BASELINE STUDY ON MARINE DEBRIS AND MUNICIPAL WASTE MANAGEMENT IN CHILOÉ-CORCOVADO, SOUTHERN

Master Thesis

Master of Sciences in Regional Development Planning and Management SPRING

HORSTMANN, Johannes

VALDIVIA, CHILE

July 2007

DECLARATION OF THE AUTHOR

BASELINE STUDY ON

MARINE DEBRIS AND MUNICIPAL WASTE MANAGEMENT

IN CHILOÉ-CORCOVADO, SOUTHERN CHILE

by

HORSTMANN, Johannes

This thesis was submitted to the Faculty of Economic and Administrative Sciences in partial compliance of the requirements to obtain the academic degree “Master of Sciences in Regional Development Planning and Management” jointly offered by University Austral de Chile in Valdivia and the Faculty of Spatial Planning, University of Dortmund/Germany, in the 2-years post-graduate study programme “Spatial Planning for Regions in Growing Economies (SPRING)”.

The author declares to have elaborated the present research solely by his own efforts and means. All information taken from external sources is marked accordingly. ------Johannes Horstmann

Valdivia, Chile

02-July-2007

ii

MASTER THESIS APPROVAL REPORT

The Thesis Assessment Committee communicates to the Graduate School Director of the Faculty of Economic and Administrative Sciences that the Master Thesis presented by the candidate

HORSTMANN, Johannes has been approved in the Thesis defense examination taken on 10th of July 2007, as a requirement to opt for M.Sc. Regional Development Planning and Management Degree.

Sponsor Professor

______Professor Rodrigo Hucke-Gaete

Assessment Committee

______Professor Manfred Max-Neef

______Dr. Christoph Kohlmeyer

______Ing. Maria Luisa Keim Knabe

iii ACKNOLEDGEMENTS

“Gracias a la vida, que me ha dado tanto…”

I want to express my love and gratefulness to my parents who gave life to me and my sisters. “Muito obrigado, Barbara”, for guiding me out of the last tunnel during various nights, and “Dziękuję!, Ruth”, for your motivating help during the field work in Chiloé. I say “Danke, Schlucki” to my friend Martin for commenting on my draft and his “fatherly” advices, and “Gracias, Paloma” for joyful moments during summer and for your warming love during winter. “Gracias también” to my roommates Esperanza for giving me hope, to Luna for sharing reflections of sunlight, and to Rodrigo and Kathy for sharing our house and thus making it a home to me.

Furthermore, I acknowledge my thankfulness to Margarita and Don Sergio in Quellón for providing accommodation and to Pedro and Jorge for their facilitating role during fieldwork in Quellón. I want to thank the team of Centro Ballena Azul for welcoming me in and supporting my research project. Thanks to Brianna and Israel, to Don Viktor, Marta and their daughter giving me a hand during field work, and to Sara, Angel, Claudio and Andres for sharing “la vida isleña“ in Melinka.

Special thanks to Max Bello and Rodrigo Hucke-Gaete for tutorship and feedback during this research, to Maria Luisa Keim for supervising my scientific work. I also thank the Secretaries Gisela, Pamela and Gladys as well as Claudio and Jaime for services and assistance in SPRING-Valdivia. I acknowledge thanks to Prof. Max-Neef, Robinson Ampuero, Prof. Schmidt-Kallert and the DAAD scholarship programme for making these studies possible in Valdivia, and thanks to staff in SPRING-Dortmund for the first year of this programme. Final greetings to SPRING fellows all around the world, “Vielen Dank!” for our joint learning process and for working on a common goal: “Salam Aleíkum!”

„Yo tengo tantos hermanos, que no los puedo contar, y una hermana muy hermosa, que se llama libertad!”

iv ABSTRACT

The marine and coastal area in southern Chile comprises some priority concern areas for biodiversity conservation in that region. Its ecosystem integrity is seen compromised to an unknown degree, besides other factors, due to increasing generation of marine debris from various sources. The guiding research question therefore is: “What are general and specific characteristics of marine debris in the Gulf of Corcovado, and which management strategies are needed at the municipal and regional level to address key causes efficiently?”

The field study was composed of a sample-based survey of stranded marine debris, and of interviews and field observations concerning the local waste management conditions. Results reveal that about 87% of stranded marine debris is made of plastic, and at least 65% can be associated to coastal economic activities such as artisanal fisheries and industrial aquaculture. The specific composition of marine debris samples and complementary field observations in urban areas of Quellón and Melinka gave sufficient hints to identify main points of origin at local and regional levels.

It is concluded that concerted action is needed to control marine debris generation at land-based and sea-based sources. In a participatory multi-level planning process involved stakeholders would have to meet and create a shared vision about present facts and future trends in regional development, in order to identify respective management responsibilities. Joint strategies for an integrated waste management approach need to be elaborated, carried by meaningful commitments of local and regional stakeholder groups.

Key aspects are the reduction of waste generation and the introduction of regional resource recycling economies based on inter-municipal cooperation networks. Environmental education and awareness raising campaigns along with more effective enforcement of environmental protection laws are crucial elements to empower integrated waste management as a tool for biodiversity conservation and sustainable development.

v RESUMEN EJECUTIVO

El área marina y costera del Golfo de Corcovado en el Sur de Chile, comprende algunas de las áreas prioritarias para la conservacion de la biodiversidad de la región. La integridad de su ecosistema se ve amenazado, entre otras causas, por un aumento en la generación de basuras marinas originadas en diversas fuentes. Por lo tanto, la interrogante principal de esta investigación es la siguiente: “¿Cuáles son las caracteristicas generales y específicas de las basuras marinas en el Golfo de Corcovado, y qué estrategías de manejo son necesarias, tanto a nivel municipal como regional, para abordar de una manera eficiente las causas fundamentales de esta problemática?”

El estudio consistió en la toma de muestras de basura marina en las playas del área y en la realización de entrevistas a personas relacionadas a la gestion de residuos sólidos en las comunas, ambas complementadas con observaciones en terreno. Los resultados indícan que cerca del 87% de la basura recogida en las playas son materiales plasticos, y al menos 65% pueden ser asociados a actividades economicas en la costa, tales cómo la pesca artesanal y la acuicultura industrial. La composición especifica de las muestras y las observaciones hechas en las zonas urbanas de Quellón y Melinka permitieron identificar los mayores puntos de origen a nivel local y regional.

En conclusión, se necesitan acciones concertadas con el propósito de controlar la generación de basuras marinas en sus fuentes terrestres y acuáticas. A través de un proceso de planificación participativo que considere actores de los distintos niveles involucrados, quienes debieran reunirse para crear una visión compartida sobre hechos actuales y tendencias futuras del desarrollo regional, destacando sus responsabilidades respectivas. Se deben elaborar estrategías comunes para abordar la gestion de residuos sólidos de una manera integral, basadas en aportes sustanciales de los sectores involucrados en la región.

Se recomienda considerar los siguientes aspectos claves: reducir la generación de residuos y fomentar economías de reciclaje de recursos en la regíon, facilitado por redes de cooperación inter-municipal. Campañas de sensiblisación y educación ambiental, complementadas por un refortalecamiento de la fiscalización de las leyes vigentes relativas a la protección del medio ambiente, son elementos cruciales para convertir la gestión integral de residuos en una herramienta eficaz para la conservación de la biodiversidad y el desarrollo sustentable.

vi TABLE OF CONTENTS

1 Introduction...... 11 1.1 Problem situation and Research Objectives ...... 11 1.1.1 Overall objective and research approach...... 12 1.1.2 Specific objectives...... 13 1.2 Marine Debris – Scope of the Problem...... 14 1.2.1 Definitions...... 14 1.2.2 Global extent of marine debris ...... 16 1.2.3 Main marine debris sources ...... 18 1.2.4 Impacts of Marine Debris ...... 19 1.2.5 Linkage to municipal waste management systems...... 22 1.3 Research Area ...... 24 1.3.1 The national Context ...... 24 1.3.2 The regional profile...... 26 1.3.3 Focal Areas of the Research...... 29 2 Methodology ...... 33 2.1 Marine debris sampling design ...... 33 2.2 Interviews and Field observations ...... 34 2.3 Methodology of S.W.O.T. analysis ...... 35 3 Results...... 35 3.1 Marine Debris sampling ...... 35 3.1.1 Overall Sampling results ...... 35 3.1.2 First Sampling row...... 36 3.1.3 Second sampling row ...... 45 3.1.4 Identified sources of marine debris ...... 49 3.2 Municipal waste management systems...... 51 3.2.1 interview results...... 51 3.2.2 Quellón, S.W.O.T...... 52 3.2.3 Melinka S.W.O.T...... 62 4 Discussion of Findings ...... 72 4.1 Interpretation of sampling results...... 72 4.1.1 Composition of samples and potential sources of marine debris...... 73 4.1.2 Density of stranded marine debris...... 79 4.1.3 Total amount – a theoretical approximation ...... 82 4.1.4 Renewal rate/accumulation...... 83 4.2 Evaluation of municipal waste management and Ideas … ...... 84 4.2.1 Integrated Life Cycle Management Concept...... 84 4.2.2 National framework policy on integrated waste management ...... 86 4.2.3 Critical aspects in Quellón and Melinka ...... 89 4.2.4 Promoting environmentally sound waste disposal and treatment...... 92 4.2.5 Extending waste service coverage...... 93 5 Conclusions and final recommendations...... 95 6 References ...... 98 7 Appendices ...... 101 7.1 Marine debris recording sheet ...... 101 7.2 Summary of marine debris database...... 102 7.3 Description of Transect Sample Sites ...... 103 7.4 Marine Debris Categories (in English)...... 104 7.5 Radio Spot Quellón, original wording ...... 104 7.6 Legal Framework concerning Marine Debris (Short listing) ...... 105 7.7 Photos ...... 109

vii INDEX OF FIGURES

Fig. 1: Definition of Overall Objective ...... 12

Fig. 2: Specific Research Objectives ...... 13

Fig. 3: Map of the Gulf of Corcovado ...... 26

Fig. 4: Overall composition of marine debris sample ...... 36

Fig. 5: Marine debris composition of the first sampling row, plastic debris...... 38

Fig. 6: Comparison of Marine debris in 1st and 2nd sampling row ...... 48

Fig. 7: Comparison of sampling results with ICC results (source-related)...... 77

Fig. 8: Results of 2006 International Coastal Cleanup Day ...... 78

Fig. 9: Overview on levels of stranded marine debris ...... 80

viii INDEX OF TABLES

Table 1: Main sea-based and land based sources of marine litter ...... 18

Table 2: Human Population of Provinces adjacent to the Gulf of Corcovado...... 27

Table 3: Marine debris clusters and categories...... 34

Table 4: Weight and number of marine debris of first sampling row...... 39

Table 5: Cluster composition: Strings, ropes etc...... 40

Table 6: Cluster composition: Plastic materials...... 41

Table 7: Cluster composition: EPS / “Plumavit” ...... 42

Table 8 EPS densities in transects in Melinka and Quellón...... 42

Table 9: Motor oil and cooking oil cans/bottles...... 42

Table 10: Abundance of rare marine debris categories (< 1%) ...... 43

Table 11: Densities of marine debris clusters, first sample, per 100 metres ...... 44

Table 12: Comparison of composition of first and second sample row...... 46

Table 13: Rate of marine debris accumulation on sampled beaches ...... 47

Table 14 Quellón SWOT analysis - Strength...... 52

Table 15: Quellón SWOT analysis – Weaknesses...... 54

Table 16: Quellón SWOT analysis - Opportunities...... 58

Table 17: Quellón SWOT analysis - Threats ...... 61

Table 18: Melinka SWOT analysis - Strength...... 62

Table 19: Melinka SWOT analysis - Weaknesses...... 64

Table 20: Melinka SWOT analysis - Opportunities...... 68

Table 21: Melinka SWOT analysis - Threats ...... 70

ix LIST OF ABREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS

ACM Asociacón Chilena de Municipalidades, http://www.munitel.cl/ Área Marina y Costera Protegida de Mulitple Uso; Marine and Coastal Protected Area with AMCP-MU multiple use (MCPA) ; corresponds to category V or VI of IUCN AMRF Algalita Marine Research Foundation APL Acuerdos de Producción Limpia; Agreement on Clean Production in Industries CBA Centro Ballena Azul, Research and Conservation NGO based at the UACH in Valdivia CDP Communal Development Plan, Æ PLADECO CONAMA Comisión Nacional del Medio Ambiente, Chilean National Commission for the Environment Comisión Permanente del Pacifico Sur; Standing Commission for the South Pacific, Action plan CPPS for the protection of the marine environment of the southwest Pacific; member states: Chile, Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, Panama DIRECTEMAR Dirección General del Territorio Marítimo y Marina Mercante; Chilean Armada Estación Costera de Investigaciones Marinas de Pontificía de la Universidad Catolica de Chile; ECIM-P.U.C Coastal and Marine Research Station of the Chatholic University of Chile EEA European Environment Agency of the European Union EIA Environmental Impact Assessment; Estudio del Impacto Ambiental Eionet European Environment Information and Observation Network EPS Expanded Polystyrene, “Plumavit”, “Styropor”, “Styroflex”, “Telgopor” FNDR Fondo Nacional de Desarollo Regional; National Fund for Regional Development FOSIS Fondo de Solidaridad e Inversión Social; Social and Solidarity Investment Fund GESAMP Joint Group of Expert on the Scientific Aspects of Marine Environmental Protections, under IMO GPS Global Positioning System, satellite-based technology for navigation GTZ Deutsche Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit; German Technical Cooperation Agency ICC International Coastal Cleanup Day / Dia Internacional de Limpieza de Playas IMO International Maritime Organization under United Nations INE Instituto Nacional de Estaditicas, Chilean National Statistics Institute IUCN International Union for the Conservation of Nature International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships, 1973, as modified by the MARPOL Protocol of 1978 relating thereto (MARPOL 73/78) Marine Pollution Monitoring Management Group, deployed by the British Government’s MPMMG Department of the Environment NGO Non-Governmental Organization OECD Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development Combined Oslo Convention on dumping waste at sea (1972) and the Paris Convention on land- OSPAR based sources of marine pollution (1974), international cooperation on the protection of the marine environment of the North-East Atlantic PCB Poly-chlorinated biphenyls PLADECO Plan de Desarrollo Communal, communal development plan for municipalities PMB Programa Mejoramiento Barrios; Neighbourhood improvement programme POPs Persistent Organic Pollutants PPP Polluter Pays Principle, a.k.a. “Extended Polluter Responsibility” (EPR) Reglamento para el Control de la Contaminación Acuatica; Reglementation to control the RCCA Contamination of Aquatic Bodies SERNAPESCA Servicio National de Pesca, National Fishery Service SINIM Sistema Nacional de Indicadores Municipales; National System of Indicators about Municipalities Spatial Planning for Regions in Growing Economies, Master-Study Programme offered by the SPRING University of Dortmund and partner universities in Chile, Ghana, Tanzania and the Philippines SUBPESCA Subsecretaría de Pesca, Sub-Secretary for Fishery in the Chilean Ministry of Economy UACH Universidad austral de Chile, Valdivia United Nations Conference on the Environment and Development, took place in 1992 in Rio de UNCED Janeiro, Brasilia UNEP United Nations Environmental Programme UNEP-DTIE Division of Technology, Industry, and Economics of UNEP Global Programme of Action for the Protection of the Marine Environment from Land-based UNEP-GPA activities WWF World Wide Fund for Nature, the global conservation organization

x 1 Introduction

1.1 Problem situation and Research Objectives The Gulf of Corcovado marine and coastal area in southern Chile comprises some of the areas of priority concern for biodiversity conservation in that region according to the national strategy for biodiversity conservation (CONAMA 2002). The area is habitat to a large number taxa of marine and terrestrial species, among which marine mammals such as the blue whale (Balaenoptera musculus) are of special conservation importance as these are classified as an endangered species by the IUCN Red Book.

In 2003 researchers from University Austral de Chile and the conservation NGO Centro Ballena Azul (CBA) found that the Gulf of Corcovado area serves as a feeding and breeding ground to an important part of the southern blue whale population and launched an initiative for the creation of a multiple-use marine and coastal protected area (AMCP- MU). The region is undergoing a pronounced economic boost based on rapidly expanding aquaculture industries and intensive artisanal fisheries. Negative environmental impacts of natural resource use and urban development are putting the integrity of the ecosystem at risk. The establishment of the AMCP-MU is intended to integrate conservation goals and economic development processes while involving the local population actively.

Throughout the research and planning process, CBA observed marine debris floating in the sea and accumulating locally at oceanographic fronts and along the shoreline. Marine debris entails a number of threats to the integrity of marine and coastal ecosystems counteracting biodiversity conservation efforts. It generally consists of litter objects released from land-based and sea-based sources into the environment where it causes persistent pollution. The boom of natural resource based economies and deficient waste management systems in urban settlements, harbours and industrial areas are likely to contribute to the problem. Severe environmental deterioration and negative impacts on productive economic activities and tourism are projected unless improved waste management concepts are implemented effectively.

The described problem situation gives reason to conduct a research study on marine debris and appropriate waste management strategies in the Gulf of Corcovado area. The guiding research question is formulated: What are the general and specific characteristics of marine debris in the Gulf of Corcovado, and which management strategies are needed at the municipal and regional level to address key causes efficiently?

11 1.1.1 Overall objective and research approach The main objective of the present study is to establish a baseline about the marine debris situation in the Gulf of Corcovado in southern Chile (10th and 11th region) (cf. Fig. 1).

Overall Objective:

A primary baseline study on multiple aspects of the marine debris problem situation in the Gulf of Corcovado area is established.

Fig. 1: Definition of Overall Objective In general terms, a base line study is an inventory that documents the contemporary condition of an area or topic in focus while including remarks on past and present developments trends and area-/topic-related activities. The expected outcome of a primary baseline study shall provide a record that will serve for comparison in future years and enables to draw conclusions on development trends and impacts of management measures. A baseline study therefore consists of a field survey complemented by desk-top research (Conant et al. 1983). Emphasis can be placed whether on patterns and trends in baseline conditions over time, or on relations between human intervention and impacts.

The intention of the present research is to develop a basic understanding of the marine debris problem problematique1 in order to sketch a scheme of interrelated causes and effects of marine debris in the study area Gulf of Corcovado. The characterization of today’s marine debris situation shall provide input for the ongoing planning process on regional economic development and natural resource conservation. Beyond this, the baseline study may serve as a reference for future monitoring and research on the topic.

The specific objectives are defines as follows in Fig. 2:

1 The term problematique refers to “problems of global and long term impact” as understood by the Club of Rome (Max-Neef, 2005). 12 1.1.2 Specific objectives

Specific objective 1

A comprehensive sample-based documentation of the presence of marine debris in the Chiloé-Corcovado area provides for a characterization of the problem in terms of composition, quantities, accumulation and sources.

Specific Objective 2

A screening of municipal waste management concepts in Quellón and Melinka reveals underlying causes of marine debris generation. Identified weaknesses and opportunities indicate possible options to address the waste management and marine debris problem at a regional scale.

Specific Objective 3

A frame of reference for the evaluation of baseline data is established by comparing findings with relevant literature related to marine debris research and best practice of municipal waste management.

Specific Objective 4

With regard to regional development planning and the proposed creation of the ‘AMCP-MU Chiloé-Corcovado’ the relevance of marine debris as a management concern is evaluated and converted into action-oriented recommendations.

Fig 2: Specific Research Objectives

The baseline study adopted an ‘open scoping’ process to include as much as possible all relevant stakeholders and factors that are somehow related to marine debris in the Chiloé-Corcovado area whether as active contributors, as mandatory responsible authority or as passively affected groups. A scoping process is understood as a method by which the scope of issues and aspects to be regarded when developing alternative problem solution strategies is determined.

13 1.2 Marine Debris – Scope of the Problem

1.2.1 Definitions The term marine debris is defined in this document as any kind of artificially produced object or its fragments from any possible source that ends up floating or drowned in the ocean or on the sea shore. In literature and in this document, the term ‘marine litter’ is used synonymously. A frequently cited definition by UNEP (United Nations Environmental Programme) defines marine litter as ‘any manufactured or processed solid waste material that enters the marine environment from any source’ and thereafter makes some specification of its most common characteristics.2 Various vectors such as rivers, winds, humans etc. can make on-shore litter objects become off-shore marine debris. Besides typical objects of household litter which are found at sea, marine debris often consists of purposefully abandoned materials from human economic activities at sea, e.g. fishing gear, tools, clothing, or freight goods that accidentally fall overboard. Research often focuses on ‘plastic debris’ as one of the most abundant, persistent and harmful sub- categories of ‘marine debris’. Another international definition of marine debris is found in Annex V of the MARPOL 73/78 Convention3, where the synonymously used term ‘garbage’ includes “all kinds of food, domestic and operational waste, excluding fresh fish, generated during the normal operation of the vessel and liable to be disposed of continuously or periodically.”

In South America, countries bordering the Pacific Ocean have adopted a definition under the regional organization CPPS (Permanent Commission for the South Pacific4) which specifies contaminating substances as “synthetic materials that can float on or under the water surface or sink and that can hinder any legal use of the sea”, which basically corresponds to the UNEP-GPA definition (CPPS 2006).

Although the MARPOL convention has been legally binding in Chile since 1995, the Annex V on pollution from marine debris was never signed and ratified by the Chilean Government. Nevertheless, the Chilean law “Decreto Orgánico N° 34.718 Reglamento para el Control de la Contaminación Acuática del 1992” (RCCA) converts most aspects of Annex V concerning garbage from ships as a source of marine pollution into national legislation. Herein, garbage is understood as “all kind of food remains as well as residues

2 http://marine-litter.gpa.unep.org/facts/facts.htm 3 International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships, 1973, as modified by the Protocol of 1978 relating thereto (MARPOL 73/78) under the United Nations International Maritime Organization (IMO) 4 “Comisión Permanente del Pacifico Sur (CPPS), Secretaría ejecutiva del Plan de Accion del Pacifico Sudeste”; “Plan de Acción para la Protección del Medio Marino y Areas Costeras del Pacifico Sudeste”/ Action Plan for the Protection of the Marine Environment and Coastal Areas of the South-East Pacific 14 resulting from domestic activities and routine works of ships or floating devices in normal operation conditions”.5

In distinction to marine debris, the terms ‘refuse’, ‘waste’, and ‘rubbish’, are mainly used in relation to generation, collection, recycling and final disposal of domestic litter and industrial solid residues of productive or consumptive human activities on the mainland. Hazardous waste originating from industrial and chemical production processes and from sanitary treatments is characterized by high degrees of contamination with toxic substances, often carrying health risks for living organisms and therefore must be treated separately according to respective international norms and national legislation, e.g. annex 1, 2, and 3 of the MARPOL 73/78 convention. Generally, marine pollution by contaminating liquids is dealt with separately in practice and in literature. Nevertheless, hazardous waste objects are regularly found among other marine debris, e.g. car batteries, fuel barrels and containers of motor oil.

In Spanish language, marine debris is mostly referred to as ‘basura(s) marina(s)’ or ‘basuras (flotantes) en el mar’. French literature on the topic uses “débris marins” as well as “macrodéchets” accordingly. The meaning of the English term ‘flotsam’ differs only slightly from marine debris as defined by UNEP: flotsam includes natural objects like plant material, but does not cover those objects of marine debris that sink to the bottom of the sea. ‘Jetsam’ refers to objects that are purposefully thrown overboard by crew members of ships in emergency situations, and hereafter do not differ from other marine debris objects.

This research on marine pollution in the Gulf of Corcovado in Chile has a focus on solid marine debris and includes some considerations about sewage water and hydrocarbon spills observed during the field study.

The understanding of municipal waste management, frequently complemented by the terms ‘system’, ‘strategy’ or ‘concept’ refers to the approach taken by municipal administrations to deal with the above mentioned categories of residues. It comprises all measures taken in its mission to keep the urban and rural environment clean from pollution, contamination and health risks. It commonly includes special provisions for industrial waste from local production. Municipal waste management is interrelated with marine debris, e.g. where beaches are systematically cleaned for tourism purposes and because large proportions of marine debris originate from urban sources.

5 Directorate General of the Maritime Territory and Merchant Marine (DIRECTEMAR) http://www.directemar.cl/spmaa/marco/legnac02.htm 15 1.2.2 Global extent of marine debris In this chapter general aspects and the global extent of ‘marine debris’ are summarized in order to characterize the problematic nature of the topic. Its global scale and trans- sectoral dimension make solution-oriented action so urgent but at the same time so difficult to be comprehensive and effective.

At the basis of the problem, there are millions of human beings all around the world whose environmental awareness is presently too low to make them understand that ideally he or she should not discard a litter item into the direct environment. Their driving motivation behind the behaviour can be manifold6:

• thoughtless carelessness and the wish to get rid of a certain litter object,

• laziness to take the litter on and drop the litter in an appropriate place, lack of knowledge where to dispose it properly,

• economic constraints to pay fees for its disposal or to keep it for a longer time,

• all combined with a low level of felt accountability for negative impacts that are caused by their purposeful littering, i.e. with the underlying assumption that it makes no significant difference whether the person litters/discards an object or not.

Estimations published by the United Nations Environmental Programme (UNEP) suggest about 8 million litter items per day that reach the world’s oceans as marine debris from various land-based and sea-based sources, consisting of a broad variety of products and materials (UNEP 2005). The same source publishes estimations about more than 6.4 million tons of marine debris that are added to the oceans every year, mainly consisting of plastic materials (up to 90 % in some surveys) and including abandoned fishing gear. Research results have revealed that only 15 % of the global sum of marine litter can be found at beaches, while another 15 % keep floating in the water column and approximately 70% of marine debris will never be found as it sinks to the seabed or gets entangled in rocky cliffs, corral reefs and underwater plants. This implies that study results from numerous beach-based surveys can only provide rough approximations to the real global amount, while research on relative and absolute quantities of floating marine debris and sunken materials scattered on the seabed is much more complicated and therefore less common. However, there are some approximate orientations. UNEP provides research

6 Sociological Research on people’s reasons and motivation for littering behaviour is analyzed by Topping (2000) who identified more than 15 source-related “natural tendencies” of human behaviour why marine debris is generated. The paper is available at http://marine-litter.gpa.unep.org/documents/CZC2000_paper.pdf 16 results that estimate densities of up to 13.000 pieces of marine debris per square- kilometre floating on the sea-surface in average (UNEP 2005).

