CEU eTD Collection C J ZERNOWITZ EWISH In partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of P Supervisor: Professor Michael L. Miller L. Michael Professor Supervisor: OLITICS IN OLITICS Department of Studies Central European University European Central Y IDDISH Budapest, Hungary Karina Shyrokykh Master of Arts Master Submitted to Submitted 2010 A By C USTRIAN ONFERENCE OF B UKOVINA 1908 : CEU eTD Collection could be non-representative forthegeneralof evaluation Conference inAustrian press. appreciatethe it whicha lot.However, research focusesonly on thelocalpresspublishedin 1908 the local Jewishelite didnottakepartintheorganizationof the conference, anddidnot discussion oftheConference in the local Ukrainian press. Thiscouldbeexplained bythe fact that Conference of 1908;despiteJewish-Ukrainian political cooperation, therewasno promotion inBukovina, the localJewishdidnotactively periodicals discuss theCzernowitz The analysis ofthe local demonstrated that, despitepress has political importance of Yiddish the localUkrainianandJewishevent periodicalsof1908. the analysis of thediscussionof in watershedconsidered momentinthe to be the of Yiddish development languageandculture, the discussion ofelectoralof the reforms local (1903-1910). diet successful cooperation (i.e.took in the )andJews partbetween contextof represented political cooperation ofdifferentnations’political movements,where oneofthemost twentieth century Jewsconstituted one-third ofthetotal population. Inaddition, this crownland Austrian Bukovinawas known asatolerant, multiethnic crownland where atthe beginning of the The studyfocuses onCzernowitz Yiddish Conference of 1908,which nowadays is Abstract ii CEU eTD Collection love andsupport. their for friends and my family to thank A special possible. research my archive made that grant travel the for University European Central at Project Studies Jewish the considerably; easier. made myresearch archive comments; Zvi forGitelman valuable Mykola suggestions; who and Kushnir DavidRechter useful for in andRobin Bellers particular Writing Center CEU Academic assistance; my I wanttoexpressmy for Michael his to Laurence Miller gratitude earnest supervisor, Also I want to thank to Carsten Wilke, whose critique and advice aided my thesis Acknowledgements iii CEU eTD Collection ilorpy...... 65 Bibliography Conclusions...... 63 Chapter 3. The First Yiddish Language Conference in Czernowitz ...... 46 (1908) Monarchy...... 27 Chapter 2. Jewish NationalPolitical Movements inBukovina during theLateHabsburg Monarchy...... 11 Chapter 1. Political Context ofJewish National Movements in theLateHabsburg Introduction...... 1 vi List of Figures...... v List of Tables contents of Table Books and Articles...... 66 ...... 65 Periodicals 3.3. Review of Evaluation of the Results ofthe Conference ...... 57 in the Press 3.2. Ideology of Yiddish as a/the National Jewish ...... 53 Language 3.1. Czernowitz Conference: Politics at the Language Conference...... 51 ...... 43 Differences2.3. and Commonalities between Jewish National PoliticalMovements in 2.2. Diversity of Political Parties and Their Political Orientations in Bikovina...... 36 2.1. The Context of the Emergence of Jewish National Politics in Bukovina...... 30 ...... 20 1910 Jewish1.3. NationalityPolitics inBukovinaand the BukovinaCompromiseof of 1.2. The Jewish Population of Bukovina in the Turn of ...... 15 the Twentieth Century 1.1. Politics of Nationality Recognition in ...... 11 2.2.2. Jewish and Diaspora Nationalism...... 42 2.2.1. ...... 38 iv CEU eTD Collection Table 4. Urbanization of Central …………………………...………………..33 European Table 3. Criteria for Austrian 1867-1910……………………………………..23 Compromises Table 2. Percentage of Jews in largestthe cities in Austria…………………..…...……..…...19 Table 1. Population of Bukovina in 1869-1875 (in numbers)……..………...……...16 absolute List of Tables v CEU eTD Collection Fig.7. Czernowitz Music Society 1908)………………………………………..…53(Postcard, Fig.6. Jewish inNational House Czernowitz (1910)………………………………….…...…52 Czernowitz Conference (1908)…...……………………………………………………….….50 Fig.5. Photo of L-R: H.D. Nomberg, Haim Zhitlovsky, Shalom Ash, I.L. Peretz, A. Reisen at Fig.4. Cardof a Conference ………………………..…..…48 Visitor………………………… Fig.3. Mandate of a Participant of Conference…………...…………………………....…48 the Vokhenblat America Fig.2. Advertisement to of andCanadain Trips Yiddish Newspaper Fig.1. Photo of the Conference Participants with Members of List of Figures (May, 1905)……………………………………………………………………...35 vi Jüdische Kultur ……………....3 Yidishes CEU eTD Collection agenda (autonomy, independence, struggle for own interests and needs), it becomes a nation. The ethnic group is group ethnic The nation. a becomes it needs), and interests own for struggle independence, (autonomy, agenda and certainview ongroup-interests. If ethnic group becomes politically self-conscious withits ownpolitic native land. native Bukovina inbeginning of twentiethcentury was strongly not to oneattached particular land withcould be their state seeking; the movement was deprived of ‘territory obsession.’ JewishDiaspora National Movement in movements. For example, in the case of Diaspora Jewish Nationalism in Austro-Hungary, Nationalism was non- Anderson’s definition of a nation hasa‘territory obsession’ that does not always in takeplace national Communities: Reflections ontheOriginsandSpread ofNationalism commoneconomy commonand legal rights and duties forall members.” (Benedict Anderson, populationsharing an historic territory, commonmyths and historical memories, amass, public culture, a which individuals imagine themselves as a big family.from feeling of deviation transfer the the family make not to the entirecan nation person withoutthe imagining it. nation; A nationthe is a ‘community’ from of everyone people, aunit of people face-to-face withinknow not to them, a nation is an ‘imaginedetc. The definitionof anationI referto is also mentioned community’.by Eric Hobsbawm andBenedict Anderson; according Verso, The 1991), p.6.). main The unity has some argumentattributes which are shared—culture, why language, Benedicthistory, Anderson, nation possibly religion is imagined is Programme,1780: that Myth,Reality a person can to abigger‘imagined’ ofnumber people, namely 2 1 based on ideathe of national language, history, andgroupunity. was revival national Jewish movements, national other to Similar culture. Jewish modern creation EuropeanJewry, atthe of modernization aiming forof and secularization struggled local, religious and other kinds of identities. All Europe. led Eastern factors of these rise to the which superseded of identification national imperialism,in place in and dissemination riselanguages the vernacularof print, took use of industrialization, with secularization, risethe of together Duringcentury, nineteenth the Introduction and Socialism, mainly represented by mainlyand represented Socialism, appears, where main movements the Jewish conditions these were Zionism trends national surrounding nations influenced formation the of Jewish nationalism. Diaspora under Thus, all Semitism became a significant political feature of Austria and Russian. Mostly each person has a feeling of belonging to family, friends, relatives, etc. The feeling could be transmitted Benedict Anderson, All Europe, over growingthe anti-Semitism flourishingand national movements of the Ethnic group Ethnic Benedictin hisbook Anderson Imagined Communities: Reflections Originson the and SpreadofNationalism Imagined Communities differs from nationbecause it lacks the political self-consciousness of a united group (Cambridge: Cambridge University p.140,Press, 1990), 160-162; see also Imagined Communities (New York: Veso, 1991), p.82. The Bund nation 1 Additionally, starting from anti-political 1880s 1 (See Eric Hobsbawm, . Both movements rejected assimilation and assimilation rejected movements Both . defines the term the defines (New Verso,York: 1991),p.14) 2 Nations and Nationalism since nation as: “…a named human named “…a as: (New York: Imagined CEU eTD Collection languages among Ashkenazim (Central and Eastern European Jewry). because beginning from the tenthcentury till the Second World War Yiddish was of one mostthe spoken Jewish 6 University Press, 2004), p. 37. 5 (Cornell: University Press, 1983),pp.43-44). Very termoften ‘ the based onsimilarities in religion, language, political views, etc. (Ernest Gellner, principle which maintains that similarity of culture is the basic social bond. These similarities of culture could be movements protected movements protected cultural the andrights political of Yiddish Atsocialist sametime, Jewish the authorities). religious Jewish between (correspondence and texts, classical religious practice, languagereligious of traditionally the majority Zionistof insisted movement onthe use of Hebrewlanguage, which was movements.language Thus, theof became program verymuchpoliticizedpolitical – the twentieth century issueof the use the Jewish languagebecameof crucial forboth national ‘ ‘sameness’. Withthe term owninterests, goals,tries to gainor maintain independence, and to unite in national unity those who share movements), saw Yiddish and Europe as the important components of Jewish life. joined byJewishworkers’ were (who byBundists nationalists, represented Diaspora-oriented whereas principles, central most the were and language Hebrew Zionists European nationalism. 4 Conference. Language Yiddish First by the hastened was process the whereas Empire Hungarian Europeansituation of bilingualism (Yiddish-Hebrew)started to change to monolingual in the late Austro- socialists and Zionists led of to strong ideologies tension betweenpolitical between groups tensions using YiddishStrong and Hebrew.persuasions. such of Traditionalconsequence Jewish a was language where nation. of symbols and attributes ofthe one is but belonging, of national marker strong a case) single every in some cases theissue of language is not crucial for national movement; language is not necessarily (at least, not to a national culture. But sometimes scholars overestimate the role of language fornational movements and in 3 froman ethnic group a nation. 1994), p.4). Self-perceptionand self-understanding as adifferent groupwhich isunited by ‘sameness,’ makes European National Movements Hroch, (Miroslav wealth.” of division the and structure autonomy (orsomein cases, independence), and asocial positionequal withthe ruling nation interms of social attributes’ of full national existence consisted of three features: a national literary language and culture, politicala socially constructed formation by inside- and outside-perception. Miroslav Hroch argues that “the The word Yiddish ( David Shneer, national movement’ The term ‘ ‘National language’ At an early stage there were Yiddish-writing Zionists, wereYiddish-writing there an Atstage early The issue of Jewish national language In the case of Nationalism, oftentimes, language was a marker of political persuasions, nationalism’ 4 Jewish national movements were different in their tools, thus,for the majority of Yiddish and theCreation of Soviet ; I prefer the second one because the second term is less fluid and more concrete. more and fluid less is term second the because one second the I prefer ; ʹʩʣʑʩʩ isusually defined as animportant markerof national belonging that creates anattachment signifies certain political and/or ideological national movement whichstruggles forits yidish) literally means ‘Jewish.’ Thus, ‘Yiddish language’ means ‘Jewishlanguage’ nationalism . EUI Working PaperEUF No.94/1 (Florence: EuropeanUniversity Institute, I referto Ernest Gellner’s definitionwhere nationalism isapolitical 3 2 played a significant role for Jewish Diaspora Jewish for role significant a played , 1918-1930 The SocialInterpretation of Linguistic Demands in nationalism’ 5 in the beginning of the of beginning inthe 6 can be replaced by the term by the be replaced can as the language of the (NewCambridge York: Nations andNationalism Responsa ‘missing CEU eTD Collection Fig. 1. Photo of the Conference participants with members of organization members with participants Conference ofthe Photo 1. Fig. Peretz, A.Reizen, Sholem Ash, and many others (see fig. 1 below). DavidA.M.Evalenko, HaimZhitlovskiy Pinski, and writers I.L. publishers such Yiddish as and JacobGordin Nathan Brinbaum,politicianscultural activists suchas dramatists and were there which among Conference, the at werepresent delegates hundred one to seventy from All together, Czernowitz. Austria-Hungary, of in biggest Jewishcentre 1908, the role of Augustheldlife. language inJewish Yiddish the Septemberwas from 30th to It 4th, movements. national some politicians as a basisfor the future political and cultural life of Jewish Diaspora-oriented First Thus,the was Jewish population. Yiddish Conference Language used by inCzernowitz the even among mass recognition andno rules, clear no dictionary, no was there standardized; Jewish language, Hebrew Jewish masses Inthe importance of in Europe. of situation tension Eastern andpolitical the was in a better situation than Yiddish because the latter was not invited: representatives of Zionists pro-Yiddishmore pro-Hebrew, liberal Bundists, in the For the Conference, representatives of different Jewish national movements were movements national Jewish different of representatives Conference, the For The Conference was the first international, interparty conference to deal with the with deal to conference interparty international, first the was Conference The 3 Jüdische Kultur CEU eTD Collection 9 Movement Conference”. Czernowitz “The Goldsmith, 8 Language Movement 7 economic situation Yiddishthe of recognition writer, the of Yiddish language. Jewish youth and Yiddish language, Yiddish the press, theYiddish and stage actors, the Yiddish the foreignYiddish andnew dictionary, grammar, orthography, Yiddish words, linguists, language,who simply poets, andthose writers, loved it…” organizations.involvedto gather “all TheConferencewasanattempt [were] with who the question of language,pro-Yiddish Poale Zionists, ofreligious and representatives corresponded totheir corresponded personal convictions. freeof participants Conference taking aimedatleaving any stand on Hebrew that the language,” national “the than rather language” national “a using by argues, Liptzin language and demandingits political,civil cultural, and languages.equality with other As Sol national a Jewish Yiddish as proclaiming wasadopted acompromise-resolution debates, Weiser, for instance, discuss it in a context of Yiddish-Hebrew ‘battles’. Kalman and like DavidShneer while scholars Goldsmith), Emanuel Fishman, act (Joshua Liptzin, Weinreich, DavidWeinberg, Zimmer). Max Others perceiveit Joshua as a political (Sol of asastage linguistic of in organicYiddish culture event, Eastern Europe development was a place for a‘battle’ of paradigms and programs of national Jewish revival. was for appropriate place discussion linguisticvarious an issues,whileforof politicians, it it andwriters, linguists for activists: Jewish by different differently perceived was Conference the trends, political Jewish different between tensions of context in the also but dimension, Sol Liptzin, Max Weinreich, ed., Weinreich, Max Emanuel Goldsmith, “The Czernowitz Conference,” in Conference,” Czernowitz “The Goldsmith, Emanuel (New York: Shapolsky Publishers, 1997), p.184. While some of modern scholars see the Conference as a purely cultural and cultural asapurely seetheConference modern scholars While some of Taking into consideration the context of strong tensions not only in the cultural Encyclopedia Judaica. (New York: Shapolsky Publishers, 1997), p. 184. Di ershte yidishe shprah-konferents Second edition. Vol. 5, p.372. Modern Yiddish Culture: The Story of the Yiddish Language 9 4 Modern Yiddish Culture: the Story of the Yiddish (Vilna: YIVO, 1931), p. 3, cited in Emanuel 7 in order to discuss: to in order 8 After long After CEU eTD Collection Section, 1931), p. VII. Czernowitzer Konferenz 1908 “the first salvo in the battle against Zionism.” against battle in the salvo first “the was Conference the for Zhitlowski,various reasons.Thus, dueto Conference participated life. in Jewish language Yiddish the of role of werethose Weinberg,the of most fundamental the Conference Accordingquestions the to 14 13 12 11 Shaping of Modern Jewish Identity of languagethe developmentEurope: all Eastern over 10 cultural development. in Jewish role playeda significant that event cultural a mostly was conference the Weinreich, Bundists,” later then and socialists Jewish of Yiddishism politicized and pragmatic the to contrast Weinberg who describes the Conference as non-pragmatic and non-politicized one, “in consequence of and developmentthe of Yiddish of consequence culture: press, characteristic for Joshua Zimmer. According to his opinion, the Czernowitz Conference was a Max Weinreich, “Einführung,” Weinreich, Max Ibid., p.105. Ibid. Ibid. David Weinberg David Perception as a Perception of is event cultural the linguistic by and event depicted David The perception of the Conference as an organic development of the language, also, is also, language, the of development organic asan Conference the of The perception enough to organize an international conference in the city of Chernovits to define the to future of the language in Jewish life.Chernovits of city the in conference international an organize to enough seen, by 1908 supportersYiddish of in central and Europe feltEastern confident the first daily Yiddishissue newspaper in to Russia, managed of St.Petersburg writers of young group a interest, growing to emerge during began last three decadesthat of century….the In 1903, in response to writers Yiddish of circle small a among root took quickly progress Such notions ofof language theuse andliterature enlightenmentas atool for and revival led to a general shift in an attitude of theJewish intelligentsia toward The emergence of adailyYiddish and press concomitantYiddishthe cultural 10 and more as a purely cultural event which was a result of the organic , Between Tradition and Modernity: Haim Zhitlowski, Simon Dubnow,Ahad Ha-Am, and the 14 (Vilna: Bibliotek des Jiwo Institut für Jüdische Wissenschaften, Philologische in (New York: Holms & Meier, 1996), p. 137. Die Erste Jüdische Sprachkonferenz. Berichte, Documente und Stimmen zur 12 In addition, hementions that some leaders of the 13 11 5 As for the most famous Yiddish linguist, Max linguist, Yiddish famous most the Asfor Der Fraynd (The Friend)….As wehave CEU eTD Collection 19 18 University Press, 2004), p. 37. 