HYDROLOGY AND WATER RESOURCES OF INDIA Water Science and Technology Library

VOLUME 57

Editor-in-Chief

V.P. Singh, Texas A&M University, College Station, U.S.A.

Editorial Advisory Board

M. Anderson, Bristol, U.K. L. Bengtsson, Lund, Sweden J. F. Cruise, Huntsville, U.S.A. U. C. Kothyari, Roorkee, India S. E. Serrano, Philadelphia, U.S.A. D. Stephenson, Johannesburg, South Africa W. G. Strupczewski, Warsaw, Poland

The titles published in this series are listed at the end of this volume. HYDROLOGY AND WATER RESOURCES OF INDIA

by SHARAD K. JAIN National Institute of Hydrology, Roorkee, India PUSHPENDRA K. AGARWAL National Institute of Hydrology, Roorkee, India and VIJAY P. SINGH Department of Biological and Agricultural Engineering, TexasA&MUniversity, College Station, Texas, U.S.A. A C.I.P. Catalogue record for this book is available from the Library of Congress.

ISBN-10 1-4020-5179-4 (HB) ISBN-13 978-1-4020-5179-1 (HB) ISBN-10 1-4020-5180-8 (e-book) ISBN-13 978-1-4020-5180-7 (e-book)

Published by Springer, P.O. Box 17, 3300 AA Dordrecht, The Netherlands.

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Cover Illustration: Map of India

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Disclaimer: The facts and opinions expressed in this work are those of the authors and not necessarily those of the publisher

All rights reserved © 2007 Springer No part of this work may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, microfilming, recording or otherwise, without written permission from the Publisher, with the exception of any material supplied specifically for the purpose of being entered and executed on a computer system, for exclusive use by the purchaser of the work. Dedicated to SKJ: My family, with respect and affection PKA: My late father VPS: Anita, Vinay and Arti

v Saraswati saryuh sindhurmibhirma ho maheervasa yantu vakshinih Devirapo matarah sudaytnavo ghravatpayo madhumanno archat Yajur Veda (X,64.9)

Water from wells, rivers, rain, and from any other source on earth should be used wisely as it is gift of nature, for well-being of all.

PREFACE

India is truly a country of continental scale in every respect – topography, climate, culture, and of course water resources. Currently, India is one of the fastest growing economies of the world. Needless to say, the water sector has a crucial role to play in the social well-being and the quality of life. The need for a book describing India’s hydrological practices and water resources, problems in their exploitation, and prospects for their solution has long been felt. A book of somewhat similar nature was published more than three decades ago. During this intervening time a lot of changes have occurred in India not only in the practice of hydrological and water resources technology but also in the environment, society, landscape and land use, agricultural practices, and even climate. Thus, this book attempts to provide a more up-to-date account of water resources of India. It is aimed at students, practitioners, mangers, planners, administrators, and anyone who may be interested in the development and management of water resources in India. The book is organized in four sections. The first section Introduction has one chapter, Physical Environment of India, which gives a broad overview of the country. The second section, Hydrology and Hydrometeorology, is comprised of five chapters dealing with the major components of the hydrologic cycle for India. Water Budget and Population of India are discussed in Chapter 2, followed by a discussion of Rainfall and Analysis of Rainfall Data in Chapter 3; Evaporation and Other Meteorological Data in Chapter 4; Runoff and Streamflow in Chapter 5; and Groundwater in Chapter 6. These chapters describe instruments and measurement techniques, and the techniques of analysis that are used in India in order to measure and analyze the components of the hydrologic cycle. Maps, vii viii Preface figures, and tables are extensively used to illustrate the quantities of concern and their spatial and temporal variations. The third section, comprising 10 chapters, focuses on River Basins of India. Beginning with an overview of the various river basins and their water resources in Chapter 7 entitled ‘River Basins of India’, it goes on to discuss individual basins or a group of basins. Chapter 8 discusses Ganga Basin; Chapter 9 Brahmaputra Basin; Chapter 10 Indus Basin; Chapter 11 Narmada Basin; Chapter 12 Tapi, Sabarmati, and Mahi Basins; Chapter 13 Mahanadi, Subernarekha, and Brahamani Basins; Chapter 14 Krishna and Godavari Basins; Chapter 15 Cauvery and Pennar Basins; and Chapter 16 Other Basins and Islands. The fourth section entitled Water Uses, Projects, Problems and Governance is the final section of the book and is comprised of 8 chapters. Chapter 17 describes the Major Uses of Water in India. It discusses at length the water uses for irrigation, hydropower, municipal and industrial uses, environment flow, recreation, navigation, etc. Problems Related to Water Resources form the subject matter of Chapter 18, followed by Chapter 19 on Reservoirs and Lakes in India, and Chapter 20 on Water Quality Related Aspects. A practitioner should also be conversant with legal aspects and this perspective is presented in Chapter 21 entitled Constitutional Provisions, Inter-state Water Disputes and Treaties. Inter Basin Water Transfer is becoming a major initiative in India these days in order to overcome problems due to spatial and temporal mismatch between water availability and demands. A detailed description of the present proposals being debated in India and other related aspects are presented in Chapter 22. A brief discussion of the Institutions in the Field of Hydrology and Water Resources in India forms the subject matter of the Chapter 23. The final Chapter 24 is devoted to Water Governance in India. Water Resources of India is a vast subject and despite this voluminous book, several aspects could not be covered here. We hope that the book will be helpful to those who have interest in the water resources of India. For this book, data was compiled from a very large number of sources and at times data from different sources were quite different. We have attempted to present a consistent and the most likely status of things. It is, however, likely that there are some mistakes in the book and we request the alert readers to bring these to our notice. Sharad Jain Pushpendra Agarwal Vijay Singh April 2006 Roorkee/College Station ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

A large number of colleagues helped us at various stages of preparation of the manuscript. We had long consultations with them and many of our colleagues shared the data and figures that they had. Mr. C. P. Kumar and Dr. Sanjay Jain provided a lot of information, relevant books, photographs, addresses of web-pages, etc. Dr. Sanjay Jain also provided the photo for book cover and his help is thankfully acknowledged. Useful data were also provided by many of our colleagues from National Institute of Hydrology, including Dr. Pratap Singh, Dr. M. K. Goel, Dr. P. K. Bhunya, Dr. K. S. Ramasastri, Dr. K. D. Sharma, and Mr. A. K. Lohani. Dr. Nagesh Kumar of Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, reviewed a chapter and gave data for some basins. We are thankful to Mr. Hemant Chowdhary, Dr. S. K. Mishra, Prof. G. C. Mishra, Dr. M. L. Kansal, Dr. Vijay Kumar, Mr. S. S. Kanwar, Mr. Pankaj Garg, Mr. A. R. Senthil Kumar, and Mr. Yatveer Singh for the useful information provided by them. The staff of NIH library, particularly Mohd. Furqanullah, were always very cooperative. Mr. N. K. Varshney prepared excellent drawings at short notice, and Mr. T. P. Panicker and Mr. Rajesh Agarwal provided help with editing. Completion of a book of this nature requires work till late at night and on weekends over a long time span. Our families not only had to put up with the inconvenience on numerous occasions but also helped a lot and kept us free from other responsibilities. Their support is gratefully acknowledged. SKJ, PKA, VPS Disclaimer The facts and opinions expressed in this work are those of the authors and not necessarily of their respective organizations.

ix TABLE OF CONTENTS

Dedication v Preface vii Acknowledgements ix List of Figures xiii List of Tables xxiii