An impressive and rather well-studied example is known from the Pacific Ocean north of the equator. In the so-called (North) Pacific central or sub-tropical gyre, a circular system of ocean currents centring around the Hawaiian islands which is driven by steady sub- tropical winds, accumulates floating plastics and fishing gear originating from the northern and central American as well as from the Japanese and east Asian coast. Ultra-violet sunlight radiation causes plastic materials to split up into hundreds of tiny bits after some years, resulting in dense patches of floating granulated plastic debris. It was found that in these patches the volume of plastic particles is up to 6 times higher than the abundance of zooplankton in the area (Moore et al. 2004). Estimated densities found by extrapolating transect sampling results ranged between 3.300 and 96.000 pieces/km² with peaks of 316.000 pieces/km² during the late 1980’s and early 1990’s. Another sample-based survey in 1999 obtained densities ranging from 30.000 to 969.000 pieces/km² (Moore et al. 2001). The phenomenon is more frequently referred to as the ‘Eastern Garbage Patch’, ‘Asian Trash Trail’ or ‘Trash Vortex’. It affects a huge marine area located roughly between the Hawaiian archipelago and the US west coast, its size compared to the double of Texas or Central Europe according to various sources7 (area of Texas: almost 700.000 km², Chile: 756.950 km², Germany approx. 356.000 km²).

Similar accumulation phenomena are known from other parts of the globe. In a study on floating debris along the currents of the southern Pacific Ocean, based on data from 1993 to 2001, it was found that after a long period of drift driven by the main surface currents South Pacific Current, the Peru Current, the South Equatorial Current and the East Australian Current, marine debris tends to accumulate in the centre of the Subtropical gyre which centres close to the Chilean Easter Island/Isla de Pascua (Elodie et al. 2002).

The long persistency of plastic materials, its light weight and floating characteristic, together with millions of sources around the world and a global network of ocean currents have caused marine debris to sprawl around the globe and to affect ocean waters and coastal ecosystems virtually all over the world. In the light of population growth, higher per capita waste generation and additional residues from increasing economic activities, the marine debris problematique is projected to further enlarge its global extension and intensity, unless effective prevention measures are implemented at millions of sources around the world. This is confirmed by Dr. Veerle Vandeweerd, Coordinator, UNEP Global

7 News-article oct.11th 2006 http://www.csmonitor.com/2006/1011/p02s01-usgn.htm ; Greenpeace http://www.greenpeace.de/themen/meere/nachrichten/artikel/muellimmeer.pdf

17 Programme of Action: “Marine litter poses a vast and growing threat to the marine and coastal environment. […] Despite efforts made regionally, nationally and internationally, there are indications that the marine litter problem keeps growing” (UNEP 2005).

1.2.3 Main marine debris sources Generally, two groups of marine debris sources are distinguished in topic-related literature: land-based sources and sea-based sources (cf. Table 1)

Table 1: Main sea-based and land based sources of marine litter (Source: UNEP 2005, Marine Debris, an analytical overview) Litter items from land-based sources include household litter items such as plastic bags and drink bottles, food packages, detergent boxes, other goods of domestic use and human consumption. Marine debris from land-based sources subsumes all objects that get into the sea when left behind at the beach, when carried into the water by winds, runoff water and rivers, or when being purposefully brought to sea in order to be dumped underwater. Residues from industrial production processes at land are also found among marine debris.

On the other hand, there are waste objects that originate from off-shore economic activities (sea-based sources). As these activities are partially industrialized, a variety of technical and chemical products such as fishing gear, floaters, lines and ropes, varnish and motor oil, large plastic tarpaulins etc. are commonly found among marine debris. Marine debris from sea-based sources comprises household litter items from on-board consumption by cruise ships and private yate tourists, freight and fishing vessels crews and floating platform staff. The similarity of household litter from sea-based and land- based sources makes it difficult to identify the exact source of origin.

18 It is estimated that the quantitative ratio of marine debris from land-based sources to sea-based sources is approximately 4:1, i.e. 80% of existing marine debris originates from land-based sources versus 20% that is generated by sea based sources (Greenpeace 2006). Numerous studies emphasize the importance of plastic materials among floating marine debris, making up between 60% and 80% and mainly originating from land-based sources, e.g. Derraik (2002) and AMRF (2005). However, derelict fishing gear from high sea fisheries constitutes one of the main threats to marine wildlife and therefore is one of the focus topics in the international debate about marine debris and conservation of the marine environment (Greenpeace 2006).

1.2.4 Impacts of Marine Debris This chapter will summarize impacts known to be caused by marine debris as discussed in literature. Impacts of marine litter can be grouped according to three impact dimensions. These are 1) ecological damage to ecosystems and wildlife species, 2) social damage to human beings’ health and quality of life, and 3) economic damage to businesses activities of human individuals and communities.

1.2.4.1 Impacts on the marine natural environment

The main concern regarding marine debris focuses on negative impacts on the natural environment, especially on marine and coastal vertebrates like aquatic birds, marine mammals, sea turtles, fish, and to a lesser degree on invertebrates such as jellyfish crustaceans and molluscs/shell fish. While the latter categories are potentially affected by chemical alteration of the water quality, the main risks for vertebrates are entanglement in and ingestion of marine debris items (Laist 1987).

• Concerning ingestion, plastic bags have a particularly lethal effect on turtles and mammals, who mistake them for prey and might die from a blocked digestive system (Laist 1997).

In his review of plastic debris related literature, Derraik (2002) provides numerous examples, among these:

• 26 species of cetaceans have been documented to ingest plastic debris (Baird and Hooker (2000) cited in Derraik (2002))

Frequently copied pictures of entanglement and ingestion cases show birds, seals, sea lions and sometimes whales entangled in fishing lines and nets, or the stomach contents

19 after necropsy, containing a large variety of small, indigestible plastic objects.8 Ingestion of indigestible plastic items not only causes mechanical damage in marine wildlife, but it can also cause intoxication as plastic materials contain high concentrations of PCB chemicals (poly-chlorinated biphenyls). This type of persistent organic pollutants (POPs) is known to have a broad range of toxic carcinogenic effects. PCBs lead to reproductive disorders as they alter hormone levels and also may affect the immune system (Derraik 2002). Its molecular persistency causes PCBs to accumulate across the trophic levels of the food web and thus to affect populations of (top-) predators especially, e.g. (raptor) birds, larger fishes (sharks) and marine mammals.

Considering that most dead animals are never discovered by humans as they either float in the ocean, sink to the seabed or are eaten by scavengers and decomposers, the total real extent of marine debris impact on wildlife is supposedly widely underestimated (Wolfe 1987). It has been estimated that over a million sea-birds and one hundred thousand marine mammals and sea turtles are killed each year by ingestion of plastics or entanglement. The list of records of affected species contains 135 species of marine vertebrates and 8 species of marine invertebrates. Floating plastic debris is likely to negatively affect at least 267 species worldwide, including 86% of all sea turtle species, 44% of all seabird species, and 43% of all marine mammal species (Laist 1997).

Apart from entanglement and ingestion, marine debris and especially derelict fishing gear is known to destroy coral reefs and to smother marine habitats on the seabed in shallow coastal waters (Kiessling 2003). Furthermore, marine debris has an impact on ecosystem change as floating items potentially serve as vectors for plant and animal species that might get invasive in ecosystems that were formerly isolated by an ecological barrier.

1.2.4.2 Impacts on human health and well-being

In its 2002 report “The impacts of marine litter” the Marine Litter Task Team of the Marine Pollution Monitoring Management Group (MPMMG), a research group deployed by the British Government’s Department of the Environment, provides an extensive overview of the manifold impacts caused by marine debris on specific interest groups and attempts to estimate costs of marine debris caused damage in monetary terms where applicable. With respect to human safety and health, the main marine debris related risks are seen at beaches, where beach goers and especially children may get injured accidentally by pieces of broken glass, sharp metal and plastic objects, medical syringe needles etc. and

8 Further examples and pictures are available on the UNEP-GPA website in the Marine Litter Information Gateway section: http://marine-litter.gpa.unep.org/courtesy.htm 20 suffer from transmission of pathogens and subsequent inflammations. The risk of entanglement in submerged or floating debris such as fishing lines, plastic bands etc. is reported for swimmers and scuba divers based on a few annual cases of evidence (Fanshawe & Everard et al. 2002).

Chemical contamination of recreational waters may cause allergic reactions and other adverse effects in bathers. Additionally there is concern about the unknown but possible long-term toxicological effects of chemicals diluted in sea water.9

Furthermore, a particularly serious problem is debris from military exercises and intentional dumping of chemical munitions at sea. In the past, millions of tonnes of munitions, including explosives and weapons containing arsenic, phosphorus, mustard and nerve gas have been dumped offshore at sea. There is evidence for dumped munitions being washed ashore at beaches, posing a serious hazard (GESAMP 2001 cited in (UNEP/GPA 2006)).

1.2.4.3 Impacts on economic activities of human communities

Negative economic impacts of marine debris primarily affect marine resource based productive activities such as aquaculture farming and fisheries. While both groups are also part of the sources of marine debris, they find themselves negatively affected by floating marine debris and sewage waters (Fanshawe & Everard et al. 2002). Damage to fishing boats helices and gear are possible, and can cause damage of up to 30.000 British Pounds, which is a rather significant amount for a small or medium sized fishery enterprise. Floating debris may get stuck in platform constructions and nets of aquaculture, demanding additional cleaning efforts and maintenance. The same source reports that there were compensation funds available in the past set up to financially support fishermen in case that their fishing gear was substantially damaged by oil spills from offshore platforms. Further potential economic costs caused by marine debris include: damage to cooling water intakes in power stations and contamination of commercial harbours and marinas, demanding occasional or frequent cleaning operations.

The report of the British Pollution Monitoring Management Group (MPMMG) attempts to quantify the total economic impacts of marine debris at a national scale and obtains more than 196 million British Pounds annually, of which about 80% are hidden costs in coastal tourism, assuming the shifting of tourists to less polluted areas. Costs related to beach cleaning operations are calculated using a reference value provided by KIMO 2000, about 8.000 British Pounds per kilometre per year. Potential costs of beach cleaning in Great

9 United Nations World Health Organizations http://www.who.int/features/2003/10/en/. 21 Britain thus would accumulate to more than 7 million British Pounds per year (Fanshawe & Everard et al. 2002). Other examples cited in literature indicate that actual costs of systematic beach clean-up may surpass 1 million Euros per year in only 6 coastal municipalities10.

For Latin America, Coello (2006) summarizes that there are no studies available that assess the complete economic costs related to marine in monetary terms. Referring to Alfaro (2006), Coello mentions an example from the coastal municipality Ventanilla in Peru, where full beach cleanup efforts were estimated to cost about 400.000 USD annually, whereas the municipal budget available for cleaning of public spaces is only 200.000 USD. Many coastal municipalities are said to face the same shortage of financial and technical capacities and cannot bear the costs related to marine debris management (Coello 2006).

1.2.5 Linkage to municipal waste management systems ”Marine litter is part of the broader problem of waste management. Solid waste management is becoming a major public health and environmental concern in many countries, where generally a lack of appropriate systems for the management of waste, from its source to its final disposal or processing, exists”. (UNEP 2005) “[…] There exists a considerable time lag between the pressures imposed on the environment, the subsequent development of policies, the implementation of measures and, eventually, the visible manifestation of the impact of such responses.” (Dr. Vandeweerd, Coordinator, UNEP Global Programme of Action, (UNEP/GPA 2006)

A priori, waste management systems are developed only when the generated amount of residues and waste from human activities turns to be problematic for the environment and negatively affects humans living in it. From this starting point, waste management systems are principally delayed and deficient in relation to the already existing extend of waste generation. This means that there is a “historic deficit” in service provision which needs to be compensated when designing effective waste management systems with sufficient capacities.

Two aspects shall be mentioned here that serve as direct indicators revealing the existence of such a deficit in municipal waste management systems11:

• Firstly, the presence of an “informal sector” that offers waste collection services and makes a living of gathering and selling specific materials for recycling and

10 http://www.marine-litter.net/who-what/who-Europe/OSPAR-monitoring/other-Sweden.htm 11 These aspects are derived from field observations during the field work for the present study. 22 reutilization purposes. People working in the informal sector occupy a niche that only exists due to deficient formal waste management. The impact of their work is a valuable contribution that helps to reduce amounts of waste deposited in landfill sites or dropped in the street.

• Secondly, the observation of “leakage” in the streets, i.e.

• any household litter or residue of human consumption that is discarded into the streets and is not picked up thereafter, but pollutes the terrestrial natural environment or is “flushed” by rivers into the sea.

The second aspect mentioned actually is the nexus between marine debris in the sea and municipal waste management. The leakage-problem is due to inappropriate individual behaviour (purposeful or accidental, visible or clandestine, systematic or erratic) of the local population that creates the need for integrative waste management efforts: “Legislation and improved management practices have a limited effect; because the problem has cultural roots (people do not really feel responsible). Information, education and public awareness programmes are proving useful, but there is still room for improvement” (UNEP/GPA 2006).

Coherently to economic growth processes, in many countries increasing rates of waste generation have been observed along with changing consumption patterns among the population (cf. EEA and Eionet12). Higher per capita waste generation combined with net population growth logically results in larger amounts of waste to be dealt with. Consequently, waste management systems at the national level are under pressure to develop accordingly. Aiming at a reduction of this pressure by reducing per capita waste generation, the main public tools available include nationwide legal provisions and framework policies, financial regulation mechanisms, and environmental awareness campaigns. The latter would focus on consumer behaviour and increased corporate responsibility. As an additional component, the set-up of recycling systems based on a (initially subsidized) market economy that deals with waste as a valuable resource (most raw materials are non-renewable) is a governmental task.

At regional and local levels, population growth and the continuously increasing amounts of generated waste translate into the need for effective implementation of national framework policies complemented by sub-national programmes on environmental management. Furthermore, infrastructure, technology and waste management capacities have to be upgraded accordingly, which constitute a major financial and technical

12 European Environmental Agency http://ims.eionet.europa.eu/Environmental_issues/waste/indicators/generation/w1_total_waste.pdf 23 challenge for which municipal administrations need external funding and planning consultancy (A.C.M. 1995). To address the “cultural problem”, municipal waste management strategies must include means of environmental education and awareness raising campaigns. Topping (2000) has compiled a list of possible options and proposes a tool box available for municipal administration to assess the characteristic pattern of marine debris generation within their management area. This is considered as the first step and prerequisite to develop specific approaches and initiatives to fight the marine debris problem.

1.3 Research Area

1.3.1 The national Context Geographically, Chile is a country located on the south-western coast of the South American continent. It is bordering with Peru in the north, Bolivia in the north-east, and Argentina in the east. The entire Chilean west-coast is oriented towards the Pacific Ocean and stretches along roughly 4200 km shoreline in north-south’s extension.

According to a Map designed by the General Direction of the Maritime Territory and the Merchant Marine, the total sum of coastline including all bays and islands cumulates to approximately 83.850 km. Several studies suggest that the phenomenon of marine debris can be observed in all parts of the Chilean coast and shows concentrations in wasters adjacent to the main harbour cities of the country, e.g. (Kimberlin et al. 2006), (Rovira 2006), (Thiel et al. 2002).

Socio-economically seen, Chile is a polarized country with strong regional disparities in terms of population distribution, natural resource availability and economic productivity. According to 2002 population census data about 54% of the total 15,1 million inhabitants lived in the capital city de Chile (6 mio., approx. 40%) and the two neighbouring regions V and VI (INE 2003). By 2006 the estimated total population was about 16 mio.13 The national economy is largely based on mineral exportation and agricultural production including aquaculture and fisheries. Crop processing industries are well developed and produce both for national consumption (though insufficiently) and exports. The Chilean economy follows the market economy concept with emphasized tendencies of market deregulation and liberalization. Combined with strengthened social policies in the 1990s after 16 years of Pinochet rule, important progresses in poverty reduction have been achieved. The proportion of the population living in extreme poverty dropped from 42% to

13 http://www.answers.com/topic/chile 24 18%14. However, the GINI-index of inequality remains high at over 57, making Chile the TOP-13 country of unequal income distribution worldwide15. The unemployment rate undulates around 8,5 % as a national average, however informal sector employment might cause this official statistic information to be biased.

Politically, Chile is a republic with two legislative houses within its National Congress: the Chamber of Deputies and the Senate, which have co-legislative and oversight powers. The head of state and government is the president. The Chilean territory is subdivided into 15 administrative units (regions) on the main land plus two overseas territories, Easter Islands Rapa Nui and the Antarctic Peninsula. At the sub-national level there are regional governments ‘Consejos Regionales’ composed by indirectly elected councillors and one superintendent appointed the national president. Sub-regional units are called provinces, being governed by one appointed governor as the head of the ‘Gobernación’. Mayors as heads of the municipalities and city councillors are elected by direct vote, the latter ones in turn elect the councillors in the regional government’.

14 The World Bank Group 2005 http://poverty2.forumone.com/library/view/8639/ and https://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/ci.html#Econ 15 http://hdr.undp.org/hdr2006/statistics/indicators/147.html UNDP, Human Development Report 2003, S. 282ff.) 25 1.3.2 The regional profile

Fig. 3: Map of the Gulf of Corcovado and protection zones as proposed by Centro Ballena Azul. (modified from Source: Centro Ballena Azul, 2006) The focal area of the present research is the Gulf of Corcovado and its adjacent coastal areas. It is located in the southern part of Chile (also referred to as Patagonia), more precisely on the frontier between the tenth region “Región de los Lagos” and the eleventh region “Región de Aisén del General Carlos Ibáñez del Campo”. The Gulf of Corcovado is surrounded to the north by the island Chiloé, to the east by the Chilean mainland near , to the south by an archipelago of islands called “Las ”, and by another island called “Isla Guafo” at its western opening towards the Pacific Ocean. In its south- eastern part, the gulf merges with the channel “Canal Moraleda” and northwards into the 26 adjacent waters of the Gulf of , which separates the island Chiloé from the mainland. Though the area cannot be delineated clearly, it is estimated to stretch across 15.000 to 20.000 square kilometres16, being a narrow straight large of 40 to 60 km and about 130 km in east-west extension.

If not removed by humans, the landscape is mainly covered with dense evergreen vegetation of the native Andean-Patagonian forest type. However, urbanization, agricultural extension plantation forestry and fuel wood production have caused the native forest area to decline. As a result of the local meteorological, geological and ecological conditions, there is an outstanding primary production of phytoplankton in these waters (Hucke-Gaete, 2004). The high level of biological productivity is a key factor for the abundance of higher marine organisms and thus a fundamental pillar of the regional economy that is based on the extraction of natural resources from the marine environment. The species richness in the Gulf of Corcovado ecosystem and its adjacent areas also make it a priority concern for biodiversity conservation (Hucke-Gaete et al. 2006).

According to 2002 census data, the total population of the five adjacent provinces (cf. Table 2) in the wider area is about 576.000 inhabitants, about one third of which lives in rural areas. These provinces are subdivided into 29 municipalities that are simultaneously flourishing and suffering due Provinces Population rural share to dramatic changes in the (and main cities) Prov. Llanquihue regional economy since the 321.493 28 % (includes Puerto Montt) late 1980’s. The regional Chiloé 154.766 44 % (incl. Ancud, Casto Quellón) economy was traditionally Coihaique 51.103 12 % based on artisan fisheries Aisén 29.631 21 % (incl. Melinka) including mussel shell and Prov. Palena 18.971 60% algae collection, besides (includes Chaitén) some forestry and Total 575.964 Average: 33 % Table 2: Human Population of Provinces adjacent to the Gulf of Corcovado agricultural production at a (Source: 2002 Census Data, INE 2003) subsistence level. Nowadays, there is a strong boom in Chilean aquaculture, especially based on industrialized fish farming (salmon production) and mussel cultivation. Both industries and their economic cluster (supply, service provision and processing) provide employment for more than 53.000 of people (Bravo 2006), causing rural-to-urban labour migration and in- migration from other parts of the country and marginal immigration from bordering states.

16 The deep blue area in Figure 3 corresponds to 11.002 km², delimited as a priority concern for biodiversity conservation (according to source). 27 Demographic data reveal that in Chiloé province, net-population growth during the last fifteen years took exclusively place in urban areas (INE 2003).

However, the salmon industry is also heavily criticized by national and international NGOs, community-based initiatives and academic analysts when observing the distribution of positive and negative externalities caused by the salmon boom. The three main accuses towards the salmon industry sector (Ríos 2004) are the exploitative labour conditions, the alteration of marine ecosystems due to exploitation of natural resources beyond limits of sustainability (especially pollution of coastal waters and benthos) and financial aspects such as the lack of royalty payments and fiscal out-flow of taxes towards the National Budget in Santiago.

Although in practice not very obvious, in theory it is understood that the aquaculture industry depends on the integrity of the marine environment to assure the quality of its products, i.e. to make its production viable in the long run. Only if the ecological conditions, e.g. the water quality in terms of oxygen level, temperature, salinity and chemical composition, can be conserved and protected from alteration, the region will remain as appropriate as before for multiple natural resource use. Therefore, environmental protection today is crucial to sustain the economic development of the Chiloé-Corcovado region in the future. Furthermore the internationally recognized importance of the Gulf of Corcovado for marine and coastal biodiversity in general and certain threatened species like the blue whale (Balaenoptera musculus) in particular (Hucke-Gaete et al. 2006) underline the urgency to take measures aiming at an integration of natural resource use and biodiversity conservation.

Following this intention, the university-based research and conservation NGO Centro Ballena Azul (CBA, Blue Whale Centre) in 2003 launched an initiative to establish a special type of protected area in the Chiloé-Corcovado region. The proposed “Marine and Coastal Protected Area” (MCPA) combines the two objectives of biodiversity conservation and regulated use of natural resources for sustainable development.17 In Chile and in the Chiloé-Corcovado region, the process enjoys a broad public support from various groups of the national and international society. However, there are also a number of concerns and stakeholder group interests openly contradicting to the proposed creation in fear of regulations that might restrict their economic resource use. Knowing that the most

17 MCPAs are defined as ”any defined area within or adjacent to the marine environment, together with its overlying waters and associated flora, fauna, and historical and cultural features, which has been reserved by legislation or other effective means, including custom, with the effect that its marine and/or coastal biodiversity enjoys a higher level of protection than its surroundings” CBD (2006). "Summary Report of the current status of the global marine protected area network, and of progress monitoring capabilities."

28 successful MCPAs are designed in collaboration with resource users to ensure managed access for each stakeholder group, the elaboration of management objectives, resource use zoning and regulations as well as institutional aspects follows a participatory process that involves the concerned parties and thereby promotes acceptance and compliance to the protected area. The formal declaration procedure is currently being prepared and already passed several relevant institutions, e.g. regional governments and involved ministries. According to CBA information the formal declaration by legal decree is expected to be issued during the 2nd half of 2007. Thereafter, working groups (‘mesas de trabajo’) composed of stakeholder group representatives are supposed to elaborate a comprehensive management plan for the MCPA (in Spanish: Area Marina Costera Protegida de Multiple Uso, AMCP-MU). As seen by CBA, “the establishment of the MCPA constitutes a great opportunity for the zoning, regulation and monitoring of economic activities with the overall goal to favour local sustainable development, reduction of poverty as well as the set-up of high (environmental) standards that allow to achieve objectives of biodiversity conservation” in the area Chiloé-Corcovado (CBA 2006).

The Chiloé-Corcovado region is one of Chile’s popular tourism destinations. Nevertheless, about 200.000 tourists came to Chiloé island in 200418, being an important secondary pillar for the regional economy. Additionally, ferry boats and cruise ships embarking from Puerto Montt towards more southern destinations such as Laguna San Rafael and Puerto Natales regularly cross the Gulf of Corcovado area. Even more transitory tourism flux is observed along the southern highway “Carretera Austral” between Chaitén, Coihaique and more southern destinations around Punta Arenas in Southern Patagonia. The recent discovery of blue whales in the coastal waters around Chiloé has caused high expectations among tourism operators and municipal planners in Chiloé. Yet there are plans for whale watching tourism being developed in order to attract more visitors and thus to strengthen the economic importance of tourism in the region.

1.3.3 Focal Areas of the Research For the purpose of data collection for the present research project, two municipalities from the Chiloé-Corcovado area were selected for both marine debris sampling and analyses of municipal waste management systems. Among the municipalities adjacent to the area, Quellón and Melinka are the two centres most affected by the salmon boom on the one hand, and the most involved in the creation of the proposed MCPA on the other hand. They provide the most direct access to the area of interest, and in both

18 http://www.chiloeweb.com/Datos/Noticias/Noticias.asp?No_Id=200638001 29 municipalities marine debris and waste management are obviously problematic issues that are ought to be addressed. Similar framework conditions would also apply for Chaitén and Palena on the mainland, but Quellón and Melinka were selected for strategic and logistic advantages that facilitated the research project a lot: the research region of the universities’ SPRING-program in 2006/07 is the province of Chiloe, and Centro Ballena Azul has centred its research activities around Melinka during the summer months.

A general outline and some specific features of these locations are given in this chapter. More insights into the state of municipal organization and development planning with a focus on aspects of waste management will be provided as results of the SWOT analysis in chapter 3.

1.3.3.1 Quellón

The city of Quellón is situated on the south-western tip of the island Chiloé at about 80 km south of the provincial capital Castro. Its territory covers about 3.150 km² including seven islands (Cailín, Laitec, Coldita, Huapiquilán, San Pedro, Guafo y Chaullín) along the southern coast of the main island Chiloé. Quellón is known to be the southern starting/end point of the national highway “Ruta 5” which is the Chilean part of the Pan- American Highway / ‘Panamericana’. Therefore, the port of Quellón is an important interface between more southern small villages and aquaculture production sites and more northern processing plants and industrial productions.

Quellón is a small but rather fast-growing town. Results of the 2002 census indicate a total population of 21.823 (urban: 13.656, rural: 8.167) in the municipal district, while in 1992 there lived only 15.055, i.e. Quellón grew by 45% during the last ten years, more than any other city in the province (INE 2003), and has doubled in population size within two decades (1982: 10.014). According to the Communal Development Plan (CDP), about 19% of population growth is due to natural reproduction while 26% are result of in- migration in search of employment opportunities (Municipalidad de Quellón 2006). The most important economic activities at the municipal scale are harbour related especially fisheries, aquaculture production and processing, as well as harvesting of other marine resources. Commerce and services also provide employment for more and more people according to the overall population growths.

