ISSN 1041-4479

Archaeologist

Volume 7, Number 1, 1989

GOTHIC OBELISK CROSS-VAUL" OBELISK

TABLET PULPIT SCROLL

: bilTI

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Traditional types of grave-markers (from FrancavigUa 1971), (see article by Reno and Reno, page 14).

Nevada Archaeological Association "_Yodo BOARD Archo_ologlcol Association The Board of the Nt'l'ada ArciJaeufogi:'t is e lected by the members of th e Nevada Archaeo logical Association. The Board appoints the editor of the Nfllada A rchaevlogJ5t for a term of three yea rs. "{h e de!' IKfI ftl' the NAA It):?!' il' a ~ adapted by Robert [ [:;tUrt fron! a Garfield Flat ,' <'i roglypll. Member Bob Elston NEVADA ARC HA EOLOGICAL ASSN.

MEMBERSHIP Mi.'mbt.·r Robert Leavitt NEVA DA ARC HAEOLOGICAL ASS". Th(' \leva d~ A rchaeologicaJ Association is an incorpo­ ratt"'d, n o n ~ pr o fjt organization regi ~ t (' r (' d in th e S tat l~ of Member Ramona r~ t~no f',; evaJ a, and has no paid employees. Ml' mbt" rship is opt'n NEVADA ARCHAEOLOGICAL ASSN. to any pe rson interes'.('d in archael1!ogy and it s alli ed scie nces, and in the co nservation of archaeological Me mber Jean Myles resources. Re~u es t s for membership and dues should be ~ EVA DA ARC HAEO LOGIC \L ASSN. sent to th E> treasurer whose address is li sted be lo\\', Ma k(.· all cht.'cks and money orders payable to the Nevada An:hae­ Memb~r Dianne Je nnings ologica l Association. ME'mb('rship cards will be issued on C HURC HILL CO UNTY CHAPTER paym e nt of Ju('s, i> nd active mcmbers receive subsc ription 'JEVA DA ARC HAEO LOG IC AL ASSN. to the Nevada Archat'vi(Jgist. Subscription is by membership only, but individual or back issues may be purchased Member Helen Mortenson sepa rately. THE ARCHAEO-NEVADA SOCIETY

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President Helen Mortenson 876-6944 Back issues of the Nevada A rc hafOi(lgi ..:; t may be 3930 EI Camino Road ordered through Ramona Reno, P.O. Box 105, Silver La s Vegas, ~ V 89103 City, Ne vada 89428. Checks or money orders should be made out to the Nevada Archaeological Association. Secretary Ramona Reno 84 7-0334 Volume 1 (one issue), and Volume 2, Numbers 1 and 2, P.O . Box 105 are available at $3.00 each issue. Volume 3, Number 1 Sil ver City, ~V 89428 and (ollowing issues are $4.00.

Treasurer Robert Leavitt FUTURE ISSUES 1739 Carita Ave. Henderson, Nevada 89015 Manuscripts submitted to the Nez10da ArchoeoloS1~1 should follow the style guide of the A pri!, 1983 issue of Edito r Dr. Gary Haynes 784-6704 American Antiquity. Manuscripts should be typed and Dept. of Anthropologv double spaced throughout, in cl uding notes and bibli­ University of Nevada, Reno ography. and illustrations should be camera-ready with Reno. Nevada 89557 a caption typed on a st>parate sheet of paper, also double-spaced. So m ething less than thest> standards DUES \.... ,11 be accepted relu ctantly if what you have to say is Student . 5.00 more important than the format t..' xpressed above. Acti ve 10.00 Acti ve Family . 12.00 More manuscripts re lating to Nevada archaeology Supporting . 25.00 and anthropo logy are soli ci ted . Sponsor ...... 50.00 Pa tron . 100.00

All "Stude nt" through "Patron" mt'mbers rt' ct> ivl' ~ ub ­ Copyright by the Nevada Archaeological Association, scriptio n to the Nn1aJa Ardwt'(llogi..;l, th ,-' journal of th/.' Summer 1989. Typ t:'~ ettin g by Jac k G ib~on, \Jevada Association. State Museum Docent Council. tlEVflDfi Archaeologist

Volume 7, Number 1 1989

EDITOR'S PAGE

The Nevada Archeologist (once again) must apologize to Thomas Stafford. In Volume 6, number 1, his name was left out of the acknowledgements in an article and in Volume 6, number 2, his name was misspelled due to a typographical error. In another printing error in the last issue, the scale bar was erased from the photograph on page 27.

This issue includes a diverse selection of papers covering prehistoric as well as historic archeology, and one article that discusses archeological method and interpretation. I hope to keep a balance in subject matter and I will be trying to find ways to improve our printing quality and the journal's overall attractiveness.

Special thanks go to Janis Klimowicz, editorial assistant, who singlehandedly creates the Nevada Archeologist by re-typing every submission in proper format, proofreading all pages, and ensuring that the illustrations, text, and tables are correctly arranged.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Archeological Research Along the Colorado River in Southern Nevada Kevin Rafferty...... 2 Notes on a From the Black Rock Desert, Nevada Donald R. Tuohy...... 11 The Historic Cemetery at Silver City, Nevada: Recording Methods and Initial Findings Ramona L. Reno and Ronald L. Reno ...... 14 The Concept of "Carrying Range"; A Method for Determining the Role Played by Woodrats in Contributing Bones to Archeological Sites Bryan Scott Hockett ...... 28 Thin-Section Analysis of Mission Period from Baja California, Mexico Donald R. Tuohy and Mary B. Strawn ...... 36 AICHEOLOGICAL RESEAOCH AJ:.(N; THE COLORADO RIVER IN SOUTHERN ~

Kevin Rafferty Division of Anthropological Studies Environmental Research Center University of Nevada - Las Vegas