SECTION 1: INTRODUCTION 1 1. Physical Environment of India 3

SECTION 2: HYDROLOGY AND HYDROMETEOROLOGY 63 2. Water Budget and Population of India 65 3. Rainfall and Analysis of Rainfall Data 87 4. Evaporation and Other Meteorological Data 155 5. Runoff and Streamflow 193 6. Groundwater 235

SECTION 3: RIVER BASINS 295 7. River Basins of India 297 8. Ganga Basin 333 9. Brahmaputra and Barak Basin 419 10. Indus Basin 473 11. Narmada Basin 513 12. Tapi, Sabarmati and Mahi Basins 561 13. Mahanadi, Subernarekha and Brahmani Basins 597 14. Krishna and Godavari Basins 641 15. Cauvery and Pennar Basins 701 16. Other Basins and Islands 743 xi xii Table of Contents

Eminent water resources professionals who have made outstanding contributions in India 791

SECTION 4: WATER USES, PROJECTS, PROBLEMS, AND GOVERNANCE 797 17. Major Uses of Water in India 799 18. Problems Related to Water Resources Management in India 871 19. Reservoirs and Lakes 937 20. Water Quality and Related Aspects 997 21. Constitutional Provisions, Inter-State Water Disputes and Treaties 1035 22. Inter-Basin Water Transfer 1065 23. Institutions in the Field of Hydrology and Water Resources 1111 24. Concepts of Water Governance for India 1155

References 1191

Appendix A. Abbreviations 1215 Appendix B. Conversion Factors 1217 Appendix C. National Water Policy 1219 Appendix D. Indian Standards related to Hydrology and Water Resources 1231

Index 1239 LIST OF FIGURES

Chapter 1. Physical Environment of India 3 Figure 1. Location of India in the world 4 Figure 2. Major mountain ranges in India 8 Figure 3. Political map of India 11 Figure 4. Average annual rainfall over India 14 Figure 5. Normal dates of onset of monsoon 16 Figure 6. Normal dates of withdrawal of monsoon 17 Figure 7. Location map of Gangotri Glacier 24 Figure 8. Soil map of India 29 Figure 9. Land use classification of India 33 Figure 10. Agro-climatic Zones of India 47 Figure 11. Loktak Lake, Manipur, India 52 Figure 12. Figure showing important wetlands of India 54

Chapter 2. Water Budget and Population of India 65 Figure 1. Atmospheric Water Balance 72 Figure 2. Hydrologic Water Balance 73 Figure 3. Water Use Balance for India 74 Figure 4. Ground water balance 76 Figure 5. India –approximate distribution of average annual water resources as in 1974, 2000, 2025 AD (million ha-m). The numbers in brackets are those for the year 2000. 77

Chapter 3. Rainfall and Analysis of Rainfall Data 87 Figure 1. Symon’s raingauge 88 Figure 2. Float and siphon type-recording raingauge 90 Figure 3. Standard snow gauge being used in India 94 Figure 4. Weighing type snow gauge 96 Figure 5. Coefficient of variation of monsoon rainfall 108 Figure 6. Map of Winter Season Rainfall of India (January–February) 112 Figure 7. Map of Pre-Monsoon Season Rainfall of India (March–May) 112 xiii xiv List of Figures

Figure 8. Map of Monsoon Season Rainfall of India (June–September) 113 Figure 9. Map of Post Monsoon Season Rainfall of India (October–December) 113 Figure 10. All India summer monsoon rainfall 1871–1990 114 Figure 11. Highest 1-day rainfall for India 119 Figure 12. Highest 2-day rainfall for India 120 Figure 13. Highest 3-day rainfall for India 121 Figure 14. Tracks of cyclonic storms from 1891–1960 123 Figure 15. Tracks of cyclones in the month of October 124 Figure 16. Tracks of cyclones in the month of November 124 Figure 17. Generalized one day probable maximum precipitation map 134 Figure 18. Generalized two-day PMP map 135 Figure 19. One day storm isohyetal map of 30 August 1982 over Lower Mahanadi 136 Figure 20. A typical set of DAD curves for a storm 138 Figure 21. Main Centers of Rainstorms 140 Figure 22. Rainfall depth-duration relation for the world’s greatest observed rainfall events 143 Figure 23. Maximum (observed) rainfall depths (cm) over plains of north India 144 Figure 24. Typical variation of the maximum rainfall depth of various durations with return period 146 Figure 25. Departure of rainfall amounts and Wright’s Southern Oscillation Index (June–August) from 100 year mean 151

Chapter 4. Evaporation and other Meteorological Data 155 Figure 1. Annual mean potential evapotranspiration (cm) over India 159 Figure 2. U.S. Weather Bureau class A land pan 163 Figure 3. Map showing annual evaporation (cm) (From IMD Evaporation data of observatories of India) 165 Figure 4. Temperature variation with latitude, altitude, and proximity to oceans 170 Figure 5. Mean daily temperature C for January, reduced to sea level at ad-hoc lapse rate of 6 C/km 171 Figure 6. Mean daily temperature C for April, reduced to sea level at ad-hoc lapse rate of 6 C/km 171 Figure 7. Mean daily temperature C for July, reduced to sea level at ad-hoc lapse rate of 6 C/km 172 Figure 8. Mean daily temperature C for October, reduced to sea level at ad-hoc lapse rate of 6 C/km 172 List of Figures xv

Figure 9. Map showing the highest maximum annual temperature contours of the country 173 Figure 10. Map showing the lowest minimum annual temperature contours of the country 174 Figure 11. Mean temperature of India for January 178 Figure 12. Mean temperature of India for April 179 Figure 13. Mean temperature of India for July 180 Figure 14. Mean temperature of India for October 181 Figure 15. All – India mean surface temperature (1901–2000) 182 Figure 16. Maximum persisting 24-hr dew point temperature C in India 183 Figure 17. Amount of water vapour in the atmosphere at different temperatures. 184 Figure 18. Relative humidity over India in the month of July 185 Figure 19. Mean upper winds over India and neighbourhood at 200 mb during April and July 187 Figure 20. Daily Solar radiation in Wm−2 incident on a unit horizontal surface at the top of the atmosphere as a function of latitude and date 190 Figure 21. Daily totals of Solar Radiation in langleys cal/cm2/day at five different latitudes over the northern hemisphere for a transparent atmosphere 191

Chapter 5. Runoff and Streamflow 193 Figure 1. Sectional staff gauge 197 Figure 2. Stilling well for the float-type recorder 198 Figure 3. Schematic sketch for a velocity-area station 199 Figure 4. Price current meter 200 Figure 5. Moving boat method of discharge measurement 201 Figure 6. Channel reach for the slope-area method 204 Figure 7. Plot of stage and discharge at a gauging station 206 Figure 8. A river channel with flood plains on either side 207 Figure 9. A compound rating curve 208 Figure 10. Hydro-meteorologically homogenous sub-zones of India 223 Figure 11. Number of CWC flood forecasting stations in different basins 234 Figure 12. Statewise number of flood forecasting stations 234

Chapter 6. Groundwater 235 Figure 1. Hydrogeological map of India 237 Figure 2. Schematic representation of components of ground water assessment 269 xvi List of Figures

Chapter 7. River Basins of India 297 Figure 1. Important rivers of India 300 Figure 2. Coastal and inland drainage rivers of India 302 Figure 3. Ganga descending from the heaven in the locks of Lord Shiva 306 Figure 4. A view of Bhagirathi River 307 Figure 5. Sangam at Allahabad where Ganga and Yamuna meet. Photo courtesy http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ganga 313 Figure 6. Total available replenishable ground water and ground water balance left in the basins for Exploitation. Source: Based on data from Ministry of Water Resources 331