Tourism is sparsely developed so far due to the city’s remoteness and few tourist offers. Most tourists pass through Quellón only as a stop-over during a larger circuit in Patagonia, not as a destination itself, as the only attraction in Quellón is the start/end of the Panamerican Highway in Punta de Lapa/”Hito Cero”. However, some hostels and cottages

30 in Quellón offer tourist accommodation in the urban centre and in proximity to sand beaches near Punta de Lapa that are also frequently used for leisure activities during the summer months by local residents.

1.3.3.2 Melinka

About 90 km south of Quellón across the central part of the Gulf of Corcovado is located ‘Puerto de Melinka’. It is the main settlement and seat of the municipality “Islas de las Guaitecas” which was created by decree in 1979, having been governed as a part of the neighbouring but distant municipality of Quellón before (Municipalidad de Guaitecas 2004). The municipal territory extends across 460 km² and is composed by roughly 40 islands that form the “Archipélago de las Guaitecas”. Its main islands are named Gran Guaiteca, Leucayec, Ascensión, Betecoy, Clotilde, Mulchey and Isla Elvira. The only urban settlement Melinka is situated on a small peninsula in the east of Ascención island, while the rural settlement sector called Repollal is located on the opposite side of the same island. Only some single houses that are not continuously inhabited are scattered on the neighbouring islands.

The residential population of Melinka today exceeds the 1.539 inhabitants that were registered in the 2002 census. In his ‘Actualización del Plan Regional de Desarrollo Urbano XI Región’ (HABITERRA 2003) Habiterra used an annual growth rate of 1,9% and projects the population to increase to a total of 2.250 in the year 2022. This would be twice as much as registered in 1982 (1107). Since 1992, the residential population has grown by only 20 %, i.e. considerably slower than Quellón. This is due to the fact that the majority of workers from salmon farms located in the protected waters of the archipelago are not sedentary in Melinka. However they return regularly and stay for work shifts of 2 or three weeks. The number of those people referred to as the “floating population” of Melinka is continuously growing but not precisely known.19 Although some progresses in infrastructure development were achieved in recent years, e.g. internet and telecommunication and some paved streets, even the urban centre of the village Melinka remains with a high degree of rurality, considering that electricity for private use is restricted to the evening hours, pipe water is potable but coloured brownish from tannins, and that there is no proper sewage evacuation system. While basic human needs are widely satisfied, living conditions in Melinka are far below the regional and national standard, but comparable to those in other remote villages further south in the archipelago

19 Media-information http://www.chiloe.cl/modules.php?name=News&file=article&sid=432 ; floating population may surpass 4000 people annually based on personal observation and rough estimates extrapolated

31 de Los Chonos. The current Communal Development Plan (Municipalidad de Guaitecas 2004) summarizes indicators and concludes that 73% of the resident families live in poverty, including 6% of the total population living in extreme poverty. The rate of literacy is reported to be around 80%, while the national average was found to be above 95%, in rural areas 89% according to the 2002 census (INE 2003). The geographic isolation results in a number of disadvantages, e.g. limited access to health and banking services. As there is neither a doctor nor a financial institution sedentary in Melinka, these services are provided during a few days per month when a bank agent and a medical doctor stay in Melinka, arriving by air plane. Air-borne transport operates on demand only, while the majority of passengers and freight is transferred to Quellón or Puerto Aisén by means of two weekly passages of ferry ships. These ferryboats have insufficient passenger capacities and take more than 6 hours per journey, while sometimes being delayed for more than 24 hours due to too rough weather conditions. The logistical deficit also affects the supply with consumption goods and the market access and commercialization opportunities for producers in Melinka.

Most of the people living in Melinka are making their living on the extraction of natural resources mainly form the sea, but also forest resources to satisfy the local fuel wood demand. Marine resource extraction is not limited to artisan fishery for domestic consumption, but includes algae collection (e.g. ‘luga’) along beaches and shellfish fishery, i.e. diving for crustaceans, shells and sea urchins (Spanish: ‘erizos’). The latter is actually the most profitable income source for the fishermen, which has let to continuous reduction of average size of collected animals. Decreasing and unstable revenue from artisan fishery have caused many fishermen to skip their traditional profession and get employed in the quickly developing aquaculture industry that is invading the region, running several dozens of salmon breeding cages (‘centros de cultivos’) in the interior channels and bays of the archipelago Guaitecas and Chonos, where actually most of the regional salmon production originates from. Employment opportunities as wardens, feeders or in the service provision offering work divers, cleaners, reparation/maintenance and shipping transport to the salmon companies are the most typical “new” jobs in Melinka. Furthermore, two processing plants for shellfish generate additional employment in the fishery sector (Municipalidad de Guaitecas 2004).

Most of the natural resource exploitation around Melinka takes place in an uncontrolled way without concessions for spatial or quantitative limitations of the resource use. In the past this has led to decreasing harvests and resource use conflicts in coastal areas are common. However, there exist legal regulations for sea urchins limiting the extraction of

32 this species to a certain period of the year and defining minimum size of caught animals20. The National Fisheries Service (SERNAPESCA) supervises the implementation of the law but also encounters infractions. Concerning the spreading of floating salmon farms, concessions are issued by the Sub-Secretary for Fisheries in the Ministry of Economy, Promotion and Reconstruction (SUBPESCA), under involvement of the National Commission for the Environment (CONAMA). A number of formal requirements such as an environmental impact assessment (EIA) have to be met by aquaculture producers in order to obtain a concession. The municipality can influence the decision on concessions for production sites in its territory by defining certain areas for a specific form of land/resource use. In Melinka, the elaboration of a land use plan (‘plan regulador’), a legally required planning tool for all municipalities in Chile that is designated to solve and avoid resource use conflicts, has never been completed in the past. It is listed among the objectives of the CDP 2005-2008.

2 Methodology The present research was conducted by making use of three distinct methodological approaches: during the 2-months data collection in the research areas Quellón and Melinka samples of stranded marine debris were taken, complemented by interviews with various stakeholders related to municipal waste management and marine environmental pollution. In a third step, field data from the interviews were analyzed by using the S.W.O.T.-Analysis technique for strategic assessment of complex settings and situations.

2.1 Marine debris sampling design Between January and March 2007 a sample survey on marine debris was conducted by collecting stranded marine debris items on 8 selected transect sites on beaches near Quellón and Melinka. Site selection was influenced by a set of criteria as presented in table 2 (cf. Appendix 7.3).

Transects were established along the high tide line on the beach, being up to 15 m wide and precisely 100 m long, measured by using handheld Garmin-GPS technology. In order to use data collected during a successful test sampling, three transects near the lighthouse of Melinka (Faro Sur, Faro Norte-1 and Faro Norte-2) were included into the survey with its full length of 275 m, 154 m and 106 metres and treated accordingly during data analysis. The total length of sampled areas was 1.035 metres, the approximate area 15.525 m².

Each transect was revisited for a second sampling event about 5 weeks after the first passage in order to obtain information about the renewal rate of stranded marine debris.

20 Oral communcation by SERNAPESCA employees 33 The two passages are referred to as the first and second ‘sampling row’ in this document, each row consisting of 8 sampling events. In each sampling event, every detected marine debris item was collected in robust 120 litre sacs and transported from the site for posterior classification, counting and weighing in an improvised field laboratory.

The classification scheme was Number of designed in analogy to the OSPAR- marine method (cf. Fleet 2003) and debris categories classifications applied by the Ocean Marine debris category cluster per cluster Conservancy (2007) for the international strings,ropes, package belts etc. 4 coastal cleanup event, but adapted to plastic bags and bottles etc. 10 local characteristics and objectives of polystryrene 2 “others” 8 this research project. The study wood 1 differentiated between 40 categories of clothes, texile + shoes 3 marine debris and an additional for glass 2 miscellaneous objects (cf. field data metals, tetrapak 5 recording sheet, Appendix 7.1) which oil cans (motor oil; cooking oil) 3 were grouped in 11 clusters mainly rubber, gums, neoprene 4 according to the nature of the synthetic paper + vegetables 3 material (cf. Table 3). This allows group- TOTAL of categories 41 wise analysis and comparison of the Table 3: Marine debris clusters and categories sample composition while conserving information about certain marine debris objects that can be associated to specific sources.

2.2 Interviews and Field observations The research project applied interviews as a method to obtain information from selected people concerned with local level planning and waste management, in order to gain insight into the problematic aspects related to waste management and environmental conservation. Interviews often developed spontaneously or as semi-structured interviews after prior presentation of the intention and introduction to the research project.

Persons met include staff of municipal administration, private sector service providers working in waste collection services, national conservation NGOs, biologists, researchers and staff of the national service of fisheries (SERNAPESCA), members of local fishermen cooperatives and representatives the harbour authority (DIRECTEMAR), as well as local citizens working as teachers, in salmon food industries and tourism business.

34 Information and key notes of the conversations were recorded in a field book, complemented by personal observation made during the sapling or when moving around in the research area.

2.3 Methodology of S.W.O.T. analysis Interview results and field observations were structured following the standard methodology21 of SWOT-Analyses, separately for the two municipalities in the research area, in order to acquire a differentiated and comprehensive understanding about relevant factors that influence present waste management conditions and possible future development trends in Quellón and Melinka (cf. chapters 3.2.1. and 3.2.2.) Information obtained in the field research was assigned to the most suitable of the four analytical categories ‘Strength’, ‘Weaknesses’, ‘Opportunities’ and ‘Threats’. In the present research, the first two categories summarize ‘internal’ factors towards the problem, whereas the ‘external’ factors (‘Opportunities’ and ‘Threats’) were understood as positive and negative framework conditions for adequate municipal waste management.

3 Results

3.1 Marine Debris Sampling

3.1.1 Overall Sampling Results The sixteen samples of marine debris taken at eight beaches in Quellón and Melinka comprise a total amount of approximately 5.800 items of marine debris. The estimated total weight is about 345 kg. The samples were recorded along a total transect length of 1.035 metres, composed of eight sections with lengths between 100 to 275 metres and an average width of roughly 15 metres, where items of marine debris accumulated along the high tide line.

Each transect was sampled two times within an interval of six weeks after the first passage. Fig. 4 presents the relative proportions of marine debris categories combined from both passages.

21 Guide-book for SWOT-Analyses: H. Simon, A. von der Gathen, (2002); „Das große Handbuch der Strategieinstrumente. Alle Werkzeuge für eine erfolgreiche Unternehmensführung“; Campus Verlag.

35 Overall composition of marine debris sampled at beaches of Golfo Corcovado (n = 5.802)

plastic bags and bottles etc. strings,ropes, 27% polystryrene package belts 26% 30%

wood others 4% 2% paper + metals, tetrapak vegetables 3% 1% rubber, texile + shoes neoprene glass 3% 1% oil cans 1% 2%

Fig. 4: Overall composition of marine debris sample

Results of the first sample row provide insight into the general composition of stranded marine debris that accumulated over an indefinite time period. About 540 items were found per 100 metres in average. However, a rather broad variation in mean densities per beach was found, ranging between 100 and 1.300 items per 100 metres.

The second row of samples provides basic data to assess the rate of accumulation of marine debris. In quantitative relations, 83% of all collected items were found during the first passage, while the remainder 17% (about 960 items) was recorded as newly stranded marine debris in the second turn about six weeks after the first passage.

3.1.2 First Sampling row Most important clusters of marine debris are strings, ropes and package belts (32 %), various plastic materials (27 %) and polystyrene pieces (24%) that together make up 83 percent of the total. The less frequent categories are construction wood, organic materials and paper, textile, clothing and shoes, rubber, glass, metals, oil cans and ‘other’ items that do not fit into any of the above mentioned categories. These categories make up about 17% of the total (824 out of 4843 items).

36 Fig. 5 presents the composition of marine debris that had accumulated over an indefinite time before the sample. More detailed information about selected clusters is presented in the following sub-chapters.

37 Composition of stranded marine debris first sampling row (n = 4843)

paper + food rests manufac'd wood metals + tetrapak 1% 3% 3% sweet pagage, texile + shoes plastic bags oil cans food wrap 3% 5% (motor & cooking oil) 5% glass 2% rubber, 2% plastic sheets, neoprene others films, tarpulins 1% 2% 3% salmon food bags 3% plasitc bottles 6% polystyrene Plastic bags and 24% bottles, etc. ... plastic lids/cabs 3% 27% cigarette stubs strings, ropes, 0% package belts etc. cigarette packs 32% 0,2% soap and cleaning bottles hard plastic boxes 2% 0,5%

Fig. 5: Marine debris composition of the first sampling row, detailed for plastic debris.

38

When looking at the sample composition in terms of weight proportions, pieces of polystyrene foam (“Plumavit”) make up only 4 % of the total weight, whereas ‘heavy’ categories such as wood, clothes and materials grouped as “others” contribute more to the total weight share compared to Table 4 below presents some more details of marine debris recorded in the first sampling row.

Marine debris category cluster weight share number

strings, ropes, package belts etc. 91,4 kg 31,8% 1571 pcs.

plastic bags and bottles etc. 82,9 kg 28,8% 1294 pcs.

polystryrene 10,9 kg 3,8% 1154 pcs.

“others” 28,7 kg 10,0% 102 pcs.

wood 24,6 kg 8,6% 165 pcs.

clothes, texile + shoes 17,8 kg 6,2% 134 pcs.

glass 12,2 kg 4,2% 107 pcs.

metals, tetrapak 10,0 kg 3,5% 139 pcs.

oil cans (motor oil; cooking oil) 5,2 kg 1,8% 78 pcs.

rubber, gums, neoprene 2,5 kg 0,9% 64 pcs. paper + food rests 1,6 kg 0,6% 35 pcs. total 287,6 kg 4843 pcs.

Table 4: Weight and Number of marine debris collected in first sampling row

The weight proportions have to be understood as approximate values. The weight of litter items was recorded in 10 of 16 samples in Quellón and Melinka. The weight of marine debris was not assessed during in the second sampling row in Quellón (3 samples) and in Playa Raya/Melinka, neither in both samples taken in Caleta Granizo/Melinka (3 samples). For these 6 samples, the weight of marine debris was computed for each category using average values obtained from the 10 samples where weight was recorded. Other difficulties with assessing the weight of litter items are due to different levels of saturation with water. Marine debris objects have not been dried or thoroughly cleaned from wet sand before weighing. Nevertheless some descriptive information can be extracted from the results

3.1.2.1 Ropes and strings

Throughout the first sample row some variation in the composition of each sample has been found. Ropes and strings are the most dominant22 fraction in most samples taken

22 Dominance describes the abundance of one category relative to another and is given as the share (in %) of the total amount of items found in the sample. 39 near Melinka where they accumulated to densities23 of 400 to more than 7.500 items per kilometre near the “Falso Melinka” lighthouse and make up 30 - 59%. Only in Playa Raya density (260 per km) and dominance (11 %) were found to be lower. In samples near Quellón ropes and strings also occur in high densities (220, 810 and 1310 items per km) but they are outnumbered by higher abundance of polystyrene, plastics and elevated proportions of construction wood, so that dominance of ropes and strings was found between 5%, 8% and 26%. The ropes-and-strings cluster comprises five sub-categories: ‘strings less than 10 mm diameter’ (18%), ‘ropes more than 10 mm diameter’ (11%), ‘package belts’ of unknown origin (1,9%), ‘package seals’ from salmon industry freight shipping (0,6%) and fishing gear (0,3%) (cf. Table 5).

Observation and sources: The majority of strings and ropes were short pieces of approximately 5 to 40 cm length, mainly made of synthetic materials (polymers, e.g. polyethylene) that are known to Strings, ropes, package belts dominance decompose very slowly within Strings (diameter < 10mm ) 18,2 % decades (Faris&Hart 1995). Most Ropes (diameter > 10mm ) 11,4 % items showed some “error feature” like Package belts, unknown origin 1,9 % a knot or dissolved ends and probably Package seals from salmon have been cut and discarded categories industry 0,6 % purposefully. Only very few ropes Fishing gear, nylon lines, nets 0,3 % were longer than 1 meter and in good Total 32 % condition, so that unintended Table 5: Cluster composition: Strings, ropes etc. accidental loss is plausible. Many ropes and especially thin strings were found in tangles in which up to ten bands were chaotically joint. No cases of entanglement were found throughout the survey, but this kind of marine debris is known to be a special threat to wildlife through entanglement (long items) or ingestion (short items) (cf. chapter 1.2.4.1).

3.1.2.2 Plastics, bags and bottle

Plastics, bags and bottles is a broad cluster in which about 1.300 collected items belonging to ten marine debris categories have been subsumed (c.f. Table 6 below). Marine debris items of this cluster are found in elevated densities throughout all samples of the first row (1450 items/km in average), while dominance of plastics ranges between 18% and 33%. Fodder sacs from salmon aquaculture were present in all transects of the first turn where they generally make up about 2% of beached marine debris. The average density for salmon fodder bags is about 150 items per kilometre. In the transect ‘Caleta

23 Density (per km) is based on the number of items found in 100 metres transect extrapolated to 1,0 km of coastline. 40 Granizo’ a remarkably high dominance of 13% (i.e. 56 sacs in 100 m transect) was encountered. This accumulation suggests high floatability and importance abundance of salmon food bags, as there are no salmon aquaculture platforms in direct proximity.

Observation and sources: most marine debris items in the plastic Plastics, bags and bottles domincance bags and bottles cluster obviously plastic drink bottles 5,6 % Food wrap, Chips bags, originate from human food or drink sweets, ice-cream paper etc 5,4 % consumption, but further distinction plastic shopping bags 4,8 % between land-based (urban Separate lids of plastic bottles 2,9 % stormwater runoff and household Salmon fodder and medication sacs 2,6 % litter) or sea-based generation Large plastic films, Potato sacs 2,6 % (fishing boats, trawlers, ferries, categories Shampoo bottles, chloral cleaner cruise ships, freight transporters, etc. 1,9 % aquaculture platoons) is not hard plastic, fish boxes, buckets 0,5 % possible. Truncated plastic bottles Cigarette box 0,4 % Cigarette stubs 0,0 % were frequently found at beaches Total 27 % (but not quantified separately) and Table 6: Cluster composition: Plastic materials also observed in small wooden pinnace boats of fishing vessels, where they are used to eject rain- and drain water and discarded thereafter. Furthermore, the categories ‘large plastic films/tarpaulins + potato sacs’, ‘hard plastic fish boxes and buckets’ and ‘Salmon fodder sacs’ (summed: 5,5% of total marine debris) originate from human economic activities at sea.

3.1.2.3 Expanded Polystyrene (EPS), “Plumavit” (Styrofoam)

The third major component of marine debris sampled in the Gulf of Corcovado is expanded polystyrene (EPS), more commonly known by its trademark names ‘Plumavit’, ‘Styrofoam’ or ‘Styropor’. It makes up about 24% of all marine debris items registered in the first transect series, but there are strong local variations. While in Melinka EPS dominance ranges from 2% to 29% with highest densities of approximately 1.250 items/km, three transects in Quellón showed average densities of 2.500 EPS items/km (cf. Table 7), corresponding to dominances of 24%, 45% and 69% respectively. However, the precise assessment of EPS is very difficult due to its size. A few very large cubes of up to 50 cm in diameter have been found, but in majority small fragments were found, often split up into tiny single EPS balls of only 2-5 mm diameter and than occurring in uncountable quantities. For the purpose of the sampling, ESP objects were roughly classified according to the criterion “smaller/larger than 10 cm”. The quantitative relation between larger bits 41 and smaller pieces was found to be about 1:5, making up 4,0% and 20,2% (Table 8) of all accumulated marine debris. Where appropriate, smallest fragments of EPS were not counted one by one but estimated patchwise, which may have affected the accuracy of the sample. The real amount of smallest EPS is assumed to be much higher and may occasionally exceed several thousands per 100 metres.

Transect Mean density density Mean Q.Punta Lapa Sur Melinka FARO sur Melinka Playa Raya Playa Melinka Q. Punta Lapa Norte Melinka Faro Norte 1 Melinka Faro Norte 2 Melinka Faro Norte Quellon Yaldad Norte Yaldad Quellon Melinka Caleta GranizoMelinka Caleta

density (items/km) 100 140 660 1.030 1.250 1.330 2.230 2.440 2.830

Table 7: EPS densities in transects in Melinka and Quellón.

Expanded Polystyrene “Plumavit” dominance EPS pieces ( smaller < 10cm ) 20,2 % cat. EPS pieces ( larger > 10cm ) 4,0 % Total 24 %

Table 8: Cluster composition: EPS / “Plumavit”

Observation and sources: Only very few pieces of EPS found in the samples apparently originate from fast food packaging, whereas the broad majority were small fragments or single EPS balls that probably were part of cubic EPS pieces before. EPS in form of large cubes were observed to be used in fisheries as a floater to carry nets, buoys and ropes, but also in mussel cultivation (cf. photos in Appendix 7.7) and constructions of floating platforms. Some medium sized fragments showed angles and straight sides suggesting that the piece was cropped when fitting a lager cubic EPS block into some construction or frame.

3.1.2.4 Oil cans Oil cans dominance A total of 83 oil cans (made of Oil cans (motor oil and fuel) 1,2 % plastic) were collected in the first cat. Bottles of cooking oil 0,5 % sampling row. These constitute Total 1,7 % about 1,7% of the overall amount Table 9: Cluster composition: Motor oil and cooking oil (cf. Table 9), but they are of special cans/bottles concern due to their toxicity. Oil cans were present in all samples of the first row and

42 reached highest dominance (4%) and densities (up to 300/km) in the sampling sites at Faro Melinka. There were no larger fuel tanks or barrels found.

Observation and sources: Oil cans varied in size between 0,5 and 5 litres volume, as commonly used for motor maintenance of boats, vessels and cars. Bottles of cooking oils found in the samples correspond to those sold in grocery stores throughout the country and commonly used for food preparation. Some oil cans were found closed with a cab and often contained minor quantities (some drops to several millilitres) of oil rest. Others oil cans were found stranded without cover and without oil rests inside, as being cleaned by ocean water.

3.1.2.5 Further components of marine debris

Frequently found marine debris items that have not items category been mentioned before include construction wood, 31 salmon package belts aluminium cans, clothes and pieces of neoprene 23 hard plastic boxes rubber material. 23 vegatable oil bottles 22 cardbord 165 pieces of sawn wood, used for multiple 19 shoes and boots purposes by most probably in fishing boats 19 dipers construction, have been found at beaches of the area. 14 fishing gear 13 fruits, food They are considered as marine debris because it takes 13 compression spay cans about 5 to 15 years for pieces of wood to decompose 12 cigarette packs and most construction wood pieces are painted. 9 fisher gloves Construction wood represents about 3,5% of analyzed 9paper 7 iron objects marine debris. Most wood items were visibly used or 5 slaughtered Bones broken pieces and less than 40 cm long. 5 light bulps 55 neoprene rubber pieces were collected during 4wire 2 car batteries the first sampling row (1,2%). Neoprene is commonly 2batteries used by shellfish collectors when diving, by divers that 0 cigarette stubs are deployed for aquaculture platform cleaning, and 0 vehicle tires possibly by algae collectors at the beach. 0 hygienic products 0 crude oil pellets Clothes made of cotton or synthetic material like 102 other impermeable raincoats are sparsely found at beaches Table 10: Abundance of rare marine (1,1%) around the area of Corcovado. The 55 items debris categories (< 1% ) found can be associated with fishery operation at sea, algae collection and people spending the leisure time at beaches.

43 Metal marine debris was also detected, though in rather low abundance. 62 tetrapaks (1,7%), (made of cardboard glued with aluminium layers) which are commonly used as wine or juice containers, and 52 aluminium cans (1%) have been collected in the first sampling row. Average densities have been calculated and found to be approximately 161 metal objects per kilometre. Table 10 above lists the amount of occasional marine debris objects. Each of these categories has less than 1% of the total amount of marine debris, and summed up these 22 different categories comprise about 4% of marine debris found in the first sampling row. The list of ‘other objects’ found include shavers, toothbrushes, brooms and brushes, lighters, cassette tapes, water hoses and tubes, plastic foam pieces, bed cover sheets, undefined plastic fragments etc.

3.1.2.6 Mean densities of stranded marine debris per category and sample site

Marine debris category Sampling Transect Percentage (mean value) sur Melinka FARO Melinka Faro Norte 2 Melinka Faro Norte 1 Melinka Playa Raya Melinka Caleta Granizo Norte Quellon Punta Lapa Quellon Punta Lapa Sur Quellon Yaldad Norte m per 100 Mean density strings, ropes, package belts etc. 40 768 107 26 221 81 22 131 175 32% Polystyrene EPS 14 125 103 66 10 244 283 223 133 25% plastic bags and bottles etc. 29 269 89 60 118 330 77 79 131 24% w/out Salmon food bags wood, paper, organic matter 2 23 10 2 12 129 3 15 24 5% metals, tetrapak 4 8 9 25 3 54 5 21 16 3% salmon food bags 2 24 6 7 56 9 6 10 15 3% glass 0 8 2 19 1 63 1 12 13 2% rubber, gums, neoprene 4 12 8 3 2 31 8 1 9 2% oil cans (motor oil; cooking oil) 2 30 14 7 7 6 2 3 9 2% clothes, texile + shoes 1 3 5 14 3 25 1 5 7 1% others 3 31 0 1 5 17 2 0 7 1% SUM 101 1299 353 230 438 989 410 500 540 100% 100% 2% 30% 8% 5% 10% 23% 9% 12% Table 11: Densities of marine debris clusters, first sample, per 100 metres

Table 11 above provides a detailed overview on the abundance of marine debris, sorted by clusters, for each transect of the first sampling row. These are crude field data except for the first three transects in Melinka (Sur, Norte 1, Norte 2). These values are down- converted to density/100m from, as transects were longer than 100 m. The comparison of various transects reveals that two sampling sites (‘Melinka Faro Norte 2’ and ‘Quellón

44 Punta de Lapa Norte’)) have densities about twice as high as the mean value (540 item/100m), although they are quite close to neighbouring transect locations.