Introduction Site 26Ck1405 (Figure 2) is a lithic scatter accompanied by four Despite the relatively early fragile circular or oval pattern advent of archeological fieldwork features (that is, rock rings along the Colorado River (Rogers and/or circular depressions). The 1929, 1939, 1945), little is known artifact scatter measured 17.5 m concerning the of the (N-S) by 20 m (E-W) at its largest region. In July, 1986, the Division dimensions. The first , A, of Anthropological Studies conducted is on the western edge of the site a mitigation project at two and is a 2.5 m long linear archeological sites on the west bank arrangement of cobbles. A previous of the river along its terraces. report (Brooks et al. 1976) The sites in question -- 26Ck1405 described the feature as a and 26Ck1407 -- were investigated semicircle with an opening on the via mapping, photography, and the western side, but recent bulldozer surface collection of artifacts. blading that occurred west of the The nature of these sites has site destroyed a portion of this provided valuable data and insights feature. Feature B is an oval into patterns of lithic procurement depression or ring that is bordered in the upper portion of the Lower by basalt and quartzite cobbles, Colorado River area. The and that measures 1.5 m (N-S) by procurement patterns are probably 1.75 m (E-W) on the eastern edge of age-old ones that held over many the alluvial terrace (which is also thousands of years (see Rafferty the eastern edge of the site). 1986a) • Feature C, 1 m north of B, is an oval depression with the desert pavement removed from the interior. Site Descriptions am The cobbles and gravels from this EnviromEOtal Setting pavement were placed as a border around the depression. The feature The sites in question are measures 1. 75 m (N-S) by 2 m (E-W). located on an alluvial terrace The fourth feature, D, an oval ring overlooking the Colorado River south of basalt cobbles and low gravel of Laughlin, in Clark County, Nevada walls, measures 1 m (N-S) by 3 m (Figure 1). Both were recorded by (E-l'i) at its maximum dimensions. earlier surveys (Brooks et al. 1976; Rafferty 1986a), but a decision to The second site, 26Ck1407 conduct data recovery activities on (Figure 3), was originally these sites was made only after the described as a 15 m2 lithic scatter Bureau of Reclamation decided to situated on a small gravel bench or conduct open pit gravel-mining in finger of the alluvial terrace the subject area. (Brooks et al. 1976). Redefinition of the site-rndicated a larger

2 \

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3 I SITE 26CK 1407 ,

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Figure 3 Site 26Ck1407 lithic scatter that measured 17 m heavily rolled and patinated. The (H-S) by 25 m (E-W). Contained surface materials are cemented into within it is a single circular a weak desert pavement typical of depression with low gravel walls, 2 this portion of the Mojave Desert m in diameter, at the northern end (Brooks et al. 1976, 1977; Longwell of the site, along the terrace edge. et a1. 1965):"

As indicated, the sites are The most common native plants situated on the second alluvial along the river flOodplain and the terrace on the west bank of the first terrace below the sites are Colorado River. This terrace is at arrowweed (Pluchea sericea), the base of an alluvial fan that mesquite (Prosopis juliflora and ~ originates in the Newberry Mountains pubescens), and the introduced salt west of the project area. The cedar (Tamarix pendantra). The alluvium ranc)8s in age from Pliocene terrace upon which the sites are to Recent, underlain by lenticular located is dominated by creosote lenses or beds of gravel, silt, and (Larrea tridentata) and burrobush clay. The soils of the terraces are (Franseria dumosa), accompanied by coarse-grained and are derived from saltbush (Atriplex sps.), catclaw the granitic deposits located in the (Acacia greggii), snakeweed Newberry Mountains. The terrace (Gutierrezia sarothae), Jimson weed substrates consist of gravel to (Datura meteloides), and desert cobble-sized cryptocrystalline spiny herb (Oxytheca sps.). materials, mainly quartzites, along Various cacti also live on the with basalts, all of which are terrace, including buckthorn cholla

4 (Opuntia acanthocarpa), jumping region. cholla (epuntia bigelovii) and 2. Lake Moiave Period: ca. beavertail (epuntia basilaris) 9000-7500 B.P. Characterized (Brooks et al. 1976, 1977). by circular depressions or rock rings along extinct or greatly Faunal resources include shrews reduced water courses, on (Soricidae), jackrabbit (Lepus desert pavement. Artifact californicus), desert cottontail assent>lages include Lake Mohave (Sylvilagus audobonii), and a and Silver Lake points; crude, variety of small rodent and lizard bifacially worked cores, species. Bighorn sheep (OVis choppers, scrapers, and canadensis) live on the upper macroflakes of basalt; alluvial fan and in the nearby crescents; and other large Newberry Mountains (Brooks et a1. flake tools. This type of 1977) • assent>lage was first defined by Rogers (1929) as Malpais culture (Rafferty 1985a; Warren Previous Research et a1. 1980). - -3. Archaic Period: ca. Little work has been conducted 5500-2000 B.P. Also called the in the immediate project area: a Pinto-Gypsum Period (Warren et single off-road race-course survey al. 1980). Characterized by­ (Hatoff 1975) and two surveys in Prnto and Gypsum points, a conjunction with a proposed land generalized flake tool transfer between the Bureau of Land assent>lage, grinding stones, Management and the State of Nevada and oriented towards seasonal (Brooks et al. 1976, 1977). The exploitation of a wide spectrum latter two surveys covered 13 square of floral and faunal resources. miles of land and recorded 31 4. Puebloan Period: ca. archeological sites and 19 2000-850 B.P. Characterized by artifactual loci. However, reports use of the Mojave Desert by from these surveys were mainly Virgin Anasazi peoples, who descriptive in nature, and made employed greyware ceramics, little attempt to analyze the data pursued agriculture as a main within the larger perspective of SUbsistence mode, and employed cultural history and settlement/ the bow-and-. subsistence patterns within the 5. Period: ca. region. 1150-100 B.P. A poorly known period when peoples fran below The most recent fieldwork the Laughlin area along the (Rafferty 1986b) involved a survey Colorado River exploited the of a 40 acre gravel pit for the area. Buffware ceramics and a Bureau of Reclamation. This project mixed agricultural-hunter/ recorded six sites, including two gatherer lifestyle characterize discussed here. the adaptation of groups ancestral to ethnographic Swarthout (1981) and King and Mojave people. Casebier (1981) attempted to summarize the regional prehistoric record based on sketchy data: 1. Paleo-Indian Period: No known sites or artifacts in the