17 16 Late Tsarist Russia 1892-1914 15 politics became more polarized, as well as became more languageas Jewish well polarized, politics. politics monolingualism,was changed Russian to since the Revolution that and 1905, Jewish of bilingualism traditional Jewishthe(Hebrew-Yiddish) of situation Shneerthat, demonstrates Yiddish Inhis tensions. book placeEurope. inEastern took languages vernacular of in use rise the print, of dissemination and imperialism, secularization, industrialization, with of rise the which together century, nineteenth the accordingduring to inAnderson’sof of theory, therise language context David the Yiddish discusses the Shneer had be to solved, wasthe question of Yiddish being the national language, it or being the AccordingShneer, to of one biggestthe issues discussed during Conference the andwhich status of Yiddishthe language, toelevate and it: mono-lingualism.bilingualism to Shneershows thattheConference had the aimreviseto the He makes an assumption that the Conference had a clear goal of changing the situation use the languageof became marker a clear of group-belonging: of conference, the after in situation: bilingualism Conference wasacrucial traditional the event Ibid, p. 38. Ibid. David Shneer, Benedict Anderson, Joshua Zimmerman, intellectuals wanted to elevate the status of Yiddish, which they did…” they which of Yiddish, status the elevate to wanted intellectuals situation….These the remedy to wanted and Yiddish multi-orthographic dialect, practical reasons. The Czernowitz organizers recognized the weakness ofamulti- The desire to codify standardizeYiddishand was needed ideologicalfor both and intellectualsof Jewish group has declaredorganized an thattime, Yiddish first hadthe to for become because a high-status language. bilingualism, internal of Jewish point turning a was Austro-Hungary, Bukovina, in Czernowitz Conference. culture andidentity, the asanideology crystallized Czernowitzin 1908,at Language … took place between August 30and September1908 4, in Czernowitz. Yiddish. developments These culminated in historic language the conference that Yiddishism, the movement to make Yiddish the central definer of modern Jewish Yiddish and the Creation of Soviet Imagined Communities ,Jews, Politics of andthe Nationality: theBund andthePolish Socialist Partyin (The University of Wisconsin Press, 2004), p. 232. 16 Yiddish ofSovietJewish and Culture,1918-1930, the Creation Thus, he discusses the Conference in the context of Hebrew- of context in the Conference the he discusses Thus, (New York: Veso, 1991), p.82. Jewish 1918-1930 Culture, 6 (New York: Cambridge 17 He also claims that the 19 15 18 CEU eTD Collection 22 Moutonde Gruyter, 1993), p.328. 21 Perspective, 20 notes: forJewsasanationality. He rights) electoral was cultural recognition of Yiddishthe and getting language, (especially political rights the context of late Austrian politics, according to him, one of the main aims of the Conference in in Conference life Heresearches the twentieth of Bukovina thecentury. beginning of Jewish in the event the that role the demonstrates who Goldsmith, Emanuel to also inherent 1910 against the government’s refusaladamant toadmitYiddish 1911census.” into the in march of later“huge Conference the his the he context inthe protest at places participation Jewish strugglenational for Thus,rights. whenhe discusses the activity Birnbaum,of Nathan of the inthecontext Conference sees the Fishman Monarchy. Habsburg in nationalities the Yiddish of recognition was Conference of the aim clearest the Fishmanarguesthat Years Later,” language Yiddish, for 85 World First Conference Revised: the Conference article Tshernovits “The and grantingwho sees the Czernowitz the ConferenceJews for Jewish decadestocome.”divided society all as a politicalthe war”that “language an infamous to “[contributor] the as Weiser Conference sees the Kalman rights event andbilingualism with was raised of languagetogether question the hierarchy.Insamethe context, a historicalwhich nationalmoment. werelanguage of the Jewish people. In other words, theIn question enjoyed of traditionalhis situation of by other Ibid., p. 223. Joshua Fishman, Kalman Weiser, “Introduction,” in “Introduction,” Weiser, Kalman Jewish national autonomy. national Jewish Austria were ripe for the recognition of Yiddish as thebasis and recognizable of sign with hopethe of shaping a vibrant Jewish cultural lifethere. He felt that conditions in At the time of the Czernowitz Conference, Nathan Birnbaum settled in Czernowitz is in Bukovina Jewish politics of inthecontext Conference of the The perception The perception of the Conference as a political event is shared by For Joshua Fishman, eds. Kalman Weiser and Joshua A. Fogel (Maryland: Lexington Books, 2010), p. 4. The Earliest Stage ofLanguage Planning: The ‘First Congress’ Phenomenon Czernowitz at100: The First Yiddish Language Conference in Historical 22 20 7 (New York: 21 CEU eTD Collection Perspective, 24 section1.2. 23 and Jews). Poles, , , (Ruthenians, groups ethnic different of co-existence peaceful comparatively of example interesting an is nation, dominant a having not and Austria, consideration. into be taken to both have monarchy Habsburg late inthe situation political and historical the and the Conference, of aims the of diversity the However, achievements. of political atool as Conference Czernowitz the perceive some and ‘battles,’ of Yiddish-Hebrew context developmentof in Yiddish culture themonarchy; lateHabsburg it somein of see the them part important of strugglethe of forBukovinian Jewry national rights. Austrian census as one of the official languages of theinin have inthemovementargues that Birnbaum active included to Yiddish 1910 was Austria. His activity was therefore the promoters of nationality language recognition basisthe of of recognition. Thus, Goldsmith main of main asthe Conference the theactors monarchy. Hesees Habsburgrealm of late the of activity inGoldsmith a largerBirnbaum context sees cultural of the pro-Yiddish political Czernowitz Language Conference, which is seen as a “watershed moment” “watershed a is seen as which Conference, Language Czernowitz cultural cultural results, and the multiplicity goals,the of disregarding hidden explicitor aims of the caused. the event towards findishow to out Conference the was perceivedbytheattitude local population,what and analysis the of aim main The periodicals. local language Yiddish and German on focuses also research the ofmy However, research. is focus one which in periodicals, Ukrainian culture, Kalman Weiser, “Introduction,” in “Introduction,” Weiser, Kalman For more information about nationality proportion inBukovina and Austrian censuses’ data see chapter 1, As we can see, some authors perceive the event of the Conference as an organic The First YiddishThe Firstpolitical toreach wasaiming Conference Language and different Bukovina, being a region Bukovina, being in with Jewishthe of aregion biggerproportion population the eds. Kalman Weiser and Joshua A. Fogel (Maryland: Lexington Books, 2010), p. 4. 23 That is why, in the research, the main focus is on finding discussion of discussion finding is on focus main the research, in the is why, That Czernowitz at100: The First Yiddish Language Conference in Historical 8 24 of Jewish CEU eTD Collection participants’ speeches by publishedwhich inwere YIVO 1931. The thesis and the lastchapter Conference. issue of the on articles recentCzernowitz some and Conference, 50 tothe articles devoted latter some analyze I Inaddition, inBukovina. movements national political Jewish for the role of Conference the its earliest andthe Conference,evaluations, firstof Yiddish perception the First the Language BukovinaRussian, German, (in discusses Ukrainian, periodicals Yiddish). This and chapter beginning of twentieth the century. the at in Bukovina movements national Jewish in different etc.) German, Hebrew, (Yiddish, languages of role the and movements political nationalism, Jewish Diaspora of formation Czernowitz (based on Austrian censuses 1900, of 1880, 1890, 1910). capital its Bukovina and of crownland the of population on Jewish the statistical data Also, deals chapter the Bukovina. with political situationof over rule Jews underHabsburg inin discusses population Bukovina Austria, inparticular; and the legal chapter and the movements. national Jewish local the of activity political and recognition nationality of politics Austrian the of context the in is researched event the thesis my In (1911). language Yiddish the of recognition by demonstrated mass participation intheConferencemarches for and laterJewish of protest unitehelped to Yiddish speakingmasses, and engage theminto politics which could be It forrecognition. nationality struggle of wasanew Jewish stage Conference Czernowitz newarticulated demands,andgave a new breath into Yiddish movement The Bukovina. movements, national Diaspora in Jewish change a signified itself Conference The Conference. The discussion of the First Yiddish Language of research the on based is thesis my of chapter Conferenceimportant most the and third The involves research of The second chapter of the thesis focuses on the factors which influenced the influenced which factors the on focuses thesis the of chapter second The Jewish the of position general the with deals thesis of the chapter The first 9 th , 60thand 80th the anniversaries of the CEU eTD Collection correlated with reforms. these correlated inparticular, contextof the reforms of 1905, 1909andthe of census 1911 and all events the in context, political the and in historical both is the discussed Conference Czernowitz ideological Jewish political the Habsburg changeswithin Monarchy,activity. and The periodicals. languages) languages) Russian,Yiddish and non-JewishUkrainian German, and the (in and German (in Jewish the namely sources, primarily the with deal mainly in particular, In my thesis, the Conference is presented in the context of both political and political both of context in the presented is Conference the thesis, my In 10 CEU eTD Collection (‘Volksstamm’) was employed to indicate the collective status of a group, the term indicates term the of a group, status collective indicate the to employed was (‘Volksstamm’) Kann As argues, term Habsburg politics the of Robert recognition. before the be defined should wedescribe (‘Volksstamm’) ‘nationality’ Theterm nationalities. was The multi-national a supranationalAustrian ethnicstate - differentover power groups Monarchy inHabsburg Recognition ofNationality 1.1. Politics context. larger Austrian in social,Bukovina withinpolitical the Jewishthe population of demographic and dynamics focusin ontheJewish issue main recognition The Bukovina. is aim chapter the of toanalyze Habsburgthe Monarchy in nationality criteria.determination identified communities (Islam,national belonging was unofficially identified by attachment to oneChristianity of the religious in Thus, Ottoman Empire the could etc. territory, language, religion, begroups separate ethnic or nations or of division for );criteria The in politics. movements nationalist behind force whereas, moreover,demands of recognizedrecognition for special drivingthe group; are the treatment in the Habsburgmultinational empires such Austro-Hungary,as faras asnational recognition presupposes Monarchy it was political military powers. falls and great the these of caused extent, a certain to national problems, unsolved the empires the all Union. In Soviet the later and Russian Habsburg, Ottoman, Empires: multi-national several knows History in theLateHabsburg Monarchy Chapter 1.Political ContextofJewish National Movements In Iinvestigate chapter this Austrian nationality politics main of recognition with the Recognition of hasbeen issuenations alwaysforRecognition orethnic a crucial groups of de facto by language ( Umgangssprache 11 ); and the Soviet Union was a successor of nationality CEU eTD Collection 27 26 1848-1918. revolutions. chain national the after of started which recognition nationality of process the for point crucial a was legitimacy territorial historical of issue The movements. nationalist ethnic for basis a formed necessarily not which parties), political of programs organized sharedor frequently aim (it a clearinstrumental entities.” historical of the structure social privileges,the and rights, the the and adjusting regaining, concern with upholding, nineteenth historical Kann, ,century, to developed according a“serious the In an exception. not Austria was and Europe, emerge over all to started political claims national century, eighteenth the with associated usually is which movements, national of inhabited national whohistorical the legitimacy rise acertain of groups territory. Thus,with majority. the long a time andwherethey constituted for ancestors inhabited by direct were their lived territories which usually,on Monarchy rule, character, national different of majority by a inhabited in astate living however, differences, cultural and national minority term the of wasnoestablishedthere definition treaty 1918 and Versailles the 25 term is the between There a difference a actually nation.it,are not become but that a group of people has certain attributes of a nation or a people, and potentially could Ibid., p.34. Ibid. Robert, A. Kann, The discussion on the nationality question in Austria was strongly connected with connected strongly was Austria in question nationality the on discussion The groups and considerably less than real nation. real than less considerably and groups ethnic mere than more something were recognition, state of degree limited some by who, people, Austrian ofthe status peculiar well the so or circumscribes expresses term No other . Generally, a national minority was perceived as an ethnic group conscious of their of conscious group ethnic an as perceived was minority national a Generally, . Volume 1Empire and Nationalities (New York, 1983), p.31. The Multinational Empire. Nationalism and National Reform in theHabsburg Monarchy, 26 while agroupconstituting anationality, during Habsburg 27 In other words, the historical nationalism of Austria had Austria of nationalism historical the words, other In nationality 12 25 and national minority . First of all, before national CEU eTD Collection Ritchie Robertson and Edward Timms.(Edinburgh University Press,1994), p.67-68). in Consequences,” ‘Volksstamm.’ or of nationality (Formore details measuring the see for , “Ethnic population, Attributes Latein of Austrian Imperial Austria: Good description Intensions, ethnic Evil the for evidence as used were – taken was census ethnic additional no since – censuses language the However, languages. 30 Contemporary Perspectives Reform of 1909 inBukovina,”John in S.Micgiel,ed., 29 Hobsbowm Terence and Ranger,1-14 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,1983). 28 Law of 1867, by Nationalities the recognized officially nationalities eleven were there altogether territory, new-formed Austro-Hungary smalleralso recognized ethnicminorities livingthe across officially by with signingthe Austro-Hungarian of the inCompromise 1867. The together about 60 percent of the total number of citizens of the Empire Germans. His view was based on the cultural backwardness and political weakness of of rest the weakness andpolitical backwardness cultural the viewwasbasedon His Germans. the except Austria of nationalities all to existence national independent an to rights the denied in contextnational movements of all of 1848-1849, Marx wave the over Europe revolutionary there. territory legitimate basishistorically nothe had they that universallyAustria not inAustro-Hungary on before, centuries were nationalities recognized semiautonomous nationalities. Jews, and Szeklers, Saxonsinin Transylvania who settled and privileged, leading, werepolitically Magyars and whereGermans Slovene, Croat, Czech, German, Italian, Magyar, Pole, Rumanian, Ruthenian, Serb, Slovak, and Umgangssprache everimplemented. program was many to reform problemplans and solvenohowever,comprehensive the ethnic tension,of the Empire was a cause for many ethnic tensions and national problems; thus, there were Austrianlanguage censuses (from 1880to 1910) were designed tocalculate people who spoke different Electoral the Regarding Controversy The Victory: Pyrrhic Nationalism's “Diaspora Rachamimov, Alon Eric James Hobsbawm. “Introduction: Inventing Traditions,” in Traditions,” Inventing “Introduction: Hobsbawm. James Eric After the revolution of AfterHungarian revolution national the 1848-1849, of claims wererecognized The principles of national distinctions were widely discussed in Austria. Thus, in the Thus, Austria. in discussed widely were distinctions national of principles The Austrian politicsnationality differentiation language wasbased of daily useor on of 28 the two largest of them were Austro-Germans and Hungarians which formed The Habsburg Legacy: National Identity inHistorical Perspective. . 30 Thus, in the empire the following national groups wererecognized: innational Thus, empire the groups following the (New York, 1996), p. 3. 13 State andNation Building inEast CentralEurope: The Invention of Tradition 29 . The heterogeneity of heterogeneity The . Austrian Studies V,eds. Studies Austrian , eds. Eric , eds. CEU eTD Collection p.xxvi. Nationalities and Social Democracy 33 32 1848-1918. 31 Thus, Rogers Brubakerarguesthat: movement. ideain the national of appear of territory processof can the a national development Austria. However, within existence autonomous more central territorial was than movement) ideanationality of andrights political representation (which was by represented Bund the territory, or at least, it is not a core of all national movements; thus,for Jewish nationalism the in Austria. movements of nature of wecansee misperception the national akindHowever, of personal its choice members of forwhich excludenational could struggles territory. to the referring an ideabased on personal the of non-territorial principle, autonomy, a cultural ethnic in tension for the struggle national As asolution territory. this problem,to heproposed core Bauersawthe andSlovenes. of Slovaks, Rumanians, were:Ruthenians, nationalities these and development; of stage earliest in the were which history, political national independent without nationalities as him by perceived were rest the and territory; their on formed intonationalities wereincorporation anddeveloped before empire the and remained nationalities with history in the frames of the monarchy.were ones among Austrian nationalities who were the bearers of progress In his opinion, andMagyars Germans, Poles, to additionally that argued Engels, However, nations. of the only these six history.” without “nations and development cultural of principles proposed earlier Marx’s on deserved national privileges. Ephraim J.Nimni, “Introduction for the English-Reading Audience,” in BauerOtto, Ibid., p. 44. Robert, A. Kann, A few decades later, Otto Bauer based his elaboration on Austrian nationality politics nationality Austrian on Bauer based Otto hiselaboration later, A few decades 32 It is possibletoargue national that movements donotnecessarily a for struggle Volume 1Empire and Nationalities (New York, 1983), p.43. Only Germans, Magyars, Czechs, Italians, Poles and Croats wereseen byBaueras andCroats Poles Italians, Czechs, Magyars, Only Germans, The Multinational Empire. Nationaisl and National Reform in the Habsburg Monarchy, (Minneapolis andLondon: University of Minnesota Press, 1907/2000), 14 The Question of 31 and, based on this, 33 CEU eTD Collection Gellner and the Theory of Nationalism 34 Austria. Compromise of 1910 which could be called themostsuccessful minority-problem forsolution non-territorial basedcultural autonomy individual on choice implemented in Bukovina the a subject ofmy my domination, law and language). We my could find an echo of Bauer’s – youif youlive my are on nation-state the territory (which characterized territorial principle to the respect with liberal and democratic more was proposition modern this criteria, The solution which was proposed by Bauer could be called innovative and even if we use within the historical frames of frames Austria. within of historical the Compromise, weshould describe thegeneral position in Jewishthe population of Bukovina ethnic Before in wediscuss solution Bukovina,knownas theto Bukovina problemsthe Century Twentieth ofthe Turn inthe Bukovina of Population Jewish 1.2. The World Warandthedissolution Austria-Hungary. of First the of beginning the to due not, was Compromise Galician the while implemented, in(1905), and Bukovina in(1910), (1914);thefirst twocompromises were autonomy for nations other who inhabited Latercompromises Austria. place took in Moravia Hungary.for compromise acertain ahope This drove of type territorial and political –Austria accordingnational whichparts and movement, intowas divided the two state to Austrian ethnicsolutions to problems within the Empire –the firstwas with Hungarian the Rogers Brubaker, “Myths and Misconceptions in the Study of Nationalism,” in The principle of national compromises ( compromises national of principle The unprepared for the kinds of nationalist politics that can flourish after the reorganization of political reorganization the space along national lines… after flourish can that politics nationalist of kinds the for unprepared requiring many kinds of actions other than, or in addition to, formal independence; it is to be politics; it is to ignore the mannernarrowly focus To in whichon state-seeking nationaliststate-seeking. the movement interest is to ignore essentially, the infinitelyor protean nature ofalways, of nationalistnot is a putativenationalism ‘nation’place, first the In can be seen as , ed. John Hall (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998), p. 276. 