Chapter 8. Ganga Basin 333 Figure 1. Index map of Greater Ganga basin 334 Figure 2. Index map of Ganga basin under Tracing 337 Figure 3. Gomukh which is considered as the source of Ganga River 337 Figure 4. Devprayag where Bhagirathi (coming from left) and Alaknanda (flowing from right) join to form Ganga 338 Figure 5. Ganga River at Varanasi 340 Figure 6. Line diagram of Ganga and its major tributaries. Numbers are average annual flows (MCM) 341 Figure 7. Annual discharge of Ganga at Farakka 342 Figure 8. A view of the Yamunotri temple (Source: www.yap.nic.in) 344 Figure 9. The bed of Yamuna River near Dak Pathar 345 Figure 10. The Tajmahal, Agra 346 Figure 11. Ghaghra River at Tanda (Photo courtesy Dr Sanjay Jain) 356 Figure 12. A pictorial view of Haridwar. Ganga is flowing in the upper part and the UGC at the middle 364 Figure 13. Old Solani aqueduct of the Upper Ganga Canal near Roorkee 365 Figure 14. Network of canals in upper Ganga basin under Tracing 368 Figure 15. A view of Tehri dam (under construction) 378 Figure 16. Line diagram of the DVC system 393 Figure 17. Schematic diagram of Greater Ganga System 407

Chapter 9. Brahmaputra and Barak Basin 419 Figure 1. The Brahmaputra basin. 420 Figure 2. Flow Diagram of the Brahmaputra. The numbers represents average flow in cumec 423 Figure 3. Brahmaputra River near Guwahati 425 List of Figures xvii

Figure 4. Climatic zones 430 Figure 5. Cherrapunjee (locally names as ‘Shora’), the wettest place on Earth 431 Figure 6. A tea garden in Brahmaputra valley in Assam 439 Figure 7. Discharge hydrographs of the Brahmaputra River at different sites 450 Figure 8. Gauge hydrographs of the Brahmaputra River at four sites within the middle reach 456 Figure 9. The Great Indian One Horn Rhino in its natural habitat at KNP 469

Chapter 10. Indus Basin 473 Figure 1. Index map of Indus Basin 474 Figure 2. Kandi belt in Jammu and Kashmir 476 Figure 3. Contour cultivation in Indus basin 477 Figure 4. Flow Diagram of Indus Basin 479 Figure 5. Confluence of Satluj and Beas Rivers near Harike (photo courtesy Dr. Sanjay Jain) 485 Figure 6. Schematic Diagram of Bhakra Beas System 491 Figure 7. The Bhakra Dam 492 Figure 8. Nangal Barrage on Satluj River 492 Figure 9. A view of the main Indira Gandhi Canal 497

Chapter 11. Narmada Basin 473 Figure 1. Index map of the Narmada basin [Source: NCA (2000)] 514 Figure 2. Kapildhara water fall on Narmada, about 8 km from its origin 515 Figure 3. Dhuandhara falls on Narmada River near Jabalpur city 515 Figure 4. Stream Network of Narmada basin (Source: NIH 1999) 531 Figure 5. Ground water level fluctuation for pre- and post-monsoon seasons (NIH, 1999) 533 Figure 6. Simulated and observed hydrograph for the calibration period (1983–85) at Satrana gauging site, Kolar sub-basin 537 Figure 7. Main Sardar Sarovar dam (Under construction) 541 Figure 8. Configuration of Narmada Canal based water supply system 545 Figure 9. Indira Sagar Project (Under construction) 547

Chapter 12. Tapi, Sabarmati and Brahmani Basins 561 Figure 1. Index map of Tapi basin 562 Figure 2. Stream network of Tapi basin 564 xviii List of Figures

Figure 3. A view of Tapi basin up to Ukai dam from NOAA Satellite. Ukai reservoir can be clearly seen near the top left edge 568 Figure 4. Index map of Sabarmati basin 580 Figure 5. Stream network of Sabarmati basin 582 Figure 6. A view of Dharoi dam 585 Figure 7. Index map of Mahi basin 590 Figure 8. Stream network of Mahi basin 591

Chapter 13. Mahanadi, Subernarekha and Brahmani Basins 597 Figure 1. Index map of Mahanadi basin 598 Figure 2. Flow Diagram of Mahanadi Basin. The numbers represent average annual flow in cumec 600 Figure 3. A view of Hirakud dam 606 Figure 4. Index map of Subernarekha basin 612 Figure 5. Flow Diagram of Subernarekha basin 613 Figure 6. Index map of Brahmani and Baitarni basin 624 Figure 7. Flow diagram of Brahmani basin 625

Chapter 14. Krishna and Godavari Basins 641 Figure 1. Index map of Krishna Basin 642 Figure 2. Flow Diagram of Krishna basin 644 Figure 3. Line diagram of Bhima system 646 Figure 4. Valley of Krishna River in Eastern Ghats 650 Figure 5. Gross flow of Krishna River at Vijayawada 651 Figure 6. A view of Narayanpur dam 654 Figure 7. A view of Almatti dam 655 Figure 8. A view of the Srisailam dam and reservoir 656 Figure 9. A view of Nagarjunasagar dam 658 Figure 10. A view of Raja Lakhamgowda dam (Hidkal dam) 659 Figure 11. A view of Tungabhadra dam 661 Figure 12. A view of Malprabha dam 667 Figure 13. Index map of Godavari basin 675 Figure 14. Flow diagram of Godavari River 677 Figure 15. A view of Indravati Project 690 Figure 16. A view of Balimela dam 691

Chapter 15. Cauvery and Pennar Basins 701 Figure 1. Index map of Cauvery basin 702 Figure 2. Flow Diagram of Cauvery River 704 Figure 3. A view of KRS dam 716 Figure 4. Vrindavan garden of Mysore. This place is a major tourist attraction of South India 717 List of Figures xix

Figure 5. Nugu dam in Cauvery basin 720 Figure 6. A view of Harangi dam 722 Figure 7. A view of Hemavathi dam 723 Figure 8. A view of Kabini dam 724 Figure 9. Index map of Pennar Basin 728 Figure 10. Flow Diagram of Pennar Basin 729

Chapter 16. Other Basins and Islands 743 Figure 1. Panoramic View of Jog Falls. 760 Figure 2. The majestic Idukkidam 762 Figure 3. Index map showing Periyar-Vaigai System 781 Figure 4. Index map of Andaman & Nicobar islands 787 Figure 5. A view of the Andaman Island 787

Chapter 17. Major Uses of Water in India 799 Figure 1. Cumulative irrigation potential created under various plans 805 Figure 2. Impact of Bhakra dam on crop production in Punjab 837 Figure 3. Basin wise hydroelectric potential of Indian rivers 60% load factor 847 Figure 4. Grouth of installed capacity of hydropower generation in India 849

Chapter 18. Problems Related to Water Resources Management in India 871 Figure 1. Basin-wise per-capita water availability 873 Figure 2. Flood prone areas of India 875 Figure 3. Area affected by floods in India 876 Figure 4. Population affected by floods in India 876 Figure 5. Crop damages by floods in India 877 Figure 6. Human lives affected by floods in India 877 Figure 7. Flood prone area of Bihar 879 Figure 8. Inundation in Mumbai city in July 2005 when nearly 95 cm of rain fell in 24 hours 881 Figure 9. The concept of flood plain zoning 885 Figure 10. Mokama group of Tals 891 Figure 11. A field during drought 893 Figure 12. Drought prone area of the country 898 Figure 13. Actual production of food grains in India since 1975–76 and the dips in the production 907 Figure 14. Arid zone in India 908 Figure 15. Over-exploitation of groundwater in India. The hatched portions show areas where, due to extraction of groundwater, xx List of Figures

especially for irrigation, the groundwater levels have in general fallen by more than 4 m @ > 20 cm/yr during 1981–2000 912 Figure 16. People queuing for water for domestic use 914

