tetrodon sp. imagery. This type of landcover was were found frequently in and around the observed in an area of 25 064.06 ha. submerged rocks. The study area is (57.28%) in 1993 and 21 814.44 ha. (49.36%) in 2003 in the study area. enriched with corals. Degraded forest area was observed near Imlidera Point, which is a Jarawa Tribe area. Coastal environmental changes were It covers an area of about 12.20 ha. It was studied in the study area over a period from identified by its light whitish grey colour and 1993 to 2003 using remote sensing irregular shape. The forests are unique in technology. Coastal landuse and land cover character and possess enormous maps were prepared using IRS-1B 1993 biological diversity. About 2,200 rare species and IRS-1D 2003 satellite data (Figures 3 of trees are found in these islands & 4). Major coastal landuse / landcover (Andaman Harbour Works, 2002). Along the changes appear to have occurred in coral seacoast are the mangrove forests. These reefs, sandy beaches, forest and mangrove tidal swamp forests are confined with areas areas over the time span starting from 1993 of low-lying banks of creeks, tidal and mud to 2003, as shown in Table 1. Coastal 92 ECO-CHRONICLE

Fig. 7.

Fig. 8.

Fig. 7. Conversion of mangrove area into settlement at Wandur Fig. 8. Degradation of mangroves at Janglighat Fig. 9. Coastal Regulation Zone map

Fig. 8. ECO-CHRONICLE 93 environmental change study reveals that are considered as the centre of high coral there is a substantial decrease in the diversity in world (Pillai 1983a & 1983b). following coastal environment (Table 1). Coral reefs in the study area are in the form of fringing reef and patch reef. It is identified Coral reefs environment by its turquoise blue tone with irregular, broad to narrow shape. They act as a barrier Corals are reef-building organisms, which against wave action along coastal areas live in the warmer part of the oceans. They thus preventing coastal erosion. These build calcareous rock like structures. These types of fringing reef are identified in many islands harbour the largest number of coral places in the study area. The total coral reef species recorded from India with close area in the study area, based on the present affinity towards the East Asian reefs, which study (2003) is about 3808.49 ha.

Table 1. Areal distribution of coastal environment and its changes

Category Area (ha) Area (ha) Changes % Change 1993 2003 1993-2003

Settlement with agricultural land 10 596.67 13 922.72 +3326.05 +31.39 Plantation 1078.02 873.88 -204.14 -18.94 Degraded plantation 139.12 401.44 +262.32 +188.56 Reserved forest 25 064.06 21 814.44 -3249.62 -12.97 Degraded forest - 12.20 +12.20 - Water body 71.62 64.99 -6.63 -9.26 Reef area 3160.73 2414.08 -746.65 -23.62 Coral reef Sand over reef 672.90 1381.00 +708.1 +105.23 Mud over reef - 13.41 +13.41 - Sand Sandy Beach 459.06 140.43 -318.63 -69.40 Mangroves Dense 3127.65 2743.05 -384.6 -12.29 Sparse 52.42 72.13 +19.71 +37.60 Degraded 50.70 168.49 +117.79 +232.33 Mudflat Mudflat 169.50 169.50 - - Reef flat Seagrass 17.12 12.52 -4.6 -26.87

Table 2. Various causes for seagrass degradation

Site Over Boat Forest Coastal exploitation anchoring felling tourism Chidiatapu (Forest Guest House) Moderate Moderate Moderate Moderate Chidiyatapu (Fishermen jetty) Low Low - - Marine National Park Moderate - - Moderate (Redskin Island) 94 ECO-CHRONICLE Reef areas are flat and irregular in shape, The deposition of mud over reef indicates greenish blue in colour and smooth in the degraded condition of the reefs. These texture (Figure 5). It is further classified into depositions have been mapped near Navy reef area, sand over reef and mud over reef. Bay, Flat Bay and around Chatham Island. Reef area is generally broader on the west The area was estimated to be 13.41ha and narrower on the eastern side. Broader (0.19%) during 2003 and it was not identified reef areas are more on western side of the in 1993. The muddy reef flat was first study area. It spread over an area of 3160.73 mapped using satellite data of 1990 ha. (41.73%) during 1993 and 2414.08ha. (Bahuguna and Nayak 1998). The (33.93%) during 2003. The notable depositions of the mud may be thick (more development of coral reefs in the west is than 1m) or thin (< 1m). probably related to the submarine topography, the folded mountain range of Coral reef degradation in the study area has Arakan Yoma (Ahmed 1972). been well noticed and many authors have reported that the degradation is severe due Sand over reefs with sand has been to the human stress (anthropogenic) and observed by its white colour, linear shape natural agents (Arthur 1996; Dorairaj 1994; and smooth texture. Towards the leeward- Wood 1988; Pillai 1973; Salam 1975; side sand gets deposited (Hopley 1982). Venkataramanujam et al. 1981; Silas et al. The deposition may be migratory in nature. 1985a; Anon 1987; Vineeta Hoon 1997). In It consists of coralline sand, broken the study area live coral cover is less when molluscan shell etc (Fairbridge 1968). compared to dead coral. At Grub Island, live Seasonally algae may cover the sanded reef coral cover is only 57.66%. This island is flat. Seagrasses are also known to colonize dominated by Porites (45.96%), followed by this zone. Sanded reef flat covers the Acropora (22.33%) and Echinopora landward portion of the reef flat and (22.29%). In Redskin Island, the live coral uniformly surrounds the entire Tarmugli reef cover was 32.6% and dominated by Porites (SAC 2003). Although live corals are present (56.44%). In Jolly Boys Island, live coral here, yet they could not be delineated using covers 37.36% out of 92.73% of the coral satellite data. They mostly comprise of cover. Here Porites (62.32%) are dominating Porites, Acropora and Pocillopora and cover when compared to other corals. At 5-10% area (SAC 2003). Chidiatapu, live coral cover was 51.31% (Kulkarni 2001). Through out the study area, SAC (2003) have studied Tarmugli Island, live coral cover was poor, which is mainly Jolly Boys Island and Boat Island in detail. because of anthropogenic and natural They have identified many sandy patches stresses. in these islands. Jolly Boys Island has a large sanded reef flat making up almost 70- Besides, coral reefs are also threatened 80% of the reef system and extending from from sedimentation, discharge of domestic sandy beach on the southern side for about sewage, operational oil pollution and oil 1 km up to the reef slope. There are very few spills, tourism, resource exploitation and live corals here (5-10%) mainly Porites and above all poaching by foreigners. Natural Turbinaria. Sparse seagrasses also inhabit threats are from cyclones, climate change this sand flat (SAC 2003). Sanded reef flat (bleaching) and predation by star fish have been identified in Boat Island also. (Acharya and Dutta 1999). In the study area, The total area occupied by sand over reef close interconnection and cumulative effect was 672.90 ha. (8.89%) and 1381.00 ha of the natural and anthropogenic stress (19.41%) during 1993 and 2003 factors have been the causes of degradation respectively. of the reef system. ECO-CHRONICLE 95 Mangrove environment Sparse Mangrove

The remote sensing imagery of the study Mangrove having 10-40% crown density are area shows that the mangrove wetland is termed as sparse (open forest). The large located in many places. The mangrove sparse mangroves are observed near forest can be identified by its bright red Bamboo Flat. It covers an area of 72.13ha. colour with smooth texture, irregular shape, (1.01%) during 2003, but it was estimated located in the intertidal area and associated to be 52.42ha. (0.69%) during 1993 and with low energy coasts or quiet depositional records an increase of about 19.71ha. This areas whereas other vegetation such as is mainly due to the construction of road casuarina plantation can be identified by network across the mangrove area which their dark red to red colour with coarse to allows the locals to easily get inside of the medium texture. The degraded area within mangrove area and degrade them for the mangrove is also visible by its dark to agricultural and settlement purposes. The light brownish red colour with rough to local people in this area are illegally moderate texture. converting the mangrove patches into agricultural land and settlement. Figure 7 Density-wise classification gives an idea shows the conversion of mangrove area about the condition of the mangrove habitat into settlement at Wandur. The less sparse and the mangroves are classified as dense, mangroves noticed in Chidiatapu, Wandur, sparse and degraded. Apart from and Sipighat, which cannot be mapped mangroves, marsh vegetation was also through satellite imagery, because of its classified in habitat maps. smaller areal extent.

Dense Mangrove Degraded Mangrove

Mangroves having >40% crown density are Degraded mangroves have <10% crown termed as dense (closed forest). In satellite density. These kinds of mangrove were imagery, it is identified by bright red colour noticed at Corbyn’s Cove, Sipighat, Bamboo with smooth texture. Predominant flat, Chidiatapu and Wandur. In these mangroves in the study area are places, mangrove areas have been Rhizophora and Bruguiera. completely converted into settlement and agricultural land. Total area occupied by In the study area, well developed dense degraded mangrove was 50.70ha. (0.67%) mangroves are observed in Wandur, and 168.49ha. (2.37%) during 1993 and Sipighat, Barabalu, Chidiatapu, Manjeri, 2003 respectively and it has increased by Colinpur, Tirur, Hobdaypur, Manglutan, about 117.79ha., because of rural Guptapara, Hashmatabad, Govindha- development. Figure 8 shows degradation puram (Figure 6) and Marine National of mangroves due to sewage and Park. The dense mangroves spread over development of settlement at Janglighat. an area of 3127.65 ha. (41.30%) during 1993 and 2743.05ha. (38.56%) during Sandy beaches environment 2003 showing a decrease of about 384.6ha. Human influence is very less in There are beautiful sandy beaches in the these areas because some of the dense study area. The presence of sand in mangrove area are away from the Andaman is noticed as a thin strip all along settlement. In Jarawa area, which is near the coastal region. The origin of sand in Tirur and Colinpur, mangroves are dense Andaman involves both the fluviomarine and undisturbed. and the weathering of the parent rock from 96 ECO-CHRONICLE the land. Sand takes many geologic years annelids, arthropods, molluscs and for its formation. The hilly, forested nature echinoderms and vertebrates such as of terrain tends to drop steeply to the fishes, reptiles and mammals. These are foreshore or creates deeply indented, highly productive habitats and the net sheltered inlets, bay and creeks which primary production of seagrass beds of provide ideal conditions for the growth of Minicoy Islands was 5.8/gC/m2/day (Qasim mangroves. With such a physical 1973). Many macro-algae also grow as environment, beaches only occur epiphytic populations or associated with occasionally where a valley comes down to seagrasses. the sea or the land is formed into a shallow crescent or a small bay. Linear and Seagrasses of South Andaman (part) were extensive beaches made up of sand which classified into Pristine, (least disturbed), is coralline in nature with traces of organic Disturbed (already degraded due to regular parts and broken shells are present on the exploitation by human activities near the entire Tarmugli Island (SAC 2000). inhabited islands) and highly disturbed (where degree of exploitation is Generally the sandy area appears bright comparatively high causing irreparable white to yellow with bluish tone in satellite change in habitat) by Rao (2000). The study imagery. In the study area, entire shore, area was classified by Rao (2000) as island and backshore region are occupied Disturbed. Fishes, turtles, crustaceans and by extensive sandy beaches which are in echinoderms inhabit these seagrass the form of small pocket beaches. The total meadows. More importantly, the seagrass area covered by this category was 459.06 meadows of the study area are crucial for ha. which is 6.40% of the total study area in the endangered dugong. These habitats are 1993. In 2003, it was 140.43 ha. which is under constant threat and hence, there is 1.97% of the total study area. A decrease in an urgent need to protect, conserve and the sandy area has been observed over a manage this coastal habitat. period of 10 years. The sandy beaches have decreased between 1993 and 2003 and it Seagrasses have been identified in two was estimated to be 318.63 ha. But the area places in the study area. Seagrasses of sand which was observed in toposheet are identified by their brownish orange (1979) was 1244.29ha. When compared to colour, irregular shape, smooth texture the 1979 data, it was reduced to about and associated with sandy patch. 1103.86ha. The decrease in sand is mainly Seagrasses were observed near due to sand mining and coastal erosion. Chidiatapu and Redskin Island. It covers an area of about 17.12ha during 1993 Seagrass environment and 12.52ha during 2003. It was observed at a depth of 5 to 10m in The study area is bestowed with varied sheltered zones with a substratum sheltered coastal habitats suitable for consisting of sand, mud and dead corals. seagrass growth. Seagrass meadows are important habitats for many marine animals Of the 14 species known from the Indian as they play vital role in the food cycle and coast (Ramamurthy et al 1992, Jagtap act as a breeding ground for many species. 1992), nine species (Enhalus acoroides, The major biotic elements of seagrass Cymodocea rotundata, Cymodocea meadows of the islands consist of serrulata, Halodule pinifolia, Halodule invertebrates such as corals, coelentrates, uninervis,, Halophilla ovalis, Halophila ECO-CHRONICLE 97 ovata, Syringodium isoetifolium and and not exploitation to achieve the economic Thalassia hemprichii) were recorded from and social benefits. If proper planning and the Andaman and Nicobar islands (Das effective environmental management 1996). practices were in place, the risk of losing important coastal ecosystem could be Seagrass degradation avoided. Recognizing sustainable limits and adhering to some simple The various causes for the degradation of environmental guidelines and standards seagrasses which were observed during could have avoided the worst of the damage, field visit are given in Table 2. to the extent that they had been available and that the institutional mechanisms to Conservation measures implement them had been in place.

In order to safeguard the coral reefs, a safe For protecting and conserving the coastal route should be earmarked for those who environment, the Ministry of Environment go for excursions. There should be a regular and Forests had issued the Coastal monitoring and control of the coral predator, Regulation Zone (CRZ) Notification on 19th crown of thorn starfish, in all areas in order February, 1991. This notification regulates to protect and conserve the reef. The all developmental activities in the CRZ area. tourism zone should develop a green belt The Coastal Regulation Zone (CRZ) is the through afforestation and mangrove area encompassing the inter-tidal zone that plantation along coatal areas. Andaman is the land between the Low Tide Line and islands have got potential for Ecotourism the High Tide Line, and the coastal land while implementation the ecotourism lying within 500 metres from High Tide Line. projects in forest areas (Wood, 1991). As The different CRZ classes like CRZ - I, CRZ water is scarce, all resorts should be - II, CRZ - IV were demarcated from High designed to have large roof catchments by Tide Line upto the 500m buffer zone which which rainwater could be tapped for further is shown in the Figure 9. The CRZ – I, CRZ use. Development of resorts should be – II, CRZ IV was calculated to be 9660.96 done with temporary structures without ha., 2135.77 ha. and 875.53 ha. respectively. altering the aesthetic beauty. Tourism Strictly implementing the CRZ rules can industry may attract more immigrants and protect the coastal ecosystem. large scale encroachments both in forest and revenue lands. Panchayat bodies CONCLUSION along with the local administration in the island should monitor the influx of people Remote sensing technique is useful for in the islands by issuing identity cards to identifying and monitoring ecosystems like the locals (Andaman harbour works 2002). coral reefs, mangroves, sandy beaches and sea grasses. The present study reveals that The continuous onslaught on the coastal remote sensing and GIS techniques have areas results not only in diminishing the an unique capability to detect the changes extent of mangroves, coral reefs and that have occurred in the ecosystems over affecting biodiversity but also impacting the a period of time between 1993 and 2003 in lives of many millions people who inhabit the present study area. The study revealed long coastline of the country. So it is that there is a substantial decrease in necessary to define a plan of action which mangroves, sandy beaches, coral reefs and should be based on sustainable utilization sea grasses. Immediate conservation 98 ECO-CHRONICLE measures (CRZ) are recommended so that Dharanirajan, K., Ramachandran, S., the coastal ecosystem can be saved from Kasinathapandian., Rajkumari S., Anitha, S., further degradation and are brought back to Srinivasan, D., Marie Irene Preeti Divien and its normal state. Arul Raj, M., 2005. “Man made impacts on sandy beaches in South Andaman islands REFERENCES – A case study using remote sensing and GIS”, Journal of Geomorphology, pp.55. Ahmed, E., 1972. Coastal Geomorphology of India. Orient Longman Ltd., New Delhi, Directorate of Economics & Statistics, 1999. pp. 11 - 48. ‘Andaman and Nicobar Islands’, Basic statistics 1996 – 97 to 1998 -1999’, Acharya, S.B. and Dutta, R., 1999. ‘Andaman Andaman and Nicobar Administration, Port & Nicobar Islands State of Environment’ Blair, 18p. Andaman and Nicobar Ecology, A & N, Port Blair, pp.20-56. Dorairaj, K., 1994. ‘Fishes of the Andaman Islands – A check list’, spl. Publ., Central Ahmed, E., 1972. ‘Coastal Geomorphology Agricultural Research Institute, Port Blair, of India’, Orient Longman Ltd., New Delhi, 67pp. pp.11-48. Fairbridge, R.W., 1968. ‘Quaternary period’, Andaman harbour works, 2002. ‘Rapid In: Encyclopedia of geomorphology, (ed) environmental impact assessment for Fairbridge R.W, Rein Hold Book Cor, New proposed tourism jetty at south point’, Port Yark, pp.912-931. Blair, South Andaman, proponent Andaman lakshadweep harbour works, Ministry of Food and Agriculture Organization, 1991. Shipping, Government of India, Port Blair, ‘Integrated coastal area management and pp.1-4. agriculture, forestry and fisheries’, published by Food and Agriculture Anon, 1987. ‘Marine species getting depleted’, Organization of the United Nations, Rome, In: The Hindu Newspaper 15 Dec. 1989. 118 p.