34 15 Ausgleich ) from 1867 was the main form of TheState of the Nation: Ernest CEU eTD Collection Littman Library of JewishCivilization, 2010), p. 208. Dilemmas of East European Jewry,e 36 Bukowinie w latach 1775-1918. Z dziejów osadnictwa polskiego (Kraków, 2004), p. 184. Deviation], in Profesiynykh iMovnykh Podiliv” [Austrian Bukovina: Peculiarities of National, Professional and Linguistic 35 languagesgroups, andreligions,it was called‘Babylon Ottovon on riverthe Pruth’, Table 1. Population of Bukovina in1869-1875 (in absolute numbers) 1875 1871 1869 Year Rumanians communities. different below); which1 Tab. (see majority ethnic dominated noone was there where aregion itwas territory, was one of the partly Romanian, partly Ukrainian and During partly Soviet. the Habsburg rule overthe reasons of theChernivtsi. Thehistory of is Czernowitz partly Bukovinian, partly Galician, Austrian, partly comparatively Cernauti, Czernowitz, Chernovtsy, names: Tzernivtsi, of in seen diversity the be clearly peacefulmultiethnic crownland of Austria.co-existence The multiethnic character of the capital of this region could of the efflorescence.” cultural moderation, and political co-operation, inter-ethnic and national examples of myth Bukovina of considerable both longevity, city the region wherein stand as and the David Rechter, “A Jewishel Dorado? Myth and Politics in Habsburg Czernowitz” In Material fortable 1 is takenfrom IvanMonolatiy. “Avstriiska Bukovyna: Osoblyvosti Natsionalnykh, 221,726 209,000 207,000 Bukovina name Buchenland) (German wasknownas multinational most and the Thus, David Rechter argues that “… the Czernowitz myth, [is] part of of a larger part myth, [is] “… arguesthat Czernowitz the Rechter Thus, David Ȳ : Independent Cultural Science Journal 36 The city was perceived as a melting pot for dozens of ethnic and religious 202,700 191,195 186,000 Ukrainians Old Poles GermansJews 43,374 41,065 47,000 ds. Richard I.Cohen, Jonathan Frankel and Stefani Hoffman (Oxford: The 51,617 - 41,065 - 47,700 500 16 (, No.56, 2009), p.11; see also Petraru M. Polacy na 3,260 3,043 300 Believers 35 - - 2,000 Armenians Hungarians ArmeniansOthers Insiders and and Outsiders. Insiders 9,238 8,586 9,500 10,307 9,908 4,800 CEU eTD Collection 40 39 Austrian Studies Universityat the of Minnesota (Minneapolis, 2003), p.14 , cited in Ibid., p. 209. 38 37 Jewries. but Jewry, not proposes, Rechter David as or, Jewishspeak about communities, to isit better community, the of wasnohomogeneity there because Czernowitz, of community Jewish one speak about to itis difficult Thus, exception. an not was population Jewish the and ideas political of homogeneity no was there groups population initswas diverse as well political views. and social Eveninside the national Habsburg Empire. to speakabout politics asbeing peaceful relatively with co-existencea loyal imposed by the possible is it overall However, region. that in activity political Jewish of because sentiments outlook.” Habsburg called Czernowitz, “a synthesis nationalof consciousness with a higher… European Furthermore, the article gives a quote from aquote gives article the Furthermore, .’” Jews inEastern and fortunate ‘most Jewishthe local and calledthe regions, neighboring attitude towardsneighbors:attitude so findof in published peaceful Jews),a not newspaper,we the was 1897onthecover which newspaper Ruthenian Czernowitz in local the Thus, a certain extent. to is anexaggeration there works somehistorical andeven David Rechter, “A Jewish el Dorado?” p. 206. “Bukovyns’ki zhydy” [Bukovinian Jews], Fred Stambrook, The Golden Age of the Jewsof Bukovina, 1880-1914, Working paper03-2, Center for Ibid., p. 206. 37 The population Bukovina wasethnically of linguisticallyand the and diverse Jewish Thus, Fred Stambrook noticed that “Czernowitz and Bukovina were “different” from Jewish who are like parasites nourishing from our bread… among Ruthenianslike And a fire. willit not be a faultof good-hearted but Ruthenians, themselves will not improve (and there isno hope forthat) anti-Semitism will be spread Rus’ villages– andit is odd nothing no one that the kisses hand…robber’s if and Jews by …Jewswere never of Rus’ friends people, they robbed and destroyed by tricking almost all 38 There is no doubt that in many memoires, testimonies of local population Bukovyna Bukovyna , in , an “Bukovyns’ki article zhydy” (Bukovinian , 20July,No. 1897, XIII-125, pp. 1-2. 17 Gazeta polska 40 If we take the Jewish population in theJewishpopulation Ifwe take , where it described anti-Jewish itdescribed , where 39 CEU eTD Collection University press, 1988), p.12]. number of students [cited in Peter Pulzer, The Rise of Political Anti-Semitism in Germany and Austria (Oxford 44 Austria (, 1988), p. 335]. percent (18,041 in ab.numb.). [Cited from Peter Pulzer, The Rise of Anti-SemitismPolitical in Germany and numbers). For comparison, in Vienna they constituted 8.6 percent (175,294 in ab.num.) and in Prague 8.1 43 42 41 in of form movement.” and Hasidic Orthodoxy the the elsewhere; apowerful from more ethnic with 1890soverlapped the was than politics autonomous case the who movements“integrationists, were biggest the population amongtheJewish In Bukovina etc. Judaism, Reform to belonged some Jews, Orthodox some Zionists, some socialists, were nationalists of whobelongedall stripes political todifferent and social organizations –some Czernowitz (which duringof consisted this period minority) biggestnational the wehave because at this time in Czernowitz the Jewish population 30percent reached Jewishpopulation the inbecause atthis Czernowitz time representation. nationalist Jewish with only executive regional Bukovina hasthein only regional parliament empirethe with a JewishClub (block); and the the only big city in was Austria Czernowitz life. Thus, larger region the and in an local administration active part the took that politicians elected national Jewish significant, and visible quite was presence Jewish where a a city was Jewish nationalist, Dr.Eduard Reiss, as a mayor; in table 2: proportion of Jewish population in Austria in the beginning of the twentieth century, as shown highest the had and city, Jewish largest fourth the also was Czernowitz social and Furthermore, status). education of level the also but population, Jewish the of multiplicity mere the not 22 percent wereabout students university According to statistics data (from 1890) Jewishstudents in Czernowitz constituted 22.3.percent from the total According to statistics data (from 1910) Jews inCzernowitz constituted 32.8 percent (28,613 in absolute Ibid. Ibid., p. 215. Moreover, Jews actively participated in the local political and social life, Czernowitz life, social and political local the in participated actively Jews Moreover, 44 of the total of number demonstrates total the students (this of 18 42 Which isnot surprising 41 43 and Jewish CEU eTD Collection 48 Reform in the Habsburg Monarchy, 1848-1918. 47 Nashi Knygy, 2007),p.25-26. Documents Materials. and ], ed. Oleksandr Dorrzhanskyi,Mykola Kushnir, andMaria Nykyrsa (: National MovementBukovina in Last inthe Quarter of the beginningXVIII-at of XX centuries:Collectionof v OstanniiChetverti XVIII–napochatku XX st. 46 Akademie der Wissenschaften, Wien 1980), p.885. des Reiches. 45 according Thus, in Austria. affiliations religious of censuses the basedon data statistics some Jewish population nation) werethe dominatingRumanians (whereAustrians was not seen as and Italians Serbo-Croats, Slovenes, a Ruthenians, Poles, separate Czechs, Germans, Monarchy: nationality, (of 1880, 1890,1900,and 1910),only followingthe nationalitiesin were present the but for us it is possible to know Jewishthe population of Bukovina grewby more than six times. made 102,919. 13.2%,and in1910Jewsconstituted Thus, we can see thatduringyears sixty Bukovina lived 14,580Jews from (3.82% total the population),in 1900 therewere96,150 that grew very mainly rapidly, due toemigration from Galicia and Hungary.in Thus, 1850 in Table 2. Percentage of Jews in the largest cities in Austria Czernowitz Lemberg Krakow Prague recognized or even conceived of even language. of recognizedas aseparate or conceived not was (Yiddish) tongue mother their as same the nationality, a nor nation a separate Ibid., p.302. See Austrian and Hungarian censuses in Robert A.Kann, Robert in censuses Hungarian and SeeAustrian The statistic data is based on The table is taken from Wolfdieter Bihl, “Die Jüden,” in During the nineteenth and twentieth thecenturies, Jewish in population Bukovina However, the Jewish population of Austria and the whole Empire was neither seen as seen neither was Empire whole the and Austria of population Jewish the However, Band III, 2 Teilband., eds. Adam Wandruszka und Peter Urbanitsch (Verlag der Österreichischen der (Verlag Urbanitsch Peter und Wandruszka Adam eds. 2 Teilband., III, Band 4,678 22,586 12,937 7,706 Total Percentage Total 1857 Ievreis’ke Naselennia taRozvytok Ievreis’kogo Natsionalnogo Ruhuna Bukovyni 21.67 40.58 37.82 10.71 Volume 2. Empire Reform. Empire 2. Volume 17,359 36,130 20,939 17,635 Total Percentage [The Jewish Population and the Development of Jewish Development the and Population Jewish [The 19 The Multinational Empire. Nationalism and National Die Habsburgermonarchie 1848-1918 1890 45 32.04 28.24 28.07 9.67 47 According all to Austrian censuses 48 . In the Austrian censuses the censuses Austrian the In . (New York, 1983), p.302-303. 46 21,587 44,258 25,670 18,986 Total Percentage Total 1900 31.92 27.68 28.11 9.42 , Die Völker CEU eTD Collection ( the recognition of a Jewish nationality status ‘Volksstamm.’ recognized asa nationality.from Starting 1880s,the Jewish political movements demanded however,not after 1861, individual equal rights generally given werealmost several reverses equal Jews were individual universally) granted civil not in1848(however, rights and after not. was population Jewish whereasthe nationalities in1849, as Rumanians wererecognized crownland.itbecame Rutheniansand Lodomeria,in Germans, aseparate Poles, 1849 and about 3.9 percent of the whole population and were the smallest religious group. 1910, in wholethe Austro-Hungarian Empire, asa Jews, affiliation,religious constituted 50 49 name official Following thefirstBukovinajoined partition inof AustriaPoland in1772, 1775the with 1910 of Compromise Bukovina andthe Bukovina in ofAustria Politics Nationality 1.3. Jewish nationalities. of equal and autonomy representation political together with Bukovinacompromise,the which was based onthe principle of personal solve based toethnicity problems making all governmentthe 1910 tothe Austrian anattempt in led in Bukovina, nationalities different between tension growing the and numerosity, their activity, movements’ political national Jewish there. Jews of activity political and numbers possible to ignore the Jewish minority; in Bukovina itwas much more difficult due to the of total Bukovinathe population. of Jews consisted 12.9 percent in Austria, and of of 4.7percent population the of of1910,Jewsconsisted census to the Umgangssprache Ibid., p.306. Ibid., p.305. The Austrian censuses were designed to estimate languages of daily use Based on the statistical data it is obvious that even if in the whole Empire it was die Bukowina ) in ) framesthe of monarchy; the they measuringwere usedfor nationality . Before 1849Bukovina. Before was a partof Kingdom the of Galicia and 20 49 According to the censusof the According to 50 CEU eTD Collection see also he War World First the After supported to return captured BukovinianBukovina. solders from in Russia ( cooperation national for calls and tolerance his for Bukovina 53 alliance, known as the as known alliance, Vasil’ko Mykola leader, with alliance a young Ruthenian a concluded political Straucher, Association), Benno Bukovinian of leader The politicians. Jewish language rights. Language and Nationalism in Modern Central the 1848-1918. Constitutional 142of Law1867, No. it was not officiallyYiddish, as languagethe of predominantJewish communication, wasneverlisted. Moreover, recognized as a national language according to Article XIX of the 52 Ruthenians, but not Poles any more. political affiliations from Polish to Ruthenian and thus, inAustrian censuses Jews marked themselves as of non-privileged groups among these two nations. This fact made Jewish population of Galicia shift their opposed by Poles who needed Jewish votes for Polish political participation on the parliament. consciousness among the Jewishpopulation, theirclaims fornational recognitiongrew as well, but were the official in themselves censuses as declared Poles andvotedJews usually forPolish parliamentary nationality, separate a as candidates. recognized Withbeing the not rise of Galicia, political in century nineteenth 51 Galicia after1900) they were listed asPoles Galiciabefore Ruthenians(in 1900),Germans (in Bukovina),or (in in ethnic were notrecognized asaseparate linguistic but group; their peculiarities, censuses a majority Jewishof the in population and Bukovina demandedrecognition on basisthe of useof the dependent on formed population a national Yiddish-speaking Jewish The language. only made nationality partly status of ofhighest same the the recognition authority, court by later asearly decisions supported January Court, by a seriesof Administrative 3, 1881 as of Austrian the verdict the However, wasdesigned. census ethnic-based farother as asno Mykola Vasil’ko (or Mykola vonVasylko) was well knownand respected by the all national communities in Robert, A. Kann, The shift of registration preferences of Jewishpopulation from Polish to Ruthenian was voluntary. Thus, in the Landtag Czernowitzer Allgemeine Zeitung The question of Jewish nationality recognition was raisedin againafter 1903 bylocal However, Jewish national claims were strongly supported by Ruthenians due to similarities of interests Volume 2: Empire Reform (New 1983),York, p. 299; also see Tomasz Kamusella, elections of 1904 and to initiate reforms of The Multinational Empire. Nationalism and National Reform in theHabsburg Monarchy, 53 , and a leader of the Romanian youth . The main aim of the of aim main The Onciul. Aurel youth Romanian the of leader a and , 51 Freisinniger Verband . Accordingall to censusesAustrian (of 1900,1880, 1890, 1910) , 17 November1915, No. 3757, p. 3.) Europe 52 nor did Hungary anyspecial Yiddish recognize (Progressive Union), was to obtain a majority in majority a obtain was to Union), (Progressive (Palgrave MacMillan, 2009), p. 313. 21 Jüdisshe Volkspartei Die Volkswehr Landtag , 15 January, No.1910, 16, pp. 1-2.; on the basis of equal national (The Jewish People’s The politics of CEU eTD Collection according to local in the representation to starting five“…the point that assertion wasnationalities primary lived inBukovina…entitled the to new elections cooperation future inthecontext of electoral of Jews andRuthenians of reform, and planning This article of a Jewish journalist had not only a nostalgic mood, but also agitated for the 56 confessional clause was supposed to be used. According to the proposal, tobe supposed confessionalAccording to waswere supposed used. Jews clause fiveon national taxes paid. The proposal called for the division of the electorate intofive national curias based 55 Press, 1994), p. 73. Historical Perspective. Imperial Austria: Good Intensions, Evil Consequences,” in Contemporary Perspectives Reform of 1909 inBukovina,”John in S.Micgiel,ed., 54 as following: of victory the celebration Freisinniger Verband, according national to inproportion Bukovina. andJews, Ruthenians Romanians, Ukrainians) representation (i.e.of Poles, Germans, Alon Rachamimov, “Diaspora Nationalism's Pyrrhic,” p. 7. Alon Rachamimov, “Diaspora Nationalism's Pyrrhic Victory: The Controversy Regarding the Electoral the Regarding Controversy The Victory: Pyrrhic Nationalism's “Diaspora Rachamimov, Alon Die Volkswehr Thus, inThus, 1909 the [Ukrainians] intheir struggle for anational recognition… fair help, and because expectedthey supportfromreceive to a fair the fraternal people Poles, have lost the elections, and they [Ruthenians]…with young Rumanians gained their gained representation in the Rumanians young [Ruthenians]…with they and elections, the lost have Poles, happiestwere Ruthenians and Jews; for theformer,because land-holders, the togetherwith compatriots for health of “Semites” and “anti-Semites”… and of“Semites” health for compatriots published Jews willdrink the that also free in bear German will House, and drink with their Jewish in language was glued; advertisement andin local the periodical,an which used anti-Semitic,to be itwas Germans, of Christian house national the On arrived… has nations nations—theof phenomenon inAustria. previously It seemedunknown new of a that spring On the streets ofBukovina people were celebrating. In all cities, people celebrated fraternity Umgangssprache , 15 January , 1910,No. 16, pp. 1-2. In city Suchav…Jews and Rumanians…were dancing Rumanians…were and Suchav…Jews city In cadastres AustrianStudies V,eds. Ritchie Robertson and Edward Timms (Edinburgh University Landtag won won electionsthe in 1904. Thelocal Jewish journalist mass described (New York, 1996), pp. 7-8; see also Gerald Stourzh, “Ethnic Attributes inLate (voting lists); where each voting list was supposed to be complied to supposed was list voting each where lists); (voting Landtag Freisinniger Verband . Landtg mentioned in the census, except in the casewhere the Jewish inthe census,except mentioned . For the latter, the Jews, celebration was held because of their proportional proportional itspopulation,” general sharein to the 22 State andNation Building inEast CentralEurope: formulated a reform formulated where the proposal 54 This newly created political political Thisnewly power, created The HabsburgLegacy: National Identity in 55 Hora together.However,the 56 and CEU eTD Collection Reform of 1909 in Bukovina,” pp. 14-15. also Alon Rachamimov, “Diaspora Nationalism's Pyrrhic Victory: The Controversy RegardingOleksandr Dorrzhanskyi,the ElectoralMykola Kushnir, and Maria Nykyrsa. Chernivtsi: Nashi Knygy,2007, pp. 33-34; see the Last Quarter of XVIII-at the beginning of XX centuries: Collection of Documentsna pochatku XX st. and Materials. ], ed. 59 58 57 Tolerance to the state ethno-nationalism of Presence movements ofnational Absence state of the enemy the with cooperation of Rejection “others” Level of preparation to protect interests of Level of ability to act like “others” Level of shared political ideas with “others” “others” with relationships Consciousness aboutthe reason of problematic Resistance to “other” state Cooperation in the developmentof the state Separatist ethno-political behavior behavior ethno-political Integrative Jewish curia. a separate without in 1910 was signed Compromise, Bukovina so-called of wasapart which reform, Anewelectoral voting curia. have not aseparate could why they Jewish population of Bukovina‘Volksstämme’… or ‘nationalities’ constitute not a nation, language –gainedrecognition of communication among oneof themselves the as but a religious affiliationAustria-, population acompactly Yiddish astheirsettled– chiefly using Jewish and that is nationalitiesother notes infor “… asStourzh Bukovina, the firsttime in history of the inpopulation Bukovina. in to holdBukovina 10seats Criteria arelisted. table themain below Austrian for criteria compromises Gerald Stourzh,“Ethnic Attributes in Late Imperial Austria: Good Intensions, Evil Consequences,” p.73. Ibid. Ievreis’ke Naselennia ta Rozvytok Ievreis’kogo Natsionalnogo Ruhu na Bukovyni vOstanniiChetverti XVIII – In fact, this also meant that the Jewish population was recognized as a nationality by nationality as a wasrecognized population Jewish the meant that this also In fact, [The JewishPopulation and the Development of JewishNational Movement in Bukovina in 57 Landtag, 58 However, their proposal was vetoed on the basis that basis the on vetoed was proposal their However, corresponding to the 13 percent share of the Jewish 23 Austro-Hungary Compromise of 1867 + - + + + + + + + + + - - Compromise Moravian of 1905 + - + + + + + + + - - - - Compromise Bukovina of 1910 59 In the In + + + + + + + + - - - - CEU eTD Collection the Lastthe Quarter of XVIII-at beginning the of XX centuries: Collectionof Documents andMaterials. ],p. 34). na pochatku XX st. ( S.Weisselberger,N.Wender, L.Kellner, I.Katz, S.Rudich, who organized a Jewish Clubin Czernowitz. 