5 'Iheoretical Orientation II, large cores were also tested and Hypotheses but more flakes were removed before abandoning the cores; in Pattern Given the scant data base and III, actual core reduction was the lack of detail concerning the carried out, resulting in large culture history of the region, the assemblages or corticated and non­ data recovery project focused on corticated flakes and debris, culture history and settlement/ although some usable flakes or core subsistence patterns. Several fragments were removed from the questions were asked of the data site; and in Pattern IV, core­ from the two sites: reduction terminated after removal of decortication flakes, so that 1) What were the relative while is abundant there ages of the sites? are few usable cores present. 2) What period of prehistory could the sites be The rock rings in the study assigned to? area might have served as caches, 3) What functions did special purpose task sites where these sites serve in the local resources were stored pending their or regional transportation to the main body of settlement/subsistence systems consumers, usually the local band over the years? or residence group (Binford 1980). Smaller circular features used as Based on site morphology, food caches would be associated location, and initial assessment of with tools capable of processing the surface artifact assemblage plant and/or animal resources, such recovered during the survey, the as projectile points, choppers, sites appeared to date to the Lake scrapers, grinding stones, , Mojave period (ca. 9000-7500 B.P.) and other general purpose cutting or the early Archaic period (ca. tools. Such si tes should be 5500-2000 B.P.), times when rock located in areas containing rings were expectably built on potentially aggregated and terraces covered with desert dependable resources (Blair 1984, pavement. Given the number of 1986) • "tested" cobbles and cores of basalt, rhyolite, andesite, quartzite, and chert at the sites, Results of the Investigation the sites might have functioned as quarries for the procurement, Both sites were subdivided into testing, and initial reduction of 10 m by 10 m collection grids for . In the Lake Mead area, the purpose of collecting Kamp and Whittaker (1986) examined artifacts. Every artifact similar loci that they called low encountered was collected, but no quality lithic sources that excavations were undertaken, nonetheless seemed to form the because prior studies in southern backbone of regional lithic Nevada and elsewhere (Ferraro and procurement patterns. Kamp and Ellis 1982; Rafferty 1985a, 1985b; Whittaker (1986) identified four Stone and Dobbin 1982; Teague 1981) possible activity patterns from such have repeatedly indicated that sites: In Pattern I, small cores sites like these are surface were briefly tested and then manifestations. abandoned at the site. In Pattern

6 The total number of artifacts (191). The cobbles had been struck found in both sites is 729: 387 were at only one end or at a few places from 26Ck14135 and 342 were from to test the quality of the 26Ck14137. Included in this count material, and were subsequently were a number of tested cobbles that rejected and left at the si te. The were counted but not collected: 86 majority of these were of quartzite from 26Ck14135 and 65 from 26Ck14@7. (513%) and chert (32%). Chert was the preferred toolstone. At 26Ck14135, 54% of the artifacts were chert, followed in preference Interpretation by quartzite (33%), rhyolite (9%), and andesitejbasalt. The situation Little can be said concerning at 26Ck14137 was similar: 58% of the the age or cultural affiliation of tools were of chert, followed by the sites. Although the Elko point rhyolite, basalt, andesite, and has traditionally been used as a other materials. diagnostic marker of the Archaic period, recent research indicates All the lithic raw materials that this point series has a long were readily available, eroding out and well documented use-span in the from the gravel matrix of the Great Basin. Some researchers alluvial fan. No specialized mining (Aikens 1970; Fowler et al. 1973; or excavation of stone were needed Thomas 1981) a=ept a 7131313 year to provide site inhabitants with raw use-span for the series in portions material. of the Great Basin. It must be noted that reliable radiocarbon Six categories of flaked tools dates place this series type were recovered from the sites, between 10013 B.C. and A.D. 113813 totaling 481 flaked tools. Composed (Heizer and Hester 1978). Thus the mostly of chert (62%) and quartzite best age than can be assigned to (28%), the categories included 26Ck14135 is sometime in the Archaic flakes, debitage, drills, or subsequent Puebloan periods. No preforms/bifaces, scrapers, and age assignment can be made for projectile points. The flakes, 26Ck1407. forming the majority of the assemblages, were mostly primary In addition, the lack of a flakes, typical of quarry sites specialized tool assemblage from where materials are tested and the sites hinders an assessment of selected for further reduction the site dating. The assemblages elsewhere. There was little contain fairly generalized, secondary debitage, indicating that multipurpose tools that were made most formalization of tools was and used over many thousands of carried out at other locations. years in southern Nevada. Any (or every) aboriginal group could have Of the formal tools, two were employed such tools as part of scrapers from 26Ck14137; 11 Were their repertoire of cultural preforms/bifaces (5 from 26Ck14135 responses to their environment, and 6 from 26Ck14137); 2 were drills making the dating and cultural (26Ck1405); and a single Elko side­ assignment of these sites notched point was recovered from impossible at this time. 26Ck14135. Other artifacts included hammers tones (3), choppers/handaxes Site function seems to be a (3), cores (51), and tested cobbles little more apparent, given the

7 number of unmodified flakes, cores, concentrations, and the variety of and tested cobbles. Both sites were artifacts that would be expected quarries for the procurement and from continuous or even seasonal testing of lithic materials, use of the locations as residential primarily cryptocrystallines such as areas (Teague and rlcClellan 1978). chert and quartzite. There is little evidence of formal tool manufacturing occurring at the Smmary sites, or that the few bifaces, preforms, or other tools recovered These sites were used as lithic were manufactured at the site. 'Itle procurement areas over many testing of cobbles for use in the hundreds, and perhaps thousands, of tool-manufacturing process and the years. 'Itley may also have been possible collection of materials for used as storage areas for plant and transport to other sites for further animal food resources available to reduction seems to have been the aboriginal inhabitants. As such, primary function of the sites. The these sites played an important artifactual remains fit Kamp and role in the regional settlement/ Whittaker's (1986) Pattern I and II sUbsistence system, being a primary for lithic procurement. 'Both sites source of tool stone. The sites contained cobbles and cores which functioned very much like those had a few flakes removed and then discussed by Kamp and Whittaker were abandoned due to material (1986) in the Lake Mead area, defects (Pattern I). Both sites forming the backbone of the also contained large nodules or regional tool procurement systems. cores of poor quality material Sites such as these are important associated with flakes and shatter. in helping to flesh out the total The nodules seem to have been picture of cultural response to the abandoned after only a few environment of the Colorado River acceptable flakes could be produced Valley and this portion of the from the cores (Pattern II). Mojave Desert, and are worthy of study for this reason. Such The presence of the rock rings smaller, nondescript sites have the or cleared areaS waS suggested potential for allowing earlier as possible evidence of archeologists to examine the full resource storage in caches. The few range of human cultural response to formal tools recovered marginal desert environments. (, choppers, drills, scrapers, the Elko point) might have been associated with the procurement Acknowledgements of floral and faunal resources. If so, the effort expended was a minor I would like to thank Lynda one, given the scarcity of tools. Blair, Division of Anthropological Thus the possibility that food Studies, who served as field procurement was a secondary function assistant and did the analysis of of these sites must remain at the the artifacts. Thanks also to level of conjecture. Susan Rohde of the Environmental Research Center, UNLV, who executed The use of the sites as the maps. All errors of habitations or as seasonal campsites interpretation or in the remains a low possibility since the conclusions remain my exclusive sites lacked , artifact province.