Arthur, R., 1996. ‘A survey of the reefs of the Hopley, D., 1982. ‘The Geomorphology of Mahatma Gandhi Marine National Park’, the Great Barrier Reef’, In. Quarternary Wandoor, Andaman Islands, A report Development of Coral Reefs, A Wiley- submitted to the Andaman & Nicobar Interscience Publication, John Wiley & Sons, Islands Environmental Team, 47pp. pp. 286-316.

Bahuguna, A. and Nayak, S., 1998. ‘Coral Jagtap, T.G., 1992. Marine flora of Nicobar reefs of the Indian coast, Scientific note, group of islands in Andaman Sea. Indian Space Applications Centre report, Journal of Marine Sciences, Vol. 32: pp. 56 - Ahmedabad, 56p. 58.

Das, H.S., 1996. ‘Status of seagrass Kulkarni, S., 2001. ‘The status of coral reefs habitats of the Andaman and Nicobar in Andaman and Nicobar Islands’, In: A report Coast’, Space Application Centre, technical on survey and monitoring of identified coral report 4, Coimbatore, pp. 47-75. reefs of Andaman and Nicobar Islands, ECO-CHRONICLE 99 Department of Environment and Forest, ‘Seagrasses of Coramandal coast, India. Andaman & Nicobar Administration, India Flora of India-series 4: Botanical survey of p.13-17. India, pp.1-80.

Mann, K.H., 1982. ‘Ecology of coastal waters Rao, P.S.N., 2000. ‘Management of coral reef : A system approach’, Stud. Ecol. 8, pp.160 - ecosystem of Andaman and Nicobar 182. Islands – Coastal and marine plant diversity of Andaman and Nicobar Islands’ Marten, G.G. and Poloviar, J.J., 1981. ‘A Government Of India / United Nations comparative study of fish yields from various Development Programme / Global tropical ecosystems (Commonwealth Environment Facility project, Zoological Scientific and Industrial Research Survey of India, Port Blair, pp. 23-34. Organisation)’, In: Proc. on Theory and management of tropical multispecies Space Application Centre (2000), ‘Coral stocks, Croulla, Australia. reefs of the Andaman and Nicobar group of islands’, Space Application Centre, Munro, J.L. 1985. ‘Coral reef fisheries and Ahmedabad, p.5. world fish production’, ICLARM Newsletter 7, pp. 3-4. Space Application Centre, 2003, ‘Eco- morphological zonation of selected coral Pillai, C.S.G., 1973. ‘Coral resources of India reefs of India using remotely sensed data’, with special reference to Palk Bay and Gulf Space Application Centre (Indian Space of Mannar’, In : Proceeding on Living Research Organisation (ISRO), resources of sea around India, Special Ahmedabad, p.59-74. publish, Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute, Cochin, Vol.11, pp.700-705. Salam, R.V., 1975. ‘Critical marine habitats of the northern Indian Ocean, including Sri Pillai, C.S.G., 1983 (a), ‘Coral reefs and their Lanka, Western India and Pakistan’, environs, Mariculture potential of Andaman Manuscript. and Nicobar islands – an indicative survey, Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute Silas, E.G. and Fermando, A.B., 1985. ‘The Bull., 34: pp.36-43. dugong in India’, In: Silas E.G (Ed), Proc. Symp. Endangered marine animals and Pillai C.S.G., 1983 (b), ‘ Coral reefs and their marine parks, Marine biological association environs’, In Mariculture potential of of India, Cochin, pp. 167-176. Andaman and Nicobar islands – An indicative survey, Central marine fisheries Venkataramanujam, R., Santhanam, R. and research institute bulletin no. 34, pp. 36-43. Sukumaran, N., 1981. ‘Coral resources of Tuticorin (S. India) and methods of their Qasim, 1973. ‘Status of seagrass habitats conservation’, In: Proceedings 4 th of the Andaman and Nicobar Coast’, Salim International coral reef symposium, Manila, Ali Centre for Ornithology and Natural pp.259-262. History, Coimbatore, India. P6-6-10. Vineeta Hoon, 1997. ‘Coral reefs of India: Ramamurthy, K., Balakrishnan, N.P., Review of their extent, research and Ravikumar, K. and Ganesan, R., 1992. management status’, In: Regional 100 ECO-CHRONICLE workshop on the conservation and (INTACH) – Andaman and Nicobar Chapter, sustainable management of coral reefs, pp.33-35. M.S Swaminathan Research Foundation, Chennai, India, pp. B1-B26. Wood, C., 1991. ‘Coral reef fish and condition of coral reefs in South Andaman Wood, E., 1988. ‘Corals’, Indian National Island, India, Report to the Forest Trust For Art and Cultural Heritage Department, 65p. ECO-CHRONICLE 101

ECO-CHRONICLE, Vol.4., No. 2. June 2009, pp: 101 - 106 ISSN: 0973-4155

EXOTIC PLANTS OF MAHE, U.T. OF PUDUCHERRY

Sasikala, K1. Rahina, K1. and Arisdason, W2.

1 P.G. Department of Plant Science, Mahatma Gandhi Govt. Arts College, Mahe, U.T. of Puducherry. 2 Department of Botany, Madras Christian College, Chennai, Tamil Nadu

ABSTRACT

A total of 381 species belonging to 316 genera distributed in 108 families were recorded during the preliminary botanical surveys conducted in different parts of Mahe to assess the angiosperm diversity of the region between 2005 and 2008. Among them, 92 species are identified as exotics. Many are cultivated in gardens as ornamentals and some are used for various therapeutic purposes by locals. This article enumerates exotic species that occur in Mahe and also discusses their medicinal and other economic values.

INTRODUCTION Badagara and Thalassery of Kannur A species that has been introduced from District, Kerala. Mahe covers an area of 9.5 one geographic region to a new area sq. km., occupying a unique portion near outside its natural range is called an exotic the Arabian Sea. It consists of three parts species. It is also known as non-indigenous namely Mahe proper, Kallayi and Naluthara or alien species. The flora of India is enclave. Mahe proper is a small town that convergence of floras from the neighbouring lies on the banks of the river Mahe. The Southeast Asian countries and widely Naluthara enclave lies between the separated continents such as America, Ponniyam River on the north and Kozhikode- Africa and Australia (Rao, 1994). Many exotic Thalassery road in the south and Kallayi is plant species that occur in India are mainly situated between these areas. Mahe is rich introduced by European colonizers at in its biodiversity as it forms a part of the different times. Nayar (1977) stated that Western Ghats. Preliminary botanical exotic plant species constitute about 18% explorations were conducted in different of Indian flora, of which ca 55% are parts of Mahe during 2005 - 2008, to assess American and ca 15% are European and the angiosperm diversity of the region. This Central Asian elements. They are either article enumerates and emphasizes the introduced as crop plants or ornamental medicinal and other economic values of the plants. A number of plants that have been exotic species that occur in Mahe. introduced in India at a very early period are integrated with the cultural history of India. MATERIALS AND METHODS Though in general most of the exotics are invasive in nature they do have some Field trips were conducted to different parts medicinal properties and economic values. of Mahe during 2005 - 2008. Plants in Mahe is a part of Puducherry Union Territory, flowers and fruits were collected during situated in the west coast of the Indian explorations, and field numbers were Peninsula. It lies between 11° 42’ – 11° 43’ tagged for all specimens. The collected N and 75° 31’ – 75° 33’ E between specimens were processed following 102 ECO-CHRONICLE Table 1a. Exotic species and their nativity

Sl. Name of the Plant with habit Family Native No. 01. Annona reticulata L. (T) Annonaceae T. America 02. Annona squamosa L. (T) Annonaceae T. America 03. Polyalthia longifolia (Sonner) Thwaites (T) Annonaceae Sri Lanka 04. Bixa orellana L. (T) Bixaceae T. America 05. Portulaca pilosa L. subsp. grandiflora (Hook.) Portulacaceae T. America Geesink (H) 06. Hibiscus rosa-sinensis L. (S) Malvaceae T. Africa 07. Theobroma cacao L. (T) Sterculiaceae T. America 08. *Galphimia gracilis Bartling (S) Malphigiaceae T. America 09. Averrhoa bilimbi L. (T) Oxalidaceae Malaysia 10. Swietenia macrophylla King (T) Meliaceae T. America 11. Anacardium occidentale L. (T) Anacardiaceae T. America 12. Clitoria ternatea L. (C) Fabaceae T. America 13. Gliricidia sepium (Jacq.) Kunth ex Walp. (T) Fabaceae T. America 14. Caesalpinia pulcherrima (L.) Sw. (T) Caesalpiniaceae T. America 15. Caesalpinia coriaria (Jacq.) Willd. (T) Caesalpiniaceae T. America 16. Delonix regia (Boj. ex Hook.) Rafin. (T) Caesalpiniaceae Madagascar 17. Tamarindus indica L. (T) Caesalpiniaceae T. Africa 18. Acacia auriculiformis A. Cunn. ex Benth. (T) Mimosaceae Australia 19. Mimosa pudica L. (H) Mimosaceae T. America 20. Samanea saman (Jacq.) Merr. (T) Mimosaceae T. America 21. *Hydrangea macrophylla (Thunb.) Ser. (S) Hydrangeaceae Japan 22. *Quisqualis indica L. (C) Combretaceae Myanmar 23. *Callistemon citrinus (Curtis) Stapf (T) Myrtaceae Australia 24. Eucalyptus globulus Labill. (T) Myrtaceae Australia 25. Pimenta dioica Merr. (T) Myrtaceae T. America 26. Psidium guajava L. (T) Myrtaceae T. America 27. Syzygium jambos (L.) Alston (T) Myrtaceae Malesia 28. Turnera subulata Sm. (H) Turneraceae T. America 29. Passiflora edulis Sims (C) Passifloraceae T. America 30. Passiflora foetida L. (C) Passifloraceae T. America 31. Carica papaya L. (T) Caricaceae T. America 32. Benincasa hispida (Thunb.) Cogn. (H) Cucurbitaceae Indonesia 33. Opuntia dillenii (Ker Gawl.) Haw. (H) Cactaceae T. America 34. Coffea arabica L. (S)(T) Rubiaceae T. Africa 35. *Hamelia patens Jacq. (H) Rubiaceae T. America 36. *Cosmos sulphureus Cav. (H) Asteraceae T. America 37. Chromolaena odorata (L.) King & Robins. (S) Asteraceae T. America 38. Parthenium hysterophorus L. (H) Asteraceae T. America 39. *Tithonia diversifolia (Hemsl.) A. Gray (H) Asteraceae T. America 40. Tridax procumbens L. (H) Asteraceae T. America 41. *Allamanda cathartica L. var. nobilis Bailey (C) Apocynaceae T. America 42. *Catharanthus roseus (L.) G. Don (H) Apocynaceae Madagascar 43. *Nerium oleander L. (S) Apocynaceae Mediterranean 44. *Plumeria rubra L. (T) Apocynaceae T. America 45. Rauvolfia tetraphylla L. (S) Apocynaceae T. America 46. *Thevetia peruviana (Pers.) Merr. (S) Apocynaceae T. America 47. *Ipomoea quamoclit L. (H) Convolvulaceae T. America 48. Capsicum annuum L. (H) Solanaceae T. America 49. *Cestrum nocturnum L. (S) Solanaceae T. America 50. Lycopersicon esculentum Mill. (H) Solanaceae T. America (H) - Herb, (S) - Shrub, (T) - Tree, (C) - Climber, * - Ornamental ECO-CHRONICLE 103 Table 1b. Exotic species and their nativity

Sl. Name of the Plant with habit Family Native No. 51. Scoparia dulcis L. (H) Scrophulariaceae T. America 52. Bacopa monnieri (L.) Pennell (H) Scrophulariaceae T. America 53. Kigelia pinnata (Jacq.) DC. (T) Bignoniaceae T. Africa 54. Spathodea campanulata P. Beauv. (T) Bignoniaceae T. Africa 55. *Tecoma stans (L.) Kunth (T) Bignoniaceae T. America 56. *Tecomeria capensis (Thunb.) Spach. (C)(S) Bignoniaceae T. Africa 57. Ruellia tuberosa L. (H) Acanthaceae T. America 58. Clerodendrum philippinum Schauer (S) Verbenaceae China 59. Clerodendrum thomsonae Balf.f. (S) Verbenaceae T. Africa 60. Duranta repens L. (S) Verbenaceae T. America 61. Lantana camara L. (S) Verbenaceae T. America 62. Stachytarpheta indica (L.) Vahl (H) Verbenaceae T. America 63. *Salvia splendens Sell. ex Nees (H) Lamiaceae T. America 64. *Bougainvillea spectabilis Willd. (S) Nyctaginaceae T. America 65. Mirabilis jalapa L. (H) Nyctaginaceae T. America 66. Alternanthera sessilis (L.) R. Br. ex DC. (H) Amaranthaceae T. America 67. *Gomphrena globosa L. (H) Amaranthaceae T. America 68. Rivinia humilis L. (H) Phytolacaceae T. America 69. Antigonon leptopus Hook. & Arn. (C) Polygonaceae T. America 70. Aristolochia grandiflora Sw. (C) Aristolochiaceae T. America 71. Myristica fragrans Houtt. (T) Myristicaceae Indonesia 72. *Acalypha hispida Burm.f. (S) Euphorbiaceae Papua New Guinea 73. Croton bonplandianum Baill. (S) Euphorbiaceae T. America 74. Euphorbia heterophylla L. (H) Euphorbiaceae T. America 75. *Euphorbia hirta L. (H) Euphorbiaceae T. America 76. *Euphorbia millii Desmoul. (H) Euphorbiaceae Madagascar 77. *Euphorbia pulcherrima Willd. ex Klotzsch. (S) Euphorbiaceae T. America 78. Jatropha gossypifolia L. (S) Euphorbiaceae T. America 79. Manihot esculenta Crantz. (S) Euphorbiaceae T. America 80. Pedilanthus tithymaloides (L.) Poir. (H) Euphorbiaceae T. America 81. Phyllanthus amarus Schum. & Thonn. (H) Euphorbiaceae T. America 82. Ricinus communis L. (S) Euphorbiaceae T. America 83. Artocarpus incisa L.f. (T) Moraceae Papua New Guinea 84. *Ficus elastica Roxb. ex Hornem. (T) Moraceae Malesia 85. *Zephyranthes rosalensis Ravenna (H) Amarayllidaceae T. America 86. Aloe vera (L.) Burm.f. (H) Agavaceae Mediterranean 87. Eichhornia crassipes (Mart.) Solms-Laub. (H) Pontederiaceae T. America 88. Borassus flabellifer L. (T) Arecaceae T. Africa 89. Caladium bicolor (Aiton ex Dryander) Vent. (H) Araceae T. America 90. *Monstera deliciosa Liebm. (H) Araceae T. America 91. Xanthosoma sagittifolium (L.) Schott. (H) Araceae T. America 92. Coix lachryma-jobi L. (H) Poaceae T. Africa (H) - Herb, (S) - Shrub, (T) - Tree, (C) - Climber, * - Ornamental standard herbarium techniques (Fosberg 2004; Pradeep Kumar & Ravindran, 2006). & Sachet, 1965). Specimens were identified Collected plants were also compared with using Flora of the Presidency of Madras authentic specimens at Madras Herbarium (Gamble, 1915 – 1936) and relevant floras (MH), Coimbatore. Monographs, revisions of Kerala (Manilal & Sivarajan, 1982; and other relevant literature were referred Ramachandran & Nair, 1988; Sasidharan, to for critical identification and 104 ECO-CHRONICLE Table 2. Distributional analysis of exotic nomenclatural changes. The distributional flora of Mahe data for each taxon has been collected from Sl. Nativity No. of % various floras, revisions and monographs. No. sps. Apart databases such as TROPICOS and 01. Tropical America 64 69.5 GRIN are used both for nomenclature and 02. Tropical Africa 09 9.7 distributional data. A set of voucher 03. Australia 03 3.2 specimens duly labeled is deposited at 04. Malesia 03 3.2 MGGA College Herbarium, Mahe. 05. Madagascar 03 3.2 06. Myanmar 01 1.0 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 07. China 01 1.0 08. Japan 01 1.0 Plants collected from various parts of Mahe 09. Sri Lanka 01 1.0 10. Indonesia 02 2.1 during 2005 - 2008 represent a total of 381 11. Mediterranean 02 2.1 species belonging to 316 genera distributed 12. Papua New Guinea 02 2.1 in 108 families. Among them 92 species