At the Melinka site, the distortion is due to an extraordinary high value of strings and ropes, and also plastic bottles, but no plausible explanation could be found why this value is so much higher here compared to other transects. The site is exposed to northerly winds from the open gulf area and the port of Quellón in 90 km distance. In contrast, the southerly exposed sample site ‘Melinka Faro Sur’ only receives less than one tenth of the neighbouring site. This clarifies the strong dependency of accumulation from site-specific topographical characteristics.

The very high density of stranded marine debris in ‘Quellón Punta Lapa Norte’, which is mainly due to high abundance of polystyrene, various plastic items and pieces of manufactured wood, hints at a strong influence from the urban area and the harbour of Quellón, which is just some 2 km across the harbour bay, north of the sampling site. The neighbouring site ‘Punta Lapa Sur’ with an opposite exposition, received only half the amount of the prior.

Above average values of salmon food bags at the lighthouse of Melinka and the remote sampling site “Caleta Granizo” are remarkable, as there is no aquaculture production site in direct proximity. This observation suggests that this category of marine debris floats across the whole widths of the gulf (if salmon food bags originate from Quellón) or that they were purposefully discarded from a cargo vessel during a traverse from Quellón to Melinka.

3.1.3 Second sampling row The analysis of the second sampling row, which was conducted on the same sampling sites that had been completely cleaned from all visible marine debris items in the first term, shows a similar composition, however with slight differences compared to results of the first sampling row (cf. Table 12 below).

The three dominant clusters of marine debris correspond to those of the first row, but in different order: as shown in Table, polystyrene fragments (EPS) (37%) were the most abundant category in the second sampling row, followed by the cluster ‘plastic bags and bottles’ (26%) and ‘strings, ropes and package belts’ (21%). These three clusters together represent 84% of all debris washed ashore within the observation period, i.e. almost identical to results of the first sampling row (83%).

Main differences in comparison to the first turn are found in the relative dominance of strings and ropes (-11%) and EPS (+13%). The latter one is mainly caused by an

45 accidentally high occurrence of several hundreds of tiny small polystyrene fragments which may be due to a single Plumavit-shaping for construction work nearby. This “white tide” of EPS balls in the Quellón South sample constitutes about one fifth of all marine debris items found in the second sample.

1st sample row 2nd sample row Marine debris category cluster number share number share

strings, ropes, package belts etc. 1571 pcs. 32,4% 204 pcs. 21,3%

plastic bags and bottles etc. 1294 pcs. 26,7% 246 pcs. 25,7%

polystryrene 1154 pcs. 23,8% 352 pcs. 36,7%

“others” 102 pcs. 2,1% 4 pcs. 0,4%

wood 165 pcs. 3,4% 42 pcs. 4,4%

clothes, texile + shoes 134 pcs. 2,8% 16 pcs. 1,7%

glass 107 pcs. 2,2% 35 pcs. 3,6%

metals, tetrapak 139 pcs. 2,9% 40 pcs. 4,2%

oil cans (motor oil; cooking oil) 78 pcs. 1,6% 9 pcs. 0,9%

rubber, gums, neoprene 64 pcs. 1,3% 4 pcs. 0,4%

paper + vegetables 35 pcs. 0,7% 7 pcs. 0,7%

4843 pcs. 100% 959 pcs. 100%

Table 12: Comparison of composition of first and second sample row

In contrast, the substantially lower proportion of ‘strings and ropes’ in the second sample row might be impacted by a slower rate of accumulation over time. This also applies for some of the “small” categories ‘rubber & gums’ (0,4%), ‘motor and cooking oil’ (0,9%), ‘clothes’ (1,7%) and ‘others’ (0,4%) that have a substantially lower share of the total composition compared to the first sample row.

The total amount (n = 959) of marine debris gathered 4 to 6 weeks after the first sampling turn can provide a tentative estimation about the rate of accumulation of marine debris on beaches, in order to measure the degree of contamination of the Gulf of Corcovado. Based on 100 m transects24, the density of newly stranded marine debris per kilometre was estimated and divided by the number of days of the interval to obtain a daily accumulation quota. As presented in Table 13, these quota range from 3 to 81 items/km/day around a mean value of about 35 items/km/day.

The accumulation of stranded marine debris over time depends i.a. on meteorological factors, as winds may lead to increased stranding of marine debris or prevent litter from accumulating on the same beach depending on the wind direction. Purposeful discharge

24 except of three transects at the lighthouse of Melinka which were longer; extrapolation factors were adapted 46 or accidental loss of marine debris on the beach or in proximity may cause extraordinary high accumulation. Larger databases can buffer these exceptional events. The above mentioned approximation needs to be confirmed by a longer series of samples over time.

RATE of ACCUMULATION Sampling Transect

surMelinka Faro Melinka Norte 2 Faro Melinka Norte 1 Faro Melinka Playa Raya Melinka Caleta Granizo Quellón Lapa Norte Punta Quellón Lapa Sur Punta QuellónNorte Yaldad Mean Density of marine debris (items/km) 127 1151 552 540 730 1660 2260 1320 (extrapolated; only second sampling row) Interval (number of days) 37 41 41 27 26 29 28 28 Marine litter items per day per kilometre 3 28 13 20 28 57 81 47 34,8

Marine litter items per day per 100m 0,3 2,8 1,3 2,0 2,8 5,7 8,1 4,7 Table 13: Approximation to the rate of marine debris accumulation on sampled beaches

The composition of the first and second sampling row reveals a high degree of similarity between these in terms of relative proportions (cf. Figure 6). The correlation between both sampling rows has been calculated using PEARSSON’s coefficient of correlation (Excel- function) It was found to be r = 0,91 where 0,0 represents absolute difference and 1,0 perfectly identical composition of the two samples. The relative high value means that the few data used constitute are fairly consistent samples of marine debris at the sampled locations and display a well representative image of marine debris composition in the area.

47 1000 Comparison of compostion of marine debris samples 500 first sample second sample 900 450 800 400 700 350 600 300 500 250 400 200

300 first sampling second sampling 150 200 100 100 50 0 0 ) s

s r ) s ) d l s s s s s s s n s s s r e d s s s r s r t t s t s e s s s e t s p e s b k e t s a a m l l e s p o o l e l r g l m a m e e t s e n g x t l t g e u c t r s l i e e c c r o a c s s l l t c e e c e o t e s t l e a l t c e i b b e m u t s s a t o i t a t a v e r n r r b b e t o p e o h t t o b u k b k i k e b u s g i d w c e k b 0 0 n o i i t b p 0 o p r a e , b c r b o u i t n a p p o b , e p e l d d e r t c e 1 a b c w j o c e g l a l r d 1 r a n l i b 1 l d h i e p i l b t e g d g o j o e i i a g > b t f t t t g n l c r c r t a o i o s y t t < i ( s d i g t a o s t c > n r , o o p c a a t i e n f t s d o r o i h p l a a t m e i h i a a d a t f t r . k k a e g t i e r c a l o n m s ma e p b n e s u c e l n e e s a c c i h n b r n i u p a v s s i s m t n a m f s d a d a f a g a a s g o r i a r e l i e e i n u l g h t r u i a f i e p p r t i a e p l d i e e n s r w p s c o e s l c ( i o n c mo c n y n o i n c s d d y h l n i b l i t g d ( r l s e e c a a r t s o s a d s r y m r t d s s c s c a s y c n y h u i l p / l a n e t l l h u e t a i o o r g a s a a s p d i o e e p b y p a o n r l r l r i n t v a , o mp p S s o o s t n o p u s g P c d n S E i mo mo n r l i t P a s E s marine debris category

Fig. 6: Marine debris categories gathered in the first and second sampling row (about 4 weeks after the first, on the same sample sites)

48 3.1.4 Identified sources of marine debris With regard to marine debris as the central problem complex of this research, the preceding chapters have identified principal economic activities in the area that hint at the potential sources of marine debris generation at the local scale. Complemented by observations made during the first visits to the area, a brief characterization of probable sources in Quellón and Melinka shall be given here. Although in principle marine debris objects are capable of floating enormous distances following ocean currents before being washed ashore, the composition of marine debris found at a specific beach site highly depends on near-by sources of origin and can be diverging significantly among different beaches of the same bay.

3.1.4.1 Sources In the bay of Quellón

In the bay of Quellón four major potential sources can be identified. Along the “Costanera” street, the urban centre of Quellón is closest to the marine shore line. A number of surface water runoff channels carry thrown away objects from the streets to the bay. These are often directly dropped into the water courses that evacuate rainwater together with oil and fuel leakage from the vehicles in bad condition. Where the channels lead onto the shore, some litter objects may drift apart while most remain dispersed along the “Costanera” shore line.

A second ‘hotspot’ is the harbour quays and the adjacent intertidal zones where artisan fisher boats and freight ships are charged, unloaded and stationed intermediately. Left- over from ship wrecks, wooden ship reparation and general maintenance (e.g. oil cans, paint tins) as well as packages from consumption goods thrown overboard into the harbour or during journeys across the bay are abundant at first sight. From the neighbourhoods along the harbour shore, sewage tubes directly lead unfiltered waste water towards the muddy intertidal areas without any prior water treatment. Furthermore, ferries, cargo and fisher boats leaving from the port of Quellón towards the Gulf of Corcovado constitute a permanent source all along its routes. Although there are waste bins installed on board of the ferries, drink and food packages as well as cigarette stubs are frequently thrown over board by passengers.

Thirdly, the tourism zones in the outskirts of Quellón near Punta de Lapa which are frequently visited especially during summer season for leisure and recreation at the surveyed beach are a relevant spot of marine debris generation. Mounds of food packages and empty bottles are left behind by tourists and local beach visitors. Although parts of the area are cleaned from litter once per day during the height of the tourism season by

49 municipal workforce in cooperation with a private service provider that empties the remarkable trash cans installed in proximity to the beach, the abundance of locally produced litter along the beach mixing with floating debris arriving from the harbour bay is obvious. It is assumed that especially bottles, aluminium drink cans, chips and plastic bags, cigarette stubs etc. start to float apart, driven by winds and tidal currents. The fourth potential source of continuous marine debris generations in the area are aquaculture installations of salmon farming and of mussel cultivation to a lower extend. The cages floating some 100 – 200 metres off the coast are permanently occupied by wardens and additional staff. Though environmental protection standards are formally required and most of the enterprises voluntarily signed “clean production agreements” that i.a. promote to avoid marine debris generation, there may be some occasional, accidental or purposeful systematic leakage, e.g. waste bags, food and drink packages, cigarettes, sewage, and salmon food plastic sacks thrown into the water. The latter ones are frequently encountered along beaches and make proof of the suspected leakage.

3.1.4.2 Main sources in Melinka

Concerning the expected main sources of origin of marine debris in Melinka, these are partially similar but of different extent and relevance compared to Quellón. The village of Melinka only has one tenth of the population in Quellón and consequently, the urban area is much smaller and generated marine debris quantities are expected to be much smaller. Surface water runoff channels as tributaries to the sea are the only sewage evacuation so far available in the village, widely combined with soakeaway holes (Spanish: ‘pozos negros’). Running along the streets and side walks, these small channels conduct rainwater together with occasionally dropped litter, sewage water and fuel/petrol leaking from the few vehicles on the island. Several of these water courses lead downhill towards the shore close to ‘Costanera’ street and the two embarkation quays.

The second ‘hot spot’ of marine debris generation basically corresponds to the situation in Quellón. In the protected bay ‘Estero Alvarez’ small boats are stationed and repaired. Nevertheless oil and fuel leakage from the wooden boats is very common. Apparently, the shore of the bay is/was purposefully used as a waste disposal site. Although the bay is almost completely closed, there is some potential that litter and toxic substances from here might drift into open waters with intertidal currents. Navigation traffic coming and going towards the quays of Melinka - whether from/to Quellón, fishing vessels and salmon farm supply boats constitute a probable and continuous source of marine debris along its routes, assuming that occasionally litter objects are discarded into the water.

50 Leisure activities at beaches are fairly irrelevant as a marine debris source. Only in ‘Playa Raya’ some local youth are likely to spent some spare time at the beach during the few summer weeks with appropriate weather. At the same location, a few algae collectors may contribute to marine debris generation when leaving packages of consumed food and drinks behind. Barbeque beach parties’ may occur occasionally in ‘Playa Raya’ beach or near the lighthouse ‘Falso Melinka’, but most probably in lower frequencies than in Quellón and therefore with much less littering and marine debris generation.

In Melinka, the municipal waste disposal site is located about 1 km from the village centre, but only a few hundred metres away from the sea shore. In combination with the predominant northern and westerly winds, light pieces of household waste such as plastic bags can be carried from the waste disposal site into the surrounding environment. In the scrubland vegetation around the site waste dispersion by wind and birds is evident. Though chances for intrusion into the marine environment are rather low due to the distance, it is a permanent possible point of origin of marine debris found along beaches.

3.2 Municipal waste management systems

3.2.1 Interview results Generally said, the interviews, encounters and field observations made during the stays in Quellón and Melinka between January and April 2007, regarding aspects related to waste management strategies applied in the two communities, have revealed a number of critical issues. These aspects have been structured according to the SWOT methodology that differentiates strength, weaknesses, opportunities and threats, and are presented in this chapter.

Starting with an inventory of existing provisions and current efforts made in Quellón and Melinka to deal with local waste generation appropriately, shortcomings in the real performance of waste management are pointed out, based on reflections share by the interviewees and on in-situ observation. The chapter on opportunities describes detected current efforts and ongoing processes that will lead to/are aiming at improvement of waste management deficiencies and consolidation of assets. Critical aspects of ongoing and prospected trends are presented under the ‘threats’ section. These may impede successful implementation of improvement plans. Potential negative impacts resulting from management failures are also considered.

Results of the SWOT analysis are separately discussed in Chapter 4.2

51 3.2.2 Quellón S.W.O.T.

3.2.2.1 Strengths

Positive observation from the field study can be summarized in 4 principal categories (cf. Table 14 below):

STRENGTH 1) Institutionalization of responsibility for Municipal Waste Management in “Departmento de Obras” 2) Professional refuse collection by sub-contracted service providers 3) Sewage water treatment plant 4) Efforts to raise environmental awareness • Radio spot • Beach cleanup • Environmental education programme

Table 14: Quellón SWOT analysis - Strength

These strengths are described in some more detail hereafter:

3.2.2.1.1 “Departamento de Obras” In the municipal administration of Quellón, a department for public infrastructure works has been established. Besides planning and implementation of civil engineering works (road maintenance, rehabilitation of public infrastructure, etc.) and other tasks the department is in charge of25:

• solid domestic waste • sewage waters • industrial waste • management of the waste disposal landfill site. The existence of an institutional body that carries clearly defined roles and responsibilities is considered as an advantage, e.g. in contrast to Melinka.

3.2.2.1.2 Refuse Collection Refuse collection in Quellón is performed by a service provider called “Gestión Ambiente S.A.”, a private company specialized in the field of urban environmental management and management of solid residues. According to the local manager in Quellón, Mr. Barría, the company fully accomplishes the contractual duty. He provided detailed information about the extent of service provision. Refuse collection services are

25 This information is based on results of an interview with the Head of Department, Mr. Paderes. 52 complemented by another private entrepreneur “Areas Verdes Díaz”, part of whose contractual duty (the maintenance of green public spaces) is the collection of litter from parks and the maintenance of rainwater surface runoff courses.

3.2.2.1.3 Sewage water treatment Parts of the urban centre of Quellón are connected to an underground network of canalisation that conducts sewage water to a water treatment plant and thus prevents major pollution and contamination. After treatment, the cleared water is released into the harbour bay. According to a subcontracted worker of the municipal department, Mr. Cárcamo, the sewage canalisation does not cover the total of residential areas because of rapid urban sprawl and population growth. Nonetheless, the existence of the water treatment plant is considered an asset in urban environmental management.

3.2.2.1.4 Efforts to increase environmental awareness In Quellón, the Department of Public Relations of the municipal administration has produced a short radio sport of approximately 40 seconds that campaigns for a cleaner city. It encourages the citizens and visitors to contribute individually to a cleaner urban environment and increased quality of living by putting litter items in appropriate containers instead of dropping them in the street. Though of limited intensity, it is an effort worth to be mentioned, as it contributes to raise awareness among the population. It shows that municipal administrators perceive the omnipresent pollution of public spaces mainly as an aesthetical problem with cost-intensive consequences.

A second example for environmental education and public awareness raising efforts is the annual beach cleaning event “operación rastrillo”, initiated by the harbour authority “Capitanía del Puerto” and jointly realized with support of the municipal administration, waste management service providers, schools and the general public. There are similar activities organized by salmon producing companies in cooperation with local schools Quellón that aim at involving youths in environmental protection efforts, whether through punctual active participation or via press releases and radio reports on the beach cleaning event. However, the limited effectiveness and impact of these beach cleaning operations need to be discussed critically (cf. 4.2.5) as they might be used for good reputation purposes and create the belief that the marine debris problem is sufficiently dealt with.

Thirdly, environmental education programmes run by “Yaqu Pacha” (Germany-based environmental NGO working in marine biology) have been identified as a valuable asset. According to a statement of a NGO’s active member, the programme guides pupils in discovering their natural environment and to understand related problems of contamination

53 and degradation. In Coordination with the municipal school authority and teachers of primary and secondary schools, the environmental education programmes have been running since a couple of years26. The aspect of continuity is considered crucial to contribute substantially to increased environmental awareness among pupils and their parents. Intensification of environmental awareness campaigns is also considered as a key opportunity (cf. 3.2.2.3.5 below).

3.2.2.2 Weaknesses

Negative observations from the field study can be summarized in 8 principal categories (Table 15):

WEAKNESSES 1) Insufficient waste management efforts regarding • collection • prevention 2) Municipal waste disposal site with low technical standard and severe ecological impacts 3) Communal levy on municipal waste collection services 4) Contaminated surface runoff water 5) Untreated sewage water leakage 6) Waste disposal facilities in the harbour area 7) Frequent oil spill in the Port of Quellón 8) Lack of law enforcement

Table 15: Quellón SWOT analysis - Weaknesses

3.2.2.2.1 Insufficient waste management efforts Visibly, streets in Quellón are polluted with minor litter items. Even if the density may be characterized as the “normal” amount of litter in urban streets compared to other cities in Chiloé/Chile, this observation proves that pollution prevention and cleanup efforts presently made in Quellón are not sufficient to keep the urban area clean and to prevent marine debris generation. This observation is shared by M.L. Keim’s diagnostic analysis of the waste generation pattern in Quellón, noting a lack of public waste bins and insufficient street cleaning efforts (Keim 2007). As stated by the local manager of “Gestión Ambiente S.A.”, the contractual mandate for waste collection services is insufficient, not allowing for more intensive waste collection efforts. He frequently observes overloaded waste containers just a few hours after the last discharge, indicating that waste generation exceeds the collection capacities. This results in waste bags next to the waste containers

26 http://www.yaqupacha.de/enedu.htm and http://www.yaqupacha.de/endolchp.htm 54 where dogs frequently disperse the waste in search for food. A concerned citizen remarked that the large public waste receptors are not child accessible (too high and cover too heavy to be opened by a kid), so that children have poor chances to develop habitudes on how to discard plastic package of sweets properly.

Insufficiency is also observed with regard to present efforts of environmental awareness raising in schools, and even more awareness raising efforts targeting at other groups of the society are perceived to be weak. Two secondary school teachers reported that environmental education is only a marginal aspect in the curriculum. Seeing the littering behaviour of youths (and often the parents’ behaviour as well) and the amount of litter found in schoolyards and streets, the teachers and also members of the NGO “Yaqu Pacha” conclude that the extent of environmental education efforts is insufficient and needs to be increased.

3.2.2.2.2 Municipal waste disposal From an ecological point of view the currently used land fill site is seen as a weakness of waste management and as a threat to human health and the natural integrity of the watershed. The municipal employee Mr. Cárcamo and M.L. Keim (University Austral) stated that surveys and inspection reports by the Public Health Service have urged the municipality to take immediate action, because legal requirements for the technical design and operation of municipal waste disposal sites are widely neglected. It is located on the outskirts of Quellón, but below legal minimum distances to residential areas. Due to the topography of the site, the disposed waste floated permanently in accumulated rainwater and contaminated the ground water. In response to legal obligations, the municipal administration has mitigated the main environmental impacts between January and May 2007 (Keim 2007).

From a planning and management point of view, the municipal waste disposal site can be considered as an opportunity, as above mentioned deficiencies have caused the need for improvement, resulting in a new waste disposal site which is currently under construction (cf. chapter 3.2.2.3.1)

3.2.2.2.3 Communal levy on Municipal waste collection services As explained by the Head of Department “Obras”, the local government fears the dissent of the population concerning the collection of a levy for waste management. In view of the above mentioned shortcomings in municipal waste management, it is seen as a strategic failure, as a communal levy is an important tool in municipal environmental management that offers some advantages (cf. chapter 3.2.2.3.2).

55

3.2.2.2.4 Contaminated surface runoff water Along the coastal avenue “Costanera” in Quellón, there are up to 10 spots where canalized water courses from the uphill urban area lead directly into the sea. Regardless of whether litter items were dropped purposefully into the watercourse or washed off the street by the rain, accumulations of marine debris at the mouths of these sewers have been observed. The concentration of surface runoff water into canalizations is an asset that facilitates the removal of washed away litter items, whereas the absence of filters or sieves is seen as a weakness.

Sewer mouths reveal another weakness in urban environmental management: permanently, and especially after rainfall, the runoff water is visibly contaminated by hydrocarbon substances (motor oil or fuel) that leaked from run-down vehicles circulating in the streets. Poor minimum standards for technical requirements of vehicles and a lack of law enforcement are identified as the underlying causes.

3.2.2.2.5 Untreated sewage water leakage In neighbourhoods west of the harbour pier in Quellón, an area of low standard housing, sewage water tubes that lead directly into the harbour bay have been found. According to local citizens and municipal staff, this condition is common also in other near-shore residential settlements that are not connected to the urban sewage water network.

3.2.2.2.6 Lack of waste disposal facilities in the harbour area A poor availability of waste disposal facilities in the harbour area has been observed. The only containers for waste disposal are placed along the “Costanera” street in distances of 50 to 150 metres from where the majority of the boat and ships are stationed. There are no waste reception facilities available on the quays and piers of the harbour.

The near-shore area where ships are stationed for repair and maintenance are heavily polluted with clothes, car batteries, paint pots and other residues from reparation works. (cf. pictures in Appendix 7.7). According to Rovira (2006), the modernized Law of Ports “Ley Nº 19.542” obliges the port concessionaires in Chile to keep the areas adjacent to harbour infrastructure clean. The situation in the Port of Quellón is found to be quite the opposite of ‘clean’ and therefore constitutes an infraction of the law. This reveals a weakness of law enforcement at the local level.

3.2.2.2.7 Frequent oil spill in the harbour Small-scale oil spills in the harbour of Quellón were observed at every visit to the area. Leakages of minor quantities appear to be common especially from wooden boats of low 56 technical standard. The daily ejection of contaminated water from several dozens of boats in Quellón implies a continuous contamination of the marine environment.

In a review about legal provisions against contamination of the marine environment, Genskowsky (2001) states that any kind of contamination of the marine environment is prohibited by Chilean legislation, in which contamination is the discharge of any contaminating substances which are explicitly prohibited (Genskowsky 2001). The frequent observation of hydrocarbon substances in the waters of the harbour of Quellón suggests that generally polluters do not fear penalties. This leads to the conclusion that law enforcement at the local level in Quellón is weak.

3.2.2.2.8 Lack of law enforcement Compliance with legal regulations for environmental protection appears to be low. The above mentioned frequent observations of environmental pollution in and around Quellón suggest that in general words pollution of the marine environment is common in the harbour of Quellón, although it is prohibited by Chilean legislation (Genskowsky 2001).

This statement is based on personal observations and frequently heard comments of Quellón citizens met during the field study. These correspond to “Yes, of course, the contamination of the environment is obvious, but the authorities are doing nothing”27. An assistant/adjutant (Spanish: “Ayudante”) of the harbour authority “Capitanía del Puerto de Quellón” admitted that there is frequent environmental pollution although the Armada strictly surveys the application of the law. Failure of authorities which are in charge of surveillance and application of laws (these are DIRECTEMAR/Armada and SERNAPESCA at sea; CONAMA at land) is not absolute, but effectiveness of control is low due to insufficient financial, technical and human resources in relation to the number of tasks to fulfil and the vast areas to be controlled. In his nationwide SWOT-analysis on marine debris in Chile, Rovira supports the aspect of weak auditing/inspection capacities as a general problem in Chile. However, although there is no doubt about the need to increase control capacities, this alone would not solve the problem (Rovira 2006).

3.2.2.3 Opportunities

In this chapter, a set of identified options and favourable framework conditions, which offer opportunities for improvement of municipal waste management in Quellón, is

27 “Los fiscaclizadores no hacen nada!” (Anonymus 2 met on the ferryboat from Melinka to Quellón); “Nadie cumple: ni los pescadores, ni las pesceras y salmoneras cumplen con la ley. Y tampoco SERNAPESCA, DIRECTEMAR, y CONAMA cumplen con su responsabilidad de fiscalizar. Aún, la contaminación se ve en todos lados” (Anonymus 1 met in Quellón beach) 57 presented (cf. Table 16 below). Some of these are conditioned by a number of other factors to make them realistic and feasible, but ambitious policies and political and financial commitment can make these development opportunities possible.

OPPORTUNITIES 1) New waste disposal site 2) Communal levy on waste management services 3) Partnership cooperation with private sector 4) Tourism development 5) Extend environmental education programmes 6) Support and promote community based initiatives

Table 16: Quellón SWOT analysis - Opportunities

3.2.2.3.1 New Sanitary landfill The design of a new waste disposal site for Quellón is already under way. It follows the concept of a “sanitary landfill” to make the project as much as possible environmentally sound, meeting requirements of national standard and modern environmental management for waste disposal sites, including aspects of landscape planning.

According to the technical designer of the new landfill site, Mrs. M.L. Keim of the University Austral de Chile in Valdivia, the new waste disposal site has a planned life expectancy of 20 years considering population projections. The new concept includes a composting unit for organic residues from fishery and shellfish processing, but no household waste separation nor recycling facilities. According to Keim, effective waste management policies aiming at a reduction of per capita generation or the introduction of recycling systems can increase the life expectancy of the new landfill. The project is to replace the old landfill site by 2008.