Chapter 19. Reservoirs and Lakes 937 Figure 1. Distribution of dams and their age 941 Figure 2. Number of days of average flows that can be stored in reservoirs in various river basins in India. For comparison, the data of Colorado River (USA) has also been plotted 950 Figure 3. Per capita reservoir storage space in selected countries of the world 950 Figure 4. A picturesque lake of Udaipur 974 Figure 5. The holy lake of Amritsar with the Golden Temple 977 Figure 6. The Brahma Sarovar, in Kurushetra city (Haryana) 977

Chapter 20. Water Quality and Related Aspects 997 Figure 1. Number, population, water supply, and wastewater – growth in Class-1 cities for three past years. Note that the variables represent different features and the Y-axis scale should be viewed accordingly 1004 Figure 2. Number, population, water supply, and wastewater – growth in Class-2 cities for three past years. Note that the variables represent different features and the Y-axis scale should be viewed accordingly 1005

Chapter 22. Inter-Basin Water Transfer 1065 Figure 1. Per capita per year water availability for selected Indian basins 1067 Figure 2. National water grid proposed by Dr. K. L. Rao 1075 Figure 3. The Garland Canal proposal of Capt. Dastur 1076 Figure 4. Overview of links of river linking scheme 1082 Figure 5. Diagram showing the effect of IBWT on utilization (Curve for the future depict expected scenario) of water resources. 1083 Figure 6. Himalayan component of the ILR scheme 1085 Figure 7. Peninsular component of the ILR scheme 1090

Chapter 24. Concepts of Water Governance for India 1155 Figure 1. The states covered under Hydrology Project 1 (total area of 1.7 million sq. km) and location of data centers 1158 Figure 2. Overall structure of HIS and flow of data 1159 List of Figures xxi

Figure 3. A typical hydro-met observatory set-up under HP-1 1160 Figure 4. Measurement of discharge using moving boat method 1160 Figure 5. Flow of data between HIS and users 1162 Figure 6. Per capita water availability in India for some past and future years. Note that the ordinates on x-axis are not even-spaced 1166 Figure 7. A conceptual framework for IWRM 1177 LIST OF TABLES

Chapter 1. Physical Environment of India 3 Table 1. Area of Himalayas above various contour heights 5 Table 2. Area and population of Indian states and union territories 10 Table 3. Selected climatic variables at important cities of India 12 Table 4. Maximum and minimum summer and winter temperatures for various states and union territories in India 13 Table 5. Normal dates of onset and withdrawal of monsoons 18 Table 6. Snow covered areas of Himalayas lying between 70 and 100 E and south of 40 N during different months 22 Table 7. Principal Glacier fed river system of Himalayas 24 Table 8. Physical characteristics of the glaciers with snout ages and average flow rates 27 Table 9. Meteorological sub-divisions of India 28 Table 10. Land use classification of India 33 Table 11. Statewise forest coverage in India 36 Table 12. All India Cropping Pattern for 1993–94 43 Table 13. The production of the principal crops according to 1991–92 44 Table 14. Agro-climatic Classification of India 44 Table 15. Agro-climatic zones of India 46 Table 16. Food Demand assuming a 5% GDP growth at constant prices 48 Table 17. Ramsar Wetlands in India 55 Table 18. Number and areas of inland wetlands 56 Table 19. Coastal wetlands of India 56 xxiii xxiv List of Tables

Chapter 2. Water Budget and Population of India 65 Table 1. World Water Reserves 70 Table 2. Annual water balance of oceans 70 Table 3. Annual Water Balance of Continents 71 Table 4. Per capita availability of water 71 Table 5. Atmospheric Water Balance of India (All components in million ha-m) 73 Table 6. Hydrologic Water Balance of India (All components in million ha-m per year) 74 Table 7. Ground water balance of India (All components in million ha-m) 77 Table 8. Population of Indian states and union territories (2001 census) 78 Table 9. Population statistics of India, 1901–1991 79 Table 10. Classification of Indian urban areas 80 Table 11. Total urban population and share of classI&II cities 80 Table 12. Projections of India’s population 81 Table 13. Population projections by different sources 82 Table 14. Urban and rural population projections for India 82 Table 15. Food demand estimates 83 Table 16. Projected foodgrain and feed demand for India 84

Chapter 3. Rainfall and Analysis of Rainfall Data 87 Table 1. Raingauge Stations in Himalayan Region 91 Table 2. The Snow-cover and runoff characteristics 98 Table 3. Values of coefficients K and n for storms of different durations 103 Table 4. Annual normals of rainfall (cm) for major river basins of India 104 Table 5. Coefficient of skewness of annual extreme series at selected stations 104 Table 6. Statistical estimates of annual extreme series at some stations 106 Table 7. Average monthly rainfall for selected stations in India 109 Table 8. Normal monthly and annual rainfall (mm) at selected places in Himalayas 111 Table 9. Table showing seasonal normals of rainfall (cm) for major river basins of India 114 Table 10. Mean seasonal and annual rainfall (cm) for different sub-divisions of India using data of period 1891 to 1970 115 Table 11. Sub-division wise monthly, seasonal, and annual rainfall (cm) normal (based on data 1901–50) 116 List of Tables xxv

Table 12. Observed extreme rainfall events of the world 118 Table 13. Distribution of past severe rainstorms over India 122 Table 14. Details of meteorological disturbances which have caused severe rainstorms 122 Table 15. Summary of some important world-wide precipitation distribution studies 125 Table 16. Seasonal distribution of average rainfall in different ranges of Himalayas in the Satluj basin 126 Table 17. Seasonal distribution of average rainfall in different ranges of Himalayas in the Beas basin 126 Table 18. Spatial correlation function for different Himalayan ranges of Satluj and Beas basins 127 Table 19. Variation of precipitation with altitude 128 Table 20. Variation of Precipitation with Elevation in Beas Catchment 129 Table 21. Depth-Area-Duration analysis computation for one-day storm (30.08.1982) 136 Table 22. DAD values (cm) of severe rainstorms over India 139 Table 23. Typical values of constants in equation 13 141 Table 24. Maximum 24-hour rainfall magnitudes observed in India 144 Table 25. Representative values of constants in eq. (25) 147 Table 26. Computation of rainfall depths and intensities for various return periods (Example 3.1) 147 Table 27. Variables of long range monsoon forecast model 149 Table 28. Parameters of long range monsoon forecast model 150 Table 29. Terms defined by Kane (2004) for ENSO phenomena 150 Table 30. Occurrence of droughts in India 152 Table 31. Occurrence of droughts in India (additional data). 152 Table 32. Occurrence of floods in India 153

Chapter 4. Evaporation and Other Meteorological Data 155 Table 1. Variation of Pan Coefficient values with month 164 Table 2. Typical features of evaporation for various months 166 Table 3. Observed Evaporation Losses from reservoirs 167 Table 4. Water losses due to evaporation (in km3) 168 Table 5. Table showing minimum/maximum temperatures of major cities in India 175