63 Reform of 1909 in Bukovina,” p. 16. also Alon Rachamimov, “Diaspora Nationalism's Pyrrhic Victory: The Controversy Regarding Lastthe Quarterthe ofElectoral XVIII-at beginning the of XX centuries: Collectionof Documents and Materials. ],p. 34; see na pochatku XX st. 62 1848-1918. 61 Jewish rights and thereby of statistical accuracy did not consist of the non-recognition of the of non-recognition the of consist not did accuracy statistical of thereby and rights Jewish discrimination Austrianlegal Accordingremained. interpretation, to Kann violation argues, of wereelected. candidates Jewish eight results, the place to and according 1911, inApril took newregulations underthe elections personal basedautonomy, which was not on principlesthe Thefirstused language. of eight Jewish deputies in the electoral districts within the curia, own having their of deprived Jewswere the that fact the Despite representatives. the German curia were and Jewish German was German, Thefifth andcontained curia franchise. equal carved in such a way as to basisof dietthe tothe on representatives andRumanian Ruthenian curias elected fourth the provide at least representation. Polish the by joined were and nationalities all of landowners great the and church Orthodox Greek of the their representatives curias first elected two The diet. the for body to eachnationality create national the to representation in order established Compromises in the Duna Monarchy], in Kompromisiv u Dunaiskiy Monarchii” [Bukovina Compromise: in the Context of History of Ethnic 60 variations) Austrian Compromiseswhere means criteria, of presence + - absencethe of thecriteria,+ - some Table 3. Criteria for Austrian Compromisesin listed 1867-1910 (in are the themain table criteria for Ievreis’ke Naselennia ta Rozvytok Ievreis’kogo Natsionalnogo Ruhu na Bukovyni vOstannii Chetverti XVIII – According to the elections of 1911 the following Jewish deputies were elected: I.Blum, Y.Fisher, B.Straucher, Robert, A. Kann, Material for the table is takenfrom IvanMonolatiy. “Bukovynska Zgoda: uKonteksti Istorii Mizhetnichnykh Ievreis’ke Naselennia ta Rozvytok Ievreis’kogo Natsionalnogo Ruhu na Bukovyni vOstanniiChetverti XVIII – The participation in elections according to the new law newbased of tothe according in ontheprinciple was The participation elections Thus, according to the BukovinaThus, the Compromise, voting five national were according to curias Volume 1: Empire and Nationalities (New York, 1983), p.331. 60 . [The JewishPopulation and the Development of JewishNational Movement in Bukovina in [The JewishPopulation and the Development of JewishNational Movement in Bukovina in The Multinational Empire. Nationalism and National Reform in theHabsburg Monarchy, Landtag Ȳ : Independent Cultural Science Journal . 62 63 However, the situation language situation Jewish of However,the 24 (Lviv, No.56, 2009), p.65. 61 The thirdand CEU eTD Collection 2002-2003), p.118. Austria,” More detailed see Michaelin L. Miller, “Reluctant Kingmakers: MoravianJewish Politics inLate Imperial populationwas not listed in cadastre. ( – Czech languages of two basis a in organized was and German. The same,(cadastre) nationality list voting status a of for the voters was determined on registration theas basisfar of as colloquial language rights political 65 calm, the territorial conditions close was and ofBukovina. was Jewishlifeinthatregion a characteristic groups flourishing quite to the allowed them to benational of the representatives the of peaceful co-existence Acomparatively awareacculturation. of the domination andof another,one group suppression noforce forof assimilation and Rumanians, Ruthenians, and Poles, Jews.Duetothis heterogeneity major wasnothere ethnic it was the most heterogeneousin Austria. problems national area of Austria; the territory was inhabited by Germans, 64 representation), Czechs and Germans, butfactually excludedthe Jewish minority from political between solvetensions ethnic the to designed was 1905 (which Moravian Compromise of strugglefor rights group-differentiated and representation. political to the Compared a itwas a unity; as population of Jewish the perception the basedon was recognition national provinces in 1848and several after almostreverses universally in 1867.The struggle for in some granted first was it as far as individuals, as Jews of equality civic mere the with Conference1908. of Birnbaum,this a demonstration was inorganized, 1911 in whichCzernowitz, ledwas by Nathan a Yiddishstatus to them. political in but national Jewish national of aPolish oraRuthenian status, arbitrary the assignment activist and one of the organizators of the Czernowitz Umgangssprache According to the Moravian Compromise of 1905, Jewish population in Moravia was deprived from their Ibid ., Volume 2: Empire Reform, p. 300. Summing up, itis note Summingnecessaryup, to duringthat late Habsburg the overBukovina, rule Jewish at theCentral Studies EuropeanUniversity III The problem of recognition of the Jewish nationality in Austria was not connected not was Austria in nationality Jewish the of recognition of problem The 64 ), as it was established by the official census; and as far as Yiddishwas not recognized, Jewish 65 The problem was still limitedof statistical significance, and as a reaction to the Bukovina Compromise was one of the few satisfactory solutions to the 25 , ed., Andras Kovacs and Ester Andor(Budapest, CEU eTD Collection active struggle for political representation of of Jewish population. the representation for political active struggle activity, slowly which but confidently led tonationality and recognition demands and more political Jewish of (re)birth andthe Monarchy the over all trends democratic of context Conference in in Czernowitz 1908. This cultural and politicaleventshould in be discussed the Language Yiddish International First the convene to possible it made life social and political active and numerosity Jewish also Empire, neighboring in the events political main 26 CEU eTD Collection 67 Temple. second punishment forpunishment afailure tofulfill commandments God’s historyproperly; andall Diaspora is outside “the land” ( religion,part of andceremonies. narrative, national however, the historical memory of the Temple and the land of was always a significant a homeland; without nationalism Diaspora was there where situation isaunique movements national political Diaspora of is That Jewish why theexample nation-state. Jewish was no there appeared, movements national Jewish when time the At homeland. their with connection a retain dispersed compatriots andthat nation-state, before the Diaspora no was there that 66 in In this chapter I deal with Jewish Diaspora nationalism (national movementsBukovina during theLateHabsburg Monarchy which appeared Chapter 2. Jewish National Political Movements in who maintainedwho ties toahomeland while living abroad…” politicsmodern on scholarly theterm aredefined“…groups Diaspora articles Diasporas as Bukovina,itnecessary is todefine themainand in concepts In terms which I use thischapter. language development(or national revival in the case of Hebrew). national of idea the basedon extent, a certain were,to movements political national Diaspora the general context of other nations’ ; and, the same as other nationalisms, Jewish in formed in is were national Bukovina movements main chapter Jewish that argument of the of Bukovina focusing on roleoflanguagethe intheir political, and cultural social The trends. Anupam Chander, “ Galuth Galuth or In Jewish tradition the life in Diaspora is considered as a negative temporary life is asanegative temporary in considered life Diaspora the In Jewishtradition Before I start the discussion of the main trends in Diaspora Jewish movements in movements Jewish Diaspora in trends main the of discussion the start I Before 66 Goles (the Jewish Diaspora)) in the times of the late Habsburg monarchy in in (the late Habsburgmonarchy Jewish of territory the times the the Diaspora)) ( ʕˏ ʬ ˒ ʺ Diaspora Bonds,” literally means exile) ha-arets) . In traditional Jewish theology, exile ( New York University Law Review, Vol. 76, October 2001, p.2. the term fordefining JewishDiaspora after the destructionof the 67 Thus, AnupamChander argues Galuth) is seen as a CEU eTD Collection 68 where nationalisms new nation-states. of criterion the and old empires of breaking-up the of a consequence also but cause only a not was “nationalism that: notices successfully Brubaker Empire. Hapsburg in the minorities national Jewish the with situation the suits perfectly which minorities national of nationalism is forms of one nationalism,these forms and of different Brubakerdefines In his article, activity. political exclusively asstate-seeking be understood not can nationalism argues that territory, oratleast,is it notthe core of all national movements. Thus, Rogers Brubaker a for struggle necessarily donot movements national However, state/autonomy-seeking. territory, in general. fathers having theirland tothe or own thereturn of Jewish state, restoring the aimed at movements which were founded developed and outside land the of Israel; andwhich were not political Jewish national mean I nationalism’, ‘Diaspora term the by And Palestine. of Temple and the mass scattering of Jews all over the Roman Empire. of finished second the destruction with the and in Mediterranean, the all over Greeks settling BC and the following Babylonian exile, continued in timesHellenistic when Jews joined in Temple of 586 first the itsdestruction the formation with it instarted be seen stages: three could Diaspora Jewish of the for sins. emergence The in punishment the terms of represented Gellner and the Theory of Nationalism Rogers Brubaker, “Myths and Misconceptions in the Study of Nationalism,” in of its variants. The required effort is, however, very energetically put into this task by the by task this intellectuals-awakenersinto of this ethnic put group, and eventually, if and when circumstances are energetically very however, is, effort required The variants. its of invented,ofhistorical a political allegedly unity once buildaround culture one same orthat be turned cultureswhich,into with good deal effortthe of and standardized sustained an propaganda, can a rivalpowerless also theeducation-deprived. are share, orgroups They of them share, folk new highown, and to thewhole bagof ticks whichmakes youdowell modern under conditions.culture, The …power-holders have privileged access to the central highculture, which indeed is their whether or not sustained by the memory, real or necessarily is nationalism that view a widespread is there Studies Nationalism In land mean the lifeoutside I Jewish Diaspora’ term whenIusethe ‘Jewish Therefore 68 Ernest Gellner, in Ernest his Gellner, , ed. John Hall (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998), 276. 28 Nations andNationalism TheState of the Nation: Ernest describes Habsburg describes CEU eTD Collection awakening of other nations. Moreover, Ianalyze the development of Jewish National political movements where in Eastern JewishnationalismEurope, isseenin contextthe of a national national understanding theemergenceJewish Diaspora of by Avineri to approach Shlomo formed in the context of the larger population’s national movements. In this chapter I adapt an movement formation, This position disadvantaged could beseen asaturningat thebeginningnational and point of the struggle for national rights. Jewish national movements were 69 Habsburg Monarchy at the end of nineteenththe century when foundthey themselves in an in the minorities national many of position the describes correctly Gellner Thus, deprivation. political and cultural but economic, not of position in a were they – terms) numerical in not if minority (even but itstill in areas, was inaposition of better off disadvantaged other than in problematic HabsburgMonarchy.the there in centuries and thatis why even the recognition of their entity as a rooted in not Jewish Thus,the Bukovina was Diaspora less which acute. are correspondingly may face problems of territory an which residue some ancient retain movements national 71 70 nationalisms.” by facedDiaspora problems special andacute theillustrate quite inquestion, the territory to thosewith claims previous natural enemy of of social transformation,Also Gellner deals with problemsthe nationalism which Diaspora could face: “The problems cultural revivification, acquisition of territory, and coping with the Ibid., 109. Ibid., 108. Ernest Gellner, Ernest specific path. same general premises, and same conclusion, to points the naturally though itsown by only at apolitical disadvantage which is inherent in minoritytheir followsstatus, from the distinguishable whichpopulation not are atan economic disadvantage (quite the reverse), …intolerable position, once the processof industrialization begins, of culturally The economically Bukovina wasquitemuch population Jewish prominent of and or re-born as the case might be, culture. propitious, thisgroup sets upastateof itsown,which sustains and protects thenewly born, Nations and Nationalism 71 (Oxford and Cambridge: Blackwell,1993), p.97. 69 29 70 Moreover, he notes that those that notes he Moreover, nationality was quite CEU eTD Collection 1981), p 23. 72 that alive; always was Jewish communities of activity political the argues that Lederhendler mereEli for survival. times those of anecessity seen couldbe which interests, national inMoreover, for life political their Jewishcommunities actively participated struggled and secularization. and industrialization Revolution,emancipation, led to which following and modernity, included which proclaim that principles of development movement of other national the of context the in Eastdeveloped and formed were movements European national Jewish nations, and all of them Bukovina could be seen as a result of in Politics National Jewish the of Emergence of the Context 2.1. The interests. andcultural political national Jewish nation (community), necessity to have collective rights, of andidea arguing the and for their identity own national on based were movements national Jewish all However, quite numerous, were movements national Jewish as far as different nationalisms, Diaspora be about should discussion in aims and sometimes even contradictory in the of 1906, 1907,etc. tools they used. Austrian parliament of 1907, the first the to elections freemale democratic first –the century thetwentieth of beginning the andthree elections in Warsaw to the Russian end eighteenth the the of at changes democratic larger European of context inthe movements State Dumas Sholomo Avineri, Sholomo rising nationalism. the to rising accompaniment a constant was era post-1789 the in writings historical of emergence voiced in the context of the discovery of ahistorical pastor its reinterpretation. Hence the nation expressed its self-awareness and its newimage. A call for national future was always ofnew a historicalrevolutionary and consciousness,through which new orthe renascent Everynationalmovement in was Europe accompanied –oreven preceded emergence – by the Jewish Diaspora nationalism in Bukovina is a diverse issue,and complicated sothe The Making of Modern Zionism: The IntellectualOrigins of the Jewish State 72 liberté, égalité, 30 fraternité, promoted promoted by French the (New York, CEU eTD Collection Jewish State nationalismssecular inEurope.” modern, (Sholomo of Avineri, emergence the to coeval but terms, religious any by determined longer no awareness, self- of anew beginning the Jews these in created nationalism and liberalism both Thus doing. were groups other extol theglories of ; to ask whetherthey should not take into theirown pastjust as members of the nationalisms. Secularized, modern Jews began to ask fororigins of theirculture, forthe roots of their history; to German Kultursprache of theAustrian rulers contended with both Polish and Ukrainian (Ruthenian) Thus, the origin ofnational movementsZionism orZionist nationalism – appears in the context of local nationalismstakes of surrounding people. place in: “ Jewish State 1964), pp. 211-212. (citedfrom Shlomo Avineri, and silent.and Weshould be ashamed of ourselves!” (Zwi Hirsh Kalischer, while we, thechildrenof Israel, who independence, have fornational the most glorious struggle the in and holiest possessions of and lands as lives our inheritance,their down laid who are spiritless Hungarians, and Italians, Poles, ofthe example the heart to take us Let nation? and land their of love the with compared as fortune and men bereft of strength and courage, do nothing? Are we inferior to all other peoples, who have no regard“Why for do life the people of Italy and of other countries sacrifice their lives for the landbecause of the theirgentile fathers, population while has we,it: like (1862) of Zwi HirshKalischer, where the author draws aconclusion about the necessity of Jewish nationalism 74 Jewish Community of Tsarist Russia 73 and existence.” foralwayssubstitutes inorder sovereign sought to guarantee power their welfare continued have and activity in political havealwaysengaged in Diaspora the “Jewish communities Jewish political interests. political Jewish of representation practical and ideology national search for their own to start they situation, transfer of information from all over the world).Being influenced by surroundingthe andlocal which usageof spreadof publications, and vernaculars, developed the allowed in increase and the circulation influence of by religious decline itthe was alsoconditioned (where national which upall became movements population well-awareof rose Europe over organizations protecting the political andinterestsnations.cultural of their TheJewish political national nations’ surrounding of activity of political context in the appear organizations national Jewish rights. national Jewish for struggle would which principles, other official political organizations such as political parties on the basis of national, religious or A good example of Jewish national ideas being influenced by non-Jewish ideas is the book Eli Lederhendler Eli Also, Shlomo Avineri noticed that Jewishnationalism –with noregards whetherit is Diaspora-oriented The political activities of The Jewish communitiesusually activities werenotpolitical intoof organized (New 1981),York, p.12) (New 1981),York, p.52). 