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Environmental Lichenology: Biomonitoring Trace-Element Air Pollution

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Environmental Lichenology: Biomonitoring Trace-Element Air Pollution to Mi ENVIRONMENTAL LICHENOLOGY: BIOMONITORING TRACE-ELEMENT AIR POLLUTION / - ' ' ' ' ' - jlNIS-mf—15147 \ ! K5OO1969895 I: FI DE008355191 ENVIRONMENTAL LICHENOLOGY: BIOMONITORING TRACE-ELEMENT AIR POLLUTION *DE008355191* JOYCE E. SLOOF Interfacultair Reactor Instituut Technische Universiteit Delft / Delft University of Technology September 1993 VOL 2 7 ft 0 9 CIP-DATA KONINKLIJKE BIBLIOTHEEK, DEN HAAG Sloof, Joyce Ellen Environmental lichenology: Bioinonitoring trace-element air pollution / Joyce Ellen Sloof. - Delft: Interfacultair Reactor Instituut, Delft University of Technology. - III. Thesis Technische Universiteit Delft. - With ref. ISBN 90-73861-12-8 NUGI 821 Subject headings: biomonitors / air pollution. Copyright © 1993 by J.-E. Sloof. ENVIRONMENTAL LICHENOLOGY: BIOMONITORING TRACE-ELEMENT AIR POLLUTION PROEFSCHRIFT ter verkrijging van de graad van doctor aan de Technische Universiteit Delft, op gezag van de Rector Magnificus, Prof. ir. K.F. Wakker, in het openbaar te verdedigen ten overstaan van een commissie aangewezen door het College van Dekanen op 27 september 1993 te 16.00 uur door JOYCE ELLEN SLOOF geboren te Enschede doctorandus in de wiskunde en natuurwetenschappen Dit proefschrift is goedgekeurd door de promotoren: Prof. dr. ir. M. de Bruin Prof. dr. ir. J.J.M, de Goeij The research described in this thesis was performed within the Department of Radiochemistry of the Interfaculty Reactor Institute of the Delft University of Technology, Mekelweg 15, 2629 JB Delft, The Netherlands. Aan mijn vader CONTENTS CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION 1 1.1 Air pollution 1 1.2 What is biomonitoring? 3 1.3 Why lichens? 5 1.4 Environmental lichenology: Biomonitoring trace- element air pollution 6 CHAPTER 2. GEOGRAPHICAL CONCENTRATION PATTERNS OF TRACE ELEMENTS IN LICHENS 15 2.1 Introduction 16 2.2 Materials and Methods 16 2.2.1 Sampling 16 2.2.2 Sample preparation 17 2.2.3 Analysis 18 2.2.4 Mapping 19 2.3 Results 19 2.3.1 Local variation in element concentrations 19 2.3.2 Variation in element concentrations on a national scale 20 2.3.3 Geographical concentration patterns 21 2.3.4 Comparison of lichen data with atmospheric data 23 2.4 Discussion 39 CHAPTER 3. LICHENS AS BIOMONITORS FOR RADIOCESIUM FOLLOWING THE CHERNOBYL ACCIDENT 45 3.1 Introduction 46 3.2 Materials and Methods 47 3.3 Results and Discussion 48 3.3.1 I37Cs activity in lichens 48 3.3.2 Validation of lichen biomonitoring 50 3.3.3 The biological half-life 54 3.4 Conclusions 57 CHAPTER 4. PATTERN RECOGNITION IN LICHENS FOR SOURCE APPORTIONMENT 61 4.1 Introduction 62 4.2 Factor analysis 64 4.3 The lichen data set 67 4.4 Results and Discussion 68 4.4.1 Estimation of the uncertainties in the data set 68 4.4.2 Determination of the number of factors 69 4.4.3 Factor loadings 70 4.4.4 Source apportionment 71 4.4.5 Concluding remarks 83 CHAPTER 5. SUBSTRATE INFLUENCE ON EPIPHYTIC LICHENS 87 5.1 Introduction 88 5.2 Experimental 89 5.2.1 Sampling 89 5.2.2 Sample preparation 90 5.2.3 Analysis 91 5.3 Results and Discussion 91 5.3.1 Lichens and outer bark 91 5.3.2 Outer bark, inner bark, youngest wood ring 93 5.3.3 Tree rings 95 CHAPTER 6. INTERSPECIES COMPARISON OF LICHENS AS BIOMONITORS FOR TRACE-ELEMENT AIR POLLUTION 101 6.1 Introduction 102 6.2 Experimental 103 6.2.1 Sampling 103 6.2.2 Sample preparation and analysis 103 6.3 Results and Discussion 104 CHAPTER 7. LICHENS AS QUANTITATIVE BIOMONITORS FOR ATMOSPHERIC ELEMENT DEPOSITION 113 7.1 Introduction 114 7.2 Experimental 115 7.2.1 Sampling area 115 7.2.2 Sampling and sample preparation 116 7.2.3 Choice of elements 119 7.2.4 Sample analysis 120 7.3 Results and Discussion 121 7.3.1 Air 121 7.3.2 Total deposition 124 7.3.3 Lichens 127 7.3.4 Rag 130 7.3.5 Quantification 131 7.3.6 Concentration ratios 136 7.3.7 Uptake mechanisms in lichens 138 7.4 Conclusions 141 CHAPTER 8. KINETICS OF CADMIUM UPTAKE BY GREEN ALGAE 145 8.1 Introduction 146 8.2 Model description 147 8.3 Experimental 150 8.3.1 Algae cultures 150 8.3.2 Spiking with cadmium 151 8.3.3 Sample analysis 152 8.4 Results and Discussion 153 8.4.1 Cadmium uptake at 21° C 153 8.4.2 Cadmium uptake at 0° C 158 8.4.3 Estimation of the experimental kinetic parameters 160 8.5 Concluding remarks 164 CHAPTER 9. GENERAL CONCLUSIONS 167 SUMMARY 173 SAMENVATTING 179 DANKWOORD 185 CURRICULUM VITAE 187 APPENDIX 189 The contents of this thesis have partly been published in the following articles: * Sloof, J.E., de Bruin, M. and Wolterbeek, H.Th. (1988) Critical evaluation of some commonly used biological monitors for heavy metal air pollution. In Proceedings 3rd International Conference on Environmental Contamination, Venice, September 19SS, 296-298, A.A. Orio (ed.), CEP Consultants Ltd., Edinburgh. * Sloof, J.E. and Wolterbeek, H.Th. (1991) A national monitoring survey using epiphytic lichens as biomonitors of trace-element air pollution. Lichenologist 23 (2), 139-165. * Sloof, J.E. and Wolterbeek, H.Th. (1991) Patterns in trace elements in lichens. Water, Air and Soil Pollution 57-58, 785-795. * Sloof, J.E. and Wolterbeek, H.Th. (1992) Lichens as biomonitors for ratliocesium following the Chernobyl accident. Journal of Environmental Radioactivity 16: 229- 242. * Sloof, J.E. and Wolterbeek, H.Th. (1993) Interspecies comparison of lichens as biomonitors of trace-element air pollution. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment 25, 149-157. * Sloof, J.E. and Wolterbeek, H.Th. (1993) Substrate influence on trace elements in epiphytic lichens. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment 25, 149-157. * Kuik, P., Blaauw, M, Sloof, J.E. and Wolterbeek, H.Th. (1993) The use of Monte- Carlo methods in factor analysis. Atmospheric Environment (in press). * Kuik, P., Sloof, J.E. and Wolterbeck, H.Th. (1993) Application of Monte-Carlo assisted factor analysis to large sets of environmental pollution &<\\a. Atmospheric Environment (in press). CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION 1.1 Air pollution The environment is increasingly affected by a growing number of atmospheric pollutants other than the "traditional" air pollutants like sulphur oxides, ozone and nitrogen oxides. The concern about the growing list of heavy metals, polycyclic aromatic compounds and halogenated organic compounds, which are emitted from anthropogenic sources as air paniculate matter and gasses, has reinforced efforts to establish control programmes in the industrialized countries. In general, the policy is both source-orientated, using technology based emission management, and effect-orientated, using for example quantitative risk assessment. A number of regulatory instruments are used by the governments of industrialized countries, including The Netherlands, to reduce emissions of hazardous air pollutants (Wiederkehr 1991): 1) setting of emission standards for individual pollutants and source categories, 2) establishment of ambient air quality standards for individual hazardous air pollutants, 3) overall reduction goals for compound classes like volatile compounds and particulate matter, 4) restrictions on production, handling and product use, and 5) action programmes for individual pollutants or classes of pollutants. In most countries several of these regulatory instruments are combined to form a basis in coordinated control policy. Air pollutants comprise a large number of compounds with widely different environmental and health impact properties. Therefore, several countries, e.g. the United States and The Netherlands, use priority substance lists (e.g. black list substances), to set priorities for how to focus necessary control. The criteria to list a pollutant include toxicity, carcinogenic potential, persistence, dispersion properties, and bio-accumulation as well as emission quantities and levels found in the environment. Controlling air pollutants (from anthropogenic sources) in practice is a complex problem. The pollution sources and their emissions have to be identified, the analytical methods available have to be evaluated to measure and quantify the emissions accurately, the risks which specific emissions pose on the environment (including human health) have to be investigated, the critical emissions have to be controlled and economical aspects have to be integrated. According to Wiederkehr (1991), priority action lists, based on international consensus do not exist and the legislation is not internationally uniform. All research necessary for managing air pollutants is therefore twofold in character, namely as a basis to contribute to legislation and as a tool to respond to existing legislation. Information on air pollutants can be obtained (similar to the policy principles), either by pollutant fate and transport modelling, which is source emission orientated, or by field measurements of the immission, which is a receptor based approach. Since air pollutants are emitted from various sources, such as fossil fuel combustion, industrial processes, traffic, agriculture, waste incineration and transhipment of substances and gasses, problems arise to measure the emissions from sources without a specific emission outlet. Emission measurements from industrial sources can be carried out in the stack and in- or outside the plume, with appropriate air sampling devices, equipped with air filters, denuders or impact collectors (Sverdrup et al. 1991). These measurements of air paniculate matter and gasses give local and instantaneous information on emissions or atmospheric concentrations in air particulate matter. Dispersion models are used to calculate the atmospheric concentrations in air participate matter in the field. These models are based on meteorological observations, particle size distribution."; and deposition properties, information on surface conditions (roughness) and data obtained by emission registration (van Jaarsveld 1989). Estimates on basis of dispersion models are limited by the emission registration available and these estimates cannot account for the contribution of unknown sources. During the last two decades in The Netherlands, the approach of modelling and calculating the air quality and the environmental status has gained far more interest than actual field measurements, mainly for economical reasons, such as high costs for equipment and manpower (van Duijvenbooden 1992, van Ham 1992).
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