Table 6. Monthly Mean values of the extra-terrestrial radiation, Lpat the top of the atmosphere in the unit W/m2 190 Table 7. Monthly Mean values of possible sunshine hours, N 192 xxvi List of Tables

Chapter 5. Runoff and Streamflow 193 Table 1. WMO recommended minimum density of streamflow stations 194 Table 2. Basin-wise hydrological and sediment observation sites of CWC 195 Table 3. Bed Load Correction Table 209 Table 4. Classification of storage projects based on gross storage and hydraulic head 214 Table 5. Guidelines for selecting design floods 215 Table 6. Recommended design criteria for flood control schemes 217 Table 7. Commonly used empirical formulae 219 Table 8. Values of coefficient C in Dicken’s formula used to compute the maximum flow for some catchments in UP 219 Table 9. Coefficient C in Dicken’s formula corresponding to different return periods for some of the catchments in UP used for maximum flood flow computation 220 Table 10. Coefficient C in Dicken’s formula depending upon the catchments topography 220 Table 11. Coefficient C in Ryve’s formula for some of the catchments in UP used for peak flow computation 220 Table 12. Value of the coefficient C for different types of areas 222 Table 13. Hydro-meteorologically homogenous sub-zones of the country 224 Table 14. Recommended -index values for application to PMP 226 Table 15. Typical values of Co-efficient a 226 Table 16. Values of Baseflow during flood season 231

Chapter 6. Groundwater 235 Table 1. Major Geological Formations of India 238 Table 2. District wise infiltration rates in India at the selected locations 253 Table 3. Range of infiltration rates in selected basins in India 254 Table 4. Status of Ground Water Hydrograph Network Stations 257 Table 5. Static fresh ground water resource – Basinwise 261 Table 6. Static fresh ground water resources-Statewise 262 Table 7. Specific capacity of dug wells in different hard rocks formation 264 Table 8. Well Spacing in Different Formations 265 Table 9. Area Underlain by Saline Ground water in Different States 277 Table 10. Norms for Specific Yield 280 List of Tables xxvii

Table 11. Norms for Recharge from Rainfall 281 Table 12. Norms for Recharge due to seepage from canals 281 Table 13. Recharge as percentage of application 282 Table 14. Average Annual Gross Draft for Ground Water Structures in Different States 283 Table 15. CWC (1995) Guidelines for ground water extraction 288

Chapter 7. River Basins of India 297 Table 1. Catchment area, average annual water yield and length of selected major rivers of the World 298 Table 2. Principal Himalayan rivers of India 301 Table 3. Classification of Indian river basins based on size 313 Table 4. Major river basins of the country 314 Table 5. Medium river basins of India 315 Table 6. Surface water resources potential of river basins km3 of India 318 Table 7. Monthly discharge of selected rivers as percentage of annual discharge 320 Table 8. Ground Water Potential in River Basins of India (Pro Rata Basis) (Unit: km3/year) 321 Table 9. Ground Water Resource of India as on March 2003 (unit km3/year) 322 Table 10. Total utilizable ground water resource of India 323 Table 11. Categorization of Areas of Ground Water Development 325 Table 12. Categorization of blocks/taluks/watersheds as over exploited and dark on all India basis 326 Table 13. India: State wise Ground water Structures (in thousands) and Ground Water Draft (ham) 328 Table 14. Number of groundwater wells and created irrigation potential from 1950 onwards 328

Chapter 8. Ganga Basin 333 Table 1. Area of the GBB basin by countries and geographical regions 334 Table 2. Areas of different countries (thousand sq. km) in the basin 335 Table 3. State-wise distribution of the drainage area of Ganga River in India 339 Table 4. Drainage area of different tributaries of Ganga 343 Table 5. The catchment of Yamuna River in various states 347 Table 6. Statewise allocation of utilizable flows of Yamuna River 347 Table 7. Different Segments of Yamuna River 348 Table 8. Salient features of Eastern Yamuna Canal 371 xxviii List of Tables

Table 9. Parameters of Aquifer Groups of WYC area 373 Table 10. Salient features of the Tehri Dam Project 379 Table 11. Catchment area intercepted up to various structures 388 Table 12. Storage in the Gandhisagar dam on various dates 389 Table 13. Salient features of Chambal Canal System 390 Table 14. Salient features of the Maithon Reservoir 395 Table 15. Salient features of Panchet Reservoir 395 Table 16. Salient features of some existing projects in Ganga Basin 399 Table 17. Salient features of some projects under construction in Ganga Basin 403 Table 18. Hydroelectric Projects Proposed or being executed in Uttaranchal 405 Table 19. Important Irrigation Schemes in the Ganga Basin 409 Table 20. Desired and Existing (at various times) Water Quality Levels for Ganga 414 Table 21. Desired and Existing (at various times) Water Quality Levels for Yamuna 417 Table 22. Groundwater potential Mm3 in Indo-Nepal basins 418

Chapter 9. Brahmaputra and Barak Basin 419 Table 1. Water Resources Potential in Northeastern Region 420 Table 2. Reachwise distribution of length, catchment area, gradient of the Brahmaputra River and nature of topography through which the river flows 421 Table 3. Statewise Distribution of the Indian part of the Brahmaputra catchment area 422 Table 4. Topographic distribution of Brahmaputra basin area 422 Table 5. Some parameters of major north bank tributaries of the Brahmaputra River in the middle reach in Assam (India) 426 Table 6. Some parameters of the south bank tributaries of Brahmaputra confluencing in the middle reach in the Assam State 427 Table 7. Statewise distribution of drainage area of Barak River 429 Table 8. Annual weather phenomenon at some stations within the Brahmaputra basin 434 Table 9. Temperature and mean relative humidity at some stations in the Brahmaputra basin 434 Table 10. Monthly mean of daily maximum and minimum temperature (in C) of some stations located in the Brahmaputra basin 435 Table 11. Ground water potential (BCM) NE Region 442 Table 12. Production and productivity of four major crops of Assam 444 List of Tables xxix

Table 13. Mean monthly rainfall and rainy days of four stations in the Brahmaputra Basin 446 Table 14. Average rainfall of some north bank tributary basins of the Brahmaputra in the middle reach 447 Table 15. Average rainfall of some south bank tributary basins of the Brahmaputra in the middle reach 447 Table 16. Maximum recorded 24-hour rainfall in different months at four stations 449 Table 17. Contributions to the annual yield at Guwahati by the main river at Pasighat and main tributaries 451 Table 18. Recorded maximum and minimum discharge of the Brahmaputra River at different sites 451 Table 19. Observed maximum and minimum discharge of some major tributaries of the Brahmaputra River in its middle reach (in India) 452 Table 20. Tentative assessment of flood damage of Assam during 1953 to 1995 453 Table 21. Maximum observed floods at Pandu (Guwahati) 453 Table 22. Works completed as part of flood management during the last three decades 453 Table 23. Occurrences of floods in the Brahmaputra River in the valley reach during monsoon months 454 Table 24. Number and duration of floods of some major tributaries of the Brahmaputra at its middle reach 455 Table 25. Observed highest flood level of the Brahmaputra River in the valley reach 456 Table 26. Observed highest flood level and danger level of some tributaries of the Brahmaputra River within the valley reach (middle reach) 457 Table 27. Reachwise travel time (time lag) of flood wave of the Brahmaputra River from Pasighat to Dhubri in the valley (middle reach) portion 457 Table 28. Average annual suspended sediment load of some important tributaries of the Brahmaputra River 458 Table 29. Width of the Brahmaputra River in different reaches from Kobo to the Indo-Bangladesh border 460 Table 30. Sub-basin wise estimated hydro potential of Brahmaputra basin 462 Table 31. Status of major hydropower projects in North Eastern Region of India 462 Table 32. Identified small hydropower schemes in NE Region 463 Table 33. Projects under construction in NE region 466 Table 34. Some project proposals that are under investigation in north-east region 468 Table 35. Types of Wetland in Assam 470 xxx List of Tables