73 , The Road to Modern Jewish Politics: Political Tradition and Political Reconstruction in the 74 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1989), p.154. …ethnically mixed Lithuania later and inGalicia where the The Making of Zionism: Modern The IntellectualOrigins ofthe The Making of Modern Zionism: The IntellectualOrigins ofthe 31 Derishat Zion (QuestforZion, Jerusalem, Derishat Zion CEU eTD Collection 77 ( Bukovina communal life of the Jewishpopulation lost its form in1789 withthe new “Jewishorder” process of emancipation, social and political changes broke the traditional way of Jewishlife incommunities. In the unprofitability due agriculture,butto accustom be Jews to thus,JosephIIwantedto occupied; to professions of the field and absence laws,it with Together prescribedforJewish also the community-organization population of agricultural skills, of state.” mainthe “useful was“tomakefrom the Jews citizens” “Patent” the of aims a large part of and Oneof duties. intheir rights thisequal toothers of time) Galicia(Bukovinaa part at was Jews from cancel rabbinical courts and of autonomy courts cancel rabbinical (‘ “Jewish the order” or of “Edicttoleration” as the “Jewish ofKaiser patent” Joseph II from May 7, 1789.This which document, is alsoknown byAustria bytheso-called created inBukovinawereunconsciously Jewish population hadsomealso pre-conditions Thus,the and urbanization for of peculiarities. education the and tostudycities, start universities andinteract with largerat population.the century,industrialization whichbrought andcertain secularization, move Jews did big tothe 76 assimilation.” against in fight the weapon effective official organ of Worldthe Zionist Organization, declared thatJewish curia would be“a most 75 against assimilation. Thus, Compromise Moravian the discussing 1905, of members. Furthermore, Jewish national movements were formed in the context of the struggle protectits to inorder political organizations made active into that unite population the Jewish them, surrounding communities the from enmity physical) (not political explicit of feeling Judenordnung Ibid p.15. Ibid Jewish life in the Diaspora had a form of self-governmental kahals or kahals of self-governmental form a had Diaspora the in life Jewish Die Welt Die Additionally,it was only in the nineteenth century Jewsbeganthat experience to the , 8 December 1905, p. 1. Bukovinian Jewish national movements were influenced by all these factors, but factors, these all by influenced were movements national Jewish Bukovinian ). kahals 32 , 76 to make the Jewish population of Galicia Judenordnung 75 Moreover, only in the nineteenth in the only Moreover, kehilot ), was issued in order to in order issued was ), (communities). However, the However, (communities). Die Welt , the 77 CEU eTD Collection employed inindustry and crafts. For more informationsee: 81 Austria 80 ofAustria. citizens other as same the duties and unmovable property; in1863 they were allowed tostudy practiceand law, and in 1867 Jews were granted rights 79 1,457 (35,9 %) (Ibid., p.18, 27). population),Vyzhnytsi in 3,997 (89%), in Storozhyntsi 2,430 (36%), in Seret 3,093 (46.6%), in Guragumora 78 Jews. primarily of consisted century. This by was also supported factthe the majority that Bukovinianof bourgeoisie nineteenth the since50s-60sof tradition long-established political formedBukovina some in Jewish the population by “Patent”, inBukovina,of caused amountthe Due tothe Jews the Table 4. Urbanization of Central European Jews Brody Kolomea Tarnopol Cracow Lvov Brno Prague Bratislava Budapest Czernowitz Vienna City the empire, as shown in table 3 below. in others to comparing areas, in these population Jewish the urbanization largestof caused the cities.villages moved to Ruthenians (i.e. Ukrainians), Rumanians usually occupied agricultural professions; Germans usually were The table is made based on statistic data in Peter Pulzer, The Austrian attitude started to change only 1859in when the Austrian government allowed Jews toown This led tothe situation when 1910 till in Sadagura (orGartenberg) 3,437 Jews lived (76%from the total (Oxford University press, 1988), p. 335. 15,138 9,119 10,808 17,670 26,694 4,505 13,056 4,552 44,890 9,552 40,277 Abs.numb. Percentage 78 As farasBukovina was parta of Galiciasince 1786,the“Patent” 81 1869 80.9 53.2 53.9 35.5 30.6 6.1 8.2 9.8 16,6 28.2 6.1 80 33 The Rise of Political Anti-Semitism in Germany and Ievreis’ke Naselennia ta Rozvytok Ievreis’kogo 12,150 18,930 13,997 32,321 57,387 8,947 18,041 8,207 203,687 28,613 175,294 Abs.numb. Percentage 1910 67.5 44.4 41.3 21.3 27,8 7.1 8.1 10.5 23.1 32.8 8.6 79 CEU eTD Collection “World spirit” ( Kant, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel and others. Hegel, in particular, played asignificant role. His theory of the 83 1981), p. 6. ) Avineri, (Sholomo of a Jewish national theory and the search fortheir own place in the history of mankind. 82 Journal Ivan Monolatiy. “Avstriiska Bukovyna: Osoblyvosti Natsionalnykh, Profesiynykh i Movnykh Podiliv” [Austrian Podiliv” Movnykh i Profesiynykh Bukovina: Peculiarities of National, Professional and Linguistic Deviation],Natsionalnykh, in Osoblyvosti Bukovyna: “Avstriiska Monolatiy. Ivan Bukovina], pp. 27-30; see also Alon Rachamimov, “Diaspora Nationalism's Pyrrhic Victory” pp.5-6; see also Natsionalnogo Ruhu na Bukovyni the emergence of Jewish Nationalism, Jewish of emergence the language ( Israel ben 1698-1760), whichEliezer, opposed profanation in life daily of Hebrew the strongly religious component represented by the Hasidic movement of Baal Shem Tov ( language adopt and to which to integrate.society Moreover,to in Bukovina therewas a as their mother tongue, andYiddish East spoke population Jewish majority the the inwhere Bukovina of very successful where there was no national majority so it was not clear which ( schools Jewish Germanstudy inadopt They Jewish clothes,surnames. to andto traditional were allowed the Jewish population was forced to visit schools, not to wear traditional German lyceumsfrom “Patent” whereasinBukovina, and universities, the 1789, according to needed to Jews “prove” Austria In society. hosting the in integration that total and lived), they where theycountries the of desired to be like other citizens and to have a right to study in region were negatively perceived by negatively by region local perceived same,Jews. The were the dayan a diploma from a German school it was impossible to get married, to become a Austria In Ibid. With , or to occupy a high-level position in a Jewish community. (Lviv, No.56, 2009), p.10-35. Haskala Whereas in the wholeAustria ideasthe of Enlightenment played a significant rolein All these reforms which were aimed to Germanize the Jewish population of the of Germanize Jewishpopulation the to aimed were which All thesereforms loshen koydesh Haskala Weltgeist (Jewish Enlightenment) starting from Moses Mendelssohn, people started to read Immanuel to read started people Mendelssohn, Moses from starting Enlightenment) (Jewish The Making of Modern Zionism: The Intellectual Origins of the Jewish State heders promoted a certain promoted type oflinguistic acculturation the(adopting languages ) and the role of the nation in a historical process gave new breath to the development to the breath new gave process in ahistorical nation of the role the ) and ) only after they graduated from from they schools.after graduated ) only addition, without In German ) and promoted the use of vernacular for everyday for everyday communication. vernacular useof the promoted ) and [The Jewish Population and the Development of Jewish National Movement in Movement National of Jewish Development the and Population Jewish [The 82 in Bukovina the movement was not prominent at all. at prominent not was movement the Bukovina in 34 Haskala Ȳ : Independent Cultural Science movement was not was movement (New York, rabbi , a 83 CEU eTD Collection Jewish (Yiddish) newspaper Fig. 2. Advertisement of trips to America and Canada in the local no longer seen as a promising way. in 1881)was assuch (since context the created emancipation factors which All thesecapital. in Easternborderthe notAustria mainstream of was trendsof and assimilation of the the on was Bukovina Moreover, II. Alexander Tsar Russian the of assassination by the provoked pogromsfrom startingand following in Laws May 1881, Russian the the Empire which were Jews to be the right way due to neighboring Russian main(the of Haskala in promoters were Jewsfrom Bukovina Galicia). anti-Jewish Enlightenment of socialmovement Jewish the promote would who dynamicsintellectuals local significant no and mass role inopposing in Haskala, secularization and integration. Furthermore, were Bukovina there asignificant Dynasty played () Sadigura of Hasidic the representatives the Indeed, On hand, other the integration) emancipation seem Bukovinian even (and not did to Yidishes vokhenblat number of such articles increased since 1895-1896). on the level in thelocal newspaper Ukrainophile of emigration became very popular among the Ruthenian population. Thus, were publishedit however, feature of there; Jewishthe inherent population (especiallyFig. notan emigration (see Jewish periodicals was 2), the phenomenon. Despite many in Bukovinaadvertisement a emigration Jewish population wasnot widespread inAfrica. and However, amonglocal Bukovina the South numbers to America, and some to Western Europe, Palestine many Russian Jewssuccessfully inlargeandused emigrated There also was a third way – emigration, which (May, 1905). 35 Bukovyna many many articles CEU eTD Collection the Development of Jewish National Movement in Bukovina], p.30. Bukovina], in Movement National ofJewish Development the 85 Shtetl: New Evaluations (Henry Abramson, “Two Jews, Three Opinions: Politicssocialism, on usually the irreparablyShtetl compromising one ator the theother. Turn of Twentiethwere members of Century,” Jewishsocialist parties usually intried to reconcile at least some aspects of Jewishidentity any specificallywith Jewish aspects of their political views with the overall platform of their party.” But those who members of general socialistwere who partiesJews “often that argues jettisoned he them, their Jewishbetween identity distinction completely, important an essentiallymakes substituting Abramson Henry Zion. Poale Bolshevik andMenshevik communist parties, butsome Jewish formed socialist parties such as the Bund or 84 clerk, and there were twenty Jewish among them. for position the of inapplied sixty candidates 1892 of Thus, urban Bukovina. rural areas and in both places and administrative governmental Jewish elite occupied the century nineteenth Mendel Amster, Yoahim Abraham Butfrom Tittinger, Lüttinger, etc. secondhalf the of the century elitewere occupied bythefinance-merchant representedby Isak Rubenshtein, Jewssince nineteenth amongthe 50sof theBukovinian the The leadingpositions political Bikovina in Orientations Political Their and Parties ofPolitical 2.2. Diversity (whether Marxist or Zionist) basis anational leadership on a and Jewishcommunity a national restore necessary to philanthropy,nor even civic equality would changein thecircumstances Austria –it was the core of the Jewish Diaspora national political movements in Bukovina at the end of the movements end the in of nationalBukovina at political coreof the Jewishthe Diaspora widely spread among in the Jewish population movements Bukovina. Thesetwoconstituted society of building craft, charity emerge: organizations foundations etc. Together turn the of twentieththe incentury BukovinaJewish cultural, educational and charity with Zionism, Marxism was activesocial at of also inactivity.Bukovina and Jewishcausedan political Thus, the population It is necessary to point to significant differences between socialists – some of them were members of the Ievreis’ke Naselennia ta Rozvytok Ievreis’kogo Natsionalnogo Ruhu na Bukovyni From the nineteenth century it became clear that neither temporary local temporary neither that clear became it century nineteenth the From The rapid level upwardsocial mobility, high the andof education ahighpercentage , ed. Steven T.Katz (New York University Press, 2007), p. 94). Society of the Temple of Society 84 . 36 (1872), 85 Mashike Shabat [The Jewish Population and Population Jewish [The , women’s society, women’s , The CEU eTD Collection the Development of Jewish National Movement in Bukovina], p. 35. Bukovina], in Movement National ofJewish Development the 86 Ukrainian. Jewish charity organizations, whereas only Rumanian,7 5 German, 5Polish and4 charity in there were46 in Czernowitz 1903 Thus,basedon archive foundations. the documents, nationalities’ other of amount total the than more was foundations charity Jewish measure it by the amount of charity organizations. Before the First World War, the amount of crownland empire. of the Eastern most “fluid politics” could be explained by general the political situation of ethnic minorities in the recognition, and nationality forrights Jewish the population in Bukovina. factof The such a most popular Bukovinian politicians, BennoStraucher was a Zionist promoting Yiddish Jewish parties very often changed programs, courses and orientations. For example, one of the notiteasy is distinguish in to political faras trends Bukovina, different as leaders of political general, In Jewish population. Czernowitz among trend itwas acommon say that to possible not itis culture. However, languageand the German with themselves willingly associated placeZionist took congress in Basel. in yearin asthe Bundwasformed that ideologies, and first political sameyearthe both the beginningnineteenthyear and century.was asignificant twentieth Thus,forthe the of 1897 Lithuania, and Russia) known as Yidisher ArbeterBundinLite, Poylnun Rusland by the represented Socialism nationalism and Diaspora-oriented Zionism, movements in Bukovina, we themaincan differentiate three trends of Jewry:Bukovinian Ievreis’ke Naselennia ta Rozvytok Ievreis’kogo Natsionalnogo Ruhu na Bukovyni Overall, the Jewish population was politically and socially active inBukovina, wecan socially active and politically Overall,was population Jewish the asinIn Czernowitz, Austrian every big city, layers rich of the Jewish the population Despite there was not strict differences of political courses of Jewish political of Jewish courses of political strictdifferences not was there Despite 86 the Bund 37 . (The General Jewish Labor Federation of Federation Labor Jewish General (The [The Jewish Population and Population Jewish [The Algemeyner CEU eTD Collection (New York, 1981), p. 4.) return to Zion.” (Shlomo Avineri, and exile from be redeemed will Jews how and when determine should intervention, human not Providence, passivity by a very this strong skepticism legitimizing at aimed construct about any a theoretical active evolved intervention even thought in thereligious divine “Jewish sometimes scheme ofHowever, things. Divine http://www.jewsagainstzionism.com/rabbi_quotes/schneersohnLetter.cfm written by Sholem Dov Shneerson,ber letter (A sins. Jewish expiates exile the since comes, Messiah the and until can; one as themselves upon much as exile yoke of the accept Zionists to opposition for calls even he Moreover, blood.” and flesh of of one hands about our Redemption… we must hope and wait for adeliverance by the Almighty withHimself, insistent entreaties… and not throughThe Zionist Almighty the the notion showering by contradicts redemption our premature hope a and force to yearningpermitted even that redemption G-dour not We are himself strength. willownbringing our not in bringwith [Zionists] them join to permitted …not are “…we stated: Shneerson ber Dov Sholem Rebbe by Lubavicher written a letter in Thus, redemption. day of the distancing by that and come, to messiah 87 society academic of students’ first 1891 the which were publishedin Kolomyia. national Jewish ideology by two periodicals: JewishTaubesstruggled in assimilation, who against promoted and Yiddihs, and education restore the political power of the state was at all times a part of Judaism. Daniel and Isaiah.Waitingfor the Messiah whowould bring Jews backland to their and been a part of messianic expectation explicitly pronounced, for example, in the books of The return to the land of Israel2.2.1. Zionism and the restoration of the Jewish political state has always branch of the Viennese society Dr. Lazar Elias Igel, who was a Hebrew teacher, theologian, and an initiator of the local Volkspartei with party cooperated Straucher’s Association) whichactively Jewish(The National a Jewish create national in and Bukovina, party in 1901 they founded Worldthe Zionist approached Organization.Straucher these In1899Benno local Zionists to politicians, Philip Menczel and Mayer Ebner;theywereleaders of Bukovinianthe branch of This is why the majority of religious authorities saw the Zionist movement aspushing the end, hastening the Additionally,many Jewish youth societies pro-Zionism appear in this region.June In One of the first and more active Zionists in Bukovina were two journalists and () National (Jewish The Making of Modern Zionism. The Intellectual Origins of the Jewish State Israelitische Allianz . Another prominent Zionist of Bukovina was Löbl Hasmonea 38 Die JudischeDie Volkzeitung (focused on financial support for Jews(focused onfinancialsupport was founded by Czernowitzer rabbi wasfounded byCzernowitzer ). 87 Jüdischer Volkverein Jüdischer and Volksfraind, Jüdische CEU eTD Collection politicians in Bukovina, who represented “theinpoliticians form Bukovina, embodiment Czernowitz’s whorepresented of unique of successful themost oneof club. Hewas political Jewish the created 1900 Straucher nationality recognition and Jewishthe population,of gainingcultural and rights. In political of twentieththe century: aparty of and who his supporters struggled the for politicians. other both, within and outside the Jewish community that caused many critique from the side of youth. gathering money for Bukovinian the incolony Palestine, and organization seminars for the whichwas mainlycreated, focused its activity publishingliterature, and on promoting Zionist in beginningand Atthe of alocal culture. century twentieth the Bukovina language German through assimilation of process the to resist to in order movements, political in mostUniversity.prominentwere the Czernowitz Tikva Reform of 1909 in Bukovina,” p. 6-8. 91 p.31. Bukovina], in Movement National ofJewish Development the 90 (http://www.deutsche-schutzgebiete.de/kuk_bukowina.htm) Und staunend hört der Vater Pruth Vielzungig mit einander, Ruthenisch, deutsch, rumänisch Blut Mit Koller und Kanonen: In vollem Wichs meinflottes Heer Beidir zu lernen und zu wohnen, Schau auf, schon zieht und braust einher, mentioned: 89 p.31. Bukovina], in Movement National ofJewish Development the 88 Zefira in In addition, society of countries andcolonization 1897 aZionist Palestine). from different Alon Rachamimov, “Diaspora Nationalism's Pyrrhic Victory: The Controversy Regarding the Electoral However, in the anthem of the University (written in 1975 by Joseph Viktor von Scheffel) no Jews are Ievreis’ke Naselennia ta Rozvytok Ievreis’kogo Natsionalnogo Ruhu na Bukovyni Ievreis’ke Naselennia ta Rozvytok Ievreis’kogo Natsionalnogo Ruhu na Bukovyni and was founded,in 1899 90 The Zionist ideasZionist by werepromoted Jewishthe political and students’organizations and Betzalel Jüdische Volkspartei, 91 That led to a split of the Zionist movement into two parts at the beginning . 