3.2.2.3.2 Communal levy on waste management service As an opportunity to improve the availability of municipal funds for improvements of the waste management service provision, the legal decree about municipal budgets “Decreto Ley N°3.063 “sobre rentas municipales” (1979) allows to charge a levy or user fee for waste collection services to be paid by the local residents. Though generally unpopular, it can increase However, there are socially sensitive designs of waste management levies successfully implemented in Santiago de Chile and other countries. If the levy is quantity- bound, it can create an incentive for citizens and commercial stores to reduce per-capita generation. Other advantages and disadvantages would need to be evaluated.

58 3.2.2.3.3 Partnership cooperation with private sector Additional public waste bins placed in the urban centre of Quellón were donated by local industrial enterprises. Infrastructure donations like these help the municipal administration to comply with its institutional responsibility if funds are too limited. The social and environmental ‘corporate responsibility’ of local industrial enterprises can be exploited by the municipality for improvements in urban environmental management. Yet there are other examples for public-private partnerships in Quellón, e.g. sponsoring of public entertainment events in the summer, the acquisition of schooling materials and equipment for rural schools, etc.

National NGOs and local citizens organizations, the associations of industrial companies and the harbour authority DIRECTEMAR have been involved as strategic partners in the financing and implementation of environmental awareness programmes, beach clean-up campaigns etc. (cf. chapter 4.2.5). Intensification of cooperation with external partners is an open opportunity for the municipal administration.

3.2.2.3.4 Tourism development Quellón was of minor importance as a tourism destination in recent years. Recently growing expectations for increased tourism flux have been observed among municipal planners, members of the citizens’ tourism board and tourism operators in the light of newly discovered whale watching potentials. This “euphoria” can be used to emphasize the importance of sound waste management and to pass messages and prevention measures against land-based and sea-based marine debris to the population.

Aesthetical improvement in the urban sector and prevention of environmental pollution are crucial prerequisites to launch a sustainable tourism development process. Furthermore, prospects of growing tourism flux imply growing quantities of waste generation and stress the need for adequate waste management capacities (cf. 3.2.2.4 ‘Threats’ below).

3.2.2.3.5 Extend environmental awareness campaigns Existing efforts to increase environmental awareness among the local population are valuable initiatives that can be intensified, e.g. the radio spot campaigning for a cleaner city, and aspects mentioned above in “3.2.2.1.4 Efforts to increase environmental awareness”.

A comprehensive environmental awareness raising programme for the population of Quellón that communicates the importance of environmentally appropriate individual behaviour to citizen should address specific social groups e.g. fishermen, shop owners,

59 parents, children, etc. using media campaigns and workshops. These could facilitate people’s understanding for the implementation of unpopular, restrictive policies. Note: if environmental awareness campaigns have been successful, critical political decisions which might be necessary for environmental protection and sustainable development would not be considered as ‘unpopular’ anymore, e.g. increased willingness to pay a levy on waste management services.

The municipal administration and its departments have the opportunity to take the role of an initiator and coordinator of events aiming at increased environmental awareness. Environmental awareness campaigns can be coordinated among several municipalities of the region and be embedded in existing national programmes organized by environmental NGOs and governmental line-agencies such as CONAMA.

3.2.2.3.6 Support and promote community-based initiatives Environmental awareness among the population of Quellón was found to be low, but fortunately it is not completely absent: There is a group of environmentally concerned citizens whose joint mission is to spread environmental awareness among the population. According to one of the group members, Don Sergio LeClerq, this group of approximately 20 people intends to take part actively in local and provincial debates on issues affecting the natural environment and the quality of life in Quellón, e.g. sustainable management of solid residues. The Head of Department “Obras”, Mr. Paderes, mentioned that the department supports neighbourhood associations that occasionally initiate cleanups in their residential area or at the beach.

In two situations, private persons were encountered at the beach gathering stranded marine debris. This behaviour can also be understood as an indicator for the severity of the marine debris problem in Quellón: The driving motivation was to prevent health risks from broken glass and other litter items in proximity to children playing at the beach. The second citizen intended to make the beach of Punta de Lapa more attractive for tourists that come to visit Quellón.

The municipal administration should as much as possible promote and support similar community-based initiatives in order to use inherent valuable development potentials. This is also an opportunity to spread messages of communal environmental policies among the citizens.

60 3.2.2.4 Threats

In this section, some critical aspects of current trends concerning the municipal waste management system and marine debris generation are mentioned (cf. Table 17). Furthermore, limiting factors to the promising opportunities as well as possible impacts of management failure are briefly described.

THREATS / projected problems and impacts 1) Municipal fund shortage 2) Increasing per capita waste generation 3) Impacts from deficient waste management capacities

Table 17: Quellón SWOT analysis - Threats

3.2.2.4.1 Municipal Budget shortage According to the National System of Municipal Indicators SINIM28 the annual municipal budget in 2006 was about 1.5 billion Chilean Pesos (approx. 2.88 mio. USD) of which about 68% were spent on recurrent costs. 20% of these are classified as spent for services to the benefit of the population, which is assumed to include i.a. the amount of financial resources spent on waste management. More detailed statistics on budget plans for the current and coming years are not available. It is difficult to assess the possibilities to increase the funds available for waste management improvement and related activities.

Based on the comments of the Head of Department “Obras”, it is assumed that available municipal funds are a limiting factor to the identified opportunities.

3.2.2.4.2 Increasing per-capita waste generation According to census data from 1992 and 2002, the population has grown by 45% within only ten years (INE 2003), increasing from about 15.000 to 22.000. The mean Inter-census growth rate of 41% is used to project expected future population growth. The economic activity in Quellón is also projected to continue expansion especially in aquaculture (regional trend) and tourism (local trend) (Municipalidad de Quellón 2006). This will cause total quantities of generated waste to increase, but waste generation will grow even accelerated unless pertinent policies manage to uncouple per-capita waste generation from economic growth rates. This is a tough challenge for local and regional planners which has been respected in the design of the new sanitary landfill.

The threat to the marine environment is, that along with increased waste generation also the quantity of ‘waste leakage’ into the environment is likely to increase, unless

28 http://www.sinim.gov.cl/ReportNac2003.asp 61 improved waste collection services can reduce the percentage of waste which is not dealt with appropriately.

3.2.2.4.3 Impacts of deficient waste management Trends observed in the current situation in Quellón underscore the need for improved waste management at the local level, otherwise a number of undesirable consequences are possible: health risks due to sewage water spill and injuries caused by stranded marine debris; continued deterioration of the natural and marine environment caused by industrialization and negative externalities; decline of the felt quality of living of Quellón residents and coherent decline of tourism influx to the area. The consequences are adverse to sustainable development processes and therefore may cause important ‘opportunity costs’. There have been observed single examples for all of these threats during the field study.

3.2.3 Melinka S.W.O.T.

3.2.3.1 Strength

In the “Comuna de Las Guaitecas” and its capital village Melinka, only a few aspects could be identified as real strength (cf. Table 18) regarding the municipal waste management strategies and the prevention of marine debris generation.

STRENGTH / positive observations Melinka 1) Problem awareness 2) Privatized waste collection service 3) Waste disposal containers at the harbour pier 4) Efforts for environmental education and awareness raising

Table 18: Melinka SWOT analysis - Strength

3.2.3.1.1 Problem awareness The municipality’s awareness about the urgent need for action, certainly a minimum requirement for improvement of municipal waste management, can be mentioned here as a strength. Current planning efforts in the municipal administration focus on the identification of an appropriate piece of land to establish a regular waste disposal site that meets national legal requirements for technical standard. The municipal Executive Secretary has applied for external financial support to conduct a feasibility study.

62 3.2.3.1.2 Privatized waste collection service Since the beginning of 2007, refuse collection has been shifted from a municipal service to a private service provider, Mr. Placencia29. Waste collection is complemented by two senior employees of the municipality who are deployed in picking up litter items from the streets and public areas. A remarkable aspect is the aluminium can collection organized by a citizen of Melinka who gathers the aluminium cans (helped by school children who receive some Pesos for every kilo of delivered aluminium cans) and transfers them to Quellón where he sells it off to other aluminium collectors.

3.2.3.1.3 Waste disposal facilities at harbour pier In Melinka, there are four syndicate associations of fishermen, three of which have created a common federation to organize themselves and to defend their interests in a coordinated way. The federation maintains the main pier of the harbour. According to the executive coordinator Mrs. Veronica, the fishermen do care about waste management and for this purpose they have installed four trash cans at the pier as containers for waste disposal. Furthermore they regularly collect marine debris from beaches and seabed (by deploying divers) adjacent to the pier. She reports that sometimes this common activity is organized as a social event and accompanied by a barbeque party. The costs of waste evacuation to the waste disposal site are covered by own funds of the federation.

3.2.3.1.4 Environmental education and awareness raising efforts The harbour authority “Capitanía de Puerto de Melinka” informed that in the frame of a national programme the “Armada de Chile/DIRECTEMAR” initiates an annual beach cleaning event “operación rastrillo” in Melinka and in all other harbour areas of the country. It involves local schools, the municipality, fishermen and other citizens. During one or two days per year, stranded marine debris and dropped litter items are collected from the shoreline around the village. The initiative mainly serves as a valuable contribution to raise awareness about the problematic pollution of the natural environment by humans.

Similar initiatives have been organized by Centro Ballena Azul, a marine research and conservation NGO that runs environmental education workshops mainly with youth of the villages Melinka and Repollal, dealing with topics related to the natural environments,

29 Interview note, 19-03-2007: According to Mr. Placencia, he provides the waste collection service Since January 2007with the help of four employees and a waste compactor truck that was acquired in March 2007 for this purpose; the waste collection service covers the urban area of Melinka, sub-divided into two sectors, with two passages per week. there isn’t any waste separation; the service provision includes the maintenance of green spaces and surface water run-off ditches; Mr. Placencia would also provide service in Repollal provided that the value of the sub-contraction is increased. 63 marine ecology, nature conservation and waste management. In 2007 an exemplary beach cleanup was part of the programme.

3.2.3.2 Weaknesses

This chapter summarises field observations that reveal the following deficits (cf. Table 19) in waste management and environmental protection:

WEAKNESSES / negative observations 1) Communal levy on waste collection 2) Municipal waste disposal site with low technical standard and severe ecological impacts 3) Insufficient waste management efforts regarding collection and prevention 4) Municipal planning and management capacities 5) Sewage and surface runoff water 6) Frequent oil spill and insufficient waste disposal facilities in the harbour 7) Lack of law enforcement

Table 19: Melinka SWOT analysis - Weaknesses

3.2.3.2.1 Communal levy on waste collection service According to the service provider Mr. Placencia, residents in Melinka are not charged a communal levy on municipal waste collection services. As a possible management tool that can contribute to increase the municipality’s available funds for a boarder range of activities (cf. previous paragraph) and contribute to a reduction of per capita waste generation (cf. Quellón 3.2.2.2.3), the absence of such a levy is considered as a weakness.

3.2.3.2.2 Municipal Waste disposal dumping site The waste disposal site of Melinka is a wild dumping site situated on scrubland-covered slopes descending towards the sea shore at approximately 400 metres distance. Except a fence and covering of deposited waste with sand, shellfish and sea urchin material, it is without any technical management. Already in 1996, Keim et al. have documented the basic conditions of the waste disposal site and described the main environmental impacts: eluviations of persistent chemical and toxic substances into the peaty soil and groundwater; toxic smoke from erratic naturally caused fires and burning plastic materials; dispersion of waste into the environment by animals (birds; dogs; rats/mice); Keim et al. mention inspection reports and consequent legal obligations to improve the desolate situation in Melinka emitted by the Public Health Service (UACH 1996). In 2007, described conditions were found not to have changed substantially. 64 Concerning the relevance of the dumping site for marine debris, chemical contamination is likely to leak into the sea with rainwater drainage. Plastic bags might be blown into the sea. Litter items carried into the surrounding of the landfill by animals pollute the terrestrial environment, but will hardly reach the sea.

3.2.3.2.3 Insufficient waste management efforts regarding collection and prevention As stated by the Municipal Executive Secretary Mr. Gonzalez, there has never been a sound and appropriate waste management concept. First collection efforts were improvised and started due to the urgent need to get rid of household waste that accumulated in houses and streets. Meanwhile it has been formalized by a service provider but still collection efforts are basic and lack professional equipment.

The most outstanding deficit is that the contract of service provision does not include the settlements of Repollal (Alto, Medio, and Bajo) where about 150 people live and produce household litter day by day. As described by Keim et al. (1996) and confirmed by field observation and residents’ statements, these have developed their individual waste disposal strategies including burning and dumping in the sea. An opportunity to include Repollal in waste collection service was missed out when designing the service provision contract early 2007. The service provider Mr. Placencia said that Repollal could be easily served once per week, but it is not part of his agreement with the municipal administration.

Neither there is any separation of specific materials for recycling purposes, except aluminium cans that are gathered and sold away by an individual businessman. Another shortcoming in the organization of waste management in Melinka is the lack of appropriate waste containers. The kind of improvised trash cans used in many households of Melinka are criticized by the National Health Service to constitute a health risk for the population and waste collection workers (UACH 1996). Field observations have shown that dogs search for food in waste bags and boxes placed in the street.

As a result streets do not appear to be clean but rather polluted with litter items here and there. This observation suggests that the two workers deployed by the municipal administration to pick up dropped litter items are not sufficient. Furthermore, most public waste bins in Melinka are rotten, overgrown and out of order. Based on field observations of citizens’ behaviour, environmental awareness is rather low among the population of Melinka. Although there are little environmental education efforts in Melinka (cf., chapter 3.2.3.1.4), these are considered insufficient by a municipal consultant.

65

3.2.3.2.4 Municipal planning and management capacities The municipal administration in Melinka in 2006 employed a total staff of 15 people plus seven temporarily contracted persons30. According to the Communal Development Plan PLADECO (Municipalidad de Guaitecas 2004), the shortage of technical personnel is one of the main reasons for delays in progresses of development projects. One of the strategic objectives is to increase the human resource capacities of the municipal administration in order to enlarge the range of actions and activities and to increase efficiency and performance in communal management.

The weakness of the municipal performance capacity can be seen as a reason why the long-lasting desolate conditions of the waste dumpsite and deficient urban environmental management measures have not been improved substantially in recent years.

3.2.3.2.5 Sewage and surface runoff water As a source of permanent pollution of the marine environment sewage water and surface run-off water contaminated with hydrocarbon substances from vehicle leakage have been detected in Melinka.

The small town does not have any wastewater treatment plant. Sewage is generally deposited in “pozo negros”/sewage pits or small septic tanks adjacent to every house (Municipalidad de Guaitecas 2004). Liquid components of sewage, i.e. overflow water, seep into the surrounding ground and drain along the slope towards the sea. There is a small network of open ditches along streets and footpaths in which seep water and overflow from sewage pits mix with rain water and flow towards several outfall locations along the urban sea shore.

After abundant rainfall, which is quite frequent in Melinka, surface runoff from roofs, paved areas and streets enters into the same network of ditches. Oil leakage from motorized vehicles is frequently observed in the streets of Melinka, the runoff water commonly shows visible signs of oil contamination. Furthermore, litter items are frequently dropped into these ditches and flushed away into the sea after intensive rainfalls.

Concerning the sewage water management in Melinka, there is a project under preparation (cf. Opportunities 3.2.3.3.5).

3.2.3.2.6 Frequent Oil spill and insufficient waste disposal facilities in the harbour area

30 http://www.sinim.gov.cl/ReportNac2003.asp 66 In contrast to waste disposal facilities at the main pier of the harbour (cf. strengths chapter 3.2.3.1.3), in the part of the harbour locally referred to as “Estero Alvarez” or “cementerio de barcos” (”ships’ graveyard”) waste disposal facilities and regular cleaning efforts, as mentioned under are completely absent. As a consequence, the borders of the harbour bay are seamed with various categories of marine debris, including used car batteries that contain quicksilver and other toxic substances. Visibly, maintenance efforts for the small pier seem to be poor, and there are no waste containers that would facilitate the prevention of marine debris generation both in the harbour bay area and offshore at sea31. Similar to the observation in Quellón (cf. chapter 3.2.2.2.7), also in Melinka a steady small-scale oil pest was observed in the harbour waters. Water being ejected into the sea during routine operation of small boats and vessel motors contains small amounts of oil or fuel. The coordinator of fishermen syndicate federation reported that occasionally, used motor from vessel maintenance is directly ejected into the water of the bay.

3.2.3.2.7 Lack of law enforcement As mentioned before in the case of Quellón (cf. chapter 3.2.2.2.8), the inefficient enforcement of existing legal regulations for the protection of the marine environment, is also a weakness in Melinka. SERNAPESCA in Melinka does not dispose of a proper motorized vessel to access remote offshore fishery and aquaculture production sites in order to survey and control the application of laws and regulations. They rely on support by the Armada de Chile/DIRECTEMAR to intervene in urgent conflict situations and reported law infractions. None of these institutions dispose of sufficient resources to regularly patrol in the wide areas of the archipelago in order to accomplish their surveillance task to effectively prevent marine environmental pollution.

3.2.3.3 Opportunities

As the state of development of municipal waste management strategies and prevention of marine debris generation is found to be low, there is space for up-grading and improvement. The range of possible actions and strategies is summarized as opportunities in Table 20:

31 According to the coordinator of the fishermen federation, mainly members of the syndicate “Sindicato de Pescadores de Melinka” occupy the area Estero Alvarez, their syndicate being responsible for the maintenance of the small pier. 67 OPPORTUNITIES 1) Public support for initiatives to promote resource recycling 2) Communal levy on municipal waste collection services 3) Intensify environmental education and awareness raising campaigns 4) Partnership cooperation partners with Industrial Companies 5) Clean Production Agreements (APL) 6) Projects for new waste disposal site linked and sewage water treatment 7) Inter-regional cooperation between Municipalities 8) Increase institutional capacities to control compliance with laws

Table 20: Melinka SWOT analysis - Opportunities

3.2.3.3.1 Public support for initiatives to promote resource recycling The relatively small population of Melinka (still less than 2.000 registered inhabitants) can be seen as an opportunity to implement strategies and changes among the population more easily. The municipality could launch and foster local-scale initiatives to promote the prevention of environmental pollution and to make a substantial change by simple means. The national programme FOSIS (Fund for Solidarity and Social Investment) and its sub- section “Chile Emprende”32 offers financial support to make micro-business projects work.

Some ideas for waste management-related micro-enterprises are briefly discussed in chapter 4.2.

3.2.3.3.2 Intensify environmental education and awareness raising campaigns In Melinka, existing social organizational structures like church communities, fishermen associations/syndicates, sport clubs, school classes, youth groups and the local radio station offer the possibility to pass messages related environmental education and awareness raising. Large parts of the relatively small population can be attended easily. Group dynamics can be used to increase adherence to proposed behavioural change. The municipality can work on the development of long-lasting, consistent environmental education and awareness raising programmes that accompany young generations across several years and help adults to change specific habitudes concerning waste generation.

3.2.3.3.3 Partnership cooperation partners with Industrial Companies Voluntary or commitments of local industrial enterprises like salmon producing companies and other service providers can be a substantial help for the municipal administration to accomplish its duties. The municipality could actively invite to this kind of

32 http://www.fosis.cl/opensite_20050908125403.asp 68 partnerships, e.g. in school equipment, public waste bins, and sponsoring of environmental programmes. Also see chapter 3.2.2.3.3

3.2.3.3.4 Clean Production Agreements (APL) SalmonChile also promotes “Clean production agreements” (Acuerdos de Produccion Limpia, APL33) (Rovira 2006). It is a system of voluntary commitment to environmentally sound production. Participating enterprises obtain certificates by the National Council for Clean Production34, if certain criteria of environmental management are met. The idea is to create competition about among industrial production enterprises, but the system relies on critical consumers who select products according to criterions like certified environmental friendly production. Nevertheless, the APL-initiative is a possible contribution to reduce environmental impacts like marine debris from aquaculture industry, provided that certified enterprises are strictly controlled.

3.2.3.3.5 Projects for new waste disposal site and sewage water treatment The bad condition of the waste disposal site in Melinka (which is formally illegal) forces the municipality to take immediate action. According to municipal administration staff, a new project design was under preparation in May 2007. Following the procedures of the FNDR Regional Development Fund (Fondo Nacional de Desarrollo Regional), the municipality applied for funding to conduct a feasibility study for a sanitary landfill in Melinka, starting with the identification of a topographically appropriate location. The technical design of the land fill and the coherent waste management system will be elaborated in a subsequent project planning phase that will depend on external funding again. At this occasion different models need to be evaluated and compared (cf. discussion 4.2.4). Another project was under preparation by the municipality and the local drinking water committee to improve the sewage water treatment in Melinka. As by May 2007, the project was applying for external funding in the national development programme “Programa Mejoramiento Barrios (PMB)” / Neighbourhood improvement programme.

3.2.3.3.6 Inter-regional cooperation between Municipalities The problem situation concerning municipal waste management systems and related marine debris generation, as described for Quellón and Melinka, is similar in several coastal municipalities of the 10th and 11th region in Chiloé and adjacent to the Gulf of Corcovado. In search for further opportunities and solutions to the problems, working

33 http://www.salmonchile.cl/frontend/seccion.asp?contid=&secid=6&secoldid=6&subsecid=62&pag=1 34 http://www.produccionlimpia.cl/link.cgi/QuienesSomos/XRegion/ 69 groups, exchange and cooperation among municipal leaders and technical planners can create ‘synergy effects’. As an example idea, Melinka could try to get involved in the current planning processes for the new waste disposal sites in Quellón and in Central Chiloé/, regardless of administrative borderlines between the 10th and 11th region. Inter-municipal cooperation in waste management strategies is also discussed as an opportunity in Chapter 4.2.

3.2.3.3.7 Control capacities According to national Chilean law and international treaties, the Chilean state has the legal obligation to prevent deterioration of its natural resources, marine and terrestrial habitats for both humans and wildlife (Genskowsky 2001; SUBPESCA 2004; CONAMA 2006; CPPS 2006; Hucke-Gaete et al. 2006; Rovira 2006). This obligation offers an opportunity to create sufficient capacities in institutional bodies that are entitled to accomplish surveillance responsibilities. Currently, control capacities are considered insufficient especially regarding pollution sources in vast coastal and offshore areas (cf. 3.2.3.2.7 and Rovira (2006)). In the light of projected trends of continued sprawl of aquaculture production sites into coastal waters and archipelagos around the Gulf of Corcovado and south of Melinka, an increased need for surveillance efforts is anticipated. This serves to justify upgrading of control capacities in terms of human, technical and financial resources.

3.2.3.4 Threats

During the field research in Melinka, some general threats (cf. Table 21) with respect to municipal waste management and marine conservation efforts have been identified:

THREATS 1) Lack of Municipal funds and capacities 2) Population growth and increasing waste generation 3) Impacts of deficient environmental management 4) Unsustainable planning and management

Table 21: Melinka SWOT analysis - Threats

3.2.3.4.1 Lack of Municipal funds and capacities A fundamental problem and obstacle to any significant increase of municipal activity in Melinka is the shortage of human and financial capacities, limiting the range of possible measures to the current extent. According to SINIM35, the available municipal budget in

35 http://www.sinim.gov.cl/ReportNac2003.asp 70 2006 totalled to about 570 million pesos, 88% of which originate from the inter-municipal Communal Common Fund. 95% of the total budgets are consumed by recurrent costs of municipal administration, and only 12% of these are spent on services for the communal population. As long as the introduction of royalties36 for natural resource extraction is not established by national legislation, there are few perspectives on how available funds in the municipal budget can be increased significantly.

Tasks related to planning and implementation of environmental management measures presently are not assigned to technically qualified staff with professional expertise in the topic, so that municipal policies and decisions tend to neglect the urgency and importance of necessary changes, as the municipal administrative capacities are rather limited. Progress in environmental issues depend on the development of additional institutional capacities as stipulated in the strategic objectives of the Communal Development Plan (Municipalidad de Guaitecas 2004)

3.2.3.4.2 Population growth and increasing waste generation Rapid demographic and socio-economic growth trends are the outstanding trends in the Chiloé-Corcovado area and also take place in Melinka (cf. Intro to the region, chapter 1.3.2.). As in Quellón (cf. 3.2.2.4.2), this trend constitutes a challenge for municipal waste management capacities and a threat to the natural environment, unless capacities are upgraded accordingly.

According to the Communal Development Plan, the attractiveness of local tourism potentials already is at risk due to waste infested streets, polluted beaches and degraded landscapes (Municipalidad de Guaitecas 2004). At the same time growing tourism expectations must be perceived as an additional waste generation factor that contributes to environmental pollution especially in the rural areas. The need for additional management capacities in the municipal administration is emphasized.

3.2.3.4.3 Impacts of deficient environmental management The dependency of the local productive economy on marine natural resources, mainly for food production, makes it important to mention that the quality of products may be deteriorated by continued marine environmental pollution. Sewage water, oil leakage and toxic substances from marine debris not only endanger the basis of the local economy, but they also put at risk the health of the local population and of any consumer of exported marine food. Accumulations of persistent pollutants across the trophic levels of the natural

36 www.camara.cl/Boletin/doc.aspx?teseid=9065 and http://www.aquahoy.com/index.php...

71 food web may be underestimated and affect the health of humans at the top of the food chain.

Current levels of marine debris in the Corcovado area yet entail a long number of negative impacts (cf. Introduction, Impacts of Marine Debris, chapter 1.2.4). As a consequence of deficient management capacities and increasing waste generation, impacts on the environment are likely to increase.

3.2.3.4.4 Unsustainable planning and management Regarding current municipal plans to improve the municipal waste management system, basically by the design of a new waste disposal site (cf. 3.2.3.3.5), it is perceived as a threat to sustainable development if these plans do not include state-of-the-art environmental management principles. For example: the opportunity to establish separated waste collection and recycling also in Melinka. While the investment of development funds into a new sanitary landfill project on the island might mitigate the current problem of waste disposal, it will lead to new planning problems in the long run, as soon as storage capacities in landfill sites are used up.

Acquisition of development funds must be based on ambitious and environmentally sound project plans.

4 Discussion In the following chapters, the results obtained during the field investigation shall be interpreted in comparison to research results and reference frameworks found in literature. This evaluation of findings allows assessing the present marine debris problem situation in the Gulf of Corcovado area.