8 References Cited 1-13. Museum of Natural History, Las Vegas: Aikens, C.M. University of tevada. 1970 Hogup . University of utah Anthropological Fowler, D.D., D.S. Madsen, and E. Papers, No. 93. Sal t Lake Hattori City. 1973 Prehistory of southeastern Nevada. Desert Research Binford, L. R. Institute Publications in 1980 Willow smoke and dog's the Social Sciences No.6. tails: hunter-gatherer settlement systems and Hatoff, B. archeological site 1975 Laughlin 300 ORV race. formation. American Cultural Resource Report Antiquity 45(1):4-20. 5-103 (N). Las Vegas: Bureau of Land Managanent. Blair, L. 1984 Sleeping circles in the Heizer, R.F. and T.W. Hester light of day. Paper 1978 Great Basin. IN R.E. Presented at the 19th Taylor and C.W-:-Meighan Biennial Great Basin (Eds.), pp. 147-199, Anthropological Chronologies in New World Conference, Boise, Idaho. Archeology. New York: Academic Press. 1986 A New Interpretation of Archeological Features in Kamp, K.A. and J.C. Whittaker the California Wash Region 1986 Unproductive lithic of Southern Nevada. resources at Lake Mead. Unpublished M.A. Thesis, American Antiquity University of Nevada-Las 51 (2): 383-388. Vegas. King, C. and D.G. Casebier Brooks, R., J. King, M. McMacken, D. 1981 Background to historic and Ferraro, and K. Olson prehistoric resources of 1977 The Fort Mojave cultural the east Mojave Desert resource survey, and region. Cultural archeological/historical Resources Publications: field investigation in AnthrOpology-History. southern Nevada: second Riverside: Bureau of Land phase. Archeological Management. Research Center Report 1- 1-16. Museum of Natural Longwell, C.R., E.H. Pampeyan, B. Hi story, Las Vegas: Bower, and R. J. Roberts University of Nevada. 1965 Geology and mineral deposits of Clark County, Ferraro, D. and R. Ellis Nevada. Nevada Bureau of 1982 Final report: The survey Mines Bulletin 62. Reno: and mitigation of thirteen University of Nevada. archeological sites within the Las Vegas Wash Rafferty, K. project. Archeological 1985a The Las Vegas Valley Research Center Report 1- revisited: Archeological

9 investigations in the Las Mojave Sink region. San Vegas Valley, phase II. Diego f1useum Papers lDT. Division of Anthropological Studies 1939 Early lithic industries of Report 2-5-1l. the lower basin of the Environmental Research Colorado River and Center, Las Vegas: adjacent desert areas. University of Nevada. San ~ f1useum Papers 3.

1985b Investigation and 1945 An outl ine of Yuman mitigation of six prehistory. Southwestern archeological sites within Journal of Anthropology the Las Vegas 2:167 198. location ion the Las Vegas wash, Clark County, Stone, C.L. and E.A. Dobbins Nevada. Division of 1982 The investigation of Anthropological StUdies desert cobble features. IN Report 5 7-5. P.E. Brown and C.L. Stone­ Environmental Research (Eds.) , pp. 242-266, Center, Las Vegas: Granite Reef: A Study in University of Nevada. Desert Archeology. Arizona State University 1986a The mitigation and Anthropological Research interpretation of sites Papers 28. 26CK1405 and 26CK1407, near Laughlin, Clark Swarthout, ,J. County, Nevada, for the 1981 Final Report for ~ Bureau of Reclamation, Archeological Overview for Lower Colorado Region, the Lower Colorado River Boulder City, Nevada. varley, Arizona, Ne~ Division of and California, Reach 3: Anthropological Studies Davis Dam to the----­ Report 1 3 27. International BOrder. Environmental Research Flagstaff: Museum of Center, Las Vegas: Northern Arizona. University of Nevada. Teague, G. and C. McClellan 1986b A cultural resource 1978 Archeological inventory of a forty acre Reconnaissance of Lands material pit location for Adjacent to the Grand the Bureau of Reclamation Canyon. ~Jcson: Western near Laughlin, Clark Archeological and County, Nevada. Division Conservation Center, of Archeological Studies National Park Service. Report l-3-2l. Environmental Research Teague, L. S • Center, Las Vegas: 1981 Test excavations at University of Nevada. Painted Rock Reservoir: Sites AZ:Z:1:7, AZ:Z:l:8, Rogers, M.J. and AZ:S:16:36. Arizona 1929 Report on an archeological State Museum Archeological reconnaissance in the serres 143. 10 Thomas, D.H. Warren, C.N., M. Knack, and E.V. 1981 How to classify the Warren projectile points from the 1980 Cultural resources Monitor Valley. Journal overview of the Amargosa­ of California and Great Mojave Basin planning Basin MthropofOgy 3TIT:7- units. Cultural Resource 43. Publ ications: Mthropology-History. Riverside: Bureau of Land Management.

NOTES ON A CLOITIS POINT FRCt1. THE BLACK RIX!K OESERI'. NEVADA

Donald R. Tuohy Nevada State Museum Carson City, Nevada

During the summers of 1981 and Creek Ranch, guided by Steve 1982, the Jackson Creek Ranch in Wallmann, an Oregon logger. The t~vada's Black Rock Desert had been sites were already known to the the scene of a spectacular find of a local ranchers, the Bill DeLong mammoth skeleton, referable to the family, and a few others, including taxon Mammuthus columbi. Thirty-two one professional archeologist, Dr. shaped stone tools were found within C. William Clewlow. B.L.M. the Master Grid collection units archeologists possessed site near the bones, but nei ther the records and maps, but D.R.I. and dating nor the proximity of the State Museum archeologists wanted bones and stone tools can be to assess the geological context of accepted as unequivocal proof of the the fossi 1 bones, and see how well association of Early Man and extinct they were holding up to prolonged fauna (Clewlow 1983; Stout 1986). exposure. The mammoth bones were originally on exhibit in the Nevada State Museum All known archeological find­ and Historical Society's Museum in spots were visited on the east side Las Vegas, but beginning in the of the Quinn River within five summer of 19~9 will be on display in miles of the ranch. the refurbished Earth Science gallery at the Nevada State Museum Previous knowledge about Black in Carson City. Rock Desert archeology comes from the research of Clewlow (1968, During August of 1988, staff 1981, 1983), Elston and Davis members from the Desert Research (1979), Hanes and McGuckian (1987), Institute's Social Science Center and Lohse (1980). A Cultural and the Mthropology Department of Resources Management Plan was the Nevada State 11useum viewed the written by Pedrick (1984), and a remains of this and other fossil few other studies have been bone-bearing sites near Jackson published, such as one by Cowan