Table 3. Exotic plants and their medicinal uses Sl. Plant Name Family Medicinal Uses No. 01 Annona reticulata Annonaceae Root is purgative. Bark is an astringent 02 Annona squamosa Annonaceae Fruit has astringent, cooling, antiscorbutic, febrifugal and pectoral properties. It enriches the blood and improves muscular strength 03 Bixa orellana Bixaceae Fruit pulp is antidysenteric, diuretic and febrifuge. Gum from leaves is used in gonorrhea and liver complaints 04 Psidium guajava Myrtaceae Leaves are chewed to relieve toothache, also used as an astringent 05 Syzygium jambos Myrtaceae Infusion of fruit is diuretic 06 Carica papaya Caricaceae Unripe fruit is considered diuretic, laxative and abortifacient. It is active against urinary concretions. 07 Chromolaena odorata Asteraceae Leaf paste is used as an antiseptic in cut and injury, also against body inflammation 08 Cosmos sulphureus Asteraceae Whole plant is used in the treatment of stomatitis and sore 09 Tridax procumbens Asteraceae Leaf extract used in cuts and wounds 10 Catharanthus roseus Apocynaceae Vinblastine and Vincristine alkaloids are effective against leukemia cells 11 Scoparia dulcis Scrophularia- Plant is effective against kidney stones; stem ceae and leaves used against diabetes 12 Lantana camara Verbenaceae Decoction of leaves used against eczema, rheumatic pain; decoction of flower effective against cold and cough 13 Myristica fragrans Myrsticaceae Fruit used for peptic ulcer and to reduce acidity; fruit mixed in oil is applied for arthritis 14 Phyllanthus amarus Euphorbiaceae Plant is used in the treatment of jaundice and urinary infections 15 Ricinus communis Euphorbiaceae Leaves or pulp of seeds applied on abdomen to relieve flatulence; oil is purgative, and also used in the treatment of body-ache and arthritis 16 Aloe vera Agavaceae Plant is purgative; it is also used for psoriasis, sun burns and eczema ECO-CHRONICLE 105 are recognized as exotics, constituting 24% and Parthenium hysteropus are found as of the flora. Table 1 (a & b) represents the invasive. The Australian elements Acacia plant name, family and the nativity of each auriculiformis and Callistemon citrinus are exotic species. cultivated in gardens as ornamental. Averrhoa bilimbi, a Malesian element is Of the 92 exotic species that occur in Mahe, cultivated for its edible fruits in the 35 are herbs, 21 shrubs, 29 trees and 7 are backyards. Ficus elastica, also a native of climbers. Sixty four species are from Malesian region is grown in gardens as Tropical America that constitutes 69.5%, the ornamental. Borassus flabellifer, Kigelia predominant component of the exotic flora. pinnata, Spathodea campanulata This is followed by Tropical African elements Tamarindus indica and Tecomaria capensis which constitute 9.7% of the exotic flora with are tree elements from tropical Africa found 9 species. Species from Australia, Malesia common in Mahe. Madagascar elements and Madagascar constitute 3.2% of the namely Catharanthus roseus, and exotic flora with 3 species each. Indonesia, Euphorbia milli are grown as ornamentals Mediterranean and Papua New Guinea with in home garden and Delonix regia is 2 species each and Myanmar, China, Japan commonly found as an avenue tree. and Sri Lanka with one species each constitute 2.1% and 1.0% respectively. Table Many naturalized and cultivated exotic 2 depicts the distributional analysis of exotic species are used for medicinal purposes. flora of Mahe. The medicinal exotic species are used in folk as well as in Ayurvedic system of Out of 92 exotic species, 24 are found as medicine. Table 3 shows a total of 16 ornamentals. Of the 64 tropical American species used by the local people as elements, almost all species are found on medicinal plants for various treatments. cultivation and some as naturalized weeds either in wild or near human habitation. Exotic or alien species spread very rapidly Some of the economically important tropical in introduced areas. The aggressive spread American species that are found on of an exotic species is considered as a cultivation are Anacardium occidentale, potential threat to the native flora. In many Annona squamosa, A. reticulata, Bixa parts of India both aquatic (especially the orellana, Capsicum annuum, Carica fresh water) and terrestrial ecosystems are papaya, Hevea braziliensis, Lycopersicon affected by invasive exotic species. esculentum, Manihot esculenta, Psidium Therefore the spread of an exotic species guajava and Theobroma cacao. Many of the in environmentally sensitive areas needs tropical American species are naturalized to be carefully monitored. throughout the tropics and are now considered as pantropical weeds. Such ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS commonly distributed naturalized weeds in Mahe are Alternanthera sessilis, Bacopa The authors are thankful to Shri C.P. monnieri, Eichhornia crassipes, Euphorbia Ravindran, Head, Department of Plant hirta, Mimosa pudica, Passiflora foetida, Science, MGGA College, Mahe, for providing Ricinus communis, Ruellia tuberosa, facilities, Dr. G. Pradeep Kumar, Lecturer, Scoparia dulcis, Synedrella nodiflora and Department of Plant Science, MGGA Tridax procumbens. Most of the species are College, Mahe, for encouragement. The very aggressive in colonizing the territory timely help rendered by Ms. T. Sunitha, and become a menace to the native flora. Lecturer, Department of Economics, MGGA Species such as Antigonon leptopus, College, Mahe, is also gratefully Chromalaena odorata, Lantana camara acknowledged. 106 ECO-CHRONICLE REFERENCES Nayar, M.P. 1977. Changing patterns of the India flora. Bull. Bot. Surv. India 19: 145 – 155. Fosberg, F.R. and Sachet, H. 1965. Manual of Tropical Herbaria. Regnum Veg. Vol. 39. Pradeep Kumar, G. and Ravindran, C.P. The Netherlands. 2006. Tree Wealth of Mahe (U.T. of Pondicherry) - A Preliminary Survey. Ecol. Gamble, J.S. 1915 - 1936. Flora of the Env. & Cons. 12(3): 417 - 420. Presidency of Madras. 11 Parts. (Parts 1 – 7 by Gamble & 8 - 11 by C.E.C. Fischer), Ramachandran, V.S. and Nair, V.J. 1988. London. Adlard & Sons Ltd. Flora of Cannanore. Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta. http://www.tropicos.org/ Rao, R.R. 1994. Biodiversity in India http://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/ (Floristic Aspects). Bishen Singh & index.pl Mahendra Pal Singh, Dehra Dun.

Manilal, K.S. and Sivarajan, V.V. 1982. Flora Sasidharan, N. 2004. Biodiversity of Calicut. Bishen Singh & Mahendra Pal Documentation for Kerala. Part 6: Flowering Singh, Dehra Dun. Plants. Kerala Forest Research Institute, Peechi, Kerala, India. ECO-CHRONICLE 107

ECO-CHRONICLE, Vol.4., No. 2. June 2009, pp: 107 - 112 ISSN: 0973-4155 AN ASSESSMENT OF DROUGHT IN CENTRAL PART OF SUVARNAMUKHI RIVER BASIN, KARNATAKA.

Radhika, K. N1., Narahari Rao, K. L1., Krishnamurthy, J2., Neelakantarama, J. M3., 1 Department of Geology, Bangalore University, Bangalore, Karnataka. 2 ISRO Headquarters, Antariksh Bhavan, Bangalore, Karnataka. 3 Central Ground Water Board, Nagpur, Mahatashtra.

Corresponding author: [email protected], [email protected]

ABSTRACT

Drought in the Central Part of Suvarnamukhi River basin has been assessed for the period of 25 years from 1983-2007 by the rainfall data collected from 12 rain gauging stations. The study area comprises of five sub-basins viz., Doddahalla, Lakshmi Saagara, Devarahalli, Chikkatore and Ajjanahalli which fall in the central part of Suvarnamukhi River Basin. The assessment of drought has been carried out using 3 different methods viz., Parthasarathy method (1987), IMD Method and Standardized Precipitation Index method modified by Bhuiyan et al., (2006). The results indicate that there is mild drought in the years 1983, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1999, 2002 and 2004 and moderate during 1984, 1985 1990 and 2003. The moderate drought years are characterized by a reduction in precipitation together with higher evapotranspiration values. As a consequence, a drastic decrease in surface runoff and deforestation is observed. This situation can be improved by reforestation and construction of some artificial structures for recharge. Of the 3 methods used, the method by Parathasarathy (1987) was found to be simple. However, if a detailed drought assessment of the area is required, SPI method can be used as it classifies areas into 7 drought classes. Percentage Deviation method is the standard method used in India. Key words: Drought, Standard Precipitation, Rainfall

INTRODUCTION The degree and severity of droughts may be measured by various parameters. These Drought is a natural hazard with varying include deficiencies in rainfall and runoff, patterns in space, time and intensity. decline in soil moisture, reduction in (Giuseppe et al., 2007). Drought affects groundwater levels, storages required to virtually all climatic regions (Wilhite, 2000; meet the prescribed demands, decrease Olga and Donald, 2002) and more than one in surface water area, decrease in area and half of the earth is susceptible to drought vigor of vegetation, phenological changes, each year (Kogan, 1997). It is reported that, erosion and extinction of valuable soil cover throughout the world, drought ranks first complex due to erosion etc. among natural disasters on humanity. It causes crop loss (Leilah and Al Khateeb, Droughts on many occasions are so severe 2005), social alarm (Morales et al., 2000), that they have forced the inhabitants, degradation and desertification (Evans and particularly of labor and small farmer class Geerken, 2004; Neelakantarama and to leave their places temporarily to make a Vajrappa, 2007). Compared to other natural living elsewhere. The droughts also curtail disasters, drought is a worst disaster as it the natural vegetation of the area. A long comes slowly and causes cumulative loss spell of this situation would cause exodus and suffering over a prolonged period over of people to the neighboring areas with a wide area. (Devappa and Patil, 1995; excessive stress due to draining of the Burton,et al., 1978). resources. In this regard, it is very essential 108 ECO-CHRONICLE to conduct a detailed study to know the Geologically the area is covered by the periodicity, repetivity and intensity of schistose rocks of Chitradurga Schist Belt droughts in order to develop strategies to in the west and Peninsular Gneiss in the mitigate the effects. east. Western part is marked by prominent belts of amphibolite and quartzite STUDY AREA interspersed with small patches of limestone and iron formations, argillites and Suvarnamukhi River, a sub-tributary of greywackes i.e., the rocks of Chitradurga Tungabhadra, forms a part of Krishna Schist Belt. Basic dykes are found to be Basin. The area chosen for study is the intruding all over the study area without any central part of Suvarnamukhi River Basin specific orientation, while the ferruginous which includes 5 sub basins namely chert bands are confined to the northwestern Doddahalla, Lakshmi Saagara, Devarahalli, part. Chikkatore and Ajjanahalli. The areal extent of the area is 1471 sq.kms. The study area Methodology for the assessment of is restricted within longitude 76° 35’ to 77° drought 05’ and latitude 13°25’ to 13°55’. All the sub- basins are elongated in shape exhibiting There are totally 14 rain gauge stations in 4th to 6th order drainage basin. and around the study area. But due to non availability of data from 2 stations (Kariyala Physiographically, Suvarnamukhi river basin and Hunasehalli) only 12 stations are is located in the southern part of Karnataka considered for the present study. The state. The study area has a hilly terrain in assessment of drought has been carried the west and gently sloping topography out based on the data from these rain towards the east. The hillocks present are gauging stations. The daily rainfall data from residual and dome shaped running in NNW- all the rain gauging stations was collected SSE direction. The maximum height of the (1983 to 2007) from Department of basin is 1022 mts above MSL, situated in Economics and Statistics. the western part and a minimum of 650 mts above MSL situated near the mouth i.e., the In the recent years, meteorologists have confluence of the sub-stream to the main developed many indices and methods for stream in the northern part. The overall drought assessment. The methods widely slope of all the sub-basins is towards north. used include Palmar drought index (1965), which is a multifactor objective method used broadly in the United states, Standardized precipitation index (SPI) method developed by Mckee et al., (1993), which is widely used in Canada, Z index developed by China’s National Climate Center for drought and flood monitoring over China and percentage deviation method developed by Indian Meteorological ECO-CHRONICLE 109 Department (IMD) (Irrigation Commission statistical techniques, which can quantify report, 1972). IMD method is successfully the degree of wetness by comparing 3, 6, used by Ravikumar and Karmegam, 1992, 12 or 24 monthly rainfall totals with the 1996 and Neelakantarama and Vajrappa, historical rainfall period over the area. 2007. In the present study an attempt has Conceptually, the SPI is similar to the been made to assess drought using 3 impartial z-score, which has zero mean and different methods. Viz., Parthasarathy unit standard deviation (Edwards and method (1987), IMD Method and McKee 1997), and provides a measure of Standardized Precipitation Index method the precipitation frequency distribution (Kim modified by Bhuiyan et al., (2006). Recent et al., 2006). After several modifications, research has shown that the SPI has many Bhuiyan et al., (2006) computed SPI by advantages over other indices such as dividing the difference between the Palmar Drought Severity Index (PDSI) and normalized seasonal precipitation and its is relatively simple, spatially consistent and long term seasonal mean by the standard temporally flexible, thus allowing deviation and has given the relation as, observation of water deficits at different (Xij Xim) scales (Ji and Peters 2003; Guttman 1998; SPI  Khan et. al, 2008). The method used for  analysis here does not require information Where, Xij is the seasonal precipitation at about land surface conditions and is solely the ith rainguage station and jth observation, a function of precipitation amount. Xim is the long term seasonal mean and σ is its standard deviation. As per Indian Meteorological Department, if a meteorological sub-division receives Since the SPI is equal to the Z-value of the seasonal rainfall less than 75% of the normal distribution, McKee et, al., (1993) normal rainfall (578.59 mm in this area), proposed a seven-category classification : the area is considered to be affected by extremely wet (z>2.0), very wet (1.5 to 1.99), drought. If the seasonal rainfall deficiency moderately wet (1.0 to 1.49), near normal (- is between 25 and 50 percent of the normal, 0.99 to 0.99), moderately dry (-1.49 to 1.0), then it is labeled as moderate drought, while severely dry (-0.99 to 1.5), and extremely dry the deficiency is more than 50 percent of (<-2.0). Khan et. al., (2008) has the rainfall, then it is called as severe successfully used this method to access drought. A year is considered to be a drought drought. year when the area is affected by one of the criteria for drought, either individually or Parathasarathy et al., (1987) also used the collectively and is more than 20 percent of statistical method i.e., a flood year has been the total area of the country. defined as (R+S) or more and Drought year (R-S) or less where R is the seasonal mean The assessment of drought by this method rainfall of no. of years data and S is the is based on the percentage deviation of standard deviation. Singh (1998) has rainfall from the long-term mean. The successfully used this method for percentage deviation (Di) is given by, correlation analysis of the individual station’s seasonal rainfall with all India Pi - PM Di  x100 seasonal mean rainfall. PM Where Pi is the rainfall in the time period i RESULTS AND DISCUSSION and PM is the long term mean rainfall. The long term mean annual rainfall of the river basin is 578.59mm and the seasonal Standardized Precipitation Index (SPI) is a distribution for winter (Jan-Feb), summer state of the art method for assessing (Mar-May), monsoon (June-Sep) and post climatic variability and was developed by Mc monsoon (Oct-Dec) are 0.82%, 16.16%, Kee et al., (1993). The SPI is based on 54% and 29.02% respectively. 110 ECO-CHRONICLE Table 1 : IMD classification of Drought Table 4: Drought assessment by SPI % Deviation (Di) Class Category method >0 M0 No drought Year Annual z- value Category 0 to -25 M1 Mild Rainfall -25 to -50 M2 Moderate 1983 454.167 -0.736 Near normal < -50 M3 Severe 1984 417.783 -1.00408 Moderately dry Table 2 : Drought assessment by IMD Method 1985 401.025 -1.11295 Moderately dry Year Annual % of Class 1986 547.3 -0.07538 Near normal Rainfall deviation 1987 686.9 0.91484 Near normal 1983 454.1667 242.9026 M1 1988 771.1 1.512094 Very wet 1984 417.7833 243.0754 M2 1989 530.2 -0.19668 Near normal 1985 401.025 243.2482 M2 1990 383.7 -1.23584 Moderately dry 1986 547.3 243.4211 M0 1991 627.1 0.490663 Near normal 1987 686.9 243.5939 M0 1992 671.9 0.808441 Near normal 1988 771.1 243.7667 M0 1993 508.4 -0.35131 Near normal 1989 530.2 243.9396 M0 1994 466.4 -0.64923 Near normal 1990 383.7 244.1124 M1 1991 627.1 244.2852 M0 1995 438.7 -0.84571 Near normal 1992 671.9 244.4581 M0 1996 639.2 0.576491 Near normal 1993 508.4 244.6309 M1 1997 479.5 -0.5563 Near normal 1994 466.4 244.8037 M1 1998 661.6 0.735381 Near normal 1995 438.7 244.9766 M1 1999 531.9 -0.18462 Near normal 1996 639.2 245.1494 M0 2000 794 1.67453 Very wet 1997 479.5 245.3222 M0 2001 551.9 -0.04275 Near normal 1998 661.6 245.4951 M0 2002 466.1 -0.65135 Near normal 1999 531.9 245.6679 M1 2003 357.5 -1.42168 Moderately dry 2000 794 245.8408 M0 2004 532.6 -0.17965 Near normal 2001 551.9 246.0136 M0 2005 897.5 2.408683 Extremely wet 2002 466.1 246.1864 M1 2006 422.3 -0.96204 Near normal 2003 357.5 246.3593 M2 2007 709.4 1.074439 Moderately wet 2004 532.6 246.5321 M1 2005 897.5 246.7049 M0 The result of the analysis by IMD method indicates that out of 25 years, 14 years (56%) 2006 422.3 246.8778 M0 have no drought, 8 years (32%) have mild 2007 709.4 247.0506 M0 drought and 3 years (12%) have moderate Average 557.927 drought. SPI method indicates that out of 25 years, 17 years (68%) falls under near Table 3: SPI Classification of drought after normal category, 4 years (16%) under McKee et. al., (1993, 1995) moderately dry condition, 2 years (8%) under z-value Category very wet category, 1 year (4%) each in > 2.0 Extremely wet extremely wet and moderately wet category. 1.5 to 1.99 Very wet 1.0 to 1.49 Moderately wet Parthasarathy et al., (1987) method -0.99 to 0.99 Near normal indicates that 17 years (68%) falls under -1.49 to -1.0 Moderately dry normal year, 4 years (16%) as drought year -1.99 to -1.5 Severely dry and 4 years (16%) falls under flood years. All the methods and the graphical <-2.0 Extremely dry representation of the rainfall data with the ECO-CHRONICLE 111 long term mean rainfall shows that Annual Rainfall Average Rainfall drought is noticed in 900 1983-1985, 1990, 1993-1995, 1999, 2002, 2003 and 2004. 700 Among them moderate drought is 500 noticed in years 1984, 1985, 1990 Annual Rainfall and 2003. 300 The moderate