4.1 Interpretation of sampling results The discussion of marine debris sampling findings follows the guiding question:

“How can sampling results from Chiloé-Corcovado be understood qualitatively and quantitatively, and what might differences in relation to other research be due to?” In order to summarize the sampling results, it is stated that:

1. There is marine debris present in the Gulf of Corcovado area and it accumulates at specific locations along the coastline37. Distinct points of origin have been identified. All in all, the composition of samples reveals ropes, expanded polystyrene and various categories of plastic debris to be the three most

37 Researchers of Centro Ballena Azul reported that accumulations of floating marine debris are also observed offshore at ‘water fronts’ that occur variably as a result of distinct currents and specific densities of water within the Gulf of Corcovado. These accumulations were not subject of the present research. 72 abundant components. Plastic-made marine debris accounts for 80% to 90% of all marine debris found and more than 60% of marine debris can probably be associated with sea-based sources.

2. Based on a short observation interval, marine debris was found to have renewed by 20% within roughly 5 weeks. The mean rate of accumulation was estimated about 35 items of marine debris per kilometre per day. The composition of the renewal widely corresponds to the first sampling.

4.1.1 Composition of samples and potential sources of marine debris Results have shown that beached marine debris in the Gulf of Corcovado is mainly composed of three categories: “Plumavit” expanded polystyrene (EPS), synthetic ropes and diverse plastic objects such as bottles, food wraps and plastic sheets/tarpaulins. Generally known as plastics materials, all three groups are synthetically made polystyrene, polyester and polypropylene that consist of chemically transformed carbon molecules. Thus, these groups can be summarized according to their material. Chemically seen, also the categories ‘oil cans’ and practically all marine debris assigned to the category ‘others’ are made of plastic, so that plastic-made materials account for 87% in the first sample and 85 % in the second sample

Around the world, Plastic materials generally constitute the largest proportion in marine debris samples both at land and at sea. In his review on plastic debris research from the 1980’s and 90’s Derraik (2002) finds the predominance of plastics in marine litter to vary in a range between 60% and 80%, supported by more than 30 surveys that are presented in a table. Unfortunately, the listing does not contain prior surveys from the Chilean coast, but geographically closest results from Argentina (37-72%) and sub-Antarctic islands (51-88%) produced in a study by Gregory and Ryan in 1997 confirm the high share of plastic materials, when assuming that classification of materials was coherent in past and present studies.

One of the most recent scientific works on marine debris management is a doctorate thesis research project conducted by Poitou in 37 municipalities of southern France between 1998 and 2000. Regarding the composition of marine debris samples from the Mediterranean coast, Poitou found proportions of plastic material to vary between 40% and 95% (Poitou 2004) on beaches. In the same document Galgani (1998) is cited to have estimated the composition of sunken marine debris in the north-western Mediterranean basin. The 77% of the total marine debris sunken to the seabed (an estimated 175 million objects) being plastic materials, consisted of plastic bags by 92,8%.

73 The big proportion of plastics among marine debris is a common feature of Poitou’s, Galgani’s and the present study, while being more pronounced in results obtained in Chiloé-Corcovado (87%) and France (up to 95%). Generally, comparison is difficult as long as definitions of plastic marine debris are not synchronized. Is not clear whether synthetic ropes and EPS polystyrene were comprised under plastic materials in the French studies.

A coordinated research project under OSPAR member states around the North Sea in Central Europe analyzed data on stranded marine debris from the 1990’s and compared them with samples taken between 2002 and 2003. In the evaluation of data from the German coast, Fleet (2003) found plastics and EPS/ foamed rubber as the most abundant categories (62,5%), while plastics subsumed ropes and strings, fishing nets and food wrap as its main components. 30% of the total debris items was classified as plastic bags/plastic sheets. (Fleet 2003) These results confirm the general trend, though plastic proportions are lower than other results cited above and as found in the present research.

Looking into Chile, in 2002 Thiel, Hinojosa, Vasquez and Macaya conducted a research survey on floating marine debris along the Chilean Pacific coast in near-shore and off- shore transects while travelling southwards. Thiel et al. (2003) found the overall proportion of plastic materials in floating marine debris to be 86,9%. However, a more detailed look into their results reveal very poor data for the transect closest to the Gulf of Corcovado: only one piece of floating manufactured wood recorded near Ancud, and only one plastic bag found near Puerto Natales. This makes comparison difficult. Nevertheless, the authors state that floating plastic debris was ubiquitous and that their results of floating marine debris densities match with findings reported from other parts of the world.

Regarding the composition of their sample, observed plastic bags representing 47,6% of the total, whereas plastic lines only made up 3,6%. This is a drastic difference compared to results found at beaches of the Gulf of Corcovado where lines and ropes in average represent 30% of the total, and the share of plastic bags was found to be 5% only, reaching 13% if animal food bags, plastic sheets and food wrap are subsumed with plastic bags. Thiel et al. refer to other beach based marine debris surveys (Gregory and Ryan, 1997; Ribic et al., 1997) having found “comparatively low percentages of plastic bags”, and also to Galgani et al. (1996) reporting a very high share of plastic bags among sunken plastic debris at the seafloor. The authors emphasize that plastic bags, besides non- floating marine debris, might be underrepresented in beached based samples, even more as winds may carry these and other light-weight debris categories off the survey site. These limitations of beached based samples are known and accepted.

74 Thiel et al. wonder whether plastic bags have limited floating capacities (as they were often seen submerged at sea) and therefore might be less frequent in beach based samples. On the assumption that most plastic bags are used in/originate from cities, Thiel’s observations together with Galgani’s findings and results of this research from Chiloé-Corcovado suggest the following: Submerged plastic bags are more frequent in offshore samples than onshore because: other non-plastic marine debris categories are likely to sink to the ground, and many plastic items floating on or at the surface are susceptible to be pushed back to beaches by onshore winds that cannot affect submerged plastic bags. These tend to sink to the ground after a while (if not eaten up by marine fauna) or are drifting apart along ocean currents. Plastic bags could be characterized as “bad floaters” but “good drifters”. This explains the diverging shares of plastic bags observed in the two compared samples of the Chilean coast and the interior waters of Chiloé-Corcovado.

A second important reference concerning field based research on marine debris in Chile are results of the ‘Día Internacional de Limpieza de Playas” event. Since 2005 the coastal station for marine research ‘Las Cruces’ (ECIM) of the Catholic University of Chile (Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, P.U.C.) has been organizing an annual beach cleaning campaign in the scope of the International Coastal Cleanup Day (ICC), which is globally coordinated by the US-based NGO the Ocean Conservancy. The main objective of this annual event is environmental education through active participation by thousands of people and increased public awareness about marine environmental pollution. At the same time the environmental impact of this event is quite positive seeing the amounts of marine debris that are removed within only one day of coordinated efforts: in 2005, more than 150.000 marine debris items (roughly 7.500 kg) were collected by more than 1.100 volunteers38 at beaches of the most densely populated region near Valparaiso. Results have not yet been published by the ECIM / Catholic University of Chile for 2006, but some data on beach cleanup results in Chile 2006 are provided in the summary report of the International Coastal cleanup event 2006 (OceanConservancy 2007). Herein, results for the ICC-2006 event in Chile are summarized to 65.715 items with a total weight of about 96.200 kg collected along roughly 400 km of coastline by 6.700 volunteers. Although there seem to be consistency problems (weight/item ratio; diverging information about participants39), the composition of these data may serve as a reference for comparison.

38 Press release 17-01-2006 by P.U.C., found at www.unorch.cl/documentos/Limpieza%20_Costas_05.pdf 39 Press release 06-10-2006 by P.U.C. found at http://www.puc.cl/noticias/ficha/pub1846.htm

75 ECIM results show considerable differences compared to results of this study at hand, which might be due to regional disparities in marine debris composition and topographical landscape features, and due to diverging sampling efforts. Nevertheless, the total share of plastics in 2005 results was 87%. While this sum appears to be coherent with Chiloé- Corcovado results, the proportion of EPS polystyrene in ECIM-results is only 3% (against 24% Chiloé-Corcovado) and ropes and relict fishing gear amounts make up only 0,1% (about 160 items) according to the ECIM-2005 data table. About 5.000 plastic bags accounted for 3,3%, which supports observations about relatively low proportions of plastic bags in beached marine debris as discussed before. Another remarkable difference is the extremely high proportion of lids/caps of bottles (60.419; 40%), plastic bottles (43.840; 29%) and cigarette stubs (10.695; 7%), whereas corresponding values in Chiloé- Corcovado were found at 2,6%, 5,7% and 0,3% (no stubs! only cigarette boxes) respectively. The lesser categories in ECIM-2005 results are papers and cardboards (9%; almost absent in Chiloé-Corcovado), glass (2%), metal (1%) and others (1%). The observed differences between the two samples’ composition hint at distinct marine debris generation patterns in the two regions. In deed, the region around Valparaiso is renowned for intensive beach tourism due to favourable climate especially during summer, but also during winter months beaches are frequented more often due to high population densities in the 5th region. In contrast, the Chiloé-Corcovado is barely appropriate for intensive beach tourism, but even more known for its intensive fishery and aquaculture production in coastal waters.

Although no results of the 2006 beach cleanup campaign in Chile have been found on ECIM and P.U.C. related websites, information from the Ocean Conservancy’s summary report on the 2006 International Coastal Cleanup Day serves to support the observed distinction in composition. According to standardized Ocean Conservancy methodology, marine debris is not grouped and analysed according to its material, but to its main source of provenience. Five clusters of sources are distinguished, differentiating between a) shoreline and recreational activities, b) ocean and waterway activities, c) smoking-related activities, d) dumping activities and e) Medical applications and personal hygiene products. For the purpose of comparison, results from the Chiloé-Corcovado study have been reorganized accordingly on order to make the following observations: as presented in Fig. 7 below, the majority of marine debris found at beaches in Chiloé-Corcovado can be attributed to ‘ocean and waterway activities’ (67,5%), whereas only 10,5% of marine debris in the 5th region of Chile were associated with (OceanConservancy 2007) these sources. Marine debris that is assumed to originate from ‘shoreline and recreational’ activities

76 accounts for 27% in Chiloé-Corcovado, which is considerably less than the 70,5% found during the Coastal Cleanup campaign by ECIM and Ocean Conservancy in 2006. The ECIM data summary for 2005 even indicates 91% of marine debris associated with recreational and private activities including smoking-related litter, versus 9% caused by industrial sources such as fishery, cargo shipping and construction works. The comparison also reveals the high share of smoking-related marine debris (15,6%) at highly frequented beaches of the north, whereas hardly any smoking-related marine debris was found in samples in Chiloé-Corcovado. However, there is no doubt that smoking cigarettes is fairly common among residents, beach goers and especially among fishermen in Quellón and Melinka, and although there is little evidence, it is believed that cigarette stubs and cigarette boxes are frequently discarded into the streets, the environment and the sea.

Comparison of sample compositions

ICC-2006 versus Chiloé-Corcovado 2007

1,3 % 0,9 % Medical/Personal 2,0 % Hygiene 100,0 % 4,2 % 0,4 % 15,6 % 90,0 % Dumping Activities

80,0 % 10,5 %

70,0 % Smoking-Related 67,5 % Activities 60,0 %

50,0 % Ocean/Waterway Activities 40,0 % 70,5 %

Shoreline and 30,0 % Recreational Activities 20,0 % 27,0 %

10,0 %

0,0 % ICC-2006 Chile Chiloé-Corcovado 2007 Case Studies

Fig. 7: Comparison of sample results according to sources (source: proper elaboration based on data from the Ocean Conservancy 2007)

The 2006 report on the International Coastal Cleanup day also provides interesting information about composition and sources of marine debris based on coordinated

77 collection efforts from more than 68 countries. Globally, about 61% of marine debris is generated due to ‘recreational and shoreline activities’. According to the OceanConservancy (2007), another 29% of marine debris collected during the ICC event is caused by ‘smoking-related activities’, whereas ‘ocean and waterway related activities’ account for roughly 7%. Marine debris from ‘Dumping’ (2,1%) and Medical/hygienic (1,2%) items represent the remnant. Most abundant objects in marine debris samples around the world are cigarettes stubs, filters or boxes. Fig. 8 presents the top-10 of most abundant marine debris items in the 2006 ICC results.

Fig. 8: Most abundant marine debris items in results of 2006 International Coastal Cleanup Day Source: Ocean Conservancy 2007 In comparison to the Chiloé-Corcovado results, the ICC information exposes the particularity of the Gulf of Corcovado area in terms of marine debris composition and related sources. It is remarkable that most abundant items from the Chiloé-Corcovado samples not even range among the top-10 list. While EPS polystyrene fragments might be subsumed under ‘food wrap and containers’, the categories of the ‘strings, ropes and package belts’ cluster are found in the top-10 list of the most ‘dangerous’ marine debris items presented in the same ICC 2006 report.

Herein, fishing lines and nets are ranked at position 4 and 5, plastic sheeting and ropes follow at rank 6 and 7 and strapping bands at number 9 according to supposed harmfulness to marine and coastal wildlife. The list is leaded by plastic bags and balloons (+ ribbons), but misses caps/lids from bottles that are known to be frequently ingested by various marine animal species (Laist 1987). The ranking emphasizes the relevance of the most frequent marine debris categories in Chiloé-Corcovado and their ecologically harmful potential. This applies for both ropes/strings etc. that potentially cause entanglement, and for floating bits of EPS polystyrene and plastic fragments that are susceptible to be ingested by birds, fish and filtering whales in the Gulf of Corcovado. These marine debris 78 categories are attributed to fishery, mussel breeding and salmon farming activities in Chiloé-Corcovado.

An overview on marine debris items form underwater cleanups in the scope of the ICC 2006 event lists plastic bags as the most frequent category. Though only accounting for 14,6% (OceanConservancy 2007), this support observations by Galgani (1995, 1996) mentioned earlier in this chapter. His observation that marine debris items found in underwater samples at the seabed are widely the same as those frequently observed floating at the surface is also supported by the ICC 2006 report.

Another reference on beached marine debris composition and accumulation is provided by Butendieck (2005) and Torres who conducted a sample-based survey on the Brunswick Peninsula in the Magellan Straight near Punta Arenas in the far South of Chile. Results from four sample sites (50m transects along the east coast south of Punta Arenas) that were repeatedly surveyed during four weeks reveal the following marine debris composition: 58% plastic materials, 10% metals, 9% glass, 7% clothes and tissues and 16% of other material (Butendieck 2005). Although the share of plastic materials is somewhat lower than often reported in other references (see above) and in the Chiloé- Corcovado area, the results fit into the general trend and thus support findings of the study at hand. Deviations in percentages of certain categories compared to other surveys may be representative for a locally distinct marine debris generation pattern, caused by topographical features and prevailing current regimes, or due to differences in the classification system. For example, EPS polystyrene, ropes/strings and fishing gear are not explicitly presented and may be subsumed in ‘plastics’, ‘tissues’ or ‘others’, making comparison rather difficult. As precise determination of the respective sources of marine debris is barely possible, Butendieck provides a brief description of the main possible sources which are: beach visitors, local residents who discharge household waste purposefully, wind-carried items from nearby waste dumpsites and deposits from fishing and cargo vessels that pass along the shore of the peninsula. These suggestions widely correspond to observations in the Gulf of Corcovado.

4.1.2 Density of stranded marine debris In order to evaluate the degree and severity of marine environmental pollution in the Gulf of Corcovado area, a comparison of the density of marine debris with research results from other studies shall give some orientation.

A Greenpeace report on plastic debris in the world’s oceans, published in 2006, contains an overview about research results from the 1990’s and some more recent

79 studies that have investigated marine debris densities at beaches. The table reveals a broad range of densities found, from beaches free of marine debris (0 items/km) to several hundreds or even up to 11.200 pieces per kilometre, culminating in more than 29.000 items/km found in a study in Indonesia in 1997 (Fig. 9). Hard to imagine, this would translate into 29 items of marine debris on every metre. Further studies from Europe and Asia are listed in the report with estimated marine debris densities ranging between 0,1 items/m and 30 items/m, in peaks reaching 71 and even 231 items per metre (Greenpeace 2006). In order to avoid misinterpretation of the results, methodological approaches of respective studies should be considered, but these are not available at present.

Fig. 9: Overview on levels of stranded marine debris Source: Greenpeace (2006)

Another reference supporting the strong variability of stranded marine debris densities was found in Gregory and Ryan (1997). They report debris densities from 76 to 4.120 items per kilometre, based on samples from the Southern Hemisphere north of 50–60°S, including islands of the southern Indian and Atlantic Ocean, New Zealand, Argentina and Chile. Sabourenkov (2001) compiled debris densities from a number of surveys conducted 1993 and 1999 on shores of the southern oceans and found comparable results, ranging from 3 items/km to 285 items/km (Sabourenkov 2001). Data from Butendieck’s study conducted near Punta Arenas in Chile support the order of magnitude. She found 400 items in 4 transects of 50 m length, corresponding to 200 items per 100 metres (Butendieck 2005).

Apparently, densities of stranded marine debris are quite heterogeneous across the world’s beaches and this because, in general they are not homogeneous even across a

80 single beach. The strong variation in findings depends very much on the sampling methodology and on the placement of a transect in relation to a patch of accumulated marine debris (Araujo et al. 2006). Additionally, accumulation depends on topographical features and exposition of the shoreline, on the regime of wind and ocean currents, and on the floating capacities of marine debris materials. By consequence, two ends of the same beach bay may have completely diverging densities. While displaying local accumulation patches quite well, short sampling transects (10, 50 or 100 m) may produce high peaks when extrapolating results to a density scaled per kilometre. In contrast, a continued 1.000 m or longer transect line will increase precision of mean values across a larger area of interest, but efface dense accumulation patches from the survey.

The present study in Chiloé-Corcovado has detected a mean density of 540 items per 100 metres, corresponding to 5,4 items/m or 5.400 items/km. In comparison to the above mentioned results of previous studies from other parts of the world, these values are well above findings of several other studies, but still much lower than highest densities recorded in literature. Regarding the range of densities found in the eight samples, these vary between 100 and 1.300 items per 100 m among the different sample sites. Actually six out of eight values are below the mean of 540 items/100 m.

For comparison, Fleet (2003) found densities at beaches of the German Bight ranging between 10 and 1.117 items/100 m, but a mean value of only 35 items/100 m. This remarkable difference can be associated to diverging criterions for the selection of transect locations and a larger number of sample sites. The same study underscores that composition and abundance of samples vary significantly from site to site and between years observed. The variety of debris items found suggests cargo shipping and (artisan/semi-)industrial fisheries to be the main sources of marine debris at German beaches.

Although this shows that not all beaches of the area are polluted by as much as 5 items per meter, the sample also suggests that probably there is not a single beach in the Chiloé-Corcovado which is free from marine debris. Wherever ocean currents cause floating marine debris to accumulate on the shore, a visitor may encounter one or more synthetic marine debris items with every step he goes along the shore. For the coastal waters of southern Chile which are said to be the cleanest of the country, this finding challenges the general perception and understanding of how to define “clean”. With regard to tourism operators, fishermen and aquaculture producers who rely on good water quality and unspoiled landscape resources to assure the quality of their products, this finding should be alarming, even more as there are currently few effective attempts to control the

81 generation of marine debris, which is projected to increase (cf. chapters ‘introduction’ and ‘threats’ identified for Quellón and Melinka).

Considering existing marine debris densities on beaches in Chiloé-Corcovado, and in light of continuously growing waste generation, the time is now to develop improved waste management strategies so that the per-capita waste generation can be uncoupled from economic growth.

4.1.3 Total amount – a theoretical approximation Rovira (2006) estimates the annual amount of waste input into the sea along the Chilean coast based on a personal communication by a residues specialist of CONAMA and some additional assumptions. About 96% of solid domestic residues are collected by municipal refuse collection services, 4% are estimated to be discharged into the environment. From 345 municipalities all over Chile, 102 have direct access to the sea. According to CONAMA data, the 4% of generated waste in these communities correspond to 67.500 tons that probably have been dumped into the environment out of reach of street cleaning services, e.g. riversides. Based on official data about average waste composition, Rovira assumes 90% organic matter and 10% plastics, metals, and glass as components of domestic waste, being about 6.750 ton/year of inorganic matter, of which 10-30% reaches the sea directly or indirectly via vectors, i.e. approximately 650 to 2000 tons per year. This corresponds to 1-3% of the waste which is not caught by waste collection services, or approximately 0,12 % of the total amount of waste generated in municipalities with direct access to the sea.

Coello (2006) provides a comparison of similar approximations which were made by other member states of the CPPS. This document also describes the calculation factors and assumptions on which the estimation of total annual input of litter from land-based sources into the sea is based. According to Coello’s overview, Chile has the highest per capital waste generation (1,16 kg/day/person) compared to Peru, Ecuador, Colombia and Panama. It has by far the highest ratio of collected/not collected waste. The very long coastline and the low population density in coastal areas (3,8 mio. inhabitants in roughly 4200 km coastline) are other factor considered. In comparison, Chilean total input is the lowest of all CPPS members (Coello 2006).

According to personal communications by M.L. Keim (waste management expert of UACH), the composition of household waste shows regional disparities across the country due to a higher rate of consumption of packed food and less fresh vegetables in the southern . By consequence, organic matter components of household

82 waste are assumed to be much lower than the national average and may range around an estimated 15-20% in remote locations like Melinka40. Accordingly, shares of plastics, glass and metals would be much higher, which implies that the share of locally generated waste that is persistent and ends up as marine debris in the Gulf of Corcovado tends to be higher than the 1-3% estimated by Rovira. A rough estimate of the total amount of generated waste in the region, based on assumed per-capita generation of 1,0 kg/person/day, leads to 365 days * 576.000 kg for all provinces adjacent to the Gulf of Corcovado (to be verified; not all municipalities may have direct access to the sea). A minimum of 4% of waste which is not collected (might be higher in the Chiloé-Corcovado region than the national average), of which a minimum of 3% (or more according to regional share of organic materials in waste composition) ends up in the ocean according to Rovira’s path for approximation, results in roughly estimated 252 tons of household litter per year that enters the Gulf of Corcovado and the interior waters around Chiloé.

NOTE: This theoretical approximation lacks precision and should only be used as a starting point for a more sophisticated approach to elaborate an estimation of annually produced marine debris in the region, for which all calculation factors would need to be determined more thoroughly.

4.1.4 Renewal rate/accumulation Butendieck’s (2005) research offers the opportunity to compare the renewal rate of beached marine debris. According to data tables in the report, from a total of 781 collected items, 51% were found in the first transect passage, and the remaining 49% were washed ashore and collected throughout the three subsequent weeks (Butendieck 2005). This means that the accumulated sum of beached marine debris in the four weeks after the first collection equals the amount that was found at the sample site in the beginning after accumulating over an indefinite time. In comparison to the sampling conducted in Chiloé- Corcovado where in average only 20 % renewal was found in a comparable period, this value seems surprisingly high. However, as renewal of stranded debris depends on various factors, this single comparison does not allow concluding that the Gulf of Corcovado area is much less polluted than the Magellan Straight near Punta Arenas.

40 The ‘Navarro-Commission’ of Deputies (2002) estimated the share of organic mater to range between 20% - 50 % of total waste deposited in the dumping sites of the 11th region. www.navarro.cl/ambiente/vertederos/index.htm

83 Unfortunately, no additional research results about renewal rates of marine debris have been found. Nevertheless, the presented beach-sampling results of marine debris and the comparison made above give a rough idea about the density of marine debris in the coastal waters. This aspect was more thoroughly studied by Thiel et al. (2002) as discussed in chapter. 4.1.1. A standardized monitoring scheme of beach-based sampling of marine debris may produce more comprehensive data to assess the degree of pollution with marine debris and the development of this variable over time.

4.2 Evaluation of municipal waste management systems In this chapter of discussion, the observations and findings made in the municipalities Quellón and Melinka/Guaitecas will be contextualized. Two concepts, the Chilean national standard and an international concept for waste management, will serve as a reference frame.