11 (1972), and an M.A. thesis from the 1981 Test excavations of Summit University of Nevada-Reno (Seck Twin Spring, 26Hu160, 1980). The most recent work done on Humboldt County, Nevada. the Jackson Creek Ranch was the test Report to the Bureau of excavation of Handprint Cave, a Land Management, jOint project of the B.L.M. and the Winnemucca District. Nevada State Museum (Gruhn and Bryan 1988:1-13). Steve Wa1lmann, who had 1983 Report on 1981 and 1982 collected projectile points and archeological other tools from the area, had also investigations at PHu8 and purchased a Clovis point originally 26Hu55, Black Rock Desert, found by Sa11i Morris of Winnemucca Nevada. Report to the (the Morris Collection was donated Bureau of Land Management, by Mr. Wal1mann to the Nevada State Winnemucca District. Museum). This point came from the east side of the Black Rock in the Copeland, J.M. and R.E. Fike area between Jackson Creek and 1988 Fluted projectile points McFarland's bath house, a relatively in Utah. Utah Archeology unstable playa surface. 1(1):5-28.

The fluted point, broken near Cowan, R.A. the tip, weighS 24 grams, and is 6.8 1972 The Barrel Springs site cm in length, 3.6 em wide, and 0.9 (NV-Pe-104), Pershing em thick. It is made of semi­ County, Nevada. Berkeley: translucent white chert. Part of University of California one margin shows fresh sharpening Archeological Research flake-scars overlying broader flake­ Facility. scars left by the original knapper. However, the upper two thirds of Elston, R.G. and J.O. Davis this margin broke off during the 1979 An overview of cultural resharpening, leaving a scalloped, resources in the Lahontan irregular edge. This edge is in Cutthroat Trout study sharp contrast to the opposite one area, Black Rock Range, Which shows regular, parallel Humboldt County, Nevada. flaking and a neatly trimmed edge. Report to the Bureau of All in all, the point compares Land Management, favorably with other fluted points Winnemucca District. known from Nevada (Ruhstaller and Pendleton 1982; Tuohy 1985, 1986) Gruhn, R. and A. Bryan and Utah (Copeland and Fike 1988:5- 1988 The 1987 archeological 28) • fieldwork at Handprint Cave, Nevada. Nevada Archeologist 6(2):1-13 References Cited Hanes, R.C. and P. McGuckian Clewlow, C.W. Jr. 1987 Archeological survey along 1968 Surface archeology of the the Quinn River, Black Black Rock Desert, Nevada. Rock Desert, Nevada. Reports of the University Nevada Archeologist of California 6(1):Hl8. Archeological Survey, No. 73, 1:1-93.

12 Lohse, E.S. Hot Springs: 26Pel18. 1980 Prehistoric adaptation in Unpublished M.A. Thesis, the Black Rock Desert, University of Nevada, high rock country of Reno. northwestern Nevada. Report to the Bureau of Stout, B. Land Management, 1986 Discovery and C14 dating Winnemucca District. of the Black Rock Desert mamroth. Nevada Pedrick, K.E. Archeologist 5(2):21-23. 1984 Black Rock Desert cultural resources management plan. Tuohy, D.R. U.S. Department of the 1984 A Pinto lithic scatter on Interior, Bureau of Land the Black Rock Desert, Management, Winnemucca l\evada. Nevada District. Archeologist 4(2):27-35.

Ruhstaller, R. and L.S.A. Pendleton 1985 Notes on the Great Basin 1982 Cultural chronology. IN distribution of Clovis L. Pendleton, A. McLan~ fluted and Folsom and D.H. Thomas (Eds.), projectile points. l\evada pp. 1-292, Cultural Archeologist 5(1):15 18. Resources OVerview Carson City District, West 1986 Errata and additional Central Nevada. BLM notes on the Great Basin Cultural Resource Series distribution of Clovis 5(1):1-292. fluted and Folsom projectile points. Nevada Seck, S.M. Archeologist 6(2):2-7. 1980 The archeology of Trego

Figure 1 Clovis Point from Black Rock Desert, Nevada (Actual Size)

13 THE HISTORIC Cl'HETERY AT SILVER CITY, NEVADA: RaXlRDII«> ME'J'H(X)S AND INITIAL FlNOII«>S

Ramona L. Reno and Ronald L. Reno Silver City, NV 89428

Introduction Silver City Cemetery, limited to surface features, is aimed at the Mining has played a vital role conservation of this historic in the economic and social resource. development of Nevada and most of the American West. Mining towns Today the Silver City Cemetery were established overnight, and many has 290 identifiable graves. Of survived only a short time -­ these, over half have readable growing fast -- by retrieving ore, inscriptions on the markers. These and then leaving their dead behind inscriptions provide a written before abandonment. Silver City, record of life and death in this Nevada, is one such mining community community. that was established approximately 125 years ago, in 1860 (Smith 1943:23). The Comstock mining Field Recording of the Cemetery bonanza began in the Silver City area with discovery of gold by We started field recording by placer miners early in the l850s. drafting a sketch map (Figure 1) for designating feature numbers and Because mining is again on the recorded the following information: rise in Nevada, many of these abandoned towns are now being Feature Number destroyed or adversely affected. Name (from marker) Conventional techniques of historic Birth Date archeology have been developed to Death Date record townsites, mining structures, Marker Type and Condition and trash dumps, but often little Enclosure Type and Condition information is retrieved regarding Curbing Type and condition historic cemeteries. Collapse Inscription The Silver City cemetery has Comments and Maker's Marks been recorded using the experiences Recorders Name of preservationists who inventory historic cemeteries in the eastern Within the categories listed as United States. We obtained "Type and Condition," a coding information from the Association for sheet was made for the variety of Gravestone Studies (Baker and materials observed at the cemetery Giesecke n.d.; Farber n.d.), the (Reno 1988). The task of coding American Association of State and the diversity of marker types was Local Histories (Jones 1977; simplified to a morphology used by Strangstad 1988), and recent work by Francaviglia (1971) in an article the Boston Parks and Recreation on Oregon cemeteries (Figure 2). Department (1988). Our work at the He temporarily identifies these

14 'epeASN ' TS 9*43 jo dew

*DU»J|U3 dressed or undressed stone, wood, or brick); and curbing construction (continuous or discontinuous).