88 In the beginning of the twentieth century Jewish students’ organizations Inthebeginningof twentieth the Hebronia led by occupy aimedStraucher, to as manypossibleposts , in 1900 39 Humanitas 89 , and in 1903 [The Jewish Population and Population Jewish [The [The Jewish Population and Population Jewish [The Zionist Committee Emuna , andlater CEU eTD Collection (which later became later (which elections inof 1907. Thus, in Czernowitz February of 1907 a new free democratic placeof firstAustrian parliamentary the in the context electoral took reform, 13, 1903he localmany ofhisideas.gathered propaganda forJews for new The struggle significantrole inthefunctioning of alliancethe and preparation reform,the of in thus, May which wasnamed society For anew samereasonin the political battleStraucher. Jewish 1911 Kellnercreates with Jewish newspaper in languageGerman 1910 Kellnernewfounded a Jewish party political society. This political group paid more attention to the Jewish religious orthodox interests. In new electoral reform to reform electoral new Political Society, friendKellner of T.Herzl. with his together Maer follower Ebnerin the 1907 create Jews who supported ideasthe of Leon Kellner, whoarrived inBukovina in 1904 andwas a protected the ideas of Autonomism and defended Jewish collective rights as rights collective Jewish Autonomism ideas of defended and the protected he actively where in Vienna, parliament imperial in the Czernowitz of representative 1918 he Andoverall was a from 1897 to member. representative andanexecutive years, also he was a member of the regional parliament; and, moreover, he was a 93 Littman Library of JewishCivilization, 2010), p. 207. Dilemmas of East European Jewry,e 92 of the Hewasapresident bent. liberal-democratic a of nationalism politics.” ethnic Ibid. David Rechter, “A Jewishel Dorado? Myth and Politics in Habsburg Czernowitz” In The new stage of Jewish politics in Bukovina emerged in time of the discussion of in of The newstage inBukovina emerged of the Jewish politics of time discussion the The second part after the split was a less numerical and prominent part; it consisted of consisted it part; prominent and numerical less a was split the after part second The Toynbeehalle 92 and a newspaper and a He was a city councilor who stood and on principlesof the stood councilor who Hewasacity Freisinniger Verband . Jewish NationalPartyJewish Landtag ds. Richard I.Cohen, Jonathan Frankel and Stefani Hoffman (Oxford: The . Thus,in local 1903anew emerged deputies of alliance the Bukowiner Volks-Zeitung Bukowiner Volksrat (for more information see 1.3). Straucher played Straucher a informationmore see1.3). (for 40 or . These were the main tools in main werethe . These a long-term tools Jüdische Volkspartei Volksrat der Bukowiner JüdenVolksrat derBukowiner becomes an official organ of the Kultusgemeinde Jewish NationalSociety ) was formed, where Insiders and and Outsiders. Insiders Volk Rechts for many and a Jewish . 93 CEU eTD Collection the Development of Jewish National Movement in Bukovina], p.33. Bukovina], in Movement National ofJewish Development the 97 96 1909 in Czernowitz and about twenty other places national strikes took place. mass in recognition led to Jewishthe population of 26, protests Bukovina, thus, on September Non- 1.3). see moreinformation (for German curia tothe attached were and nationality curia, according Bukovina tothe Compromise of 1909, Jewswere notrecognized asa fora separate recognition, andestablishing of Jewish local nationality Despite, the support of Jews nationality recognition demands by Ruthenians: in sameperiodical the article In another published was signed by the emperor without a Jewish national a withoutcuria. Jewish national bytheemperor was signed massthese satisfied demandsinBukovinanot andin were 1910the Bukovina Compromise Ruthenians in Bukovina.the in Thus, Ukrainian newspaperweekly these demands of the Jewish National Party were supported by the National Council of 95 places for Jewish representatives in for Jewish places representatives 94 newspapers secretary; Straucherwhile the officialpossessed organs the role of theof head,newly Dr.Zalterformed political as a deputy movement head, andwere Dr.Diamant daily as a “Shche Raz: My i Zhydy [Once Again: We and the Jews], Bukovyna, 12 (25) September, 1908, p. 2. “My i Zhydy” [We and the Jews], However, according to the results of the elections of 1907, Jews got only one place in Ievreis’ke Naselennia ta Rozvytok Ievreis’kogo Natsionalnogo Ruhu na Bukovyni The main aim of the newly-formed organization was the struggle to provide two enemy –the Poles. have the same goal: national emancipation of masses, and in Galicia we have a common chancesin the struggle for political liberation of ourpeople, butalso because we they and political reasons, because Jewish separation Polesimprovefrom andGermansour could Ruthenian society haspositive a attitude Zionism.towards isnot That only of because parliament,local representation, the same as recognition of their national language. they havecan aright culturalnational for some autonomy, and their representation in the rights. national of all Jews, apeople without as own land, their cannothave demands forterritorial autonomy,but recognition for struggle the in Jews the support also should Ukrainians Jüdische Volksrat, and DieVolkswehr Volksrat,and Jüdische 95 Bukovyna Landtag , 5 (18) September,1908, p. 1. . 94 41 Based on the local periodicals, we can we see that local on periodicals, the Based . Bukovyna we can read about the perception the readabout wecan Bukovyna [The Jewish Population and Population Jewish [The Landtag we read: . (Ibid., p.33). 97 However, 96 CEU eTD Collection socialism combined with Zionism in the local Yiddish periodical Yiddish local the in Zionism with combined socialism ideas; and Jewish National Worker’s Party of Russian Empire. the and Austria in minorities national with deal to attempt an as Drahomanov, Mykhailo historian Ukrainian the by also independently Renner, Karl and Bauer von Otto members parliament was Bundists of ideologies central most the of One Yiddish. into programs Russian-language translating simply or masses, working Yiddish-speaking Jewish mobilizing interests, proletarian Jewish for known commonly as commonly known Shtetl: New Evaluations a society national of free in class andconflict.” unity towards socialist march together could Empire, Russian of the fraternal peoples likeall “Jews, other believedthat They such. Marx’s views was based on their idea that he opposed Jewish religion,notculture or nation as by from detaching religion, same butatthe time remainingJewish.interpretation Their of egalitarianism of future asecular of vision Marxist the reconcile to wanted socialists Jewish Diaspora Nationalism and 2.2.2. JewishSocialism L.Kellner. curia, where from German the wereelected deputies itsJewish results, eight to according Bukovina, and the main two positions were occupied by two Zionists B.Straucher and 98 Henry Abramson, “Two Jews, Three Opinions: Politics on the Shtetl at the Turn of Twentieth Century,” in The Bund The The most numerous Jewish socialist group was group socialist Jewish numerous most The However, in 1911 elections to the local provincial diet ( The main of socialist representatives inJewish trends were Bukovina local the branch led by Y.Pistner; whereas newspapers whereas ledbyY.Pistner; , ed. Steven T.Katz (New York University Press, 2007), p. 95. the Bund Autonomism which was founded in 1897; and originally stood forin arguing 1897;andoriginally whichwasfounded stood . Theidea was first developed by Austrian the 42 , Volkspresse The General Jewish Worker’s League which principles promoted of Arbeter Tsaitung and Vorwärts promoted its Landtag ) were held in 98 The , CEU eTD Collection demonstrates demonstrates twothat solutions were possible in situationthis both were implementedand – power on behalf of the newly reconstituted Jewish national political community. Lederhendler to a searchforof recovery access meant ways for political of newsearch The very the essence Bukovina in Movements Political National Jewish between and Commonalities 2.3. Differences rights and Yiddish language inrecognition Bukovina. national movement: he founded a society he founded movement: national inputinto developmentthe Yiddish the of in he agreat eventthe Bukovinaand gave stayed Thus,after of 3).The activity in Conferencehispolitical Bukovina. (see chapter wasastart role he asignificant of Yiddish played 1908 where of Conference Czernowitz in context the Society Viennese the context of the celebration of celebration of the context 101 99 periodicals local were wherethemainofficialorgans educational and monthly programs; weekly and literature language, Yiddishof culture, promotion withthe associated Bukovina was Diaspora-oriented nationalism in Bukovina. Mainly promotion the of Galuth nationalism in Galuth in ofculture so-called developed principlesthe Zionismappreciation basis onthe of of refused later he however, asaZionist; hiscareer started who Birnbaum, was Nathan(Nosn) butparty, main aJewishmovement several personality course and this organizations. The of 100 Samuelson, “Hanuka,” Samuelson, DAChO, Fail 3, Fold.10954, pp.3-4. See “Jüdisches Theater,” See“Jüdisches . Thus, periodthe from 1911 could1903 to be seen as mostthe active yearsfor Jewish The first mention The first in of inBirnbaum Nathan Bukovinian wasin periodicals the 1884 Jewish nationalismDiaspora-oriented inBukovina was not represented by a political Dr. BirnboimsWochenblat Allgemeine Israelitische Allianz Kadima. Die Volkswehr Hanukah 99 Later notes about Birnbaum, in the local appear periodicals, in thelocal aboutBirnbaum, notes Later , 7February 1910, p. 3. ; he is mentioned in the article as one of the founders of founders the of one as article in the mentioned is he ; (1908) Jewish Theatre Jewish 43 and , 11 January 1884, No.1. DosVolk 101 , 100 andfor struggled Jewishnational (1910-1911) . CEU eTD Collection 103 102 political inter-national of context in the developed and formed were region in this movements itinfluencedbutwas also bytheinner political andsocial national Thus,Jewish atmosphere. national revival, Austrian nationality politics, Russian and Austrian anti-Semitic experience, movements in Bukovina was significantly by influenced risethe of surrounding nations’ thepeople. wasbased on power and sovereignty and belief the that rights, movements were based on democratic principles, thestruggle fornationality recognition and national Jewish Autonomist, or Zionist whether program, political to regard no with Overall, assimilation was popularnot in Bukovina where: Jewishthe population. to government self- and level autonomy of acertain would return for state away the when searched system,autonomists when andparliamentary through withanelectoral share power state the effectively forliberal for away searching Bund therewasatrend constitutionalism to politics ininsolutions were Bukovina.Thus, adopted nationalism by Diaspora-oriented represented environment in whichpolitical and social environmenton behalf of – through self-determinationpeople; secondthe creating an Jews the of reordering might and revolution social constitute of solution radical a is one first the a majority and possibly a state. Littman Library of JewishCivilization, 2010), p. 216. Dilemmas of East European Jewry,e David Rechter, “A Jewishel Dorado? Myth and Politics in Habsburg Czernowitz” In Ibid. Summing up, it is necessary to note that the experience of Jewish political national that experienceJewish political the note of is it necessary to Summingup, become an ‘obsolete farce.’ of ‘Piedmont of the Jewish national movementin Austria,” where assimilation rapidly city and the region appear,autonomist, ornationalist, share This gathered strengthin rights. from earlythe 1890s, making the the national and ethnic of words assertion of particularist more a a sympathetic into redirected Galician observer,From theas a 1880s,kind much of Jewish support for liberalism, like that of other groups, was In addition, there was a third solution, which was assimilation. However, the idea of the However, assimilation. was which solution, wasathird there In addition, ds. Richard I.Cohen, Jonathan Frankel and Stefani Hoffman (Oxford: The 103 44 Insiders and and Outsiders. Insiders 102 Both of the CEU eTD Collection Jewish national movements. national Jewish different between competition in and Bukovina, nationalities other with cooperation alliances, 45 CEU eTD Collection language Christian periodicals Nachrichten Israelitische Allianz periodicals were also taken into consideration: werealsotaken periodicals available: Vestnik Tagblatt Narodna Sprava language newspapers wereavailable: language focuses Chernivtsi, following local wasonthe Bukovinian and onethe press, of Ukrainian- discussed in the local Jewish and non-Jewish press. actively was not is andthat event it; as modernwhy this see scholars important same seen the is hypothesis timeshaving atthe of chapter that of the not planning andtheit Conference was its for politicalrole organizations in basedBukovina localon Themainperiodicals. investigate is evaluations Conference to of and the chapter newspapers). the mainaim The of Jewish language German (based onCzernowitz event the on reaction first and the in italso of periodicals withdeals published Czernowitz; Conference political the the aspects based on with Conference the issuesconnected general the of discusses thesis the This chapter (1908) Czernowitz Chapter 3.The First Yiddish Language Conference in . Also, for my research, the following local Jewish periodicals in German were in German periodicals Jewish local following the my research, for Also, . During the research in the archive of Yuriy Fedkovich National University of University in Fedkovich National the archiveof DuringYuriy the research , Czernowitzer Allgemeine Zeitung Czernowitzer Allgemeine Das VolkDas were found. , Gromadianyk , , Dos folk Der JüdischeVolksrat , , Yidishes Vochenblat Narodnyi Golos Bukowiner Vollksblatt Bukowiner Bukovyna ; moreover, the following Yiddish language Yiddish following the moreover, ; 46 , , , Der Bund Nowa Bukovyna Rus’ka Rada , Allgemeine Israelitische Allianz Arbeter Zaitung , Bukowiner Post Bukowiner , Die Volkswehr , Selyanyn , Rus’ka Pravda . Furthermore, German Furthermore, . , and , , Narodna Rada Narodna , Czernowitzer Bukowiner , Russkiy , Neue , CEU eTD Collection due to the Jewish Viennese organization Jewish Viennese the due to with rolethe of languagein Yiddish Jewish life.The mainly placeConference mainly took moreover, iteven aimedwas not todiscuss Hebreworhierarchy .of asfarmore event, a asbyitsConference content appropriate the pure Yiddishwas language Yiddish for Conference Language ‘Yiddish.’ That is why both titles translated as translated shprakh deryudisher far di konferents situation of Yiddish actors and journalists.” crucial issues isa also justas Yiddish dictionary, be should theater Yiddish discussed, the undefined, till now there is no clear approach how to adopt foreign words, one of the most literature,of Yiddish“…despite developmentstill Yiddish orthography …[the] remains 106 Jews. the and Ukrainians the between cooperation this paperwas set by the leader of the Bukovinian Ruthenians, MykolaVasil’ko, who workedpolitical for 105 Jewry). European Eastern and (Central Ashkenazim among communication for used language one only was it centuries many during because language’ Jewish 104 Post newspaper German language German,’Czernowitz in a etc.Thus, ‘corrupted was called‘jargon,’ It often was very complicated. in of Europe, but whole the Czernowitz, in not only of situation language the Yiddish millions ofJews.However, European literature of and culture formed independent century twentieth till the tenth century, the promote Yiddish language and culture among European Jewry. European among culture and language Yiddish promote 107 “Die Jüdische Sprachconferenz,” Jüdische “Die of tone The Steckler. by Moritz edited was It Czernowitz. in weekly times three appeared Post” “Bukowiner The word Yiddish ( Theyouthorganization which was founded by NathanBirnbaum in Vienna in 1905, the main aimof it was to 105 from from August 18,1908 situationthe of Yiddish wasdescribed as following: the The Conference was the first (and the last) international Conference aimed at dealing at aimed Conference international last) (and the first the was The Conference The First Yiddish LanguageConference Yiddish language The Conference for the Jewish Language the Jewish for The Conference ʹʩʣʑʩʩ yidish or 104 , which started its formation in the territory of modern Germany in Bukowiner Post, ʠʩʣʩʹ equally used by modern scholars. However, the lastmodern title However, the is by scholars. equally used idish) literally means ‘Jewish.’ Thus,‘Yiddish language’ means ‘the The Conference for the Jewish Language theJewish for The Conference (in Yiddish) (see fig. 3 and 4 below)literally Yiddish)(seefig. (in and 4could be 3 Jüdische Kultur Jüdische 106 18 August 1908. 47 Die Jüdische Sprachkonferenz Die Jüdische where ‘the Jewish language’ means where‘thelanguage’ Jewish 107 and the “talent of organization … (in German) or German) (in Bukowiner and The CEU eTD Collection 111 110 best place for having the Jewish Language Conference.” is the situation, the multilingual languages earisusedto the sounding, where hear different location the is “…Bukovina, wherefrom it noted: of each window to Conference the possible explaining on Peretz I.L. Conference the at given in hisspeech Thus, Poles). and Germans, livedwhere Rumanians, allfive(Ukrainians, groups comparatively Jews, peacefully ethnic nation, wheredominating wasno there in situation Czernowitz ethnic was the reason second which made it easier tovisit for peopleAustria, Conference both the from The Russia. and andRussia Austria between border the on wasalmost Czernowitz of location the territorially city? inthis tookplace Conference Yiddish and delivered his inspeech German. 109 Chernivtsiin of 1908], 108 in Czernowitz – in Austria Eastern Jewish centers Fig.2. Mandate Fig.3.of theCard ofConference the participantConference visitor and personal ambitions of Nathan Birnbaum,” “Die Jüdische Sprachconferenz,” Jüdische “Die See chapter 1, section 1.2 Table 1: Percentage of Jews in the largest cities in Austria. Beth Kaplan, Beth MykolaKushnir. “Ievreiska Movna Konferentzia u Chernivtziah 1908 Roku” [Jewish Language Conference The Conference was held from AugustThe September heldConference was from 30to of 4,1908inone biggest the Finding the Jewish Shakespeare Ȳ : Independent Cultural Science Journal. Lviv, No. 56, 2009, p. 72. Czernowitzer Allgemeine Zeitung Several explanations for this could be given. First of all, (New York: Syracuse University Press, 2007), p. 206. 109 48 108 who, paradoxically,notfluentinwas 110 . This could raise a question 111 , 1 September1908, ʋ 1391, p. 1. Why the CEU eTD Collection 115 114 Germany Austriaand (Oxford University press, 1988), p. 12. 113 Germany Austriaand (Oxford University press, 1988), p. 335. 