1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 drought in 1984, Years 1985, 1990 and 2003 has decreased the Table 5: Drought assessment by water table resulting in drying of tube and open wells and severe drinking water Parthasarathy (1987) method problems in the river basin. The water level Year Rainfall Classification fluctuation (15.75m) in the study area is also 1983 454.167 Normal Year high. Lowering groundwater levels lead to 1984 417.783 Drought Year lack of baseflow in streams and rivers, which in turn affects the runoff in streams 1985 401.025 Drought Year as well as soil salinity. If stream flow is 1986 547.3 Normal Year absent, the normal course of stream 1987 686.9 Normal Year widening and deepening will cease 1988 771.1 Flood Year (Ballukraya, 2005), and the stream, in fact will gradually vanish. Such impacts are 1989 530.2 Normal Year observed in the basin. The drying of tanks 1990 383.7 Drought Year and borewells has adversely affected 1991 627.1 Normal Year majority of coconut and other plantations in the study area. These can be overcome by 1992 671.9 Normal Year reforestation followed by the construction 1993 508.4 Normal Year of artificial recharge structures such as 1994 466.4 Normal Year contour bunding at appropriate locations, 1995 438.7 Normal Year maintenance of tanks and wells i.e., desilting of tanks and employing new 1996 639.2 Normal Year techniques for agricultural practices. 1997 479.5 Normal Year 1998 661.6 Normal Year REFERENCES 1999 531.9 Normal Year Ballukraya, P. N., 2005. Over-exploitation of 2000 794 Flood Year groundwater in hard rock areas:Problems and perspectives. Journal of Applied 2001 551.9 Normal Year Hydrology . V. XVII. No. 4, pp. 1-10. 2002 466.1 Normal Year 2003 357.5 Drought Year Bhuiyan, C., Singh R.P. and Kogan F.N., 2004 532.6 Normal Year 2006. Monitoring drought dynamics in the Aravalli region (India) using different indices 2005 897.5 Flood Year based on ground and remote sensing data. 2006 422.3 Normal Year Int. J. Appl. Earth Observ Geoinform 8:289-302. 2007 709.4 Flood Year Average 557.927 Burton, I., Kates, R. W., and White, G. F.,1978. The environment as hazard, Oxford Std Dev. 140.9787 University Press, New York, pp. 240. 112 ECO-CHRONICLE Devappa.V.M., and Patil P.R., 1995. Study of Mckee, T. B. N., Doesken, J., and Kleist, J. Drought Prone areas of Bidar and Gulbarga 1993., The relationship of drought frequency Districts in Karnataka, Proceedings of All and duration to time scales, Eight Conf. On India Seminar on Natural Disasters – Applied Climatology, Anaheim, CA, Amer. Causes and Management. Published by Meteor. Soc. 179–184. Drought Monitoring Cell. Pp.107-112. Morales, A., Olcina, J., and Rico, A. M., 2000. Edwards D.C. and Mc Kee T.B., 1997. Diferentes persepciones de la sequia en Characteristics of 20th century drought in the Espana: adaptacion, catastrofismoe united states at Multiple time scales. intentos de correction, Investigaciones Climatology report No. 97-2, Colorado State Geograficas, 23, 5–46. University, Fort Collins, CO, USA, 155pp. Neelakantarama, J.M., and H.C.Vajrappa, Evans, J. and Geerken, R. 2004. 2007. Assessment of Drought in Discrimination between climate and Jayamangali sub-basin, Karnataka, Indian human-induced dryland degradation, Journal of Environment and Ecoplanning. Journal Arid Environment, 57, pp. 535–554. 14 (3), 545-548.

Giuseppe Mendicino and Pasquale Ogla V. Wilhelmi and Donald A.Wilhite, 2002. Versace, 2007. Integrated Drought Watch Assessing Vulnerability to Agricultural system : A Case Study in Southern Italy, Drought: A Nebraska Case Study, 25, 37-58. Journal of Water Resource Management, 21, pp.1409-1428. Palmer, W. C., 1965. Meteorologic Drought, U.S. Weather Bureau Research Paper No. Guttman N.B., 1998. Comparing the Palmer 45, U. S. Weather Research Paper No. 45, drought index and the standardized U. S, Dept. of Commerce. precipitation index. J Am Water Resources Association. 34, pp113-121. Parthasarathy B, Sontakke, N.A., Munat, A.A. and Kathamate D.R., 1987. Drought/flood Irrigation Commission Report. 1972. in the summer monsoon season over Volume1, Ministry of Irrigation and Power, different meteorological sub-divisions at Government of India. India for the period of 1871-1984, Journal of Climatology, 7:57-70. Ji L and Peters A.J., 2003. Assessing vegetation response to drought in the Ravikumar, G., and Karmegam, M., 1992. northern great plains using vegetation and “Implications of Drought Definitions” drought indices. Remote Sens. Environ 87 – 85-98. Proceedings of VIII Congress of Asian and Pacific Division of IAHR. V.1, pp. 91-100. Khan, S., Gabreil, F., and Rana, T. 2008. Standard precipitation index to track drought Ravikumar, G., and Karmegam, M., 1996. and assess impact of rainfall on watertables Use of Cumulative Criteria to improve IMD in irrigation areas. method of Meteorological Drought Assessment. Hydrology Journal V. XIX (3), Kim T-W, Vald S.J.B., Nijssen.B. and pp 61-66. Roncayolo.D., 2006. Quantification of linkages between large-scale climatic Singh.C.V. (1998) Relationship between patterns and precipitation in the Colorado rainy days, mean daily intensity and River Basin, J Hydrol (Amst) 321:173-186. seasonal rainfall in normal, flood and Kogan,F.N. 1997., Global drought watch from drought years over India. Advances in space, Bull.American. Meteor. Soc. 78(4), 621-636. atmospheric sciences journal. Vol.15, No.3, pp.424-432. Leilah, A. A., and Al Khateeb, S. A., 2005., Statistical analysis of wheat next term yield Wilhite,D.A., 2000. Drought: A Global under previous term drought next term Assessment, Natural Hazards and conditions, Journal Arid Environment. 61, pp. Disasters Series, Roudedge Publishers, 483–496, 2005. UK. ECO-CHRONICLE 113

ECO-CHRONICLE, Vol.4., No. 2. June 2009, pp: 113 - 120 ISSN: 0973-4155

MICROPHYTOBENTHOS IN COCHIN ESTUARY, KERALA

Sivadasan, K.K1. and Joseph, K. J2.

1Post Graduate Dept. of Plant Science, Mahatma Gandhi Govt. Arts College, Mahe (University of Pondicherry), U.T. of Puducherry.

2 Prof. (Rtd.) School of Marine Sciences, Cochin University of Science & Technology Cochin, Kerala.

ABSTRACT

Benthic microalgae form the dominant group of primary producers, which exhibit seasonal and spatial variation in their distribution. However standing crop of these microphytobenthos have not showed any correlation with pH, salinity, silicate, phosphate, nitrite and dissolved oxygen content of the water. Maximum number of species were observed during monsoon, followed by post monsoon. The number of species observed to be the lowest at Eloor, an industrially polluted area (station, 8). The standing crop too was minimum and was characterized by low richness index and the presence of Cocconeis placentula var. euglepta, a pollution indicator. The number of species was observed to be highest at Thannirmukkam (comparatively unpolluted area- station 1). Benthic diatom Cymbella sp. and blue green Oscillatoria species distributed at all stations and it may be an indication of their adaptability with fluctuating environment. Out of 58 species of benthic microalgae identified, Navicula arenaria, Cymbella sp., Oscillatoria sp., Merismopedia elegans and Caloneis brevis var. distoma showed dominance over other species at most of stations. Systematic analysis showed that benthic microalgae in the estuary mainly consist of pennate diatoms. The study contributes supplementary information to the knowledge of diversity of diatoms of the area.

Key words: Benthic microalgae, pennate diatoms, standing crop, primary production, pollution indicator, Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA).

INTRODUCTION and they may retain a part of newly mineralized nutrients at the sediment In coastal and shallow waters benthic surface (Cartlon and Wetzel, 1988) and thus microalgae form the major flora (Jonsson, contribute a significant role in 1991; Maclntyre et al., 1996; Sivadasan and biogeochemical cycle of the ecosystem. Joseph, 1998) and play a significant role in Various physical, chemical and biological the benthic environment as the food parameters related to primary producers resources for benthic invertebrates such as plant pigments (Qasim and Reddy, (Lamberti et al., 1989; Hansson, 1992; 1967), light penetration (Qasim et al., 1968), Sivadasan and Joseph, 1997). Annual nutrient cycle (Sankaranarayanan and global benthic primary productivity is Qasim, 1969), primary organic production estimated to be 500 million tones of carbon (Nair et al., 1975; Qasim et al., 1969; Pillai and it is approximately one sixth of the total et al., 1975; Gopinathan et al., 1984; Joseph, primary productivity (Cahoon, 1999). In 1988; Bhattathiri, 1992); nannoplanktons shallow waters, especially in commercial (Qasim et al., 1974; Sumitra et al., 1974), fish farms, benthic microalgae act as phytoplankton distribution (Gopinathan renewable resources for oxygen production 1972, Joseph and Pillai, 1975) and 114 ECO-CHRONICLE periphyton (Sreekumar and Joseph, 1995a, water samples were collected and analysed b) of Cochin estuary were studied for pH, salinity, nitrite, phosphate, dissolved extensively. Effect of dredging on benthic oxygen and silica (Strickland and Parsons, microalgae in Cochin harbour area was also 1977). studied (Rasheed et al., 2000). RESULTS AND DISCUSSION In the estuary, benthic microalgal studies are found to be scanty except for Hydrographic parameters: Hydrographic photosynthetic pigments (Sivadasan and parameters such as salinity, pH, dissolved Joseph, 1995), community structure oxygen, nitrite, phosphate and silicate (Sivadasan and Joseph, 1998), potential showed variation in concentration spatially primary production (Sivadasan and Joseph, and seasonally (fig.2 and 3). 1998), seasonal and spatial variation in the biomass (Sivadasan and Joseph, 1997) Salinity- The ecosystem being connected and distributional records of benthic to rivers and sea, the salinity of the medium diatoms (Sivadasan and Joseph, 2006). The was found to be ever fluctuating. Seasonal present study focuses on species changes also cause salinity fluctuation. composition (Seasonal and spatial), Minimum salinity was recorded at station 1 ecological significance as indicator species and 2 and maximum at station 10. The and their correlation with hydrographic highest salinity values obtained at station 6 parameters. and 10 (fig.2) throughout seasons were due to the proximity of stations to the sea. MATERIALS AND METHODS Maximum standing crop observed during monsoon may either be due to decrease in Studies were conducted at 10-selected salinity, which favor the growth of freshwater stations of Cochin estuary (fig. 1) namely, species or microphytobenthos reaching the Thannirmukkam (south), Murinjapuzha, system through run off water. Panavally, Vaduthala, Kumbalam, Bolgatty, Chittoor, Eloor, Karthedom and Munambam Fig. 1: Cochin estuary, with sites studied (north). Sediment samples were collected monthly from macrophyte free submerged littoral area at a depth of 75 cm from water level. Sediment cores of 0.5 cm thickness were taken by using polythene syringe of 3.3 cm diameter (Sivadasan and Joseph, 1995).At least three replicates of samples were used for analysis. Live pennate diatoms were separated using fabric and identified. Suspensions of sediment samples were used for the identification of centric diatoms and other organisms. Microalgal identification was done with the help of standard references (Van Heurck, 1896; Venketaraman, 1939; Menon, 1945; Subrahmanyan, 1946; Gopinathan, 1975; Hendey, 1976; Desikachary et al., 1988 (a), 1987 (b); Desikachary, 1988; Jin Dexiang et al., 1985). Suspensions of the samples were stained with neutral red to identify the live cells and the stained suspensions were used to estimate standing crop by enumerating the cells per unit area. Bottom ECO-CHRONICLE 115 Table 1a, Distribution of microphytobenthos of Cochin estuary at various stations and seasons