GOTHiC ODEU)!: C~OS5-'/AUU We took great care to locate CBfLlS~; maker's marks on enclosures and markers.

We noted a single non-English inscription in the Silver City (01 [j cemetery, dated from 1877 and in French -- commemorating an infant's TABUT F'JlPll SCROLL burial.

Rloto I:Jocurentation

After the initial field sessions, we photographed the lAW~-j-TYPE cemetery using techniques BLOCK RAISED-TOP ""c,'S ',":,:::0 ->"" IN$CRIPTlO,~ recommended by the American Association of State and Local Figure 2 Histories. Using black and white Traditional Marker Types film and their recommended method (from Francaviglia 1971) of a black-board with feature identifier and north arrow, and a scale, we took a set of photographs through inscriptions as early to such as illustrated by Figure 3. recent reading the Figures from upper left to lower right. We also photographed details of complex features, such as the All these types are found at motifs on the cast iron enclosures. the Silver City cemetery and his As seen here (Figure 4), by using inferred chronology holds true the barrier to block out the there. Within each of these confusion of the background, the morphological types there can exist detail in this enclosure is more a wide variety of top and side clearly defined. attributes. We view these individual stylistic traits as a Photography provides a quick separate category and, for the systematic method for recording the purpose of field recording, have inscription, material types, and included them in this traditional condition of graves at a specific morphological scheme. Idiosyncratic date. Field workers with limited types must be treated separately. time to record a cemetery can first make a sketch map, then take at Field recording included noting least one photograph of each grave, the material type of the markers including a feature identifier and (stone, metal, or wood). We also a scale in each photo. noted enclosure materials (iron, wood, or composite); construction To begin interpretation of this (picket, palisade, or horizontal information, the cemetery must be plank); curbing material (concrete, placed in its political and

16 Figure 3 Example of Recommended Photographic Method for Cemetery Documentation Note: Feature Identifier, North Arrow, and Scale

Figure 4 Example of Using Barrier to Block-Out Background Disturbance

17 (ll z c -+

"

Figure 5 Location of the Silver City Mining District (from Gianella 1936)

18 economic context. For Silver City City and the main concentration of this is the developmental cycle for the Comstock Lode. Early in her mining communities. Generally, this history, Silver City was the main development has four phases: initial boarding place for animals used in exploration, boom, development of a hauling ore-laden wagons through stable community, and decline (see Gold Canyon. This ended in 1874 Zeier 1988). when the Virginia and Truckee Railroad was established, Silver City fits relatively eliminating the demand for haul well into this model. However, wagons. Silver City managed to survive its decline and has maintained a modest Although the Silver City population continually during the district could never financially last century. Its stability corrpete with its northern neighbor, provides for long-term patterns of the Comstock Lode, the stability of growth and decline. Silver City has been a factor of its small but consistent ore­ Silver City's Role in the Comstock: production. The bar graph in Figure 6 was compiled from (1) Placer-Mining information on Silver City district's mineral production Starting in the 1850s a few (primarily gold and silver) from rugged individuals placer-mined the 1870 to 1940 (Couch and Carpenter area just south of Silver City. 1943). "During the period These miners corrplained of a "heavy of ••• 1890 to 1920 ••• the small mines black stuff" that clogged their and mills in Silver City produced rockers. A variety of stories steadily on a small scale from surround the first identification of near-surface gold ores, maintaining this "black stuff" as silver. Most a quiet well-to-do community not authors contribute the discovery of far above the location of the silver to the Grosh brothers, Hosea original motley camp of the early and Edgar. However, the death of placer miners of Gold Canon [sic]" both brothers in 1857 ended any (Smith 1943:288). The mainstay of possibility of their reaping the Silver City has been that "nearly rewards of their discovery. There every family had its own mine and are various legends about the deaths developed it only when money was of these brothers, but the consensus actually needed" (Paher 1970:69). is that Hosea Grosh died in Gold Canyon on September 2, 1857, from an During the period 1933-1940, infection of a foot injury, and this area experienced its highest Edgar Grosh died the same winter levels of mineral production. In while crossing the Sierra Nevada in 1935 Silver City was "the most a severe snow storm. acti ve mining district in Nevada" (Gianella 1936:24). Most of this activity involves ore-extraction (2) Comstock soan Days from the shallow levels of old mines and the building of a new with the discovery of the mill. It seems that the key to the Comstock Lode the area was organized survival of this district has been into mining districts (Gianella to stay involved in the activities 1936:14) (Figure 5). Silver City is of the Comstock, and yet maintain a located four miles south of Virginia separate economy of support

19 Silver City Mineral Production 1000

800 ~

0 0 600 0 x

"'" 400 -0., :,::

200

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0> 0 N .,. <0 0> 0> m 0> m ro~~ "'~ "'~ ~ ~ '''f :" ~ '"~ ~ Figure 6 industries, small privately owned 1870-1889 Comstock Boom Days mines, and mills. 1890-1909 Decline of the Comstock Today there are approximately 1910-1939 Silver City as an 175 people in Silver City, and the Independent Mining town is primarily a residential Ccmnunity area. However, the change in mining 1940-1986 Silver City as from underground mining Primarily a and mill-processing to open-pit Residential Community mining and the reprocessing of tailings piles is threatening to The rest of this paper reopen mining and endanger the discusses two questions relating historic integrity of this area. specifically to the Silver City cemetery during these five periods. These questions will be addressed 'Ibe Silver City Cemetery by examining the data obtained 'Ihrough TillE through our mapping and recording of the cemetery. Using the cycle of the growth and decline of mining activity in the Silver City area, we have Olanges in the Use of Landscape divided the cemetery graves that at the Silver City Cemetery have readable inscriptions into five periods: The first question involves the change in the use of the landscape 1850-1869 Placer-Mining Phase at the Silver City cemetery. The

20 cemetery is on an east-facing slope, 1949-1986 ending in a ravine on the east border. 'lbe entrance to the The trend is still toward the cemetery is on the north side in the lower slope away from the entrance middle of the slope. 'lbe vast (Figure 11). However, the middle majority of graves face east with slopes near the entrance are being markers at the head of the grave. reused. It has been reported that One grave has two markers facing recently when a new grave was dug, each other on the north and south. an old one was exposed. Curing the last few years a new section of the Keep in mind that the following Silver City cemetery has been information is based on those graves opened, and the old section that we with readable inscriptions. Half of have been looking at is no longer the graves identified at the Silver open for new burials. City cemetery are unmarked or unreadable and cannot be temporally From these maps, it is clear placed on these maps. that in the early days of the cemetery, graves were placed in the 1859-1869 upper slopes, later moving down­ slope until reaching the ravine. There are very few graves Finally, areas with unmarked graves remaining from the placer time were reused. period (Figure 7). All are in the middle of the cemetery and are near the entrance. Olanges in Death by J\ge and Sex