112 22% consisted students about university At 30% timeBukovina. up in the of Conference to the Czernowitz Czernowitz was the numerosity of the Jewish population and their prominent position in Zhitlovsky. Chaim and Vaykhert, Michael Tobiash, Leybl Sotek, N. Reyzen, Avram Prilutsky, Anselm (Moshe) Klaynman,Moyshe-Leyb Halpern, Abraham LazarHeisler, Kahn, Leon Khasanovitsh, Joseph Kissman, Yona Krepl, Mates Mizes, Sholem Asch, Gershom Bader, Nathan Ester Birnbaum, Samuel Frumkin,Eisenstadt, H. D. Nomberg, I. L. Peretz,organizations were invited. Among them Noahwere political and cultural activists such as A. Almi, representatives of Zionists pro-Hebrew, pro-Yiddish Bundists, and representatives of religiousmovements: Jewish different of representatives artists, poets, writers, journalists, activists, parts of Austria, language. Russia, theYiddish of and recognition the writer, Yiddish the of Rumania, situation economic the actors, Yiddish Yiddish and the language,the Yiddish press stage language, Yiddish and the Yiddish and the the and youth Jewish dictionary, a Yiddish words, new and foreign USgrammar, orthography, were present. linguists, poets, writers, love and those it…”who simply Many significantnot mere Jewish multiplicity,but also their representation in the city) Jewish Language Movement Emanuel Goldsmith, “The Czernowitz Conference.” In Conference.” Czernowitz “The Goldsmith, Emanuel More detailed in Chapter 1, section 1.2. According to statistics data (from 1890) cited in Peter Pulzer, The Rise of Political Anti-Semitism in According to statistics data (from 1910) cited in Peter Pulzer, The Rise of Political Anti-Semitism in The last, and probably, the most important reason to have the Conference in havereason the Conference important to most and the probably, The last, Altogether, at the Conference from seventy to one hundred delegates from different from delegates onehundred from to seventy at Conference the Altogether, The Conference was organized to gather “all who are involved language, the with “all gather who to The Conference wasorganized (New York: Shapolsky Publishers, 1997), p. 184. 113 of the total number of students (this demonstrates 49 Modern Yiddish Culture: the Story of the Yiddish 115 in order todiscuss:in Yiddish order 112 of Jews lived and Jewish 114 . CEU eTD Collection free to take freeany totake Jewish languages. on stand language…” Hebrew the towards of attitude freedom note the arguesfor Conference the that necessary it isto with this equality. Together Yiddish language as of a language peopleJewish and itsdemands political, social and cultural the recognizes Conference Language first Jewish “The adopted. was compromise resolution among Jewish masses and recognition of it.At the end of the Conference after long debates, a language the of status the improving all, above but Yiddish, into Bible the of translation Czernowitz Conference (1908) Fig. 4. Photo of L-R: H.D. Nomberg, Haim Zhitlovsky, Shalom Ash, I.L. Peretz, A. Reisen at the language” (Petersburg), Jüdische Zeitung (Vienna), Language Conference recognizes Yiddish language as a language of Jewish people and demands its political, its demands and people ofJewish asalanguage language Yiddish recognizes Conference Language 118 117 116 newspapers: foreign The following consensus was accepted by the majority of participants, according to which: “The first Jewish first “The which: to according participants, of majority by the was accepted consensus following The “Die Jüdische Sprachconferenz in Czernowitz,” “Die Jüdische Sprachconferenz in Czernowitz,” C The agenda included problems of orthography, grammar, literature, theater, press, literature, theater, grammar, The agendaproblems of orthography, included Moreover, at the Conference were present representatives of the following local local and of representatives following the werepresent attheConference Moreover, 118 Die Welt rather than “the national language,” the Conference wished to leave participants to wished Conference the language,” “the ratherthan national New-Yorker Tagblatt (Vienna), (Köln), CzernowitzerTagblatt Jüdisches Tagblatt Unser Leben (New-York). Czernowitzer Tagblatt 119 (Warsaw), , zernowitzer Tagblatt Allgemeine Zeitung 50 , Jüdischer Arbeiter 116 117 By defining “a Yiddish as national Hed Hasman , 1 September1908, , 6 September 1908, No. 1672, p. 4. , , Bukowinaer Post Bukowinaer Sozialdemokat (Vilnius), ʋ 1667, p. 3. Der Fraind (Lemberg), , Die Zeit CEU eTD Collection in Chernivtsiin of 1908], 121 Bukovyna,2006,, p. 102. Kosmos Bukoviny: Kulturni Zdobutky Regionu. Materialy Mizhnarodnoi Konferentsii Movu,”[Czernowitz Language Conference (1908) and a Quarrel about JewishNational Language] in 120 119 September1908,No. 1396, p.6.). nation Jewish revival.” language, while for politicians itwas a “…crucial‘battle’ of paradigms and programs of linguistsfor and it writers was an placeappropriate todiscuss linguistic issues of Yiddish differently: activists Jewish different by perceived was Conference the Thus, trends. political only in the cultural dimension, but also in the contextYiddish as the language of the Jewish massesof in Eastern Europe. tensions between ofdifferent Hebrew Jewish use the on insisted movement Zionist – issue apolitical as language,mainly perceived was it politicized, much very was century twentieth the in while language Jewish of issue The nation. Jewish socialist asimportantattributeslater byJewishmovements) and saw Europe workers’ of Yiddish the movements joined were (which nationalists Diaspora in whereas, Palestine, territorially protected cultural and political rights of ( according to personalhis persuasions, attitude towards Hebrew.” free, for aright has organization, created of thenewly member each as same the conference, of the participant each that claim to important it considers conference the this, with Together equality. cultural and social amodern culture. Jewish create to wanted of and Jewry, modernization and secularization for struggled image and clearcultural a had movements Both nations. other with people Jewish the of equality the on emphasis an Zionism and Diaspora-oriented nationalism. Both movements rejected assimilation and made At the end of the Conference Language at the Politics Conference: nineteenth3.1. Czernowitz century the main two Jewish political movements appear – Czernowitzer Tagblatt MykolaKushnir. “Ievreiska Movna Konferentzia u Chernivtziah 1908 Roku” [Jewish Language Conference Natzionalnu Ievreisku pro Superechka ta (1908) Konferentzia Movna “Chernivetska Lappin, Eleonora Sol Liptzin, The Czernowitz language Conference was organized in times of in language tensions wasorganized of not The Czernowitz strong times Conference Encyclopedia Judaica. , 6 September 1908, No. 1672, p. 4; see also Ȳ : Independent Cultural Science Journal. Lviv, 121 Second edition. Vol. 5, p.372. 120 Zionists saw the nation and its culture based on the 51 Czernowitzer Allgemeine Zeitung ʋ 56, 2009, p. 71. . Chernivtsi: Zelena , 6 Mini- CEU eTD Collection 124 Bukovyna,2006, p. 101. Kosmos Bukoviny: Kulturni Zdobutky Regionu. Materialy Mizhnarodnoi Konferentsii Movu,”[Czernowitz Language Conference (1908) and a Quarrel about JewishNational Language] in 123 (“Die Jüdische Sprachconferenz,” Czernowitzer Tagblatt, 30 August 1908, No.1666, p. 5.) writers; 9) the economic status of Yiddish actors; 10) recognition forthe Yiddish language. language; 6) Yiddishthe press; 7) Yiddishthe theater and Yiddish actors; 8) economicthe status of Yiddish Yiddish grammar; 3) Foreign words and new words; 4) a Yiddishdictionary; Jewish 5) youth Yiddish and the 122 Fig.Jewish 5. National House (1910) Bukovina, did not allow touse the Jewish House in Czernowitz for the Conference. in politician important an and community leader a religious Jewish of the Schtrauher, Benno Conference, the of polarization obvious the due to that argues Lappin Eleonora asa“gatheringJews saw revolutionists of left speakYiddish.” who Conference the movements. national Diaspora-oriented Jewish of life cultural and political future the for basis a as politicians Conference wascalled tosolve these many questions and others language alanguage.Czernowitz rules defined The as spelling and grammar, of recognition clear wasnodictionary, there situation: in a very was uncertain whereas Yiddish clear, quite Ibid. Natzionalnu Ievreisku pro Superechka ta (1908) Konferentzia Movna “Chernivetska Lappin, Eleonora An official agenda of the conference was supposed to deal with the following issues: 1) Yiddish spelling; 2) Because of all these factors, Czernowitz’s upper-level German-speaking) Czernowitz’s (usually upper-level factors, Because of all these was Hebrew of situation the battle nationalism’s Zionist-Diaspora of context the In Schtrauher – a Zionist, Löbl Taubes. and, moreover, it was addressed to an opponent of Housewaspurepolitics, Conferenceinthe the Jewish LappinEleonor that rejection haveargues asking to be Thus, opened. ready not to was Jewish House House), instead city the Music Society (and partly in Ukrainian the of in place the took Conference the why version official The Jewish House, was that the 52 122 and was used by some . Chernivtsi: Zelena 124 Mini- 123 CEU eTD Collection Bukovyna,2006, p. 100. Kosmos Bukoviny: Kulturni Zdobutky Regionu. Materialy Mizhnarodnoi Konferentsii Movu,”[Czernowitz Language Conference (1908) and a Quarrel about JewishNational Language] in 125 periodicals.Aslanguage Imentioned basedon speeches already participant’s and Czernowitz political movementsIn the previous section we saw what kind of cultural andfollowed. political Language Jewish National asa/the Yiddish of intentions3.2. Ideology different Jewish In this section Party.” Social-Democratic a“Jewish organized Czernowitz in and I Russia left she Russia, in analyze imprisoned being times several After Frumkin. an attitudeorder to escape from Russia was one of the few famous female Jewish political leader’s, Ester towards Vienna then to 1913 and (between 1919). the Yiddishof Poale Zion, Leon Hasanovich,leader the Thus, activity). social and political on were restrictions there activity revolutionary together with Ber itas an from politicians used emigratetheunsuccessful Russia after occasion to (where Borohov moved to L’viv (in 1908) and Fig. 6.Czernowitz Music Society (Postcard, 1908) Eleonora Lappin, “Chernivetska Movna Konferentzia (1908) ta Superechka pro Ievreisku Natzionalnu Ievreisku pro Superechka ta (1908) Konferentzia Movna “Chernivetska Lappin, Eleonora Also the Conference was used for some personal interests: some Russian Jewish 125 53 Another person who used the Conference in Conference who usedthe person Another . Chernivtsi: Zelena Mini- CEU eTD Collection on on recognition mild language, onlyoneJewish languageasthe the of whosaw Yiddishists speeches itis possible todivide theminto radical three groups: which insistedpro-Yiddishists of etc. By participants’ literature, content the high culture, in life, daily Jewish Yiddish Yiddish istheirtowards themselves. attitude rolethe language masses,the of of arguedthat negativefeeling of and the some Jewstowards and nation the between connection the on emphasis an with speech his continued Birnbaum 127 126 masses: elite Jewish and the between isadistance mentioned there that also newhas appears?” that its ownsoul, anewlanguage whether something of itcauses theemergence whether languages mixdifferent nations asked: ifother many that“…aa dialect, not us helanguage, decadeago argued forbut Yiddish of stated a as issues which toseveral Thus, he speech hevery actively important pointed were discussed. hisopening in1908.In prepare JewishLanguageConference the to agreedenthusiastically hisgrounded politics on Jewishthe masses, protection languageof their and culture, and Birnbaum in Galicia. attempts his of failure the after activity political new his start to order andpoliticalwriter, who activist Nathan movedBirnbaum toCzernowitz(1864-1937), in surprisingly notsatisfactory was for Yiddishists either). (which Conference resolution the to reaction and their Conference the speeches during focus their Yiddishists, pro-Yiddishists Zionist I pro-Hebraists. In and section on this –socialist Conference atthe represented twotrends mainly were section, there in previous the Ibid. Sprachconferenz,” Jüdische “Die During the Conference reports were presented, speeches and discussions of of role the of discussions andspeeches werepresented, reports Conference the During One of the most important persons at the Conference, probably, was the journalist, the was probably, Conference, the at persons important most the of One the people. …not to speak the same language with the people means renouncing it. breath the same cultural atmosphere, whileits spiritual life should grow from the language of with its people by the soul and the heart, but, first of all, it should live among the people, It [ …when …when Jewish intelligentsia intelligentsia ] evendoesnot understand nationalintelligencethat should connected be Czernowitzer Allgemeine Zeitung attached to the national idea, it had no love to the Jewish nation. 54 , 1 September1908, No. 1391, p. 1. 126 Further, during the speech he speech the during Further, 127 CEU eTD Collection issues which caused the applauds from Yiddishists and the strong resistance of and resistance Hebraists. of from strong the theapplauds Yiddishists issuescaused which proletariat; he aboutalso spoke Yiddish language basedand inspiring culture and on other the development of Yiddish, the role of women’s literature, and the crucial role of the Jewish spoke about“democratization spoke of Jewishpeople,”the he gave during the first day of the Conference after Birnbaum’s speech, the Yiddish writer culture based it choky on and tainted. as should berecognized as a Jewish language (leaving aroom for Hebrew). group of Hebrew, people Yiddishas which itacknowledged andagreed beingequalto that Yiddish.Yiddish about Yiddish otherso-called and His “mixed-languages.” speechwasseen firstas in the speech about Conference atthe he spoke thus, very oriented; radically was from Mizes Peremishl dissatisfied by the resolution of the Conference. language, onlyJewish asthe she sawYiddish Conference, national language. 132 Sprachconferenz,” Jüdische “Die also 131 Zelena Bukovyna,2006,, p. 103.) in Natzionalnu Movu,”[Czernowitz Language Conference (1908) and a Quarrel about JewishNational Language] 1987 (cited in Eleonora Lappin, “Chernivetska Movna Konferentzia (1908) ta Superechka pro Ievreisku 130 129 Bukovyna,2006,, p. 100. Kosmos Bukoviny: Kulturni Zdobutky Regionu. Materialy Mizhnarodnoi Konferentsii Movu,”[Czernowitz Language Conference (1908) and a Quarrel about JewishNational Language] in 128 despite belonging to Yiddish as one of Jewishthe languages, saw itas equal Hebrew,to and the last groupwhich, “Die Jüdische Sprachconferenz,” Jüdische “Die “Die Jüdische Sprachconferenz in Czernowitz,” Joshua A. Fishman, Ideology, Society and Language: The Odyssey of Nathan Birnbaum, Ann Arbor, Mich., Natzionalnu Ievreisku pro Superechka ta (1908) Konferentzia Movna “Chernivetska Lappin, Eleonora Mini-Kosmos Bukoviny: KulturniZdobutky Regionu. Materialy Mizhnarodnoi Konferentsii Afn Shvel Afn An interesting case happened with the participation of Inhis speech, which I.L.Peretz. with happened of An interesting participation case the Thus, Ester Frumkin was one of the most radical participants of the Language , No.271, 1988. Yiddishkait 129 Also duringhisspeechhecalled adead Hebrew language,anda Czernowitzer Allgemeine Zeitung Czernowitzer Allgemeine Zeitung , saw Yiddish asapopularlanguage ofmasses butnoteven 130 Czernowitzer Tagblatt The majority of the participants belonged to the to belonged participants the of majority The 55 The same a young Hebrew writer Mate , 1September 1908,No.1391, p.1. 132 , 6September1908, No.1396, p.6. the role of Hasidism in the , 6 September 1908, No. 1672, p.4; see 128 she was one of the most . Chernivtsi: Zelena 131 . Chernivtsi: Mini- a CEU eTD Collection 138 1. 137 136 135 Movu,”p. 103. 134 133 Judaism in Yiddish. Yiddish. of culture modern the create are only the who who ones masses, andworkers wives was alanguageof Yiddish whereas andJewish scholars, , language of calledTorah, Hebrewa Peretz Jewish religion, and which brings confusion into Jewish society. But the most characteristic most the But society. Jewish into confusion brings which and religion, Jewish KassnerYiddish thatlanguage argues isonly one Jewish which alsoJews from turns the needs enough; noone more problems.” is “[t]he complicated Jewish question its“culture”it of basis should [Yiddish] beprotested”; will because that cause more problems future developmentof cooperate for the Yiddish.” to in order not change the role and value of Hebrew, and they [Zionists] will remain in the organization whichto Yiddishlanguagethe was proclaimed long journey from from long journey various places.” have the beentaken of during and distortions that buta “conglomerate absurdities language, Czernowitzer Tagblatt Zionistsin in general waspositive, Czernowitz so not thus, for example in publishedin article in article become anational language.” has Accordingis prerequisites him,Jewishlanguage,which to some apopular to Yiddish is “…there that nosuchmajority him national can that language our convince that isYiddish. Ibid. Solomon Kassner, “Die Jüdische Sprachkonferenz”, Jüdische “Die Kassner, Solomon “Die Jüdische Sprachconferenz in Czernowitz,” Sprachconferenz,” Jüdische “Die Natzionalnu Ievreisku pro Superechka ta (1908) Konferentzia Movna “Chernivetska Lappin, Eleonora Ibid. The reaction of Hebraists to the resolution was overall positive. Thus, according to the to according Thus, wasoverall positive. resolution tothe ofHebraists The reaction Czernowitzer Allgemeine Zeitung Allgemeine Czernowitzer 133 134 Peretz demanded equality of Yiddish, translation of the classic texts of texts theclassic of translation Yiddish, of equality demanded Peretz However, at the end of the Conference after the resolution, according resolution, the after Conference the endof atthe However, from September 6, 1908, stated that Yiddish was a jargon, not a jargon,Yiddish not that stated wasa from September 6,1908, 135 Czernowitzer Allgemeine Zeitung 137 Further, the author argues that “even a wish to create a Czernowitzer Tagblatt , a Zionist group argued that “the argued that resolution , aZionistgroup will 56 Czernowitzer Tagblatt a Jewish national language, Peretz claimed , 6 September1908, No.1396, p. 6. , 6 September 1908, No. 1672, p. 4. 