4.2.1 Integrated Life Cycle Management Concept One of the outcomes of the United Nations Conference on the Environment and Development in Rio de Janeiro (UNCED, “Rio-Conference”) in 1992 was the AGENDA- 2141. In its chapter 21 on environmentally sound management of solid wastes and sewage- related issues, an ”integrated life cycle management concept” is outlined, which intends to trace a strategy how economic development progress and environmental protection can be reconciled. The concept seeks to address the root cause of the problem by attempting to change unsustainable patterns of production and consumption. For this purpose, it proposes activities that aim at accomplishing specific objectives which were defined for four programme areas (UNCED 1992):

• Minimizing waste

• Maximizing environmentally sound waste reuse and recycling;

• Promoting environmentally sound waste disposal and treatment;

• Extending waste service coverage These fields of action are mutually supportive and follow the logical sequence of the “life cycle” of waste materials. The application of this concept creates “life-cycle-economies”, which are explained by UNEP (2005) as follows:

41 “Agenda 21 is a comprehensive plan of action to be taken globally, nationally and locally by organizations of the United Nations System, Governments, and Major Groups in every area in which human impacts on the environment.” http://www.un.org/esa/sustdev/documents/agenda21/index.htm 84 “Environmentally sound management of such wastes through an integrated life-cycle approach involves strong controls from the generation of a waste to its storage, transport, treatment, reuse, recycling, recovery and final disposal. This includes prevention, minimization, recycling, recovery and disposal of waste, promotion and use of cleaner technologies, reduction in the production and release of waste, reduction of the transboundary movements of waste, prevention and monitoring of illegal waste traffic, improvement of institutional and technical waste-management capacity, transfer of environmentally sound technologies and creation of action-oriented awareness and understanding on the part of decision-makers and the public.” “The most visible sign of the present lack of a life-cycle economy, in particular in developing countries and countries with economies in transition, is the growing volume of household waste and […]” related impacts. Source: 23rd session of the UNEP Governing Council/Global Ministerial Environment Forum Nairobi, 21–25 Feb 2005

Chapter 21 of the AGENDA 21 document makes a number of recommendations regarding the design and implementation of national waste management concepts and strategies, which are also relevant for the Chilean context:

• 21.14 b) National waste management programmes should promote waste prevention and minimization as the principal objectives; • 21.16. Waste management programmes should take maximum advantage of resource- efficient approaches to the control of wastes as waste recycling and resource recovery are becoming increasingly cost-effective. It is important that markets for products from reclaimed materials be identified in the development of reuse and recycling programmes. These activities should be carried out in conjunction with public education programmes. • 21.40. a) Establish financing mechanisms for waste management service development in deprived areas, including appropriate modes of revenue generation; (b) Apply the "polluter pays" principle, where appropriate, by setting waste management charges at rates that reflect the costs of providing the service and ensure that those who generate the wastes pay the full cost of disposal in an environmentally safe way; • 21.46 (a) Find solutions and equipment for managing wastes in areas of concentrated populations and on small islands. In particular, there is a need for appropriate refuse storage and collection systems and cost-effective and hygienic human waste disposal options;

Source: Chapter 21 of AGENDA 21 (Selected elements)

Challenges in establishing life-cycle economies at national or sub-national scales, faced by governmental agencies, regional actors and other stakeholders, are summarized by UNEP (2005). The listing summarizes precisely a number of aspects which are applicable to the national Chilean and the local context in Melinka and Quellón:

85 “To achieve the overall objective of better protecting human health and the environment from municipal and industrial waste in developing countries and countries with economies in transition, and creating income generation opportunities through better waste management, the following challenges need to be addressed: • Political: lack of a sense of urgency and awareness at all levels regarding the requirement for better waste management; • Legal: lack of adequate laws and regulations for implementing multilateral waste-related agreements and provisions at the national level as well as sound national laws on waste management in general; […] • Infrastructure: adequate infrastructure (basic infrastructure such as roads and waste- management infrastructure for collection, disposal and treatment) must be put in place; • Management: how to operate and maintain waste-management infrastructure, and how to monitor and report progress; […] • Economic: how to generate financial resources (through taxes, fees, subsidies and so on) for investments in infrastructure and for operational phases of waste management; • Organizational: who organizes the work, and who takes the lead in bringing the various stakeholders of integrated waste management projects together. A coherent, integrated waste-management strategy engages individuals. Individual consumers, managers and workers and Government officials must take action […]”

Source: rd 23 session of the UNEP Governing Council/Global Ministerial Environment Forum (cf. above) 4.2.2 National framework policy on integrated waste management The Chilean state has acquired the international compromise to continuously adapt its national legislation to international norms. According to Rovira, adaptation of national laws and regulations is being worked on. Yet there are national regulations and institutions in charge of application and control that coincide with requirements from international treaties ratified by Chile. The main problem in Chile today is the capacity of the institutions to effectively control the application of laws and regulations and the consequent disregarding of these legal instruments by the target groups (Rovira 2006).

Since January 2005, Chile disposes of a national framework policy (“Política de Gestión Integral de Residuos Sólidos”) that Since January 2005, Chile disposes of a national framework policy that includes an action plan for the development of the waste management sector between 2006 and 2010. Its overall goal is to achieve within this period that waste management in Chile minimizes the risk for human health and the natural environment, thus contributing to sustainable development (CONAMA 2005). The policy, elaborated under the National Commission for the Environment (CONAMA) in a consultative process, is based on a number of principles which include i.a.:

86 • the Polluter Pays Principle42, • the Precautionary Principles43, • the life-cycle responsibility carried by a waste generator until the adequate final deposition or reuse, • the principle of economic rationality regarding any decision that may have social impacts, • and the prevention principle that ranks prevention higher than mitigation, aiming at a reduction of generated quantities and potential risks for human health and the natural environment.

The national policy is largely in line with the concept of AGENDA 21. Based on the above mentioned principles, the policy paper defines numerous specific objectives that aim at efficient functioning of the waste sector as a new field of economic development, steered by a National Minimization Strategy for Waste. Short-term action plans and mid-term working guidelines include the following (CONAMA 2005):

• Capacity building programmes for state investigators, officers, waste producers and professional waste managers. • Institutionalization of solid waste management through the establishment of a National Executive Secretary and Regional Sub-Secretaries • Research and elaboration of complementary legal regulations; towards a General Law on Waste/Solid Residues • Development of clear and coherent norms and regulations concerning sanitary landfills and special categories like waste from shipping, waste from hospitals etc. • Elaboration of a strategy how to incorporate the topic ‘solid waste management’ into the national educational system to increase environmental awareness and foster active participation of the population in waste management. • Analysis and regulation of fiscal systems concerning waste management • Assistance to the elaboration of Waste management plans for the regional and local administrative levels. • Evaluation of appropriateness of international experiences in waste management on the Chilean case

The baseline of the policy in 2004 was about 60% of waste deposited in sanitary landfills. Only 5% of domestic waste throughout the country was recycled, up to 9% in Santiago due the availability specialized enterprises. The centralization towards the capital is also seen in the distribution of sanitary landfills mainly the central regions around and

42 The Polluter Pays Principle (PPP) is defined by OECD as “the principle according to which the polluter should bear the cost of measures to reduce pollution according to the extent of either the damage done to society or the exceeding of an acceptable level (standard) of pollution”. The PPP is also known as “Extended Polluter Responsibility” (EPR) http://stats.oecd.org/glossary/detail.asp?ID=2074 . 43 1) Renewable resources should not be used in excess of their natural regeneration. 2) Non-renewable resources should be used prudently and efficiently with care that the same function is available to future generations, say by technological development or shift to use of renewable resources. 3) Sink functions should not be used beyond their assimilative capacities. 4) Activities which cause deterioration in service functions should be avoided or at least minimised. http://stats.oecd.org/glossary/detail.asp?ID=6547 87 south of Santiago (6th, 7th, 13th region). Nationwide, the majority of landfills does not correspond to national sanitary standards and are classified illegal44.

In deed, concerning the wider area of Chiloé-Corcovado, the Navarro-Commission’ of Deputies45 found in 2002 that 31 waste disposal sites the 10th region (73%) and 26 dumping sites in he 11th region (83%) are illegal from a formal point of view, as they do not meet requirements of the “Resolución Nº 2.444” of the National Health Service. The waste dumping site in Melinka is among these. According to the Navarro-Commission, CONAMA acknowledged efforts for improvement of management in Quellón.

Further, their report suggests the creation of a new sanitary landfill near Castro or Dalcahue from which could benefit the whole province of Chiloé, where out of 10 dumping sites only three fully accomplish legal requirements and five more have a management plan. By May 2007, the topic was a disputed issue in the local newspapers and radio stations of the region, as residents in the vicinity of the proposed site defend the landscape against the project. Long-distance transports of waste across the island for final deposition without recycling are another argument raised against the large-scale sanitary landfill. Nevertheless the project could ease the waste-management situation of central Chiloé and include the small islands of the archipelago located in the northern part of the Gulf of Corcovado. However, the discussed concept so far does not consider the opportunity to establish waste separation and recycling in the participating communities, although the national policy points out the prevention principle and the fostering of waste-recycling market economies.

CONAMA and the national policy for solid waste management emphasize the advantages to approach waste management at a regional scale, with the municipalities being the responsible administrative units but coordinating among each other and cooperating in order to create economy-of-scale effects by reducing the costs per ton of treated and deposited waste.

44 according to Sara Larraín Ruíz Tagle, Directora del Programa Chile Sustentable, in: http://www.lainsignia.org/2003/mayo/ecol_004.htm ; CONAMA found in 2003 that 174 out of 246 waste disposal sites (70%) are not legally authorized due to deficient environmental standards, cf. http://www.conama.cl/portal/1089/article-26984.html 45 “COMISIÓN DE RECURSOS NATURALES, BIENES NACIONALES Y MEDIO AMBIENTE ENCARGADA DE ANALIZAR LA SITUACIÓN DE LOS VERTEDEROS EN DISTINTAS REGIONES DEL PAÍS” ; Commission of Natural Resources, National Goods and the Environment in charge of analysing the situation of landfills in distinct regions of the country www.navarro.cl/ambiente/vertederos/index.htm

88 4.2.3 Critical aspects in Quellón and Melinka In the following paragraphs, some of the most outstanding observations from the field study shall be reviewed with reference to the four main principles/programme areas of sustainable solid waste management / integrated life cycle management (cf. here above 4.2.1.).

4.2.3.1 Minimizing waste

In contrast to national guidelines, separation of specific waste categories for recycling it is not part of current waste management in Quellón and Melinka, whereas since 1992, there are first experiences with waste separation in Chile: the project “Reciclaje de la Reina” in Santiago, implemented as a public-private cooperation; composting projects for household organic matter like in Tomé (8th region) (GTZ 2002) are numerous at local scales. Today, the recycling economy sector is developing (GTZ 2005), however still being restricted to the most densely populated regions.

Neither Melinka nor Quellón have applied a waste management levy. However, the appropriate design of levies could create incentives for consumers and producers to minimize waste generation as much as possible (UNEP-DTIE 2005). The Inter-American Development Bank stresses the Chilean pilot experiences concerning the introduction of user fees/levies for waste collection services (IDB 2003), though noting that most experiences are made in the surroundings of Santiago.

A frequently observed pollution in the field study was the contamination of surface runoff water with oil substances that originate from leaking vehicles in the street. This seems to be a nationwide problem related to the bad technical condition of old cars which can only be solved at the national level by establishing stricter standards and controls.

According to Rovira (2006) and coherent to field observations in Quellón and Melinka, the control capacities of national services such as DIRECTEMAR and especially SERNAPESCA need to be upgraded in order to fight the frequent pollution of the marine environment, as described in chapter 3. Code of Conducts in fisheries and certification initiatives like the APL (clean production agreements) for environmentally sound production are starting points to minimize waste in offshore activities. But successful implementation also depends on meaningful awareness raising campaigns about impacts of the marine debris problem. This requires active campaigning at the local level, and therefore the municipal administration should foster endogenous initiatives as found in Quellón.

89 4.2.3.2 Maximizing environmentally sound waste reuse and recycling

The absence of industrial enterprises specialized in recycling of specific materials/waste components in minor distances to Quellón and Melinka make ad-hoc introduction of recycling systems utopian. On the other hand, as long as raw material is not available in sufficient quantities (i.e. separated waste) recycling enterprises will not get established. Therefore, the municipalities need to create economic niches hand in hand with local micro/small-scale enterprises specialized in recycling. There are successful initiatives in Chile that can serve as models46 or investment partners.

AGENDA 21 underscores that especially the minimizing waste generation and maximizing reuse/recycling requires mainstreaming into “school curricula and relevant general educational courses” (21.25 c,d) “Encouraging non-governmental and community- based organizations, and women's, youth and public interest group programmes, in collaboration with local municipal authorities, to mobilize community support for waste reuse and recycling through focused community-level campaigns”. (21.40 c) Encourage institutionalization of communities' participation in planning and implementation procedures for solid waste management”.

As an initial step, the municipality of Quellón needs to induce – supported by waste collection service providers, schools, experts of environmental education and (if necessary) development funds – the change in waste disposal habitudes of the population. The introduction of a levy for waste collection may facilitate the behavioural change. By providing waste recycling infrastructure and changing the waste collection system, the population will then go through a leaning process and make the system work in the medium run. In Quellón, the system of collective waste containers in the streets may be unfavourable. Separate tons per material and per household facilitate the learning process and favour adherence to the “rules of the game” due to individual accountability for improperly disposed waste. The introduction of waste separation and recycling is especially interesting as it would increase the planned life expectancy of the new sanitary landfill which is presently under construction.

Due to its remoteness and small size, the introduction of a waste recycling system in Melinka is more difficult, but nevertheless possible and especially important as there is little space available. Waste management projects that have been introduced to the Galápagos Islands Archipelago recently could serve as model for Melinka. The

46 www.reciplast.cl,; http://www.recipet.cl/Recipete.html ; http://www.edicionesespeciales.elmercurio.com/destacadas/detalle/index.asp?idnoticia=0110012006021X106 0053&idcuerpo=486; 90 municipalities of Santa Cruz47 and San Cristobal48 have introduced waste separation, sorted materials are shipped to the mainland and sold to recycling enterprises, and only non-recyclable materials are stored in local sanitary landfill sites.

One of the opportunities identified in Melinka is the rather small population among which small initiatives can have a significant impact. The municipality could encourage unemployed people to gather specific recyclable waste resources, offer intermediate storage facilities or use earmarked funds from the waste collection levy to subsidise the transport to recycling markets in Quellón. In the idea of AGENDA 21 to “maximise” waste reuse and recycling, Melinka needs to do the second step49. The first has been done yet by a local resident who gathers aluminium cans by offering a small remuneration to youths for every kilo of aluminium cans that they deliver. The aluminium cans are sold to recycling companies at the mainland.

In relation to the second step towards an integrative waste management concept, some ideas shall be proposed here to illustrate the basic need for and the range of possible action: The municipal administration could intervene in the reintroduction of returnable glass bottles for beer, which are commonly available throughout the country, except in Melinka. It only requires a consensual or financial arrangement between beverage salesmen and the ferryboat company to assure the transport across the gulf to Quellón. Further ideas include: a) systematize and foster the collection of aluminium cans; b) promote distribution of rechargeable batteries and establish battery collection focal points; c) establish a motor battery service point that offers repairs/recharges and subsidized new batteries in exchange for used50; d) initiate a local/regional refund system for oil cans/containers and establish collections points for waste oil from motor maintenance. e) support the introduction of returnable glass bottles; install glass recycling containers; f) promote plastic bottle collection and transportation to recycling facilities on Chiloé island; g) promote cardboard and papers collection and recycling; h) promote substitution of

47 Galápagos, Santa Cruz: http://www.rio-b.com/spanish/resultados.htm ; http://www.santacruz.gov.ec/gmsc/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=56&Itemid=61 48 Galápagos, San Cristobal http://www.reevolucion.org/portal/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=798&Itemid=1 and http://www.fundacion-ipade.org/index2.htm --> proyectos/America/Ecuador 49 Paragraph 21.26 (b) “Enabling local and municipal authorities to mobilize community support for waste reuse and recycling by involving and assisting informal sector waste reuse and recycling operations and undertaking waste management planning that incorporates resource recovery practices”. 50 In Mexico a legal regulation obliges that used car batteries must be returned when acquiring new ones. cf. IDB (2003). "Economic Instruments for Solid Waste Management: Global Review and Applications for Latin America and the Caribbean." Environment Network regional policy dialogue study series, Inter-American Development Bank, Washington DC. . 91 plastic bags by tissue bags; j) foster micro-businesses for local reuse/recycling of resources, e.g. establish organic matter separation and install composting facilities.

A related best practice example for local level recycling measures shall be mentioned here:

In Colombia a programme was launched by a local NGO to organize the ‘recicladores’ (who earn their livelihood by collecting solid waste) in local associations (Asociacion Nacional de Recicladores (ANR)). Since 1986, it has implemented facilities for storing the waste and has developed solid waste management systems within communities. A 30% increase in the revenues of the ‘recicladores’ has benefited 25,000 families in fifteen Colombian municipalities. Source and Contact details: http://www.unesco.org/most/southam4.htm. With the help of national programmes like FOSIS (Fund for Solidarity and Social Investment) and its sub-section “Chile Emprende” the municipal administration could facilitate similar support to micro-enterprises. While calling upon the corporate social responsibility of potent local enterprises, private-public-partnership agreements (e.g. with “Naviera Austral” or ‘Salmoneras’), could mobilize additional dynamics to enhance sustainability in solid waste management.

4.2.4 Promoting environmentally sound waste disposal and treatment As mentioned earlier, waste disposal facilities are actively worked upon in Quellón, and in Melinka to a limited extent.

Quellón opted for an autonomous solution and against the dependency from the disputed sanitary landfill project in central Chiloé (cf. “Navarro-Report’ above) and thus avoided long-distance transportation of waste materials. The design of the new sanitary landfill in Quellón includes stepwise filling and rapid reforestation of filled units in order to convert the location into a recreational green space area in the long run (>15 years) (Keim 2007). In the light of a growing recycling economy sector in Chile, as a future scenario the sanitary landfill site could be promoted as a locational advantage and attract recycling enterprises to settle near Quellón. Being an important regional sea port towards more southern parts of Patagonia, concentrated recycling material could be shipped towards Quellón and processed, once waste separation systems will have been set-up in remote communities of the 11th and 12th region, and Quellón itself.

Melinka could be one of the locations from where recyclable materials would be shipped to Quellón. Current plans of the municipal administration in Melinka to design a new sanitary landfill on the island should also consider the implementation of waste separation and recycling in order to reduce deposited volume and thus to increase its life-span. As suggested by a German waste management consultant when considering the present case study in Melinka, specific categories of sorted waste could be used as additional fuel

92 in the local thermal power generator and thus increase the availability of electricity in Melinka. Keim et al. (1996) concluded that incineration of classified and ideally dried household waste is the most appropriate option for waste treatment and disposal in Melinka and other small island communities of the 11th region, provided that adequate disposal of ashes is available on site. Due to high precipitation in the Chiloé-Corcovado area, high construction and maintenance costs of sanitary landfill make this alternative economically not viable (UACH 1996).

Keim et al. (1996) assumed waste recycling systems not to be economically viable due to high transportation costs towards recycling enterprises (rather small quantities generated; quite long distances by cargo boat). Again, storage facilities in Melinka could help to overcome the price/distance obstacle. Additionally, market prices for recyclable materials could increase in the mid-term future, pushed by globally increasing prices for crude oil and pulled by higher demands from the side of recycling companies.

The above mentioned projects in the Galápagos Islands also serve as a financing model for an integrated waste management program. Though realized mainly with technical and financial support of bi-lateral development cooperation, the dynamics of city-to-city partnership cooperation were an asset. The municipality of Melinka could try to establish similar city twinning partnerships to acquire support for its development projects.

As a best practice example for the promotion of environmentally sound waste management, the German development cooperation project “Proyecto GIROSOL” shall be mentioned. Between 1998 and 2004 this project has provided support to the municipalities Puerto Montt, Puerto Varas, Frutillar, Puerto Octay and Llanquihue to establish an inter- communal cooperation and to implement at integrated solid waste management system (GTZ 2005). An inter-communal technical committee was created, target group-specific workshops were held, plastic recycling and composting were promoted, and a broad awareness raising campaign communicated waste management problems and solutions to the public. The project involved CONAMA and launched a planning process for three new waste disposal sites51.

4.2.5 Extending waste service coverage The shortcomings observed in waste management efforts in the municipalities of Quellón and Melinka (cf. chapter 3.2.) are mainly aspects of insufficiency, i.e. some efforts are currently made, but not enough to prevent marine debris generation and environmental pollution.

51 Further information is available at: http://www.sinia.cl/1292/articles-32502_recurso_1.pdf (Spanish) and http://www.gtz.de/de/dokumente/en-factsheet-girosol-integrated-solid-waste-management-chile.pdf (English) 93 In Melinka, the main shortcoming is the absence of service provision in Repollal. The service provision contract for waste management needs to extended and should consider the acquisition of appropriate waste disposal containers per household. The other aspects mentioned above for Quellón also apply in Melinka.

In Quellón and Melinka, waste collection in urban areas needs to be intensified. Key measures include an intensification of street cleaning efforts (performance-bound extra- salary for waste pickers; additional work-force) and the use of street cleaning machinery (where appropriate and available) to increase efficiency; increase availability of public waste bins (dog-safe) and adapt reception capacities of waste containers to actual waste generation; waste containers per household (as private or public property) can additionally increase the waste collection rate; install filters in sewer outfall / runoff water channels to retain litter objects before entering on the beach; These additional efforts contribute to improve the aesthetical appearance of the urban centre, and reduce the generation of marine litter.

Extensions of waste service coverage should include the aspect of wastewater treatment. In Quellón, rapid urban sprawl reinforces the need to upgrade sewage evacuation system, yet there are old and newly founded neighbourhoods that are not connected to the existing system. The installation of a comprehensive water and sanitation system is also a priority need in Melinka, where up to now there has never been a sewage evacuation network and adequate treatment.

Integrated solid waste management concepts in coastal municipalities also should integrate marine debris management. In both locations, strategies have to be developed for how to control the offshore generation of marine debris at various sources. Sufficient disposal facilities in harbours, right at the pier or where appropriate, are a minimum requirement. Obligatory on-board waste containers, boat-specific discharge registers and incentive-based promotion of litter discharge in harbour facilities would be a progressive measure. The harbour authorities need to develop their reception capacities to for marine debris. Control mechanisms as discussed in the CPPS Committee meetings and in regulatory legal frameworks like MARPOL 73/78, but strict surveillance of legal requirements remains exceptional so far. Regarding the effective implementation of measures to reduce marine debris generation from sea-based sources, Rovira (2006) and Coello (2006) make further specific recommendations which are equally applicable for Latin America, Chile and the Chiloé-Corcovado area, as the prevailing problematic aspects are comparable at all levels. Topping (2000) compiled an exhaustive overview about tools

94 and measures available for municipalities to specifically address sources of marine debris generation under their territorial influence.

Regarding initiatives to actively tackle the marine debris problem, punctual waste collection events have been organized in the past in Quellón and Melinka. The association of Salmon producing companies ‘SalmonChile’ claims to organize annually beach cleanup events near production sites in the 10th and 11th region52, while involving municipal administration, the harbour authorities, schools and the media. Beach cleanup events must be understood as environmental education initiatives that may be useful to create awareness in children’s minds about the negative impacts of littering, and ideally children can act as multipliers and transfer their lessons learnt to the parents. On the other hand, children risk to be misused for good public reputation purposes of the organizing and sponsoring companies that pretend to compensate for negative environmental externalities of their production. Environmental education benefits of sporadic beach cleanup events for children are doubtful unless the activities are embedded into a long-lasting education programme, e.g. as a recurrent component of primary and secondary education curricula. And if meanwhile polluting practices of industrial production processes persist day-by-day the net impact of beach cleanup effort remains close to zero.

By consequence, municipal administrations in the Chiloé-Corcovado region should not satisfy themselves with welcoming and coordinating beach cleanup initiatives. Emphasis needs to be put on avoided pollution in industrial production processes as a priority, secondly on sound and effective waste collection efforts in urban areas, and as a third priority concern: mainstreaming principles of environmentally appropriate consumer behaviour into the urban citizenship by means of target group-specific awareness raising programmes53. These should not be restricted to schools but address the civil society integrally.

5 Conclusions and final recommendations In Chile, national framework conditions concerning the protection of the marine environment from pollution have been improving in recent years. This process is marked by a nationwide action-oriented policy to improve municipal waste management, starting

52 According to a press release http://www.salmonchile.cl/frontend/seccion.asp?contid=406&secid=4&secoldid=4&subsecid=61&pag=1s SalmonChile started the programme “Campaña de Playas Limpias“ in 1995, and organized a beach cleanup event for the first time in Melinka in January 2007. 53 An example for a waste-management related sensibilization campaign, there is a communication strategy available online at www.respel.cl/filedoc/Plan_sensibilizacion.pdf , website of the Chilean-German cooperation project “RESPEL”/hazardous residues implemented by GTZ 95 from a low level of urban environmental management and widely illicit conditions of final waste disposal. Chile also ratified the relevant international conventions on sustainable development and environmental protection and established coherent national policies and legal standards. However, observations from this field study have revealed implementation deficits at the local level.

In the Chiloé-Corcovado area, the evaluation of characteristics of the marine debris problem has shown that marine environmental pollution originates from several sources at the local and regional level. Favoured by a partial failure and general insufficiency of preventive measures, frequent polluting behaviour of individuals in urban areas, on the coast, on board of vessels and at aquaculture platforms is the core of the problem. Law enforcement capacities are too insufficient to control the phenomenon. Yet there are significant accumulations of marine debris, while demographic trends and economic development processes are likely to reinforce abundance and impacts of marine debris in future years. Tourism prospects and environmental conservation concerns emphasize the need to counteract against the marine debris problem effectively.

The field research has detected single efforts and initiatives in Quellón and Melinka to address weaknesses of waste management. These include aspects of prevention, reduction, recycling and depositing of household and industrial waste, complemented by primary efforts to raise environmental awareness and public concern about the issue. Basically, these aspects correspond to elements of an integrated waste management approach as promoted by UNEP and also by the Chilean national policy. However, the SWOT analysis of the local situation reveals that current efforts and initiatives are neither coordinated nor sufficient in relation to the real dimensions of the problem. Principles of pollution prevention and resource recycling are widely neglected. The Chiloé-Corcovado area lacks a comprehensive approach to development planning that includes environmental protection measures and further aspects of sustainability adequately.

With the intention to address the observed marine debris problem and to tackle it concertedly, involved stakeholder groups54 would have to meet and relate themselves to the problem situation in order to create a shared vision about present facts and future trends in regional development and respective management responsibilities. Joint strategies for an integrated waste management approach need to be elaborated in a

54 These include: Municipalities adjacent to the Gulf; Neighbourhood representatives, Fishermen associations, SalmonChile and local aquaculture companies, private waste management companies, Sub-Secretary of Education; SERNAPESCA, DIRECTEMAR, and CONAMA, regional governmental administration, National Health Service, CORFO Corporation for the Promotion of Productive activities, Commercial enterprise Assosiaction, environmental NGO’s and Universities 96 participatory multi-level planning process, particularly with respect to financing of environmental awareness raising campaigns, the introduction of financial mechanisms to reduce waste generation at the source level, and the set-up of regional recycling systems based on inter-municipal cooperation networks. A “regional convention on the preservation of the ecological and economical viability of the Gulf of Corcovado” in which relevant actor groups and authorities commit themselves to reduce and control environmental impacts of their respective activities shall be proposed as visionary idea.

With respect to the current participatory planning process for a Marine and Coastal Protected Area with multiple use (AMCP-MU, Area Marina y Costera Protegida de Multiple Uso) in Chiloé-Golfo de Corcovado, yet there is a regional forum in which orientations for policies, rules and implementation measures are discussed, guided by the general principle to make development processes sustainable. The reduction of marine environmental pollution could be formulated as a strategic goal, as its achievement depends on a coordinated, trans-sectoral action programme that involves productive economies, cultural and educational institutions, as well as local and regional decision making and management. Societal progress towards this goal could be measured as simple as this: by counting marine debris at the beach. A marine debris monitoring system allows tracking this indicator of sustainable development.