1879-1889 The second question addressed involves the pattern of age-at­ 'lbe graves from this time death of Silver City residents period indicate the cemetery grew during the last l4@ years. considerably during the Boom Days of the Comstock Lode (Figure 8). They 1859-1869 and 1879-1889 are scattered over most of the upper slope of the existing cemetery. 'lbese graphs are compiled from markers with readable inscriptions 1899-1999 containing the age, sex, and year at death of the person buried. The cemetery is filling up on 'lbey are paired bar graphs, with the upper slope, and the lower males on the left and females on section near the entrance is the right. 'lbe x-axis is the beginning to be used (Figure 9). percent of the time-period population, with zero in the 1919-1939 center. 'lbe y-axis is the age at death and ranges from @ to 100 The majority of new graves years. during this time period are on the lower slope farthest away from the 'lbe first pair of time periods entrance (Figure l@). shows that during the placer mining days death came early (Figure 12).

21 CM CN

ft 189O - 1909 Silver City A - Cemetery B -a L? a* ~~ Old Section C Q. Sketch Map - I Not To Seal* F £ H ED ;:• "% Ronald L. Reno May 1888

K

•— Hlspliort Encloaur*

Legend

I F*U*n Huditon* :' : Oi in

[) Cuiblng j] Encloiun — —- North

Shaded Areas Show LocaUons ol Graves Remaining Fforn Specified Time Period Figure 9 Silver City Cemetery 1890 -. 1909

1910 - 1939 Silver City Cemetery

Old Section

Skttch Map - Not To Scale

Ronald L. R«no May 1988

Shaded Aieas Show Locations of Grave* Remaining Fiom SpacJIIed Time Period Figure 10 Silver City Cemetery 1910 - 1939

23 Sliver City - Cemetery ~ Old Section

Sketch Map - Not To Scale

Ronald L. Reno May 1988

so ii it MM? !t ir *' «BB

North Shaded Areas Show Locations of Graves Remaining From Spacltlod Time Period Figure 11 Silver City Cemetery 1940 - 1986

SILVER CITY CEMETERY SILVER CITY CEMETERY 1850 - 1869 1870 - 1889 MALES FEMALES MALES FEMALES 83.3% 16.7% 65% 35%

- ID - 40

X z r- J- - "

24 There are six graves with readable continued for both males and inscriptions during the first two females (Figure 13). During 1890- decades (1850-1869). Of these, five 1909 (the decline of the Comstock (83.3%) are males who died before Boom), the majority of persons their 35th year. The one female lived to be 60, and a few lived to (16.7% of the sample) died before be 80 or 90. There was still a her 25th year. high incidence of death at an early age, primarily in males. During During the second two decades 1910-1939, the ratio of males to (1870-1889), there are 20 graves females was nearly 1 to 1. This is with readable inscriptions. Of the only time period when these, 65% are male, and 35% are proportions are equal. We also females; both sexes were living note the very patterned increase in substantially longer, to nearly 60 number of elderly persons, as well years. There is a broader age as the full spectrum of ages at spectrum during this time period, death. There is a distinct rise in probably indicating that the lifespan to between 65 and 95 years community was developing a family of age. Figure 13 shows that very base. few persons died before they were in their mid-twenties, and early Another very interesting fact deaths by males were almost is derived from the inscriptions of nonexistent. Only two male deaths these two time periods. Of the six occurred prior to the age of 35, persons who died during 1850-1869, which only forty years earlier was all are listed as being natives of the extent of male life expectancy. the United States: Pennsylvania, Michigan, Massachusetts, West Of the few persons who listed Virginia, and an infant from Nevada. their birthplaces during these two However, of the twenty graves during time periods, most were from Nevada the next time period (1870-1889), and a few other states: Tennessee, the only natives of the United Iowa, and california. Those States were very young individuals listing foreign countries were from (ages 2-14 years) or were from Germany, Scotland, England, Silver City itself. The remainder Ireland, and France. of those listing their birthplaces were from foreign countries: canada, 1949-1986 France, Ireland, England, and Germany. During this final time period there is again an increase in This indicates that during the lifespan. The majority of persons placer days the residents of this lived to 70-90 years of age (Figure area were young male U.S. easterners 14). The most significant change who quickly arrived to seek their in this time period is that almost fortune. Later, during the early no one died before his or her 55th days of the Comstock Boom, males and year, and there are no infant or females of a Slightly older age teen-age deaths. Apparently Silver arrived from Europe. City had become a healthy, safe place to live (or perhaps young 1899-1999 and 1919-1939 people moved away).

During these two time periods, There currently are no the trend towards longer life businesses in Silver City, and its

25 SILVER CITV CEMETERY SILVER CITY CEMETERY 1890 1909 1910 - 1939 MALES FEMALES MALES FEMALES ,['" 65.2\ 34.8\ 57% f 43\ j c:;-

PERCENT OF TIME PERIOD POPULATION PERCENT or TIME PERIOD POPULATION N = 23 N = 53 Figure 13 See Text

SILVER CITY CEMETERY 1940 - 1986 MALES FEMALES 69\ 31\

w ~ ..'"

PERCENT OF TIME PERIOD POPULATION N = 26 Figure 14 See Text

26 residents mostly commute to Carson Farber, D. City, Virginia City, and Reno for n.d. Making Photographic employment. There are no listings Records of Gravestones. of birthplaces during this time The Association for period. The trend is toward males Gravestone Studies. listing their military experience. Francaviglia, R.V. 1971 The cemetery as an evolving cultural landscape. Annals of the It is evident that the Association of AmerfCan-­ information gained from the Silver Geographers 61(3):501-509. City cemetery has clearly defined a pattern of Changing land-use and an Gianella, V. P. increased longevity through the 1936 Geology of the Silver City development cycle of Silver City. district and the southern portion of the Canstock In our working with the Silver Lode, Nevada. University City cemetery, we refer to it as a of Nevada Bulletin 30(9). "living link to a mining comnunity's past". The examination of historic Gold Hill News cemeteries is a dynamic area of 1865 Handsome Tribute. June study with a great potential to 24, 1865 2:3. yield valuable information regarding the changing in lifeways of historic Gold Hill News communi ties. 1865 In Memoriam. June 28, 1865 2: 1.