Chapter 10. Indus Basin 473 Table 1. Statewise drainage area of Indus basin (in Indian Territory) 475 Table 2. Crop Area and Production inJ&K 475 Table 3. Salient climatic features of Jammu Division in Indus basin 478 Table 4. Monthly rainfall and pan evaporation at Jammu 478 Table 5. The hydropower potential of Beas River in the Himachal Pradesh state 482 Table 6. Hydropower potential of Ravi Basin 483 Table 7. Salient features of Satluj catchment 486 Table 8. Hydropower Potential in Satluj Basin 488 Table 9. Seasonal flow of Indus River and its tributaries 489 Table 10. The installed capacity of hydropower plants under Bhakra system 495 Table 11. Details of Water bodies in Jammu & Kashmir (Area wise) 504 Table 12. Brief summary of the main projects 506 Table 13. Salient features of the Mangala dam 507 Table 14. Status of Water Quality of rivers of Punjab 510 Table 15. Details of Hydroelectric projects being given to private sector by Govt. of HP 510

Chapter 11. Narmada Basin 513 Table 1. Statewise drainage area of Narmada basin 514 Table 2. Maximum and minimum temperatures at Khandwa and Punasa towns 519 Table 3. Maximum and Minimum temperature in Jamtara Sub-basin 520 Table 4. Details of selected tributaries of Narmada 523 Table 5. List of Observatories in and around Narmada Basin 525 Table 6. Monthly distribution of normal annual rainfall 525 Table 7. Seasonal normals of rainfall (cm) for Narmada basin 526 Table 8. Average monthly rainfall for selected stations in Narmada basin 526 Table 9. Maximum and Minimum Temperature for a few cities in/near Narmada Basin 527 Table 10. Monthly potential evaporation for Kolar sub-basin in Narmada Basin 527 Table 11. Land-use details in the Narmada Basin (area in km2 529 List of Tables xxxi

Table 12. Some details of the cross section of Narmada River at selected gauging sites 529 Table 13. The parameters defining rating curves for various sites 530 Table 14. Annual average observed runoff at selected CWC sites in Narmada basin 532 Table 15. Desired and existing water quality levels for Narmada 535 Table 16. Soil depth in Kolar basin 536 Table 17. Particle size distribution 536 Table 18. Thirty-one projects envisaged in the Narmada Basin 538 Table 19. Utilisation by Major Water Resources Projects in Narmada Basin, MP 539 Table 20. Design storms recommended for Sardar Sarovar 540 Table 21. Salient features of Sardar Sarovar Project 546 Table 22. Salient features of Narmadasagar Project 547 Table 23. Design storms recommended for Narmada Sagar 548 Table 24. Salient features of Omkareshwar Project 549 Table 25. Salient features of Maheshwar Hydel Project 549 Table 26. Salient features of selected existing projects in Narmada Basin 552 Table 27. Salient features of selected Under Construction Projects in Narmada Basin 553 Table 28. Salient features of various catchments of the sub-zones 3(b) and 3(c) 553

Chapter 12. Tapi, Sabarmati and Mahi Basins 561 Table 1. State-wise distribution of the Tapi basin 562 Table 2. Area (%) of different districts within three sub-basins 563 Table 3. Area covered by various soils in Tapi basin 567 Table 4. Major land uses in Tapi basin (for the year 1995–96) 568 Table 5. Meteorological data and evapo-transpiration estimation for sub-basins of Tapi 569 Table 6. Average flow (in 109 m3) at different CWC gauging stations (Catchment area > 5000 km2) 570 Table 7. Major/Medium existing Projects in Tapi basin 571 Table 8. Water utilized for power generation at Ukai Dam 573 Table 9. Rule levels recommended by Task group for Ukai Reservoir 576 Table 10. Salient features of selected existing projects in Tapi basin 577 xxxii List of Tables

Table 11. Salient features of selected projects under construction in Tapi basin in Maharashtra 577 Table 12. Ground water recharge and potential for three sub-basins of Tapi 578 Table 13. Desired and existing water quality levels for Tapi 579 Table 14. Statewise drainage areas of Sabarmati basin 579 Table 15. Salient features of selected existing projects in Sabarmati basin 588 Table 16. Desired and existing water quality levels for Sabarmati 588 Table 17. Statewise drainage area of Mahi River 589 Table 18. Salient features of selected existing projects in Mahi basin 594 Table 19. List of the Projects under construction in Mahi Basin 594 Table 20. Desired and existing water quality levels for Mahi 595

Chapter 13. Mahanadi, Subernarekha and Brahmani Basins 597 Table 1. Statewise distribution of drainage area of Mahanadi River 598 Table 2. Important sub-basins of Mahanadi and their catchment areas 600 Table 3. Pan evaporation data (cm) of two stations in Mahanadi Basin 603 Table 4. Gauge-Discharge sites on Mahanadi River and its tributaries 604 Table 5. Estimates of water availability for various sites in Mahanadi Basin 605 Table 6. Salient features of Hirakud reservoir 606 Table 7. Salient features of selected existing projects in Mahanadi basin 609 Table 8. Salient features of selected projects under construction in Mahanadi basin 610 Table 9. Desired and existing water quality levels for Mahanadi 610 Table 10. Statewise distribution of drainage areas of Subernarekha system 611 Table 11. Rivers in Subernarekha system and their catchment areas 612 Table 12. Annual average observed runoff at selected CWC sites in Subernarekha basin 615 Table 13. Salient Features of Reservoirs in Subernarekha River Basin 616 List of Tables xxxiii

Table 14. Subernarekha Multipurpose project (Phase I): direct benefits pertaining to the entire scheme when complete 618 Table 15. Salient features of selected existing projects in the Subernarekha system 618 Table 16. Salient features of selected projects under construction in Subernarekha basin 619 Table 17. Highlights of Tripartite Agreement up to Kokpara (UK) and Below Kokpara (BK) 619 Table 18. Tripartite Agreement for water at Icha Dam 620 Table 19. Tripartite Agreement Features at Galudih Barrage 620 Table 20. Culturable commanded areas and capacities of important canals in Subernarekha system 621 Table 21. Upstream and Downstream Annual Irrigation and Municipal and Industrial Water Supply Requirements (in MCM) 622 Table 22. Desired and existing water quality levels for Subernarekha 623 Table 23. Geographical Area and Population within Basin 623 Table 24. Land Use Details of Brahmani Basin (area in km2) 626 Table 25. Annual Ground Water Availability in Brahmani Basin 627 Table 26. Monthly average runoff at three gauge stations in the basin 628 Table 27. Water withdrawals and uses Mm3/Year for various uses in Brahmani Basin 628 Table 28. Arable land & Irrigated land in Brahmani basin 630 Table 29. Gross Area (in km2) under Different Crops in Brahmani Basin 630 Table 30. Current withdrawals of water for domestic use in Brahmani basin 631 Table 31. Water demand & waste water generation from major industries in Brahmani Basin 632 Table 32. Current withdrawal of water for industrial use 632 Table 33. Desired and existing water quality levels for Brahmani 633 Table 34. Irrigation & Water Need by 2025 in Brahmani Basin 634 Table 35. Annual average observed runoff at CWC sites in Brahmani and Baitarni basin (Catchment area > 5000 km2) 634 Table 36. Salient particulars of the existing Projects in Brahmani and Baitarani basin 638 Table 37. Salient particulars of the Projects Under construction in Brahmani and Baitarni basins 638 Table 38. Desired and observed water quality classes for Baitarani 639 xxxiv List of Tables