Stations Seasons Sl. Name of species Pre mon post No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Mon mon Amphiprora gigantia 01 -- -- 0.58 -- 0.04 0.08 0.58 ------0.18 0.21 var. sulcata 02 Amphiprora alata -- -- 0.40 -- 0.32 2.00 1.83 -- 0.16 0.92 0.48 0.65 0.58 03 Amphora sp. ------0.16 0.83 0.92 1.08 -- 0.10 0.75 0.50 04 Amphora angusta ------0.16 -- 0.16 0.16 -- -- 0.05 0.10 05 Amphora coffaeformis ------0.16 -- 0.08 -- -- 0.05 -- 06 Calonies brevis ------0.45 ------0.58 -- 0.15 -- 0.21 07 C. brevis var. distoma 1.16 -- 7.25 6.08 -- 0.83 0.08 -- 4.67 -- 3.95 1.68 0.40 Cocconeis placentula 08 ------0.50 ------0.14 var. euglepta 09. Cymbella sp. 2.23 1.83 11.3 5.62 5.92 0.92 0.17 0.08 14.3 0.13 0.13 10.3 2.96 Diploneis fusca var. 10. 0.25 ------0.08 -- pelagi 11. D. littoralis ------0.08 ------0.03 -- 12. D. subovalis -- -- 0.25 0.08 -- -- 0.08 ------0.10 -- 13. D. Weissflogii ------0.08 -- -- 0.03 -- 14. D. Smithi ------0.08 ------0.03 -- 15. Eunotia sp. ------0.08 ------0.05 Gomphonema 16. 0.33 -- 0.33 -- -- 0.17 -- 0.25 ------0.10 0.20 purvulum var.lanceolata 17. Gyrosigma balticum -- -- 0.42 0.54 0.83 ------0.17 0.42 0.18 0.01 0.53 18. G. balticum var. sinensis -- -- 0.17 ------0.50 -- 0.05 19. G. fasciola var. arcuata ------0.25 ------0.23 20. G. macrum -- 1.58 ------0.05 21 G. rectum ------0.17 ------1.10 -- 0.25 -- 22. G. spenceri 0.34 -- -- 0.42 0.25 ------0.15 -- 23. G. wormleyi -- 0.34 ------0.08 ------0.08 0.10 -- -- 24. Hantzschia amphioxus -- -- 0.08 -- 0.25 ------0.08 25. H. marina ------0.25 ------0.38 -- 26. Merismopedia elegans 7.75 -- 5.75 2.75 -- 9.17 -- -- 1.83 -- 2.20 9.59 3.05 27. Navicula arenaria 6.80 4.30 7.75 2.92 3.84 -- 8.50 -- 11.21 4.34 2.05 0.15 0.78 28. N. digitoradiata 0.50 -- 3.0 0.50 1.08 ------6.00 -- 0.13 0.20 0.03 29. N. hasta 0.05 ------0.67 -- 0.08 0.15 0.05 30. N. humerosa ------0.67 -- -- 0.05 -- 31. N. inclementis 0.17 ------0.03 -- 32. N. inflexa -- -- 0.08 ------0.78 -- 33. N. iridis ------1.34 1.25 ------0.48 -- 34. N. marina ------0.42 ------0.08 -- 35. N. mesolepta ------0.25 -- -- 0.13 0.53 0.10 36. N. mutica 0.92 0.34 0.25 0.25 0.42 0.58 ------0.08 1.05 37. Nitzschia acuminata 0.08 ------0.08 ------0.05 38. N. closterium -- -- 0.25 -- -- 0.34 0.08 ------0.15 0.03 0.03 39. N. circumstata 0.17 ------0.05 -- 40. N. constricta ------0.25 -- -- 0.08 -- 41. N. dydima ------0.92 -- 0.28 -- N. longissima var. 42. -- 1.25 0.17 ------0.08 ------0.16 0.15 0.10 closterium 43. N. lorenziana 1.30 0.17 -- 0.17 ------0.15 0.18 0.18 44. N. paleae 1.00 -- 1.00 1.50 2.54 -- -- 0.47 -- -- 0.03 1.39 0.64 45. N. panduriformis 0.02 0.92 ------1.75 -- 0.63 0.05 0.18 116 ECO-CHRONICLE Table 1b, Distribution of microphytobenthos of Cochin estuary at various stations and seasons

Stations Seasons Sl. Name of species Pre mon post No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Mon mon 46. N. sigma 0.04 1.30 2.25 0.50 0.34 ------2.29 -- 0.52 0.74 0.75 47. N. sigmoidae 0.58 0.50 ------0.05 0.28 -- 48. Oscillataria spp. 6.60 1.30 2.58 1.25 0.42 0.58 5.17 0.17 1.20 0.67 -- 0.35 0.03 49. Pinnularia major ------1.25 -- 0.50 0.02 50. P. viridis 0.34 ------0.05 0.05 51. Pleurosigma eastuarii -- 0.34 -- 0.58 0.50 ------0.08 0.20 0.28 0.07 52. P. angulatum -- 0.25 0.42 0.42 0.25 -- 0.25 -- 0.42 -- 0.32 -- 0.28 P. angulatum var. 53. ------0.87 ------0.18 -- 0.03 quadratum 54. P. falx 2.75 2.50 ------0.67 -- 0.50 -- 0.40 0.53 0.25 Scenedesmus 0.34 -- 0.67 0.58 -- -- 0.17 -- -- 1.08 0.15 0.70 -- 55. quadricauda 56. Surirella tenera -- 1.34 0.08 0.08 0.08 -- 0.34 ------0.12 0.06 0.40 57. S. fustuosa ------0.17 -- -- 0.17 ------0.05 0.05 58. Tropidoneis lepidoptera 3.70 0.50 0.83 0.92 -- -- 0.50 ------0.38 0.85 0.70 37.44 18.78 45.86 26.0 17.55 16.6 21.1 4.05 46.71 10.99 (Stations: Thannirmukkam-1, Murinjapuzha-2, Panavally-3, Vaduthala-4, Kumbalam-5, Bolgatty-6, Chittoor-7, Eloor-8, Karthedom-9 and Munambam-10; Seasons: Pre-monsoon, Monsoon and Post- monsoon) pH: pH showed not much seasonal and concentrations were 0.36, 0.66 and 1.83  spatial variation (fig.2). There was decrease g at. /l respectively. in pH during monsoon, followed by a gradual increase during pre and post Phosphate: The concentration of inorganic monsoon. Comparatively high values were phosphate varied from 1.00 ?g at. /l at observed during pre monsoon and the station 3 to 5.43  g at. /l at station 7, and highest value being observed at station 6 showed significant seasonal and spatial and 10, which are nearer to sea. The variation (fig.3). Seasonally the values minimum pH of 6.8 was recorded at station ranged from 2.73  g at. /l (pre monsoon 8 and maximum (7.9) at station 10. and monsoon) to 2.91  g at. /l (post monsoon). As in the concentration of nitrite Reactive silicate: Spatially the inorganic phosphate also showed lower concentration (fig.2) varied from 10.7  g at. values in the southern stations. /l (station 8) to 14.8 g at. /l (station 3). Lowest value was recorded during pre Dissolved oxygen: Comparatively high monsoon season (7.02  g at. /l) and values of oxygen were observed (fig.3) with highest during monsoon (16.85  g at. /l). slight variation ranging from 5ml/l (station Though silicate is essential for cell wall of 8) to 5.8 ml/l (station 3). Seasonally also diatoms, the observed values did not variation was little. showed any correlation with species composition and cell number. Floral composition: Benthic microalgae in the estuary exhibited seasonal and spatial Nitrite: The concentration of nitrite varied variation in their composition (Table. 1). from 0.25  g at. /l to 2.78  g at. /l at station Average number of species varied from 9 8. It was found that the southern station was (station 8) to 23 (stations 1 and 3). Maximum with lower concentration than that of northern number of cells/ m2 were observed at station (fig.3) station. During pre monsoon, 9 (46.71 X 106 cells/m2 ) with 18 number of monsoon and post monsoon seasons, the species, followed by station 3 (45.86 X 106 ECO-CHRONICLE 117 Fig. 2: Variation of salinity, silicate and pH at 2. At station 3, Cymbella species, various stations Navicula arenaria, Caloneis var. distoma and Merismopedia hydrographic parameters elegans were the dominant species with a contribution of 20 58%. Out of 21 species at station 15 salinity 4, the dominant species were 10 Silicate Caloneis brevis var. distoma and

ugm/l Cymbella species. Cymbella 5 pH species and Navicula arenaria 0 were found to be dominant 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 species at station 5, while stations Merismopedia elegans was the dominant species, the total Fig.3 Variation of Dissolved Oxygen, Nitrate and number of species being 18 at Phosphate at various stations. station 6 and contribute about 60% of the standing crop at the hydrographic parameters site. At station 7, Navicula arenaria and Nitzschia sigmoidae 6 together contributed more than 62% of the standing crop. The 4 DO NO2 industrially polluted area at Eloor

ugm/l 2 PO4 (station 8) did not show the dominance of any species, the 0 standing crop and the number of 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 species being the minimum. stations Cymbella species found to dominant microalgae at station 9 Fig.4: Variation of cell counts (X106 cells) and with a contribution of about 35% number of species observed in each stations followed by Caloneis brevis var. distoma (10%). At station 10, biological factors Navicula arenaria was found to be the dominant species. Species of 50 Cymbella and Oscillatoria were 40 cell counts observed at all stations while other 30 dominant species like Navicula 20 species arenaria, Merismopedia and 10 number Caloneis brevis var. distoma were 0 observed only at stations 5-8. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Each of these species also stations showed variation in their percentage contribution from station to station. These species cells/m2) fig-4. The least standing crop was were found to have some adverse impact observed at station 8 (4.05 X 106 cells/m2). on the distribution of other species. This At station 1 the dominant species were may be due to the antagonistic impact of Merismopedia elegans, Navicula arenaria the extracellular products released by these and Oscillatoria species and about 60 % of dominant species. Out of the 58 species, the standing crop was contributed by these only few species showed dominance over species with almost equal contribution. others. Contribution of standing crop by Among 16 species, Navicula arenaria was each species varied from station to station found to be the dominant species at station and season. 118 ECO-CHRONICLE Analysis of species composition showed Thannirmukkam and Murinjapuzha. that all species except 3 were pennate Members of cyanophycea like diatoms. This indicates that pennate Merismopedia elegans were observed at diatoms form the predominant microalgal Thannirmukkam and Oscillatoria spp, at flora in the benthic environment of Cochin almost all stations. The similarities in the estuary. Reduction in the number of species, occurrence of periphyton and micro standing crop and presence of Cocconeis phytobenthos showed their permanent placentula var. euglepta at station 8 projects occurrence in these stations. In addition to the magnitude of pollution at this station. these common occurrences, many species Studies carried out earlier on photosynthetic were found their place in other stations. Few pigment concentration and ratio between of the above species were ascribed by chlorophyll a and carotenoid of benthic Gopinathan (1984) in the study on littoral environment of the estuary (Sivadasan & diatoms of southwest coasts of India. Out Joseph, 1995) also support the finding that of the 55 species of diatoms, 17 were not station 8 is pollution. The maximum reported early and thus this study giving number of benthic microalgae recorded supplementary information to the diversity during monsoon may be due to recruited of microalgae of Cochin estuary. flora from nearby areas through run off water. Standing crop was not found to have CONCLUSION influence on the hydrographic parameters 95% of microphytobenthos are pennate such as salinity, pH, silicate, nitrite, diatoms exhibiting high diversity of species. phosphate and dissolved oxygen of the Benthic microalgae showed seasonal and water. The interstitial water would have spatial variation. Microphytobenthos did not direct impact on the distribution of show significant relationship with the microphytobenthos. hydrographic parameters. They may be depending on soil chemistry and may be Out of 58 species identified, 55 are pennate playing a major role in the biogeochemical diatoms. Sreekumar and Joseph (1995) cycling in the benthic environment. identified 57 pennate diatoms from the Observations at station 8, a comparatively same estuary as the composition of polluted area with minimum number of periphyton. Comparing the present study species showed the presence of indicator with that of the periphytons, 24 species were species. This suggest that these found to be common and many of the parameters can be used as indices for species showed their occurrence in the environmental impact assessment studies. same station. For example Amphora Cosmopolitan distributions of few species angusta at Bolgatty and Karthedom, indicate that these species may be more Amphora coffaeformis at Chittoor and adapted to this ecosystem. Dominance of Karthedom, Caloneis brevis at Kumbalam, five species may be due to the bioactive Diploneis subovalis at Chittoor, Gyrosigma compounds released by them. 24 diatoms balticum at Vaduthala, Gyrosigma spenceri were found to be common in periphytic and at Thannirmukkam, Vaduthala and benthic environment. 17 diatoms form new Kumbalam, Navicula hasta at Karthedom, distributional record from the estuary. Nitzschia closterium at Panavally, Bolgatty and Chittoor, Nitzschia sigma at Panavally, ACKNOWLEDGEMENT Vaduthala and Karthedom, Nitzschia sigmoideae at Thannirmukkam and Authors are thankful to the Director School Murinjapuzha, Pleurosigma eastuarii at of Marine Sciences, Cochin University, for Murinjapuzha, Vaduthala and Kumbalam, his encouragement and suggestions. First Pleurosigma angulatum at Vaduthala and author is thankful to the Principal and Head Karthedom, Pleurosigma falx at of Department of Plant Science, Mahatma Thannirmukkam, Surirella fustuosa at Gandhi Govt. Arts College, Mahe for their Vaduthala and Tropidoneis lepidoptera at supports. ECO-CHRONICLE 119 REFERENCES respiration in pelagic and benthic communities in two intertidal sites in the Bhattathiri, P.M.A., 1992; Primary production upper Bay of Fundy, Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. of tropical marine ecosystem ., Tropical 40, 1331-1342. Ecosystems Ecology and management. 269-276. Hendey, N.I, 1976: An introductory account of the smaller algae of the coastal waters, Cahoon, 1999. The role of benthic Part. V. Bacillariophycea (Diatoms), Fishery microalgae in neritic ecosystems, invest. Ser. 4; 1-317. Oceanography and Marine biology; An annual review., 37 pp 37-86. Jin Dexiang, Chang Zhaodi, Lin Junmin and Liu Shicheng, 1985: Marine benthic diatoms Cartlon, R and R. Wetzel, 1988, Phosphorus in China Vol. 1., pp.331 China Ocean Press, flux from lake sediments; Effects of epipelic Beijing. algal oxygen production. Limnol. Oceonogr., 33, 562-570. Jonsson Benno, 1991: A ­­14C incubation technique for measuring micro Desikachary, T.V. 1988; Marine diatoms of phytobenthic primary productivity in intact the Indian Ocean region, Atlas of diatoms, sediment cores, Limnol, Oceonogr. 36, Fasc. V. 1485-1492.

Desikachary, T.V and Prema, 1987 a: Joseph, K.J, 1988; Studies of some aspects Diatoms from Bay of Bengal, Atlas of of phytoplankton, PhD thesis, Cochin Univ. diatoms Fasc. III. Sci. and Tech. pp 217.

Desikachary, T.V, Hema, A, Prasad, A.K.S.K, Joseph, K.J and V. Kunjukrishna Pillai, 1975, Sreeletha, P.M, Sridharan, V.T and Seasonal and spatial distribution of Subrahmanyan, R, 1987 b: Marine Diatoms phytoplankters in Cochin backwater., Bull. from the Arabian sea and Indian Dept. Mar. Sci. Univ. Cochin, 7, 171-180. Ocean, Atlas of diatoms., Fasc. IV. Lamberti, G.A, S.V. Gregory, L.R. Ashkenas, Gopinathan, C.P, 1972, Seasonal A.D. Steiman and C.D.Mc Lntire, 1989, abundance of phytoplankton in the Cochin Productive capacity of periphyton as a backwaters, J. mar. boil. Ass. India 14(2), determinant of plant herbivore ineractions 568-572. in streams., Ecol., 70, 1840-1856.