Final recommendations for municipal administrations in Chiloé and Las Guaitecas include the orientation in successful pilot projects for improvement of municipal waste management that have been implemented in Chile and Latin American countries (cf. chapter 4.2), supported by agencies for international development cooperation. Also, dynamics of city twinning cooperation may be advantageous in project planning, financing and implementation. From 3rd to 6th October 2007, the Inter-American Congress on Solid Residues Management will take place in Viña del Mar/Chile55. The program may contain a number of interesting experiences comparable to the situation in Chiloé-Corcovado. A delegation group of stakeholder representatives from Melinka and Quellón could take part in the congress and transfer international experiences into the region. On 15th of September 2007, the Ocean Conservancy organizes the annual International Coastal Cleanup Day, which is delegated to the ECIM research centre of PUC Chile56 for national organization in Chile. Regular participation in this globally coordinated common effort

55 Congreso AIDIS 2007 http://www.giresol.org/congreso_aidis2007/ 56 Estación Costera de Investigaciones Marinas de Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile http://www.ecim.cl/limpieza2006_esp.htm 97 could help to establish marine pollution on the local public and political agenda and mobilize community involvement in this affair of public concern.

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Derraik, J. G. B. (2002). "The pollution of marine environment by plastic debris : a review." Marine pollution bulletin 44 (2002) 842-852.

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98 Faris&Hart (1995). "Seas of Debris: A Summary of the Third International Conference on Marine Debris in Miami, Florida, 8-13 May 1994." National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National Marine Fisheries Service, Seattle. p.54.

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99 Municipalidad de Guaitecas, I. (2004). "PLADECO 2004 Plan de Desarrollo Comunal Guaitecas - Primer Informe de Avance - Diagnóstico."

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100 7 Appendices

7.1 Marine debris recording sheet

101 7.2 Summary of marine debris database

102 7.3 Description of Transect Sample Sites Date

Surrounding Name of transect Human use GPS start GPS end Near by exposure exposure sample sample sample length (km) length approx. area approx. area st nd 1 2

1 Playa Faro Low tourism, no frequent Boat route 05-Feb. 17-Mar. N 43º52'37.5" N 43°52'44.3" N 0,106 1590 m² Norte-1 fishery S 73º43'58.2" S 73°43'55.4" 2 Playa Faro Low tourism, no frequent Boat route 05-Feb. 17-Mar. N 43º52'37.5" N 43º52'42.4" N/E 0,154 2310 m² Norte-2 fishery S 73º43'58.2" S 73º43'59.3" 2 Playa Faro sur Low tourism, no Frequent boat route 08-Feb. 17-Mar. N 43°52'43.7" N 43°52'44.3" S 0,275 4125 m² fishery S 73°44'07.7" S 73°43'55.4" N 43°53'20.4" MELINKA 3 Playa Raya Frequently visited, Sewage, village 29-Jan. 13-Apr. N 43°53'17.5” N 0,1 1500 m² algae collections S 73°44'28.7" S 73°44'26.6" 4 Caleta Granizo abandoned, very Remote, open 19-Mar. 14-Apr. N 43°51'01.8" N 43°51'03.9" N rarely algae towards Gulf; 0,1 1500 m² S 73°45'22.3" S 73°45'25.1" collection 1 Punta de Lapa frequently visited, Port of Quellón at 11-Mar. 09-Apr. N 43°07'51.5" N 43°37'37.8" Norte tourism, fishery, sight, 2 km S 73°37'37.8" E 0,1 1500 m² S 73°37'42.0" boat traffic and landing 2 Punta de Lapa low tourism, no Salmonera at sight, 12-Mar. 09-Apr. N 43°08'41.3" N 43°08'42.1" S 0,1 1500 m² sur fishery 1 km S 73°37'42.1" S 73°37'38.0" QUELLON 3 Yaldad foot path, mussel Pier of Yaldad at 13-Mar. 10-Apr. N 43°06'33.77" N 43°06'31.1" S shell fishery, boat 0,5 km 0,1 1500 m² S 73°42'36.0" S 73°42'38.7" landing 1,035 km 15525 m² 9 weeks

103

7.4 Marine Debris Categories (in English) Plastics: plastic bags; sweet package; tarpaulins; salmon food bags; plastic bottles; plastic lids from bottles; hard plastic boxes; cigarette stubs; cigarette packs; Strings, ropes, package belts: soap and cleaning bottles; strings, bands (diam. <1,0 cm); ropes (diam. >1,0 cm ); package belts; salmon industry package belts; fishing gear; Polystyrene: EPS small pieces; EPS polystyrene (>10 cm); Rubber: vehicle tires; shoes and boots; neoprene suits rubber; fisher gloves; Tissues: clothing, jackets; hygienic products; diapers; Organic Materials: paper; cardbord; food rests; dead animals; industrial/construction wood; Glass: light bulbs; glass bottles; Metals: aluminium drink cans; compression spray cans; wire; iron objects; batteries; car batteries; tetrapaks; Oil: motor oil cans and filters; cooking oil bottles; crude oil pellets; others: various

7.5 Radio Spot Quellón, original wording

short radio spot in Quellón, campaigning for a clean city (ca. 40 sec.) “Una ciudad limpia demuestra la cultura de su gente. Es obvio que nos invitamos a la comunidad y quienes que nos visitan a mantener el aseo de calles, plazas, parques, lugares publicos y tu pobolacion. Deposita las basuras en los contenedores habilitados y dispuestos en distintos puntos de la cuidad. Hagamos de Quellón una cidad limpia y sana donde vivir. Limpiemos juntos, vivamos mejor! Es una invitacion de la Illustre Municipalidad de Quellón.”

104 7.6 Legal Framework concerning Marine Debris (Short listing) Legal instruments concerning Sea-based and land-based sources of marine debris according to Rovira (2006) “Informe y Diagnóstico de la basura marina en Chile”

Legal instruments concerning Sea-based sources of marine debris Decreto con Fuerza de …creates institutional framework for maritime Ley N°292, (1953) affairs and establishes DIRECETEMAR (sub- and ordinate to Chief of Chilean Armada // “depende Ley Orgánica de la Comandancia en Jefe de la Armada de Constitucional de Chile”) as the executive maritime authority, Territorio Marítimo y responsible for the application of laws and Marina Mercante regulations, i.a. concerning the preservation of marine ecology. Decreto Ley N° 2222 … establishes the absolute prohibition to eject (1978) into the sea waste, ballast, rubble, oil and its Ley de Navegación derivates, […] and any harmful or dangerous substances. Decreto Orgánico N° … reiterates the above mentioned prohibition 34.419 (1992) modif. valid for the territorial waters and the Chilean by exclusive economic Zone, but makes a number Decreto Orgánico N° of exceptions from the absolute prohibition. It 34.718 (1993) allows the discharge of defined categories of Reglamento para el waste under specific conditions, i.e. only under Control de la prior authorization by DIRECTEMAR. Contaminación Acuatica R.C.C.A. Decreto Supremo N°90 …establishes and defines the ZPL (Zona de and Protección Litoral) Protection Zone of the Circular de Littoral, in which “Ley de Pesca y Acuicultura” DIRECTEMAR A and “RAMA” are applied. 53/004 Ley 19.624 (1992, … defines penalty fines (“50 to 3000 monthly modif.. 1999) tributary units”, up to 170.000 USD) for non- Ley General de Pesca compliance with regulations established by y Acuicultura RAMA Decreto Supremo 320 … defines the adequate management of (2001) residues and cleaning procedures for Reglamento aquaculture activities. Cleaning of aquaculture Ambiental para la installations requires prior authorization by Acuicultura (RAMA) DIRECTEMAR. In any case, solid waste can be deposited in the sea or terrestrial areas adjacent to the cultivation centres. SERNAPESCA is in charge of surveying the compliance of various regulations (but in practice does not have sufficient capacities for an effective periodic control). Resolución Extenta …establishes the possibility to treat organic

105 N°5582 (2005) of matter waste from ships and cruise ships at S.A.G. (Servicio land, whether by incineration or sterilization Agrícola y Ganadero) through authorized/accredited enterprises. However, so far there is no enterprise accredited, and there remains the option to legally deposit organic waste at sea. “Reglamento Especifico para la Acreditacion de Terceros en la Ejecución Desembarco, Transporte, Trattamientoy Disposición final de la Basura Organica de Naves Provenientes del Extranjero o desde Puertos Nacionales ubicados en Areas Bajo Cuarentena Interna”

Legal instruments concerning land-based sources of marine debris Ley Organica … defines management of solid household litter Constitucional de and industrial waste and sewage waters as a Municipalidades municipal task. N°18.965 Decreto con fuerza de … establishes ‘Servício de Salud’ (depending of Ley N° 725 (1968) Ministry of Public Health, regionally represented Código Sanitario by Secretaría Regional Ministerial (SEREMI) as competent authority concerning public waste management, responsible for the application and surveillance of legal norms defined in the same document and other regulations. Decreto Supremo 594 … focuses on industrial residues (1999) Decreto Supremo 148 … focuses on hazardous substances and (2003) dangerous residues. Reglamento Sanitario de Manejo de Residuos Peligrosos Ley de Bases … defines i.a. maximum charges of harmful or Generales del Medio toxic substances in effluents of industrial Ambiente N°19.300 activities and post-treatment water into (1994) environment, e.g. anti-fouling chemicals

Relevant International Conventions and Legal Frameworks ratified by the Chilean Government MARPOL 73/78 (1973) The convention consist of five annexes with International Convention for special focuses on i) Oil ii) noxious liquid the Prevention of Pollution from Ships, 1973, as modified substances iii) harmful substances in packaged by the Protocol of 1978 form iv) sewage water from ships v) garbage relating thereto (MARPOL from ships vi) air pollution from ships. 73/78) under UN-IMO Furthermore there is a continued list of specific (United Nations amendments elaborated at subsequent International Maritime conferences. Organization)

106 Signing state parties must sign Annex 1 and Annex 2, whereas the remainder is voluntary. According Rovira, MARPOL is legally binding in Chile since 1995. However, Chile has never signed Annex V and VI. However, the Chilean Decreto Orgánico N° 34.718 R.C.C.A. covers aspects of Annex V concerning garbage waste from ships. Convenio de Lima … applies to the territorial waters including the (1986) 200-nautical-miles zone of member states and Convenio de beyond up to a distance from where Proteccion del Medio contamination may affect the prior mentioned Mariono y La Zona areas. costera del Pacifico … aims at prevention, reduction and control of Sudeste marine pollution of any source and establishes Border countries of the appropriate measures. South-East Pacific, J. Rovira comments that the convention is meeting under the roof generally ratified and implemented in Chile, of CPPS (Comisión however insufficiently due to shortage of Permanente del technical, human and financial resources (i.e. Pacifico Sur) due to a lack of political willingness). Colombia, Chile, Ecuador, Panamá and Perú Protocolo para la …expresses the joint intention of member states conservación y to create protected areas based on common administracion de las criterions in order to preserve threatened, Areas Marinas unique and vulnerable ecosystems including its Protegidas (1989) flora and fauna. Promotes a catalogue of under the roof of CPPS measures proposed to prevent and reduce contamination of marine area from land- and sea-based sources and documents the will of member states to cooperate in the implementation. In Chile, the protocol got into force in 1994. London Convention One of the earliest conventions aiming at a (1972) regulation and stepwise reduction of dumping of Convention on the waste in various forms into the sea, e.g. Prevention of Marine industrial and radioactive waste and off-shore Pollution incineration. Since 1996 it includes the by Dumping of Wastes “precautionary principle” and the “polluter pays and Other Matter principle”, whereas it still permits the regulated 1972 and 1996 dumping of specifically defined human-made Protocol Thereto artificial products and substances, e.g. vessels and platform structures, and most recently underground storage of Carbon dioxide in the seabed. Chile’s participation dates back to 1977.

107 United Nations …founds the basis of international Convention on the understanding of jurisdiction over marine areas Law of the Sea (1982) and facilitates communication about and pacific Convencion de las use of the maritime area and its resources, Naciones Unidas sobre including scientific investigation and el Derecho del Mar conservation aspects. Protection of the marine environment from human-made contamination including waste disposal into the sea is a recurrent aspect in this convention. In force in Chile since 1997 Tradado Antartico y …sets the protection of the Antarctic from Protocolo para la negative environmental impacts as a proteccion del medio fundamental principle, requiring an ex-ante ambiente (1961) environmental impact evaluation for any scientific or economic activity. Waste management procedures are thoroughly defined; basically it implies the comprehensive removal of all waste categories by those actors who brought the material there. According to Rovira, Chile has signed a number of further international conventions that include general or specific aspects of adequate waste management as a fundamental environmental protection measure. • Convention on Migratory Species (CMS, Bonn), • Convencion para la conservacion de los Recursos Vivos Marinos Anrarticos, • Convention on Biodiversity (CBD, Rio de Janeiro 1992) • Etc.. further: http://www.directemar.cl/DAI/dai-esp/convenios_int/conv_cpps.htm

108 7.7 Photos

Pic.1: Stock of EPS cubes as used in mussel breeding Pic.2: Waste containers in the harbour bay of Quellón and floating platform constructions (Yaldad)

Pic.3+4: Litter accumulation at sewer outfall in Quellón

Pic.5: municipal waste containers in Quellón Pic.6: crude faeces at sewer outfall in Quellón

109

Pic.7: litter items at the road side (Quellón) Pic.9: oil leakage from vehicles (Quellón)

Pic.9: “ship cemetery” next to port of Quellón Pic.10: car battery and other waste in Quellón harbour

Pic.11: marine debris sampling in Punta de Lapa Pic.12: sampling site in Quellón Punta de Lapa

110

Pic.13: EPS polystyrene and short piece of rope Pic.14: salmon food bag

Pic.15: sample site at Melinka lighthouse Pic.16: Melinka municipal waste dumping site

Pic.17: collected from 3 transects in Melinka only… Pic.18: “everything’s not lost”

111 EUROPEAN date: 15 June 2007 CURRICULUM VITAE FORMAT

PERSONAL INFORMATION Name HORSTMANN, JOHANNES Address San Martin 400-A, Valdivia, CHILE Telephone ++56-9-7853855 E-mail [email protected]

Nationality German Date of birth 10 – Jan – 1981

WORK EXPERIENCE Dates (from – to) (01-2007) – (04-2007) Centro Ballena Azul (CBA) - Ciencia y Conservación Marítima, Universidad Austral de Chile; c/o WWF, Carlos Anwandter 624, Casa 4, Valdivia, Chile, www.ballenazul.org Type of business or sector Conservation & Research, Environmental Education, Regional Development Planning Occupation or position held Associated Research Student Main activities and Elaboration of Master Thesis Project “Baseline Study on Marine Debris and Municipal Waste responsibilities Management”; participation in Environmental Education Programmes with youths in Melinka/Chile

Dates (from – to) (02-2006) – (04-2006) Nds. Landesbetrieb f. Wasserwirtschaft und Küsten- und Naturschutz, Jahnstr.1, 26506 Norden, Germany Nationalpark Nds. Wattenmeer, Insel Juist Type of business or sector National Park Management Occupation or position held National Park Ranger; short-term assignment Main activities and in charge of : Ecosystem Monitoring, Ornithology; Environmental Education; Surveillance; Restoration; responsibilities Public Relations, Web-design

GTZ – German Technical Cooperation; Project ECO-PNBA, c/o GTZ, B.P. 5217, Nouakchott, MAURITANIA, « Projet d’Appui Institutionnel et Technique au Parc National du Banc d’Arguin » (PNBA) Type of business or sector National Park Management, Development Cooperation Occupation or position held Junior Consultant, temporarily replacing the Project Manager Main activities and responsibilities Technical advice for various departments of the National Park Administration; Human Resources Management; Project Management and Accounting; Communication with/reporting to ECO-Consult-HQ

Dates (from – to) (10-2004) – (02-2005) GTZ – Deutsche Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit, Eschborn, Deutschland Project „Implementing the Biodiversity Convention“ (BIODIV) Type of business or sector Development Cooperation; Consulting Occupation or position held Project Assistant Main activities and responsibilities Impact Monitoring and Evaluation of pilot projects for the CBD implementation; Indicator Baseline Studies; various web-services

Curriculum Vitae of HORSTMANN Johannes 1

Dates (from – to) (01-2004) – (04-2004) Forestry Department, Ministry of Natural Resources, Belmopan, BELIZE Consultancy provided by U.N.Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) Sub-Regional Office for the Caribbean, Barbados

Type of business or sector Forest Management Consulting Occupation or position held FAO intern, student of International Forest Ecosystem Management Main activities and responsibilities Executive responsible for forest inventory: “Assessment of natural regeneration in MPR Forest

Dates (from – to) (09-2002) – (01-2003) GTZ – German Technical Cooperation; Project ECO-PNBA, c/o GTZ, B.P. 5217, Nouakchott, MAURITANIA Type of business or sector National Park Management, Development Cooperation Occupation or position held GTZ intern, student of International Forest Ecosystem Management « Projet d’Appui Institutionnel et Technique au Parc National du Banc d’Arguin » (PNBA) Main activities and Elaboration of a signalization concept for visitors’ guidance for the National Park Banc d’Arguin; responsibilities sustainable development of the Ecotourism facilities of the PNBA

Dates (from – to) (10-2000) – (08-2001) Nds. Landesbetrieb f. Wasserwirtschaft und Küstenschutz, Jahnstr.1, 26506 Norden, Germany Nationalpark Nds. Wattenmeer, Insel Juist Type of business or sector National Park Management Occupation or position held National Park Ranger; Civil Service in lieu of Military Service. Main activities and in charge of : Ecosystem Monitoring, Ornithology; Environmental Education; Surveillance; Restoration; responsibilities Public Relations

EDUCATION AND TRAINING

Dates (from – to) (10-2005) – (07-2007) Name and type of organisation University of Dortmund/GERMANY and Universidad Austral de CHILE Valdivia, providing education + training SPRING-Programme: Spatial Planning for Regions in Growing Economies Principal subjects/occupational Decentralisation, Environmental Management and Natural Resource Economics, Regional Planning and skills covered Economic Development, Research Methods, Field Workshops Ecology & Environmental Planning, Agriculture, Reg. Economic Development Planning, Demography & Social Infrastructure, Development Theory & Strategies, Organisation & Management, Financing & Budgeting, Human Settlement Pattern, Transport Planning, Planning Workshop, GIS, Cartography. & Aerial Photograph Interpretation Title of qualification awarded Master-Thesis “Baseline Study on Marine Debris and Municipal Waste Management in Chiloé-Corcovado, Southern Chile”; M.Sc. “Regional Development Planning and Management”, Grade: 1,8 (07-2007)

Dates (from – to) September 2005, 21st - 25th Name and type of organisation 1st European Nature Conference “our landscape: space for nature, opportunities for the people”, providing education + training organized by EUROPARC Federation, ECNC Europ. Centre for Nature Conservation, in Apeldoorn/NL Principal subjects/occupational Participantion in Youth Programme, Workshop streams, Plenary meetings, working group discussions skills covered http://www.natureconference.org/default.asp?id=205

Dates (from – to) (04-2004) – (07-2004) Name and type of organisation Faculté Universitare des Sciences Agronomiques de Gembloux (FUSAGx), Passage des Déportés 2, providing education + training 5030 Gembloux, BELGIUM Principal subjects/occupational Forestry, Tropical Forestry, Silviculture, Project Management, Genetics, Ecology, Phytosociology, skills covered Pedology, Mensuration, FRENCH Title of qualification awarded ERASMUS scholarship student

Curriculum Vitae of HORSTMANN Johannes 2

Dates (from – to) (09-2001) – (02-2005) Name and type of organisation Fachhochschule Eberswalde, University of Applied Sciences, A.-Moellerstr. 1, 16225 Eberswalde, providing education + training GERMANY – IFEM-Programme: International Forest Ecosystem Management Principal subjects/occupational Protected Area Management, Project Management, Int. Environmental Policy and Law, Biodiversity, skills covered Nature Conservation, Applied Ecology, Dendrology, Botany, Zoology, Entomology, Pedology, Forestry, Silviculture, , Biometrics, Genetics, Global Forest Ecosystems, Socio-Economics, Forest Protection, Land Use Management, Forest Inventory, Digital data processing, ArcView-GIS/Remote Sensing, English, French, Spanish, Swedish, MS-Powerpoint, MS-Excel, MS-Access, others… Title of qualification awarded Bachelor of Science (B.Sc.) in International Forest Ecosystem Management: Grade 2,0 (02-2005) Thesis: Natural Regeneration of Pines in the Mountain Pine Ridge Forest Reserve, Belize – Summary report of a sample-based inventory after bark beetle infestation (02-2005)

PERSONAL SKILLS acquired in the course of education/apprentice training, but not necessarily proven by certificate AND COMPETENCES MOTHER TONGUE GERMAN

FOREIGN LANGUAGES ENGLISH French Spanish • Reading skills excellent excellent good • Writing skills excellent good good • Verbal skills excellent excellent Good

TECHNICAL SKILLS, • establishment and management of protected areas and regional development planning FIELDS OF RESEARCH & • ecology & management of European and sub-tropical forest ecosystems EXPERTISE • ecology & management of coastal wadden-sea ecosystems from studies, professional • German and European environmental policy and legislation; debates on fisheries, off-shore experience & personal interest. wind energy and oil-extraction • Ornithology and monitoring of migratory species

ORGANISATIONAL SKILLS • Project-Team-Leader and Management (budget accounting) of GTZ-Project in Banc d’Arguin AND COMPETENCES National Park, Mauritania (2005) e.g. coordination and • on behalf of FAO, Belize Forestry Department responsible Planner, Coordinator and administration of people, Implementer of forest inventory of natural regeneration, with support of 7 forest workers (2004) projects, budgets; at work, in • participative coordination of project-activities with focus on ecotourism development with GTZ- voluntary work (for example Project in Banc d’Arguin National Park, Mauritania (2002 – 2003) culture and sports) and at • Chairman of “Horizonte e.V.“, students club for the integration of foreign students in Eberswalde home, etc. (2001 – 2003) • Responsible organizer of football-training in University Sports Club Eberswalde (2001 – 2003) • Active membership in students’ association Eberswalde (2001 – 2004) • Guide of birding excursions for students at University of Applied Sciences Eberswalde (2002,2004) • Staff member of youths holiday camp with DJK-Münster in Italiy (2000) • Team Coach of junior football teams of Geschwister-Scholl-Gymnasium (high school) and DJK SC Nienberge sports club (1998 – 2000)

Social skills and • participation and networking during Europ. Nature Conference 2005, Apeldoorn/NL, Youth competences Programme Living and working with other • profound intercultural experiences during internships in Mauritania and Belize, and all through people, in multicultural the years of BSc and MSc studies in exchange with students from various cultural backgrounds environments, in positions (2001-2006) where communication is • emphasized teamwork and formal communication experiences during Civil Service, working as important and situations where National Park-Ranger: autonomous work planning, formal reporting; in-field conflict mediation in teamwork is essential (for National Park issues, environmental education & awareness raising (2000-2001) example culture and sports), • active membership in sports club SC Nienberge e.V., (1995 – 2000) etc. • 6-months high school exchange to Orleans/France (1997) • several holiday trips throughout Europe, including training of foreign language skills; including a 3-week journey to Haiti, in company of UN-mission observer (1995) • during childhood, many intercultural experiences with guests from developing countries at home, with migrants’ children at school Curriculum Vitae of HORSTMANN Johannes 3

PERSONAL REFERENCES KIRSTEN HEGENER Mentor and Internship-Supervisor in and relationship to Project Manager ProGRN-PNBA Mauritania c/o Bureau de la GTZ en Mauritanie Johannes Horstmann B.P. 5217 Nouakchott, MAURETANIA Tel./Fax. +222-525 99 63; Mobile +222-631 26 09 [email protected]

CORNELIA SEPP Employer during interim project M.Sc. Forestry management assignment in CEO ECO-Consult GbR Hersfelder Straße 17 Mauritania 36280 Oberaula, GERMANY Tel.: +49 (0)-6628-8373; Fax.: +49 (0)-6628-8016 [email protected]

KARL-PETER KIRSCH-JUNG Supervisor during Interim Project GTZ-Programme-Manager „ProGRN Mauretanien“ Management Assignment in Bureau de la GTZ en Mauritanie B.P. 5217 Mauritania Nouakchott, MAURETANIA Tel.: +222 5256725, Fax: +222 5254423 [email protected]

DR. PIERRE IBISCH Tutor and Lecturer during IFEM- Professorship for Nature Conservation studies at University of Applied FH Eberswalde, Fac. Forestry Alfred-Möller-Str.1 Sciences Eberswalde 16225 Eberswalde, GERMANY building 11, room 218 Tel: +49-3334-65 479; fax: +49-3334-65 428 [email protected]

DR. CLAUS-MARTIN ECKELMANN Mentor und Supervisor of Field FAO-SLAC Forestry Officer Research and Bachelor-Thesis in PO Box 631-C Bridgetown, BARBADOS Belize Tel: +1-246-426-7111. Fax: +1-246-427-6075 [email protected]

PROF. DR. EINHARD SCHMIDT-KALLERT Tutor and Lecturer during SPRING Head of SPRING-Programme Master-Studies at University of Universität Dortmund, Faculty of Spatial Planning FGb Spatial Planning for Developing Countries Dortmund Baroper Straße 283, R. 03 D-44221 Dortmund, GERMANY Tel. 0231/755 3267; Fax: 0231/755 4398 [email protected]

DR. CHRISTOPH KOHLMEYER Lecturer during SPRING Master Head of Dep. 314, Rural Development and Global Studies at University of Dortmund Food Security Fed. Ministry for Econ. Cooperation and Development (BMZ) Adenauerallee 139-141 53113 Bonn, GERMANY Tel: +49-228-1888 535 3735 [email protected]

Curriculum Vitae of HORSTMANN Johannes 4 PROF. MANFRED MAX-NEEF Tutor and Lecturer during SPRING Head of SPRING-Chile Master Studies at University Austral Universidad Austral de Chile Casilla 567 de Chile in Valdivia Valdivia, CHILE Tel: +56 9444 0550; +56-63-212589 [email protected]

DR. RODRIGO HUCKE-GAETE Mentor and supervisor during master CEO Centro Ballena Azul thesis research project Blue Whale Research Centre Universidad Austral de Chile c/o WWF-Chile, Carlos Anwandter 624, Casa 4, Valdivia, CHILE Tel: +56-63 293061 [email protected]

Curriculum Vitae of HORSTMANN Johannes 5