Chapter 14. Krishna and Godavari Basins 641 Table 1. Statewise area of Krishna Basin 642 Table 2. Details of major tributaries of Krishna River 643 Table 3. Annual average observed runoff at some CWC sites in Krishna basin 651 Table 4. Desired and existing water quality status of Krishna River (1997–2001) 652 Table 5. Salient features of Narayanpur dam 653 Table 6. Salient features of Almatti dam 655 Table 7. Salient features of the Ghatprabha (Hidkal) dam 660 Table 8. Salient features of the Tungabhadra project 661 Table 9. Salient features of Vanivilas Sagar project 662 Table 10. Salient features of Bennihora Project 663 Table 11. Salient features of Bhadha Reservoir Project 663 Table 12. Salient features of Bhima Project 664 Table 13. Salient features of Hipparagi Barrage 665 Table 14. Salient features of Malprabha Project 666 Table 15. Salient features of Upper Tunga project 668 Table 16. Salient features of Markendaya Project 669 Table 17. Salient features of Singatalur Lift Irrigation Project 669 Table 18. Salient features of Osmansagar Reservoir 670 Table 19. Salient features of selected existing projects in Krishna basin 671 Table 20. Salient features of selected Under construction projects in Krishna basin 673 Table 21. Distribution of catchment area in Godavari basin 674 Table 22. Important Tributaries of Godavari 677 Table 23. Rainfall Pattern in the Sub-basins of Godavari 681 Table 24. Desired and existing water quality levels of Godavari River (1997–2001) 682 Table 25. Annual average observed runoff at Important CWC sites in Godavari basin 683 Table 26. Salient features of Inchampally Project 685 Table 27. Salient features of Polavaram Project 685 Table 28. Salient features of Karanja Project 686 Table 29. Salient features of Sriramsagar Project 688 Table 30. Salient features of selected existing projects in Godavari basin 695 Table 31. Salient features of selected under construction projects in Godavari basin 697 Table 32. Flood stages at various gauging sites of Godavari River during August 1986 698 Table 33. Normal average depth of rainfall and actual flood period rainfall depths in various sub-basins of the Godavari River basin 698 List of Tables xxxv

Chapter 15. Cauvery and Pennar Basins 701 Table 1. Statewise distribution of drainage area of Cauvery basin 702 Table 2. Salient features of tributaries of Cauvery River 703 Table 3. Sub-basin wise Area, average annual Rainfall, Runoff at 75% Water Year Dependable Flow and Ground Water Potential 705 Table 4. Annual average observed runoff at CWC sites in Cauvery basin (Catchment area >5000 km2) 705 Table 5. Sub basin wise ground water potential at Cauvery River Basin in India 714 Table 6. Utilization, area irrigated by completed major and medium projects in Cauvery basin 715 Table 7. Salient features of KRS Project 716 Table 8. Salient features of Nugu Reservoir Project 719 Table 9. Salient features of Harangi dam 721 Table 10. Salient features of the Hemavathi project 722 Table 11. Salient features of the Kabini Reservoir Project 723 Table 12. Utilization, area irrigated and benefits under completed medium projects in the Cauvery basin 724 Table 13. List of the Completed projects in Cauvery Basin 725 Table 14. List of the Under Construction projects in Cauvery Basin 725 Table 15. Desired and existing water quality levels for Cauvery 726 Table 16. Statewise drainage areas of Pennar basin 728 Table 17. Monthly Temperature Data of Nellore 730 Table 18. Areas of various sub-basins under Pennar basin 731 Table 19. Annual average observed runoff at some CWC sites in Pennar basin 736 Table 20. Land use in Pennar basin 736 Table 21. Withdrawals for Domestic and Industrial needs (MCM) in Different Sub-basins (Year 1999–2000) 737 Table 22. Water Availability and Demand in Pennar Basin 738 Table 23. Desired and existing water quality classes for Pennar 739 Table 24. Some features of Somasila Project 740 Table 25. List of the Completed projects in Pennar Basin in Andhra Pradesh 740 Table 26. List of the Projects under construction in Pennar Basin in Andhra Pradesh 741

Chapter 16. Other Basins and Islands 743 Table 1. West flowing rivers and their tributaries 744 Table 2. Statewise catchment areas of west flowing rivers of Kachchh and Saurashtra 745 xxxvi List of Tables

Table 3. Salient features of selected existing projects in West Flowing Rivers of Kutch And Saurashtra Including Luni basin 752 Table 4. Salient features of selected under construction projects in West Flowing Rivers of Kutch and Saurashtra Including Luni basin 753 Table 5. Statewise catchment areas of west flowing rivers South of Tapi 754 Table 6. Salient features of west flowing rivers south of Tapi 754 Table 7. Salient features of selected existing projects across West flowing Rivers South of Tapi 763 Table 8. Salient features of selected under construction projects in West flowing Rivers South of Tapi 764 Table 9. Statewise catchment areas of east flowing rivers between Mahanadi and Godavari 765 Table 10. Salient features of selected existing projects in existing east flowing Rivers from Mahanadi to Godavari and Krishna to Pennar basin 772 Table 11. Salient features of selected under construction projects in existing east flowing Rivers from Mahanadi to Godavari and Krishna to Pennar basin 772 Table 12. Statewise catchment areas of east flowing rivers, between Pennar and Cauvery 773 Table 13. Salient features of selected existing projects in east flowing Rivers Between Pennar and Kanyakumari 783 Table 14. Salient features of selected under construction projects in east flowing Rivers Between Pennar and Kanyakumari 784 Table 15. State-wise distribution of drainage area of minor rivers of Tripura and Mizoram 784 Table 16. Annual average observed runoff at selected CWC sites in East & West flowing Rivers (Catchment area > 5000 km2 785 Table 17. Population statistics for the Andaman and Nicobar islands 788

Chapter 17. Major Uses of Water in India 799 Table 1. Basic water requirements for human needs 802 Table 2. Recommended norms for water supply 802 Table 3. Cost of unreliable supply and poor quality water 804 Table 4. Planwise Cumulative Irrigation Potential Created and Utilized (in M-ha) 806 Table 5. Statewise Details of Irrigation Potential created and Gap (all in 1,000 ha) 807 List of Tables xxxvii

Table 6. Statewise Irrigation potential from ground water (as on 1996–97) 809 Table 7. Irrigation development from different sources (in thousand ha) 811 Table 8. Irrigation related projections for three years 811 Table 9. Area sown and irrigated from 1950–51 to 1997–98 812 Table 10. Area irrigated under principal crops during the year 1997–98 813 Table 11. Productivity of selected crops in India 813 Table 12. Crop water productivity in some states of India 814 Table 13. Constraints in rainfed areas 814 Table 14. Water requirement for irrigation 815 Table 15. Summary of field studies on sprinkler – water saving and productivity 823 Table 16. Water used and yield for various crops in micro and conventional methods 824 Table 17. Cumulative achievements of CAD programme as of 2000 and targets for a year 829 Table 18. The number of water user’s associations formed and the command area covered by 1998 832 Table 19. Financial results of WRD projects (All India) (in crore rupees) 836 Table 20. Irrigation project – working expenses, gross receipts, and range of water rates in 1991–92 836 Table 21. World Electricity Generation by Source (2003) 842 Table 22. Continent-wise percentage of developed hydropower potential 842 Table 23. Hydropower generation by major producers of the world 843 Table 24. Hydro Composition Vs Total Electricity Generation 843 Table 25. Capacity and Production of Global Regional Hydropower 844 Table 26. Hydropower capacity additions during 10th and 11th plans 844 Table 27. Estimated energy and peak load requirement 845 Table 28. Basin-Wise of Hydroelectric Potential of Indian River System 846 Table 29. Hydro electrical potential of Nepal 848 Table 30. Hydropower stations in operation (IC of 50 MW and above) 850 Table 31. Hydropower stations under construction (IC range – 50 MW and above) 853 xxxviii List of Tables