Gopinathan, C.P, 1975: On the new Maclntyre, H.L., Geider, R.J and miller, D.C., distribution records of plankton diatoms 1996: Microphytobenthos; the ecological from the Indian Seas. J. Mar. boil. Ass. India, role of the ‘secret garden’ of un-investigated 17 (1); 223-240. shallow water marine habitats I, Distribution, abundance and primary Gopinathan, C.P., Nair and A.K.K. Nair, 1984, production, Estuaries., 19 pp 186-201. Quantitative ecology phytoplankton in the Cochin backwater, Indian J. Mar.Sci.,13 (3), Menon, M.A.S., 1945; Observation on the 325-346. seasonal distribution of the plankton of Trivandrum coast, Proc. Indian Acad. Sci. Hansson, L.A: 1992; Factors regulating 22, 31-62. periphytic algal biomass, Limnol. Oceonogr, 37, 322-328. Nair, P.V.R, K.J.Joseph. V.K. Balachandran and V.K. Pillai, 1975, A study of the primary Hargrave , B.T, N.J.Prouse, Philips and production in the Vembanad Lake, Bull. Neame: 1983; Primary production and Dept. Mar. Sci. Univ. Cochin 7(1); 161-170. 120 ECO-CHRONICLE Pillai, V.K., Joseph, K.J and Kesavan Nair, in the Cochin backwaters, Indian J. Mar. Sci. A.K., 1975, The plankton production in the 27, 1998, 323-327. Vembanad lake and adjacent waters in relation to the environmental parameters., Sivadasan, K.K and Joseph, K.J, 1997, Bull. Dept. Mar. Sci. Univ. Cochin, 7 (1), 137- Distribution and role of benthic microalgae 150. in Cochin estuary, J. Mar. boil. Ass. India, 39 (1 & 2) 27-32. Qasim, S.Z and C.V.G Reddy, 1967, The estimation of plant pigments of Cochin Sivadasan, K.K and Joseph, K.J, 1998, backwater during monsoon months Bull. Potential productivity of Microbenthic algae Mar. Sci. Gulg. Carrib., 17, 95-110. in Cochin estuary, J. Mar. boil. Ass. India, 40 (1& 2), 175-178. Qasim, S.Z., Bhattathiri, P.M.A and Abidi, S.A.H, 1968 Solar radiation and its Sivadasan, K.K and Joseph, K.J, 2006, New penetration in a tropical estuary, J. exp. Mar. distributional records of benthic diatoms boil. Ecol., 87-103. from Cochin estuary, Ecochronicle, 1 (1), 23-28.

Qasim, S.Z., Wellershus, S., Bhattathiri, Sreekumar, R and Joseph, K.J., 1995, P.M.A and Abidi, S.A.H., 1969: Organic Periphytic flora of Cochin backwaters, production in a tropical estuary, Proc. Indian Phykos, 34 (1 & 2) 83-89. Acad. Sci. 69 (B): 51-94. Sreekumar, R and Joseph, K.J., 1995, Qasim, S.Z., Vijayaraghavan, S., Joseph, Periphyton colonization in Cochin estuary, K.J., Balachandran, V.K., 1974, Contribution Indian, J. Mar. Sci., 24, 94-96. of microplankton and nannoplankton in the waters of tropical estuary. Indian J. Mar. Sci. Strickland JDH and Parsons T,R, 1977; A 3, 146-149. Practical handbook of sea water analyses, Bull. 167 (2nd edn.) Fisheries Research Bd Rasheed, K and A,N Balachand; 2000; Canada, Ottava, pp310. Photosynthetic pigments in relation to dredgingin Cochin harbour area; Indian J., Subrahmanyan , R., 1946; A systematic Mar, Sci. 29. pp 57-60. account of the marine plankton diatoms of Madras Coast, Proc. Indian Acad. Sci., 24, 85-197. Sankaranarayanan, V.N and Quazim, S, Z, 1969; Nutrients of Cochinbackwaters in Sumitra Vijayaraghavan, Joseph, K.J. and relation to environmental characters, Marine Balachandran, V.K., 1974: preliminary boil., 2, 236-247. studies on nannoplankton productivity. Mahasagar, 7, 125-129. Sivadasan, K.K and Joseph, K.J, 1995, Photosynthetic pigments of benthic Van Heurck, H 1896; A treatise on the microalgae in Cochin estuary, Indian J. Mar. Diatomaceae, pp572. Sci. 24, 231-232. Venketaraman, G; A systematic account of Sivadasan, K.K and Joseph, K.J, 1998, some south Indian diatoms, Proc. Indian Community structure of microalgal benthos Acad. Sci., 10 (6): 293-368. ECO-CHRONICLE 121

ECO-CHRONICLE, Vol.4., No. 2. June 2009, pp: 121 - 134 ISSN: 0973-4155

FUNGAL PRETREATMENT OF ALTERNATIVE CELLULOSIC SUBSTRATES FOR PAPER MAKING

Saranya, S., Sindhu Kuttan and Venkateswara Sarma, V.

Shri A.M.M. Murugappa Chettiar Research Centre, Taramani, Chennai, Tamil Nadu.

Corresponding author: [email protected]

ABSTRACT

The biopulping and biobleaching potential of selected basidiomycetous fungi namely Lentinus sp, Schizophyllum commune and three coelomycetous fungi namely Lasidiplodia theobromae, Pestalotiopsis sp and Phyllosticta sp was studied against jute and bagasse by assaying xylanase activity and by analyzing kappa number reduction after pretreatment of the raw materials with the above fungi. Amongst the basidiomycetous fungi, Schizophyllum commune showed better reduction in kappa number when grown on jute and bagasse. Amongst the coelomycetous strains, L. theobromae showed better reduction in kappa number. Solid state fermentation of wheat bran by all five fungi showed that L. theobromae exhibited high xylanase activity with low levels of cellulase production compared to the other four fungal strains studied. L. theobromae was hence used for further characterization of its xylanase and treatment of cellulosic raw material. The crude extract obtained from L. theobromae was subjected to fractionation by ammonium sulphate precipitation. A fold purity of 5.6 was obtained in the 40-60% ammonium sulphate fraction of crude extract of L. theobromae. The fraction was further characterized to determine the physical characteristics of xylanase. The optimum pH for xylanase activity was found to be 5.0. The temperature optimum was 60oC. The enzyme was more stable at pH 7.0 and at a temperature of 40oC. SDS-PAGE profile of the ammonium sulphate precipitated fractions indicates that the xylanase of L. theobromae has a molecular weight of ~ 40KDa. Enzyme activity staining of partially purified ammonium sulphate fraction showed xylan hydrolytic bands in the region corresponding to that of the crude sample. Treatment of jute and bagasse with the crude extract of L theobromae resulted in 19% reduction in kappa number in the case of jute and 18.6% reduction in kappa number in the case of bagasse.

Key words: Coelomycetous fungi, white rot fungi, biopulping, biobleaching, kappa number, xylanase assay.

INTRODUCTION (iv) Reduced environmental pollution. Microorganisms such as bacteria and fungi Biopulping is the softening of wood chips are tried and employed in biotechnology of by microbial treatment, rather than chemical paper production. More than bacteria and or mechanical methods, prior to pulping actinomycetes, fungi are more efficient in (Akhtar, 1994). Advantages of biopulping biopulping. The only organisms capable of include (i) Reduced electrical energy mineralizing lignin efficiently are White rot consumption, (ii) Improved paper strength basidiomycetes (Kirk, 1993). These fungi properties, (iii) Reduced pitch contents and preferentially degrade the syringyl units of 122 ECO-CHRONICLE lignin. During the past ten years, the number that the pretreatment of pulps in the of possible applications of enzymes in pulp laboratory with xylanase facilitates their and paper manufacture has grown steadily. subsequent chemical bleaching. A reduced These include enzymatic bleaching with consumption of chlorine containing xylanases, pitch removal with lipases and reagents without affecting the target removal of lignin from pulp with lignin brightness of the pulp was observed (Senior degrading enzymes which includes (i) et al., 2005). Lignin Peroxidase, (ii) Laccase and (iii) Manganese Peroxidases (Kirk and Farrell, In the present study the bio pulping potential 1987). The biopulping potential of of two white rot basidiomycetes namely Phanerochaete chrysosporium, a well Lentinus sp and Schizophyllum commune known lignin degrading fungus was first and 3 coelomycetous fungi were studied. studied in Swedish forest products Coelomycetes are parasites and saprobes laboratory (Ander and Erikkson, 1976). Bar of terrestrial plants inhabiting twigs, Lev et al. (1982) reported that treatment of a branches and leaves of various plants. They coarse mechanical pulp with are not well known lignin degraders yet their Phanerochaete chrysosporium decreased biopulping potential against jute and the energy required for further fiberization bagasse is examined in the present study. and increased paper strength properties. Extensive and uncontrolled use of forest Akamatsu et al (1984) found that treatment based raw materials to meet the increasing of wood chips with Trametes sanguinea, demand for paper and paper products has T.coccinea and Coriolus hirsutus increased lead to scarcity of raw materials. To paper strength properties. Akhtar et al. overcome this, now a days, non-woody raw (1992) reported the biomechanical pulping materials such as bagasse, jute, kenaf, flax of loblolly pine with five different strains of are used. In the present study, however, jute the white rot fungus Ceriporiopsis and bagasse were used as raw materials subvermispora. Energy consumption during for paper making by fungal pretreatment. fiberising and refining was reduced by 21- 37%. Kirk et al (1993) examined several MATERIALS AND METHODS hundred species and strains of lignin degrading fungi and observed that the Organisms and culture conditions fungus Ceriporiopsis subvermispora was the best for saving pulping energy and Cultures of basidiomycetous fungi namely improving paper strength properties with Lentinus sp and Schizophyllum commune pine and aspen woods. Pretreatment of and the coelomycetous fungi namely these raw materials with this fungus Lasidiplodia theobromae, Pestalotiopsis sp. reduced the energy required for pulping by and Phyllosticta sp. were procured from the 40%. Centre for Advanced Studies in Botany, University of Madras. Potato Dextrose Agar While lignin degrading enzymes degrade (pH-5.6) was prepared and all the lignin and provide a pulp the xylanolytic organisms were sub cultured into sterile enzymes help in color removal which is PDA slants and plates. Well grown cultures known as biobleaching. Xylanolytic on solid agar plates were cut and 3 discs of enzymes are a group of enzymes that are the test fungi were transferred to the flasks involved in hydrolysis of xylans and and were incubated for 5 days at room arabinoxylan polymers. They include endo temperature in a shaker at 180 rpm. For 1, 4 β-Xylanase, β-Xylosidase, α- submerged fermentation, 100g of Jute and arabinofuranosidase and acetyl xylan Bagasse were weighed and washed with esterase (Biely, 1993). Xylanases hydrolyse running water to flush away dirt. They were 1,4 β-D xylosidic linkages in xylan to produce then taken in separate 5 liter flasks xylo-oligosaccharides (Collins et. al., 2005). containing 1350ml of tap water. The flasks Viikari et al. (1986) reported for the first time were sterilized at 121oC for 20 mts at 15 lb ECO-CHRONICLE 123 pressure. After cooling, 150 ml of inoculum (Bailey et al., 1992; Miller, 1960). One unit of was added and incubated for 2 weeks. For activity (U) is defined as the amount of solid substrate fermentation, 100g of jute enzyme capable of releasing reducing and bagasse were weighed and washed sugars equivalent to one µmole of xylose with running water. They were taken in per minute under the described assay separate 5 liter flasks containing 1350 ml conditions. Protein was estimated of tap water. They were boiled for 30mts. according to Lowry et al. (1951). The water was drained out and the jute and bagasse were squeezed to remove the Ammonium Sulfate Precipitation and remaining water. The flasks were sterilized Dialysis at 121oC for 15mts at 15 lb pressure. The cultures grown in shake flasks 50 ml was The crude extract of the coelomycetous poured on the substrate and hand shaken fungus, Lasidiplodia theobromae, was for equal distribution. The flasks were fractionated by precipitation with incubated for two weeks at room ammonium sulfate between 0-100 percent temperature. of saturation. The resultant fractionated proteins were re-suspended in 0.005 M Pulping sodium citrate buffer (pH 5.3) and dialyzed against the same buffer. A Hollander beater of the capacity of 3Kg was used and the ground pulp was used Characterization of Partially Purified for making hand made sheets. The treated Xylanase of L.theobromae raw materials were washed thoroughly in 2 Determination of pH Optima or 3 changes of water to remove the mycelial pieces. The washing was done until the The pH optimum of partially purified color of water was clear. The beater was L.theobromae xylanase was determined cleaned and was fed with a little quantity of using different buffers between pH 3.0 and fiber suspended in excess of water. The rest 9.0: (0.05 M McIlvaine buffer, pH 3.0; 0.05 M of the fiber was fed slowly at 5mts interval. Sodium acetate buffer, pH 4.0; 0.05 M The control knob was first kept at the coarse sodium citrate buffer, pH 5.0 & 6.0; 0.05 M setting by raising it, to facilitate initial sodium phosphate buffer, pH 7.0 & 8.0 and breakdown of fiber. After 20mts of beating, 0.05 M sodium carbonate buffer, pH 9.0). the knob was tightened to facilitate fine The maximum activity was considered as grinding of pulp for about 10mts. Beating 100% and other activities were expressed was stopped once complete defibrillation as relative activities. occurred resulting in fine particles of raw material dispersed in water. Determination of Temperature optima