136 , 5September 1908, No. 1672, p. However, the reaction of reaction the However, 138 Moreover, CEU eTD Collection Movu,”[Czernowitz Language Conference (1908) and a Quarrel about JewishNational Language] in 142 Perspective, 141 Section, 1931), p. VII. zur Czernowitzer Konferenz 1908 of of language dispute” 140 139 “ importance, same with wasseen the Conference the and event the whether towards attitude was the research what is main aim to The Conference. more of focusedthe early is place. on evaluations took Thissection mostly Conference the after made decades some were statements all these language. However, of the development further the for inspiration and event historical a as seen was Conference the book the In inHistoricalPerspective Conference yearshundred sincetheConference important milestones in Jewish cultural development.” Weinreich (1894published by in afamous YIVO the 1931.In book introduction the to linguist, Yiddish Max - 1969),One of the earliest books which dealt with Czernowitz Jewish Languagenotes Conference is a book that Press “The Czernowitz the in of theConference Results ofthe Evaluation of 3.3. Review Conference was “Enough of cruel this game, wewant of ghetto!”the out one of theis existence: ghetto feature of speaking tothisJewishintellectual, German Yiddish, according most Eleonora Lappin, “Chernivetska Movna Konferentzia (1908) ta Superechka pro Ievreisku Natzionalnu Ievreisku pro Superechka ta (1908) Konferentzia Movna “Chernivetska Lappin, Eleonora Kalman Weiser, “Introduction,” in “Introduction,” Weiser, Kalman Max Weinreich, “Einführung,” Weinreich, Max Ibid., p.2. infamous “language war” that divided Jewish society for decades to come. to decades for society Jewish divided that war” “language infamous the nation; promotion of “upstart” Yiddish put champions ofHebrew on the defensive,Yiddish-speaking a contributing into to an people Jewish religiocentric the transform to movement … the Czernowitz Conference presents awatershed moment: not only did it publicly proclaim a Despite the fact that “During the time of the Conference Czernowitz become a center a become Czernowitz Conference the of time the “During fact that the Despite eds. Kalman Weiser and Joshua A. Fogel (Maryland: Lexington Books, 2010), p. 4. 142 there was no expectation that the Conference would cause a big a cause would Conference the that noexpectation was there (Vilna: Bibliotek des Jiwo Institut für Jüdische Wissenschaften, Philologische in Die Erste Jüdische Sprachkonferenz. Berichte, Documente und Stimmen Czernowitz at100: The First Yiddish Language Conference in Historical itis stated: Czernowitz at100:The Czernowitz First Yiddish Language 57 a watershed moment watershed a 139 140 Alsoin a book devoted to one ” as it is seen is ” asittoday. seen 141 Mini- CEU eTD Collection Jews themselves. local the of side the from interest of alack demonstrated also that found were articles of dozen Ukrainian periodicals which discuss the Conference. In German and Jewish periodicals only a in found were articles no thus, limited, was interest Ukrainian movements, political Jewish somethat andJewishpolitical Ukrainian promoted political movements cooperating with the Overall, the conference was not followed event. this by to the localattention little Ukrainian paid Czernowitz press Thus, at all.followed. Despitefully be should thethat fact, event an andas important very perceived as was not event at the Conference, the part to take in order Bukovina. of population Jewish the for inconvenience more bring could which event, dangerous the elite (promoting Hebrew) bigger. elite Hebrew) the (promoting activities of Yiddishists would makeagapbetween Jewish masses Yiddish)and (supporting between Hebrew in thethat Conference Jewishmakesthe Bukovina,notes existing population already tension and Kassner,movement,Solomon belonged Zionist who tothe aGerman speaking upper-level of Yiddish stronger. He worried that the Conference and following 145 144 1-2. in of doubts Conference. had success the the also Conference in Chernivtsiin of 1908], 143 Bukovyna,2006, p. 100. Kosmos Bukoviny: Kulturni Zdobutky Regionu. Materialy Mizhnarodnoi Konferentsii local population. by Jewish appreciated the not were Conference the during were raised issues that that noted Diamant Max lawyer local inCzernowitz. person cultural every of perspective from the interest Solomon Kassner, “Die Jüdische Sprachconferenz,” Jüdische “Die Kassner, Solomon Ibid. MykolaKushnir. “Ievreiska Movna Konferentzia u Chernivtziah 1908 Roku” [Jewish Language Conference It isnecessary noteto that despite the numerosity of people who arrived at Czernowitz In an article in the local newspaper inIn article the an Ȳ : Independent Cultural Science Journal. Lviv, 145 In his article he evaluates the Conference as a very Czernowitzer Tagblatt Czernowitzer 58 144 Czernowitzer Tagblatt Some other participants and guests of the ʋ 56, 2009, p. 72. , 6September 1908, No. 1672, pp. from from September 6,1908 . Chernivtsi: Zelena 143 Thus, for example, for Thus, CEU eTD Collection created different cultural organizations and events. Thus, in different andevents. cultural of couple the the after days created organizations of Yiddish culturelanguage; andinfluenced it onYiddishists, which, after Conference,the and wasnot able tocombine his duties Conference the after with his political ambitions. future buthedid not; activities, to coordinate andwassupposed chairman of Conference the asa was elected who of Birnbaum Nathan activity andcultural of political diversity was the and published by inYIVO Vilnius in1931).The reason why all these wererealizedplans not planned to be published), the majority of documents were lost (only some of them were saved protocols andpublishedthen the werenot of were all participants (however, speeches the happen), not did (which year wereproclaimed in following the make the Conference to plans future At Conference the several of reasons. because evaluated asasuccess arenot results in foreign press. weredifferent of conference evaluations the that possible is it press; local only Ianalyze research in my Moreover, masses. Jewish speaking Yiddish political of orientations Yiddish, agapbetween dueto German intelligentsiaspeaking and of in success believe not did population Jewish local the that consideration into taking elections. and events, political imperial local and news, European co-existence, of ethnic discussion to weredevoted articles inwhichthe majority the local of the influenced periodicals these inmoreinvolved of for celebration 500 the the preparation the been have to seems Czernowitz Moreover, Jews. non-local mainly and Birnbaum, Natan Conference were a Viennese Jewish organization Jewish Viennese were a Conference is that the event was notplaned and coordinated by the local politicians, the main actors of the However, after the Conference there was a new enthusiastic stage in the development in the stage enthusiastic new a was there Conference the after However, isAlso Jewish by criticized Conference the Language some modernandits scholars explained be can periodicals in Jewish event the of discussion limited the However, Possible explanation of the fact that Jews were not interest in the event by by themselves event in the interest not were Jews that fact the of explanation Possible 59 Jüdische Kultur th anniversary of the city. All , aleader of the conference CEU eTD Collection language classes took place.language took classes events, literary Yiddish time to time where library Yiddish big a Czernowitz in organized Diamant, lawyer,Max Czernowitz the Thus, in Bukovina. nation recognition of Jewish in theprocess founded a branch of founded abranch society of inViennese of Bukovina Birnbaums Wochenblatt helpLöbl of Birnbaum a Zionist, Jewish published inTaubes, two periodicals: 1908 With the local the among population. propaganda Yiddish wherehecontinued Czernowitz language and culture created in language andcreated culture promote to Conferenceandcontinue the after inCzernowitz whichstayed some Yiddishists development of in language the Bukovina. Thisdevelopment influenced wassignificantly by Bukovina. in andculture of language, intothe bigmade development a Conference contribution newactivity were engagedof inof the who or However, organization people periodicals. placeYiddish with which took in newor Czernowitz, Yiddishorganizations, political parties, of development later the with Conference the lineconnects that finda strict to possible culture. language and andYiddish impactresearch of development on the very madesignificant a 1908wasopened November of Czernowitz he created an academic society “Zefira” which represented interests of “Jewish National Party. National of“Jewish interests represented which “Zefira” society academic an created he Czernowitz a political program. Diamant was one of the protectors of Yiddish as the national Jewish language. In 1906 in 146 a inConference, Petersburg The same as for Birnbaum, for Diamant Yiddish was not only a language of Jewish communication, but also but communication, Jewish of language a only not was Yiddish Diamant for Birnbaum, for as same The Also inAlso 1909 anewsociety I suggest research the Czernowitz Yiddish conference in the context of later of the context inthe conference Yiddish Czernowitz research the I suggest Overall, Conference toBukovinianthe contributed Yiddishitis Of culture. course, not 146 submitted charters of the society in Yiddish. These charters were denied by the by denied were charters These Yiddish. in society the of charters submitted andin 1910 Jewish HistoricalJewish Ethnographic and Society Goles Society of Jewish NationalMusic Society of Jewish Theater Jewish . Thus, after the Conference, Nathan Birnbaum stayed in Das Volk 60 , created a Singers’ Society aSingers’ , created was created which played a significant role Jüdische Kultur . These two organizations . The last society last . The was founded, in founded, was Hasomir and Dr. CEU eTD Collection 149 148 Movu,”p. 108. 147 are expected “..freely and consciously declareto their Jewish nationality.” Universityin should their nationality andlanguagerights and protect the of census 1910 they Yiddish as promotion amongin Jewish masses. Thus, acensus of when forbidden1910 it note was to monarchy. by Habsburg the wasdeniedrecognition nation Jewish the meantthat also The statement local justdialect.” a but people, a language Jewish of the is is not it why That Austria. of initis spokenin a language not Galicia ofcommunication andBukovina, Western parts the is Yiddish “Although basis that appeal the on the rejected Court State the Viennese However, hissave Jewishhis “to nationality” andsupport rightthat with a accusation (German, Polish, Romanian,As Ruthenian). toit, aresponse Diamantapplied court the to inMinistry Affairsbecause they of written not Interior of were one recognizedthe languages who promoted, for example, a Bukovinian colony in Palestine, and at the same time, same the at and Palestine, in colony a Bukovinian example, for promoted, who Zionism-oriented activists, promoting Yiddish language and culture, therewere severalBukovinian importantpolitician such Thus, among Jewish communities. asEuropean asintherestof asvisible was not clear the cut Benno Straucher,in Bukovina Diaspora-nationalists, andpro-Yiddishists Zionists pro-Hebraists on movements Max Diamant, and Yiddish in recognition the Austria. Despite Löblwidespread division Jewish national of political Taubes, of basis the on recognition nationality Jewish etc.demanded and Yiddish promoted who ones only newspaper not obey rule).the in Despite it, articlethe published in 1, 1909inOctober local the Ibid. Natzionalnu Ievreisku pro Superechka ta (1908) Konferentzia Movna “Chernivetska Lappin, Eleonora Czernowitzer AllgemeineZeitung Also the Conference was a new stage in the process of Yiddish andpopularculture intheprocessof anewstage Also Conference was the However, Yiddishists who stayed after the Conference in Czernowitz were not were the in Czernowitz Conference the after whostayed Yiddishists However, Umgangsprache Czernowitzer Allgemeine Zeitung Allgemeine Czernowitzer (moreover, there were even some punishments for those who did who those for punishments some even were there (moreover, , 1 October1909, No. 1714, p. 4. 61 states that Jewish students of the Czernowitz of the students Jewish that states 149 147 wasviolated. 148 CEU eTD Collection Yiddish. was communication main languagetheir of the and that inCzernowitz of Jews numbers consideration into taking especially populating, Jewish local the of interests following recognition andmorein of gaining political Austria.power of national identity building process,asperusing but,also, aclear political – nationality goal a part notonly beas seen of1908,could Conference Czernowitz hastened by the which was why our call is following: Jews, join your nation!” ( nation!” your join Jews, following: is call our why this we will get an opportunity … to show to the whole world our progress in social and cultural spheres. Thatwill is deliver recognition. That is why we should promote marking of the nationality in the census. On the basisforthcoming of census,we “By read: declarationofthe Jewish nationality, forthcomingthe during census,… we that has their language, and any decision can notcancel it.” “Jews he languageandIn struggle areanation national forarguedthat theirschools. addition decision, Jewsto the called and emperor’s recognize the critiqued Yiddish, Austrian to refuse 152 151 150 issues. Palestine aburro for create to proposed local lawyer Kremer a cession, this during Whereas however, the idea was notsupported by one of Viennese representatives of Zionistmovement. a local follower of this movement, Taubes argued for issuing ofbrochures in Yiddish, designed todefine Austrian population. nationality of language mainthe factors of werenot nationality although, recognition, censuses determine Yiddish or some nostalgic mood, but also by the Austrian politics where language was one of Zionists’ struggle for Yiddish in Bukovina beexplainednot could only by mere sympathy to Such etc. organizations, supportedYiddish in YiddishAustria, cultural promoted recognition Thus, in Zionist Straucher’s newspaper Straucher’s Zionist in Thus, Samuel Gammer, DAChO, Folder 3,Record 10958, p.12-13. Die Volkswehr 150 The promotion of Yiddish the culture by all of kinds political in movements Bukovina, Thus, according to local Thus, according the to of one newspaper, during in Zionistcessions Czernowitz, The same, a local Zionist, Max Diamant, during Jewish national cession devoted to devoted cession national during Jewish Max Diamant, local Zionist, Thesame,a , 28 February 1910, No.35, p. 2. Die Volkswehr Die Volkswehr Die 62 , after nationality non-recognition, and in the context of , 18 June 1910, No.79, p. 1). 152 151 Also, thisbe could explainedas CEU eTD Collection 154 languagein periodicals Bukovina.The werepublished70% other in Galicia. in categories. However, of monarchy, times the Habsburg 30%of the Ukrainian only political by framed was cooperation Their activities. Jewish political explicitly than other politicalthe between Jewsand didnotpay thelate much cooperation attention Ukrainians, to hastened formation the processthe of Jewish national demands; however, despiteof political published. asmall descriptiveon Mykolanote leader, was Conference Ukrainian the Vasyl’ko, Post, in Although, found language which theConference. discuss newspaper German (1910), Wissenschaften, Wien1980), p. 577). III, Teilband 1., eds. Adam Wandruszka und Peter Urbanitsch (Verlag der ÖsterreichischenAkademie der 153 Rada functioned thefollowingprocessed newspapers in1908): (which Ukrainian Yuriy Fed’kovich National University of Chernivtsi (Chernivtsi, Ihavefound ), and onindiscourse of JewishLanguage First the the During research,archive Conference. investigation Bukovinian Ukrainianof language periodicals with aim the findingof any andbased culture, onthelanguage made. have been One focusesof my of research was the A lot of research on the importance of the Conference for the future development of Yiddish, Conclusions published in Galicia. (“Die Ruthenen,” in Ruthenen,” (“Die inGalicia. published 154 Gromadianyk “Nach der Sprachkonferenz,” der “Nach Between1848 and 1900 there were 190 periodicals Ruthenianin (Ukrainian) language, when70% were Thus, itis possible to search for the information about the Conference in Galician , which partly followed the course of Ukrainian-Jewish cooperation promoted by followed of which cooperation thepromoted course partly Ukrainian-Jewish Czernowitz Yiddish Conference of 1908 was one of cultural and political events which Selyanyn Russkiy Vestnik Russkiy 153 (1909), , Narodna Rada (1917). However,in (1917). noarticlesUkrainian languageperiodicals, were Narodnyi Golos Bukowiner Post, , DieHabsburgermonarchie 1848-1918 Narodna Sprava (1909), 1 September, 1908, No. 2272, p. 1. 63 Nowa Bukovyna . Also, later periodicals were found: were periodicals later . Also, , Die Völker des Reiches. (1912), Bukovyna Rus’ka Pravda Bukowiner , Rus’ka Band CEU eTD Collection analysis of their reaction to the First Yiddish Language Conference. Yiddish First Language to the of theiranalysis reaction newspapers these in analyzewere published which articles to the interesting research,it be future would the Leben Zeit Conference: tothe have arrived newspapers foreign Jewish of representatives different 155 ( was devoted to Austrianalso tookplace in 1908. Themain inUkrainian,discussions German, andJewish periodicals politics, Europeanininvolved for preparation celebration the 500 the the of news, and more been localhave to seems city the periodicals, Ukrainian elections and Jewish local in the discussions to the provincialwhy neither local Jewsfullyfollowed norGermans Ukrainians, theConference. or Basedon diet it inCzernowitz; words, was not organized by other is local the Jewish community and that (leaders publish of important). allowed to organizations whichthey these articles considered organization religious or political to belong in Bukovina periodicals all Jewish that basis mucheventwas not by appreciated localthe Jewish makepoliticians. I this conclusion on the but not analytical character. moreover, allareof a descriptive articles the of werefound; newspapers language) (German Therefore, I conclude that, in the discussed. actively times not of was crownland thein another event Jewish the Conference,Galicia, in population Polish and Ukrainian the permanent duetothe tensionsthat between periodicals.I presuppose Ukrainian Though, Landtag Czernowitzer Tagblatt, 1 (Vienna), (Warsaw), According toanarticle published in local the newspaper Moreover, the Czernowitz Yiddish Language Conference was ‘imposed’ on was‘imposed’ Conference Language Yiddish Czernowitz the Moreover, local only in beingresearched, articles Despite alot of a dozen the Jewish periodicals ). Die Welt after Hed Hasman September, 1908, No.1666, p. 3. their representatives have visited the event, and to make a comparative (Köln), (Vilnius), Sozialdemokat Der Fraind 64 (Lemberg), (Petersburg), th anniversary which anniversary of Czernowitz, Jüdische Zeitung Czernowitzer Tagblatt, New-Yorker Tagblatt (Vienna), Unser . For Die 155 CEU eTD Collection Rus’ka Rada Rus’ka Pravda Nowa Bukovyna Neue Israelitische Allianz Narodnyi Golos, Narodna Sprava Narodna Rada Gromadianyk, Dos folk Die Welt, Die Volkswehr Der Jüdische Volksrat Der Bund Das Volk C Czernowitzer AllgemeineZeitung Bukoyna Bukowiner Vollksblatt Bukowiner Post, NachrichtenBukowiner Arbeter Zeitung Algemaine Izraelish Alianz Periodicals zernowitzer Tagblatt , Kolomyia, 1892. , Czernowitz, 1885-1908. , Czernowitz, 1910-1911. , Czernowitz, Vienna, 1905. , Czernowitz, 1932. , Czernowitz, 1908. Czernowitz, 1909. Czernowitz, , Czernowitz, 1908-1911. , Czernowitz, , Czernowitz, 1908. , Czernowitz, 1910. , Czernowitz, 1921-1922. , Czernowitz ,1912. , Czernowitz . Czernowitz, 1908. . Czernowitz, Czernowitz, 1908. Czernowitz, Czernowitz, 1909. Czernowitz, , Czernowitz, 1908-1909. , Czernowitz, , Czernowitz, 1910-1911. , Czernowitz, , Czernowitz, 1908-1909. , Czernowitz, 1908. , Czernowitz, 1908. , Czernowitz, 1883-1884. , Czernowitz, 1908-1915. Bibliography 65 CEU eTD Collection Avineri, Sholomo. Avineri, Bauer, Otto. Benedict. Anderson, Abramson, Henry.“Two Jews, Three Opinions: Politics on the Shtetl at the Turn of Twentieth and Articles Books Yidishes Vokhenblat Selyanyn Vestnik Russkiy Chander, Anupam. Study In the “Mythsin Nationalism.” andMisconceptions of Brubaker, Rogers. Goldsmith, Emanuel. “The Czernowitz Conference.” In Conference.” “The Czernowitz Emanuel. Goldsmith, Ernest. Gellner, Fishman, Joshua. 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