Table 32. Status of Hydro Electric Potential Development (region wise) by 2005 854 Table 33. Status of Hydro Electric Potential Development (State Wise) As on 31.08.1998 855 Table 34. Classification of Micro, Mini & Small Hydel Schemes in India 856 Table 35. Identified Small Hydro Projects (Up to 25 MW Capacity) 856 Table 36. Pumped storage development in India 858 Table 37. Water consumption by industries (year 1996–97) 860 Table 38. Water requirements for different industries for 2010, 2025, 2050 861 Table 39. Waste water generation from different types of industries and achievable reuse 862 Table 40. Annual Water requirement for different uses (in km3) 866 Table 41. Summary of Basin-wise total water requirement for 2050 867 Table 42. State wise net water requirement in 2010, 2025 & 2050 868 Table 43. Water use – Changing trends of the future 868 Table 44. Virtual water contents of a few selected products 869 Table 45. Top ten virtual water importing and exporting countries 870

Chapter 18. Problems Related to Water Resources Management in India 871 Table 1. Flood prone and protected area in India 875 Table 2. Social, environmental, and economic impacts of droughts 895 Table 3. Drought years in the past centuries 896 Table 4. Details of droughts since independence 896 Table 5. Probability of occurrence of drought in different meteorological sub division 897 Table 6. Drought Prone Area of India 897 Table 7. Percentage occurrence of drought of class moderate and above in the Kharif season 899 Table 8. Statewise area of arid and semi–arid zones 899 Table 9. Drought classification based on PDSI 902 Table 10. Statewise Irrigation Status of Drought Prone and other states (in ha) 906 Table 11. Arid agro-climatic zones of India 909 Table 12. Blocks with intensive exploitation of groundwater 911 List of Tables xxxix

Table 13. Annual availability and withdrawal of water for drinking purpose in Delhi 916 Table 14. Norms for Categorization of Waterlogged Areas in Some States 918 Table 15. Extent of Waterlogged Area in India 920 Table 16. Criteria adopted to classify salt-affected soils 922 Table 17. State-Wise Salt Affected Area in India (Thousand ha) 923 Table 18. The number of resettlers from some major projects 924 Table 19. Retreat of selected Himalayan glaciers 931 Table 20. Ground water pollution in Hard Rock Region 935

Chapter 19. Reservoirs and Lakes 937 Table 1. Classification of dams 939 Table 2. Distribution of large dams according to age 940 Table 3. Storage projects in river basins of India 942 Table 4. Storage capacities km3 in different states 943 Table 5. Distribution of dams in India 943 Table 6. Statewise and riverwise distribution of large dams 944 Table 7. Distribution of small reservoirs and irrigation tanks in India 947 Table 8. Distribution of medium, large and total reservoirs in India 947 Table 9. Fifty highest Indian dams 948 Table 10. Comparative advantages, limitations, and key issues associated with groundwater, small surface reservoir, and a large surface reservoir 951 Table 11. Contrast of characteristics of the High Aswan Dam, Dharoi reservoir, and a minor tank in Sri Lanka 953 Table 12. Number of major dam failures up to 1965 961 Table 13. Design floods and observed highest floods for a few projects 962 Table 14. Sedimentation of Reservoirs in India (10% of storage and above) 967 Table 15. Comparison between actual and design rate of sedimentation in some Indian reservoirs 970 Table 16. Annual percentage loss in gross, live and dead storages 970 Table 17. Values of K and n in Murthy’s Equation 971 Table 18. Reduction of Sedimentation Rate with Time – Indian Reservoirs 973 Table 19. Important differences between natural lakes and man-made reservoirs 975 xl List of Tables

Table 20. Salient features of some of the important lakes in India 988 Table 21. Lakes in the Uttaranchal State 996

Chapter 20. Water Quality and Related Aspects 997 Table 1. Designated best uses of water 999 Table 2. Water Quality standards in India (Source IS 2296:1992) 1000 Table 3. Guidelines for evaluation of irrigation water quality 1001 Table 4. Drinking water specifications (IS 10,500:1991) 1001 Table 5. Categories of major sources of ground water contamination 1002 Table 6. Increasing urbanization in India 1003 Table 7. Growth of metro cities in India 1003 Table 8. Water supply and sanitation status in Class-1 and Class-2 cities in three years 1005 Table 9. Average chemical composition (ppm) of some Indian Rivers 1013 Table 10. Some polluted river stretches in India 1014 Table 11. Ground water provinces based on hydro-chemical quality 1016 Table 12. Common ground water contaminants and their effects 1017 Table 13. Permissible limit of fluoride in drinking water prescribed by various organizations 1019 Table 14. Land-use activities & their potential threat to ground water quality 1022 Table 15. State wise details of contamination of ground water in some areas of the districts due to various contaminants 1023 Table 16. Results of chemical analysis carried by CPCB 1026 Table 17. Water related diseases and Causative factors 1031 Table 18. Relevant laws to protect water and environment in India 1032

Chapter 21. Constitutional Provisions, Inter-State Water Disputes and Treaties 1035 Table 1. Allocation of Godavari water by GWDT among three states 1043 Table 2. Allocation of Krishna water by KWDT among three states 1047 Table 3. Allocation of Narmada water by NWDT among four states 1049 Table 4. Allocation of water of Satluj-Yamuna link by Eradi tribunal in 1987 1057 List of Tables xli

Chapter 22. Inter-Basin Water Transfer 1065 Table 1. Water Resources Potential of River Basins of India 1066 Table 2. Skewed distribution of water resources in India 1067 Table 3. Annual water requirement km3 for different uses 1068 Table 4. Overview of IBWT schemes world wide 1073 Table 5. Allocation of water of Indus basin among the Indian states 1079 Table 6. Proposed Fourteen Links in the Himalayan Component 1085 Table 7. Status of proposed existing and additional irrigation facilities under the Ghagra – Yamuna link project 1087 Table 8. Proposed links in the Peninsular Component 1091 Table 9. Salient features of the Peninsular Components 1092 Table 10. Some broad details of works involved in ILR 1097

Chapter 23. Institutions in the Field of Hydrology and Water Resources 1111 Table 1. Responsibilities for water sector functions by organizations 1112 Table 2. Major waterways projects in progress 1116 Table 3. Indicative list of development and deployment of Indian satellites 1120 Table 4. Atmospheric monitoring networks 1127 Table 5. Sectional committees of the Water Resources Department of BIS 1131 Table 6. List of WALMIs in India with years of establishment 1142 Table 7. R and D activities in the Ministry of Water Resources 1153 Table 8. Various Indian National Committees (INCs) and their subject domains 1153

Chapter 24. Concepts of Water Governance for India 1155 Table 1. Water availability and potential for enhanced recharge 1175 Table 2. Hierarchical coding of watersheds by AISLUS. 1178