Kappa number estimation The temperature optimum of partially purified L.theobromae xylanase was Kappa number is defined as an estimation determined by measuring the relative activity of consumption of 0.1 N potassium of different temperatures ranging from 30- permanganate solution (volume in 90oC at its optimum pH. milliliters) by one gram of moisture-free pulp under the conditions specified for the pH Stability method (Kirk . Thet al., 1983) Then the results are corrected to 50% consumption The effect of pH on the stability of partially of permanganate added as per the Test purified L.theobromae xylanase was method T- 236 OM-99 (TAPPI, 1999). The determined by incubating the enzyme at xylanolytic and cellulolytic activities and various pH (3-9) for 30mts at room reducing sugar estimations were carried temperature. Then the residual activities out using dinitrosalicylic acid reagent were measured at optimal pH. The 124 ECO-CHRONICLE maximum activity was considered as 100% enzyme extract of L. theobromae so and other activities were expressed as obtained was analyzed for xylanase activity relative activities. and used to treat jute and bagasse prior to pulping. Temperature Stability Treatment of jute and bagasse with crude The effect of temperature on the stability of extract of L. theobromae partially purified L.theobromae xylanase was determined by incubating the enzyme 100 g each of jute and bagasse were at various temperatures ranging from 30- weighed and taken in 5L Erlenmeyer flasks 90oC for 30mts and assaying the residual containing 250 ml of distilled water. The activities at optimal temperature. flasks were sterilized at 121oC for 15mts at 15lb pressure. 2L each of crude extract of SDS-PAGE Analysis L.theobromae was then added to each of the flasks containing jute and bagasse and The ammonium sulphate precipitated incubated for 4, 8 and 12 hours respectively fractions along with the crude extract of at 60oC. They were then rinsed with water L.theobromae were subjected to 10% SDS- and subjected to pulping. The handmade PAGE analysis by the method of Laemmli sheets prepared from enzyme treated jute (1970). The gels were visualized by staining and bagasse were air-dried and the extent with Coomassie Brilliant Blue R-250. of lignin degradation was assayed by kappa number estimation. Untreated jute and Zymogram Analysis bagasse were also pulped and were used as controls. Enzyme activity staining of L. theobromae crude extract and ammonium sulphate RESULTS precipitated fractions was performed as described by Lee et al (1993). The 10% SDS Different sets of experiments were separating gel was incorporated with 0.1 % conducted in the present study. They were (w/v) beechwood xylan. 0.1% Congo red 1) Screening of fungi for xylanase production solution was used for staining and the gel by submerged fermentation of jute and was destained with 1 M NaCl to visualize bagasse; 2) Screening of fungi for xylanase the xylan hydrolytic bands. production by Solid state fermentation of jute and bagasse; 3) Screening of fungi for xylanase production by Solid substrate Study of the Effect of L. theobromae Crude fermentation of wheat bran; 4) Partial Extract on Jute and Bagasse purification and physical characterization of L. theobromae xylanase. 5) Treatment of Preparation of L. theobromae Crude jute and bagasse with crude extract of L. Extract (SSF) theobromae under optimum pH and temperature conditions. Six hundred grams of wheat bran was taken in a 5L Erlenmeyer flask with 1350ml of tap Screening of fungi for xylanase production water and sterilized at 121oC for 15mts at by Submerged fermentation of jute and 15 lb pressure. The flasks were inoculated bagasse with actively growing culture of Lasidiplodia theobromae maintaining a 10% inoculum. Initially the two basidiomycetous fungi were The flasks were incubated at room grown under submerged fermentation temperature for 5 days. After 5 days the conditions with jute or bagasse as the only contents of the flasks were extracted with 6 carbon source. These two substrates were liters of 0.05 M sodium citrate buffer, pH 5.3 chopped into 2-3 cm sized bits and by agitating at 180 rpm for 30mts. The crude transferred to 5L flasks as explained in the ECO-CHRONICLE 125 materials and methods section. After 5 days decrease in kappa number while Lentinus of growth the culture filtrates were tested for sp. could show a reduction of only 12.9% in xylanase activity. The samples containing the Kappa No. the substrate were autoclaved to kill the fungal culture and then ground in a 3Kg In the case of bagasse as the substrate, beater to make the pulp. The fungal more xylanase activity was shown by S. pretreated samples were compared with commune on this substrate (75.8 IU/g) that of the control samples autoclaved in when compared to Lentinus sp. (32.3%). tap water but maintained without fungal However, as far as Kappa no. reduction is pretreatment. concerned both the basidiomycetous fungi showed a higher percentage reduction i.e. The results show that while Lentinus sp. 25.49% by Lentinus sp. and 28.76% by S. and Schizophyllum commune have a commune (Table 2). xylanase activity of 630 IU/L and 590 IU/L on jute, there was a significant difference in It was also our interest to check how other the kappa no. reduction on this substrate. groups of fungi perform in the area of Thus S. commune could reduce Kappa no. biopulping and biobleaching . Hence 3 up to 16.6%, while Lentinus sp. could reduce coelomycetous fungi were tried in the only 2.62% (Table 1). In the case of bagasse present study and treated with jute and both the fungi have shown a higher xylanase bagasse. Of the 3 coelomycetous fungi viz. activity i.e. 3100 IU/L and 3650 IU/L by Pestalotiopsis sp., Phyllosticta sp. and Lentinus sp. and S. commune respectively. Lasiodiplodia theobromae the latter fungus As far as Kappa no. is concerned Lentinus showed a better performance. Under solid sp. showed higher percentage reduction substrate fermentation with jute or bagasse (21.76%) when compared to S. commune as the substrate L. theobromae could show (15%) (Table 1). 53.9 IU/g initial dry substrate in the case of jute and 28.8 IU/g initial dry substrate in the Screening of fungi for xylanase production case of bagasse. Similarly a higher by Solid state fermentation of jute and percentage of kappa number reduction was bagasse shown by this fungus i.e. 11.7% on jute and 15.2% on bagasse (Table 3). In the second experiment, the two basidiomycetous fungi were grown under Screening of fungi for xylanase production solid state conditions as explained in by Solid substrate fermentation of wheat materials and methods. For measuring the bran xylanase activity, the fungus-grown substrate was extracted with buffer and the From the literature (Kamra and substrate samples were also ground in a Satynarayana, 2004) it was found that wheat beater to produce pulp for Kappa number bran is one of the best substrates for the estimation (see materials and methods). production of xylanases through solid state The results are presented in Table 2. fermentation method. Hence wheat bran was used as the substrate and treated with There was not much difference between the both basidiomycetous and coelomycetous two basidiomycetous fungi as far as fungi as described in materials and xylanase activity is concerned on Jute, methods. It was found that L. theobromae although Lentinus sp. showed slightly and Pestalotiopsis sp. could show more higher xylanase activity (23.2 IU/g initial dry xylanolytic activity than the 2 substrate) when compared to S.commune basidiomycetous fungi (Table 4). These 2 (18.9 IU/g initial dry substrate). However coelomycetous fungi also showed a lesser there was a significant difference in Kappa cellulolytic activity. An organism capable of no. on this substrate brought about by these producing xylanase without/with little two fungi. Thus S. commune showed 23% cellulase is desirable for use in biopulping. 126 ECO-CHRONICLE Table 1. Biopulping potential of basidiomycetous fungi under submerged fermentation conditions using jute / bagasse Substrate Organism Xylanase Kappa % Reduction IU/L number in kappa number Jute Control Nil 45.08 - Lentinus sp. 630.0 40.08 2.62% Schizophyllum 590.0 35.2 16.6% commune Bagasse Control Nil 16.31 - Lentinus sp. 3100 12.76 21.76% Schizophyllum 3650 13.85 15% commune Table 2. Biopulping Potential of Basidiomycetous Fungi under Solid Substrate Fermentation Conditions using jute / bagasse Organism Substrate Xylanase Kappa % reduction in IU/g initial dry No Kappa No substrate Jute Lentinus sp. 23.2 40.08 12.49% Schizophyllum Jute 18.9 35.2 23.14% commune Jute Control No Activity 45.8 - Bagasse Lentinus sp. 32.3 12.12 25.69% Schizophyllum Bagasse 75.8 11.62 28.76% commune Bagasse Control No Activity 16.31 - Table 3. Biopulping Potential of Coelomycetous Fungi under Solid Substrate Fermentation using jute / bagasse Organism Substrate Xylanase IU/g Kappa No. % reduction initial dry in Kappa No. substrate Jute Pestalotia sp. 2.6 41.80 3.5% Jute Phyllosticata sp. 9.5 40.36 6.8% Lasidiplodia Jute 53.9 38.25 11.7% theobromae Jute Control No Activity 43.31 - Bagasse Pestalotia sp. 13.5 30.67 2.2% 14.1 Phyllosticta sp. Bagasse 29.35 6.4% Lasidiplodia 28.8 Baggase 26.61 15.2% theobromae Baggase Control No Activity 31.36 - ECO-CHRONICLE 127 Table 4. Comparison of xylanase and cellulase activities of Basidiomycetous and Coelomycetous fungi on wheat bran under solid state fermentation Organism Xylanase Protein Specific Cellulase Specific IU/g initial (mg/ml) Activity IU/g initial Activity dry substrate (U/mg of dry substrate (U/mg of Protein) protein) Lentinus sp. 103 0.288 35.71 13.25 9.2 S. commune 113 0.064 175.1 37.5 118. Pestalotia sp. 205 0.756 27 1.4 0.38 Phyllosticta sp. 58.7 0.576 10.2 4.0 1.4 L. theobromae 881.6 0.875 100.7 16.1 3.6 Table 5. Xylanase activity of various ammonium sulfate precipitated fractions of crude enzyme extract obtained from L. theobromae grown on solid substrate fermentation on wheat bran % Ammonium Xylanase Protein Specific Activity Fold Purity sulfate fractionation IU/ml/s (mg/ml) (U/mg of protein) Crude extract 88.2 0.875 100.8 -

0-40 2.5 0.416 6 0.06 40-60 636 1.126 564.8 5.6 60-80 112.7 0.312 45.1 0.45 80-100 2.76 0.08 34.5 0.34

Table 6. Effect of Treatment of Crude Extract of L.theobromae on Jute and Bagasse

Kappa Number % % % Substrate Control 4h 8h 12h reduction reduction reduction Jute 45.43 42.53 6.4 38.44 15.4 36.74 19.1

Bagasse 31.36 25.52 18.6 29.46 6.0 30.36 3.2

Among the 5 test organisms L. theobromae the 5 different fractions, 40-60% saturation produced xylanase in higher amount with showed highest xylanase activity with a fold low levels of cellulase activity. Hence L. purity of 5.6. theobromae was selected for further studies. The partially purified L. theobromae xylanase was tested for its optimum pH and Partial purification and physical temperature. It was found that the xylanase characterization of L.theobromae activity was maximum at pH 5.0 and at 50- xylanase. 70oC (Figs. 1-2). Experiments were also conducted for the stability of the enzyme at The crude enzyme extract of L. theobromae different pH and temperature conditions. It was fractionated with ammonium sulfate was found that the partially purified xylanase and the individual fractions were then of L. theobromae was more stable at pH assayed for xylanase activity (Table 5). Of 6.5-7.5 and at 40oC (Figs. 3-4). SDS-PAGE 128 ECO-CHRONICLE Table 7. Xylanase activity of different fungi based on literature and the present study

Name of the organism Units U/g Reference Thermoascus aurantiacus 500 Dos Santos et al., 2003 Humicola lanuginosa 2050 Kitpreechavanich, 1984 T. aurantiacus 2700 Souza et al., 1999 Trichoderma reesei and 2842 Gutierrez and Tangerdy, 1998 Aspergillus niger Aspergillus niger mutant 5071 Park et al., 2002 Aspergillus niger 5147 Cai et al., 1997 T. aurantiacus 6193 Kalogeris et al., 1998 Melanocarpus albomyces 7000 Narang et al., 2001 Trichoderma hamatum 7600 Szakaes et al, 1999 Humicola lanuginosa 7832 Kamra and Satyanarayana, 2004 Lentinus sp 103 Present study Schizophyllum. commune 113 Present study Pestalotia sp 205 Present study Phyllosticta sp 58 Present study Lasiodiplodia theobromae 882 Present study

Figure1. Determination of pH optima of Figure 2. Determination of temperature L.theobromae xylanase optima of L.theobromae xylanase

pH optimization Temperature Optimization

120 120

100 100

80 80

60 RA 60 RA Relative Relative activity(%) Relative activity(%) Relative 40 40

20 20

0 0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 pH Temperature(c)

Figure 3. Effect of pH on the stability of Figure1. Determination of pH optima of xylanase of L.theobromae L.theobromae xylanase

pH stability Temperature stability

120 120

100 100

80 (%) 80

60 RA 60 RA Relative Relative activity Relative Relative activity(%) 40 40

20 20

0 0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 pH Temperature(c) Xylanase obtained from Lasidiplodia sp showed maximum stability at neutral pH (7.0) ECO-CHRONICLE 129 Figure 5. SDS - PAGE analysis of Figure 6. Zymogram analysis of L.theobromae xylanase purification ammonium sulphate fractionated proteins products of L.theobromae xylanase 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 4 5

45

35 20 14.4

Lane 1 – Molecular weight marker proiteins (45 Lane 1 - 0 – 40% Fraction; Lane 2 - 80 – 100% KDa, 35 KDa, 20 KDa, 14.4 KDa); Lane 2 - Crude Fraction; Lane 3 - 60 – 80% Fraction; Lane 4 - 40 Extract; Lane 3 – 40-60% fraction; Lane 4 – 60- – 60 % Fraction; and Lane 5 - Crude Extract 80% fraction; Lane 5 – 0-40% fraction; and Lane 6 – 80-100% profiles of the crude extract of L.theobromae cellulosic raw materials with bacteria/fungi and different ammonium sulphate that are known to degrade plant cell wall fractionated samples were obtained. The components or by treatment with enzymes partially purified fraction was found to have produced by such organisms. Xylanases a molecular weight of ~40KDa. and Lignin Modifying Enzymes comprise the major enzymes that degrade the hemicellulose and lignin components of Treatment of jute and bagasse with crude plant cell wall material. Among these extract of L.theobromae under optimum enzymes, xylanases are known to play a pH and temperature conditions primary role in cell wall degradation. The bond between lignin and hemicellulose is Treatment of jute and bagasse with crude primarily between lignin and xylan, which is enzyme extract of L.theobromae resulted broken down by the action of xylanase. Once in a 19.1% reduction in kappa number in this bond is broken, lignin is made the case of jute after 12 hours of treatment accessible for the action of lignin modifying at 60°C and 18.6% reduction in kappa enzymes (Eriksson et al., 1990). number in the case of bagasse after 4 hours of treatment (Table 6). In the present study, the biopulping potential of two basidiomycetous and 3 DISCUSSION coelomycetous fungi procured from Madras University were studied. The The denudation of forest cover as well as Basidiomycetous fungus Lentinus sp environmental risks posed by the use of produced xylanase of 630 IU/L and 23.2 IU/ chemicals in the pulp and paper industry g by submerged and solid state fermentation has made it imperative to look for alternative, respectively, when jute was used as the eco-friendly means of paper production. substrate. Schizophyllum commune One such alternative is the use of produced 590 IU/L and 18.9 IU/g respectively agricultural wastes such as sugarcane under submerged and solid state bagasse and the use of fibre crops such as fermentation conditions. Solid state jute, kenaf, etc., as raw materials. Attempts fermentation of jute using coelomycetous are being made to replace or minimize the fungi namely Lasidiplodia theobromae, use of chemicals by resorting to biological Pestalotia sp. and Phyllosticta sp. showed treatment of raw materials for paper 53.9 IU/g, 2.6 IU/g, 95.36 IU/g of xylanase production. This is achieved by treating activity respectively. Sonia et al., (2005) 130 ECO-CHRONICLE reported that Thermomyces lanuginosus commune, L. theobromae, Pestalotiopsis D2W3 produced 402 IU of xylanase when sp., Phyllosticta sp. yielded 103 IU/g, 113 jute was used as a substrate. Ghosh et al., IU/g, 881.6 IU/g, 205 IU/g, 58.7 IU/g xylanase (1993) reported that 33 U/mg xylanase was and 13.25 IU/g, 37.5 IU/g, 16.1 IU/g, 1.4 IU/ produced by Aspergillus sydowii MG49 via g, 4.0 IU/g cellulose respectively. The submerged fermentation using jute as a literature shows that there are organisms substrate. that produce higher amount of xylanases. For example, solid substrate fermentation The Basidiomycetous fungi Lentinus sp of wheat bran using Streptomyces sp produced 3100 IU/L and 32.3 IU/g under yielded 2360 U/g xylanase when incubated submerged and solid substrate for 7days (Beg et al., 2001). Thermoascus fermentation conditions respectively, when aurantiacus BJT 190 yielded 706 IU of bagasse was used as the substrate while xylanase when wheat bran was used as Schizophyllum commune produced 3650 substrate (Alam et al., 1994). It is interesting IU/L and 75.8 IU/g respectively under to find that T. aurantiacus produced higher submerged and solid substrate xylanase activity (2700U/g) when bagasse fermentation conditions (Tables 1 &2). was used as a substrate (Souza et al., 1999) Bagasse was found to be a better substrate than when wheat bran was used as the when compared to jute for both the substrate. Contrary was true in the case of organisms. Since increased xylanase L. theobromae and other fungi tested in the production and better lignin degradation present study where in they showed higher was observed under solid substrate xylanase activity when grown on wheat bran fermentation, the biopulping potential of (Table 4) than on bagasse (Tables 1-4). In coelomycetous fungi was studied under fact L. theobromae showed a 40-fold Solid State Fermentation (SSF). increase when wheat bran was used as a substrate and the crude enzyme extract was Thus, Solid state fermentation of bagasse assayed for xyalanse activity (Tables 3 & 4). using coelomycetous fungi namely L. Though enhanced xylanse production by L. theobromae, Pestalotiopsis sp. and theobromae on wheat bran is an interesting Phyllosticta sp. resulted in production of finding when compared to other 28.8 IU/g, 13.5 IU/g, 14.1 IU/g (International coelomycetous and basidiomyceteous Units / g) of xylanase respectively. Solid state fungi investigated in the present study the fermentation of bagasse using Arthrobacter values are still 10 times lesser than the sp MTCC5214 resulted in production of xylanase activity shown by some 17.29 IU xylanase when incubated for 10 thermophilic fungi (Table 7; vide Kamra and days (Khandeparker et al., 2006). Solid state Satyanarayana, 2004). In table 7 it could be fermentation of bagasse using seen that that same species i.e. Thermoascus aurantiacus ATCC204492 Thermoascus aurantiacus from one study resulted in production of 2700 U/g xylanase has shown 500 U/g xylanase activity and when incubated for 10 days (Souza et al., 2700 U/g and 6193 U/g xylanase in other 1999). Bagasse is one of the widely studies (Table 7). The same is the case available substrate for paper industry if it is with Humicola lanuginosa where 2050 U/g not used for co-generation in sugar mills. has been reported in one study while Kamra One of the fungi tested in the present study and Satyanarayana (2004) have reported viz. Lasidiplodia theobromae showed 7832 U/g in a different study (Table 7). The production of xylanase up to 28.8 IU/g on reasons could be that these fungal species bagasse and 53.19 IU/g on jute of initial dry were collected from different sources. substrate. This result shows that some Taking a cue from other studies it could be coelomycetous species are better in surmised that the coelomycetes studied in xylanase production but not to the extent of the present study, though showed relatively some of the thermophilic fungi such as low activity, it is encouraging that more Thermoascus aurantiacus which produced coelomycetous fungal strains should be 2700 U/g (Souza et al., 1999). taken up for screening for xylanases. This is more so as most of the fungi listed in Solid substrate fermentation of wheat bran table 7 belong to the group hyphomycetes using Lentinus sp, Schizophyllum and this could be due to the fact that few ECO-CHRONICLE 131 coelomycetous fungi could have been xylanase obtained from L. theobromae investigated. showed maximum stability at neutral pH (7.0). Though maximum enzyme activity was o Xylanase is the common name given for a recorded at 60 C the enzyme stability was o group of enzymes with different molecular maximum at 40 C. This is unlike most other weights and structures that are involved in fungal xylanases which are stable at higher o the degradation of xylan. Hence it was of temperatures ranging from 75-100 C interest to know the characteristics of (Durand et al., 1984). xylanases produced by different organisms (Park et al., 2002). Since Lasidiplodia Biopulping theobroame has produced highest xylanase activity in the present study, this organism Kappa number reduction as an indicator of alone has been taken up for further studies lignin degradation or modification is on the characterization of the xylanases. routinely practiced in various laboratories Ammonium sulphate fractionation of culture to assess the pulping efficiency whether it filtrate obtained from solid substrate is chemical, mechanical or biological. The fermentation of L. theobromae showed kappa number is used as a criterion for the maximum xylanase activity at 40-60% lignin content of pulp and determined as fraction (636 IU/ml/s) with a specific activity the volume of 0.1 N KMNO4 consumed by 1 of 564.8 U/mg protein. Ammonium sulphate g of moisture free pulp. In the present study fractionation of culture filtrate obtained from we have carried out kappa number Aspergillus niger NIOCC Isolate3 showed estimation for various pretreatments with maximum xylanase activity at 50-80% different fungi tested. Though we have not fraction (20.1U) with a specific activity of 18.9 carried out any tests on lignin modifying U/mg protein (Raghukumar, et. al., 2004). enzymes the kappa number estimation and This result shows that the particular fraction the reduction in kappa number is of the culture filtrate of L. theobromae could discussed as biopulping potential of be purified and its applications in paper individual fungi tested. It is also a known industry for biobleaching need to be fact that when xylanases degrade xylan, explored after carrying out further studies. lignin is released from the lignocellulosic matrix thus giving access to the lignin SDS-PAGE analysis showed three protein degrading enzymes. Hence kappa number bands in the crude extract corresponding to estimation also provides an indirect a molecular weight <45 KDa, approximately evidence on the xylanolytic activity of an equal to 35 KDa,>20 KDa respectively. The organism. 0-40%,40-60%,60-80%,80-100% ammonium sulfate precipitated fractions Initially the basidiomycetous fungi were showed single bands respectively of grown on jute and bagasse as substrates molecular weights approximately equal to under submerged fermentation conditions 35 KDa,<45 KDa, <45 KDa ,>20 KDa. to check their biopulping potential. Zymogram analysis revealed xylanase Accordingly the treated and control samples activity band in crude extract and an enzyme of jute and bagasse were ground with a 3 activity band corresponding to it in the 40- k.g. capacity Hollander beater. The pulp 60% fraction (Fig.6). produced was made into hand made sheets. Then the kappa number reduction Xylanases obtained from L. theobromae in the treated versus control samples was showed maximum activity at a pH of 5.0. analyzed. In this study it was found that a This pH optimum was almost similar to that reduction of 21.76% in the kappa number obtained from Aspergillus foetidus and achieved by Lentinus sp. when jute was Thermoascus aurantiacus which had a pH pretreated but a far less reduction (2.6%) optima of 5.0-5.5 (Shah and Madamwar, when bagasse was treated. However in the 2005). The enzyme showed maximum case of Schizophyllum commune more activity at 60oC which was almost similar to percentage reduction in kappa number was most of the mesophilic fungal xylanases e.g. recorded on both bagasse (15%) and Jute Penicillium sp. which had temperature (16.6%) (Table 1). Our interest was to study optima of 55oC. (Durand et al., 1984). Also the biopulping potential of the 132 ECO-CHRONICLE basidiomycetous fungi and also the that white rot fungi are known to be more coelomycetous fungi under solid state efficient in producing the lignin modifying fermentation conditions. Hence all the 5 enzymes. However such a generalization fungi were used for pretreatment of jute and leads to a bias towards white rot fungi thus bagasse. A 12.5%, 23.2%, 11.7%, 3.5%, discouraging research with other groups of 6.8% reduction in kappa number was fungi. Several xylaracious fungi have also obtained during the treatment of jute with been implicated in lignin degradation Lentinus sp, Schizophyllum commune, L. (Bajpai et al., 1999). Scattered studies show theobromae, Pestalotiopsis sp, Phyllosticta that anamorphic fungi also have biopulping sp respectively (Tables 2 and 3). A 25.7%, potential. For example Narkhede and 28.8%, 15.2%, 2.2%, 6.4%, reduction in Vidhale (2005) have shown that a mutant kappa number was obtained during the strain of Curvularia lunata isolated from treatment of bagasse with Lentinus sp, paper mill effluent could show up to 40% Schizophyllum commune, L. theobromae, reduction in the kappa number which is not Pestalotia sp. & Phyllosticta sp. respectively far behind the chemical pulping wherein (Tables 2 and 3). Akin to submerged 55% reduction was realized. The results of fermentation results in solid state the present study show that out of the 3 fermentation conditions also Lentinus sp. coelomycetous fungi studied L. shown more percentage reduction in kappa theobromae could show up to 15% number when bagasse was pretreated with reduction in the kappa number when it than jute. Schizophyllum commune, compared to basidiomycetous fungi such however, seems to be the best organism as Lentinus sp. and Schizophyllum among all the 5 fungi tested in the reduction commune, which have shown more of kappa number on both the substrates. In percentage reduction in kappa number. If the case of coelomycetes only L. more anamorphic fungi and their mutant theobromae could bring down the kappa strains are screened there would be number up to 15.2% in the case of bagasse possibility of getting new strains that have and 11.7% in the case of jute (Table 3). biopulping capacity on par with chemical pulping. Further and often researchers do Crude extract was obtained from solid state not report when they get negative or not too fermentation of wheat bran with L. encouraging results. This makes other theobromae, which was used for researchers deprived of the information pretreatment of jute and bagasse at 4,8,12 about the fungal species studied. To deviate hour time intervals. A 6.4%, 15.4% and from this kind of an approach we are 19.2% of reduction in kappa number was reporting the biopulping and biobleaching obtained during the treatment of jute and potential of few coelomycetous fungi of 18.6%, 6.1% and 3.2% reduction during the whatever the potential they have and for treatment of bagasse with this organism. comparisons we have also studied two While it took longer duration to realize a basidiomycetous strains. We strongly greater percentage reduction in kappa recommend that other groups of fungi that number of jute contrary was true in the case are less explored should also be studied of bagasse where 4 hours was enough to for biopulping and biobleaching and they achieve maximum percentage of kappa should also communicate their results so number reduction. These results show that that there will not be any repetition of the different protocols need to be developed organisms. Here again different strains separately for each raw material to be used could perform differently even if they belong in the paper making and for different to the same species and hence the last organisms. Since L. theobromae has statement should be read cautiously. shown higher xylanase activity it could show a higher kappa number reduction also. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Alternatively and probably this fungus is also efficient in producing lignin modifying The authors thank the Director, Shri A.M.M. enzymes. But this needs to be tested. Murugappa Chettiar Research Centre, Taramani, Chennai, for providing the Studies with anamorphic fungi in the area facilities and for encouragement. We also of biopulping are few. This is due to the fact thank Carborundum Universal Ltd., Chennai ECO-CHRONICLE 133 for funding the project. We also thank Prof. Beg, Q.K., Kapoor, M., Mahajan, L. & Hondal, J. Muthumary, C.A.S. in Botany, University of G.S. 2001. Microbial xylanases and their Madras, Chennai, India for providing the industrial applications: a review, Appl. cultures of Phyllosticta sp., Pestalotiopsis Microbiol. Biotechnol. 56: 326-338. sp., and Lasidiplodia theobromae and Dr. V. Kaviyarasan, C.A.S. in Botany, Biely, P. 1993. Biochemical aspects of the University of Madras for providing the microbial hemicellulases; in Hemi- cultures of Schizophyllum commune and celluloses and Hemicellulase, edited by Lentiuns sp. Coughlan M & Hazlewood G (Portland Press, London, U. K.) Pp. 29-51. REFERENCES Akamatsu, I., Yoshihara, K., Kamishima, H. Cai, J., Wu, K., Zhang, J., He, X. & Pang, R. & Fujii, T. 1984. Influence of white-rot fungi 1997. Ind. Microbiol. 27: 1–4. on poplar chips and thermo-mechanical pulping of fungi-treated chips, Mokuzai Collins, T., Marie, A.M., Ingeborg, S., Marc, Gakkaishi 30: 697-702. Cl., Georges, F. and Charles, G. 2005. A Novel Family 8 Xylanase: Functional & Akhtar, M., Attridge, M.C., Myers, G.C., Physicochemical Characterization. J B C. Blanchette, R.A., Wall, M.B., Wegner, T.H. and Kirk, T.K. 1992. The White rot Fungus Dos, S.E., Piovan, T., Roberto, I.C. and Ceriporiopsis subvermispora saves Milagres, A.M. 2003. Biotechno. Lett. 25: 13– electrical energy and improves strength 16. properties during Biomechanical pulping of wood. In In Biotechnology in Pulp and paper Durand, H., Soucaille, P. and Tiraby, G. 1984. industry (edited by Kuwahara, M & Shimada, Comparative study of cellulases and M.) pp 3-8. hemicellulases from four fungi: mesophiles Trichoderma reesei and Penicillium sp. and Akhtar, M. 1994. Biomechanical pulping of thermophiles Thielavia terrestris and aspen wood chips with three strains of Sporotrichum cellulophilum, Enzyme Ceriporiopsis subvermispora, Microbiol. Technol. 6: 175 -180. Holzforschung 48: 199-202. Eriksson, K.E., Blanchette, R.A. and Ander, Alam, M., Gomes, I., Mohiuddin, G. and Hoq, P. 1990. Microbial and Enzymatic M.M. 1994. Production and characterization Degradation of Wood and Wood of thermostable xylanases by T. Components (Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Ianuginosus and T. aurantiacus grown on Heidelberg, NewYork) 397 pp. lignocelluloses. Enzyme Microb. Technol. 16: 298-302. Ghosh, M., Das, A., Mishra, A.K. and Namta, G., 1993. Aspergillus sydonii MG 49 as a Ander, K. and Eriksson, K.E., 1976. Prog. strong produce of thermostable xylanolytic Ind. Microbiol. 14: 209-212. enzymes. Enzyme Mircobiol. Technol. 15: 703 - 709. Bailey, M.J., Biely, P. and Poutanen, K. 1992. Interlaboratory testing of methods for assay Gutierrez, C.M. and Tengerdy, R.P. 1998. of xylanase activity, J. Biotechnology. 23: Xylanase production by fungal mixed culture 257-270. solid substrate fermentation on sugar cane bagasse, Biotechnol. Lett. 20: 45–47. Bajpai, P., Kondo, R. and Bajpai, P.K. 1999. Biotechnology for Environmental protection Hmrova, M., Biely, P. and Virsanska, M. 1986. in the Pulp and Paper Industry, ed.1, Arch.Microbiol, 144: 307-311. Springer-Verlag, New York, LLC. Kalogeris, E., Christakopoulos, P., Kekos, D. and Bar-Lev, S.S., Kirk, T.K. and Chang, H-M. Macris, B.J. 1998. J. Biotechnol. 60: 155–163. 1982. Fungal treatment can reduce energy requirements for secondary refining of TMP. Kamra, P. and Satyanarayana, T. 2004. Tappi Journal 65: 111- 113. Xylanase production by the thermophilic 134 ECO-CHRONICLE mold Humicola lanuginosa in solid-state Narkhede, K.P. and Vidhale, N.N. 2005. fermentation, Applied biochemistry and Biopulping studies using an effluent isolate biotechnology. 119: 147-157. Curvularia lunata LW6, Ind. J. Biotechnol, 5S: 385-388. Khandeparkar, R.D.S. and Bhosle, N.B. 2006. Isolation, purification and Norris, D.M. 1980. Degradation of 14C- characterization of the xylanase produced labelled aromatic acid by Fusarium solani, by Arthrobacter sp. MTCC 5214 when grown Appl. Environ. Microbiol 40: 376–380. in solid-state fermentation, Enzyme and Microbial Technology 39: 732-742. Park, Y.S., Kang, S.W., Lee, J.S., Hong, S.I. and Kim, S.W. 2002. Xylanase production Kirk, T.K., Jeffries, T.W. and Leathem, G.F. in solid state fermentation by Aspergillus 1983. TAPPI 66, 45–51. niger mutant using statistical experimental designs, Appl. Microbiol.Biotechnol. 58: Kirk, T.K., Konning, Jr.J.W., Burgess, R., 761–766. Akhtar, M., Blanchette, R.A., Cameron, D.C., Cullen, D., Kersten, P.J., Lightfoot, E.N., Raghukumar, C., Muraleedharan, U., Gaud, Myers, G.C., Sykes, M. and Wall, M.B. 1993. V.R. and Mishra, R. “Xylanases of marine Biopulping: A glimpse of the future? Res. fungi of potential use for biobleaching and Rep. (FPL-RP 523, Madison, WI).. paper pulp”. J Ind Microbiol. Biotechnol, 31: 433-441. Kirk, T.K. and Farrell, R.L. 1987. Enzymatic “combustion”: the microbial degradation of Senior, D.J., Hamilton, J., Bernier, R.L., lignin, Ann. Rev. Microbiol. 41: 465-505. Manoir, J.R. 1992. Reduction in chlorine use during bleaching of kraft pulp following Kirk, T.K. 1993. Lignin biodegradation: basic xylanase treatment. Wood and pulp research progress, and applications in soil chemistry. 27: 125-130. remediation and biopulping. In: Overend, edited by RP Kennedy, (West Sussex, Shah, A.R., Madamwar, D. 2005. Xylanase England: Ellis Horwood). production by a newly isolated Aspergillus foetidus strain and its characterization, Kitpreechavanich, V. 1984. J. Ferment. Process Biochem. 40: 1763-1771. Technol. 62: 63–69. Sonia, K.G., Chadha, B.S. and Saini, H.S. Laemmli, U.K. 1970. Nature 227: 680-685. 2005. Sorghum straw for xylanase hyper- Lee, Y.E., Lowe, S.E. and Zeikus, J.G. 1993. production by Thermomyces lanuginosus Regulation and characterization of (D2W3) under solidstate fermentation. xylanolytic enzymes of Thermo- Bioresour Technol, 96: 1561–1569. anaerobacterium saccharolyticum B6A-RI. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 59: Souza, M.C.O., Roberto, I.C. and Milegres, 763-771. A.M.F. 1999. Solid-state fermentation for xylanase production by Thermoascus Lowry, O.H., Rosenbrough, N.J., Farr, A.L. aurantiacus using response surface and Randali, R.J., 1951. Jour. Biol. Chem. methodology, Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol, 193: 265 - 275. 52: 768–772.

Miller, G.L., Blum, R., Glennon, W.E. and Szakaes, G., Tengerdy, R.P., Urbanszki, K., Burton, A.L. 1960. Measurement of Carrillo, J.C. and Sugar, E. 1999. Abstr. Am. carboxymethylcellulase activity. Anal. Chem. Soc. 217. Biochem. 2: 127"132. TAPPI, T 236 om-99, 1999.

Narang, S., Sahai, V. and Bisaria, V.S. 2001. Vikari, L., Ranna, M., Kantelinum, A., Optimization of xylanase production by Sundquist, J. and Linco, M. 1986. Bleaching Melanocarpus albomyces IIS-68 in solid with enzymes, in Biotechnology in the Pulp state fermentation using response surface and Paper Industry Proc. 3rd. International methodology, J. Biosci. Bioeng, 9: 425–427. Conference held at Stockholm, Sweden. Pp 67-69.