References Cited Jones, M-E. 1977 Photographing tombstones: Baker, F.J. and A.G. Giesecke equip:nent and techniques. n.d. Recording Cemetery Data. Technical Leaflet 92, The Association for American Association for Gravestone Studies. State and Local History:-

Boston Parks and Recreation Paher, S.W. Department 1970 Nevada Ghost Towns and 1988 The Boston Experience: A Mining ~. Howell­ Manual for Historic North Books. BUrying Grounds Preservation. Boston Petersen, W. and L.S. Lewis Parks and Recreation 1963 The changing population of Department. Ci ty of Nevada. Bureau of Boston. Business and Economic Research,lUniversityof Couch, B.F. and J.A. Carpenter Nevada, Research Report 1943 Nevada's metal and mineral No.2. production (1859-1940, inclusive). University of Reno, R.L. Nevada Bulletin 37(4). -­ 1988 Codes for Recording Geology and Mining Series Cemetery Features. No. 37. Unpublished Manuscript.

27 Smith, G.H. Cooperation with 1943 The history of the the Association for Comstock Lode: 1850-1920. Gravestone Studies. University of Nevada Bulletin 37(3). Geology Zeier, C.D. and Mining Series No. 37. 1988 Mining ~ DevelOpment in Central Nevada as Strangstad, L. Peflected £y the 1880 1988 A Graveyard Preservation Census. Paper Presented Pi: imer • American at the Society for Association of State and Historical Archeology Local History, in l'eeting, Reno, Nevada.

"nfE CON:EPT OF -CARRYING RANGE": A METHOD FOR DETERMINING "nfE ROLE PlAYED BY WOOORATS IN CONTRIDUTING BONES TO AICHEOLOGICAL SITES

Bryan Scott Hockett University of Nevada - Reno

Abstract cactus joints, and bones are some of the common materials used in woodrats (also known as pack construction. rats) may accumulate bones and artifacts in , rockshelters, or Archeologists and open-air sites, and may also move paleoecologists are aware that objects that were originally woodrats may accumulate bones as deposited by other processes, such well as affect the distribution of as human behavior. '!his paper bones in caves, rockshelters, and describes the concept of Carrying open-air sites (Emslie 1988; Heizer Range, an analytical tool that might and Brooks 1965; Hoffman and Hays discriminate between bones brought 1987; Mead and Philips 1981; Miller to a fossil site by woodrats and 1979). Faunal sites affected by those brought by other agents such woodrats may also contain bones and as humans. other artifacts left behind by prehistoric people. Introduction Accurate interpretations of Woodrats are known for their past human lifeways partially rests ability to construct houses and with our ability to differentiate nests (Finley 1958; Olsen 1973; between those bones utilized by Warren 191@). '!he principal humans from those bones accumulated material used in construction varies by other agents. It is therefore depending upon the debris available imperative that woodrat bone­ within the woodrats' foraging range collecting behavior be understood in (Ashley 1971; Linsdale and Trevis an archeological context. 1951). Large sticks, twigs, leaves,

28 '!be Study Area The deer, cottontail, and elk bones were collected as part of a Large bones collected from six preliminary study of woodrat bone­ nests of bushytail woodrat (Neotoma collecting tendencies and cinerea orolestes) (Durrant and capabilities in the Haystack Cave Robinson 1962; Finley 1958) in the area. A more comprehensive study of Gunnison Basin, west-central the bones collected by bushytail Colorado. <:ne nest is located woodrats is currently being inside Haystack Cave, a late conducted by the author. Pleistocene-Holocene locale, and the other five are located near the cave ..

This paper reports on the bones Forty-two bones other than of deer (Odocoileus hemionus), rodent were collected in the six cottontail (Sylvilagus nuttali), and woodrat nests. Table 1 lists the elk (Cervus canadensis) collected by location, element, element portion, bushytail woodrats for nest-building generic identification, and marks on and gnawing purposes. Although each bone collected. rodent bones were also present in the nests, these bones were not part Deer elements outnumber of this analysis as it is not elements from cottontail and elk. possible to determine if they were Thirty-two of the thirty-seven brought to the nests by woodrats, or identified elements are deer, or if the animals died in the nests. 7

6

5

4 V E R M T E 3 E T B R A R P I P A H B 0 F A E D S E L 2 I M A A U N A C L H R G N s A u s E T L M S L C E E A M E S T T R C R N E P A I I A S E T I R B P. l_~! A A. P. S. ! FIgure 1 Number of Identified Deer Elements Collected from Six Bushy tail Woodrat Nests in Gunnison County, Colorado

29 TABLE 1 The Initial Data Recorded for Large Bones Collected from Six Bushytail Woodrat Nests in Gunnison County, Colorado

Element Attrition Location Element Portion Genus Marks

Nl-l vertebra O:locoileus pass. gnaw. Nl-2 rretapodial O:locoileus pass. gnaw. at prox. end; transverse cuts Nl-3 metapodial proximal O:loco ileus gnaw.; puncture; spiral fracto Nl-4 rib O:locoileus rodent gnaw.? Nl-S phalange O:locoileus pass. gnaw. at dist. end; split longitud. Nl-6 mandible Sylvilagus ramus broken/gnaw.' Nl-7 calcaneus O:locoileus undamaged'* N2-l vertebra O:locoileus pass. gnaw. N2-2 femur proximal O:locoileus spiral fract.; head gnaw.; trochant. gnaw. N2-3 scapula O:locoi leus & glenoid area gnaw. N2-4 tibia­ Sylvilagus metapod. & fibula broken; prox. tibia phalange rodent gnaw. N3-1 metapodial proximal O:locoileus dry-bone break N3-2 vertebra Qjocoileus extensive gnaw. tB-3 humerus distal O:locoi leus spiral fract.; gnaw.; rodent gnaw. N3-4 antler O:locoileus pass. gnaw. N3-S vertebra O:locoileus undamaged 113-6 rib O:locoileus ends broken/gnaw. N4-l vertebra broken/gnaw. N4-3 tarsal O:locoileus pass. gnaw. N4-4 fragment damaged N4-S femur distal O:locoileus gnaw.; spiral fract.; rodent gnaw. N4-6 vertebra O:locoileus extensive gnaw.; puncture N4-7 vertebra O:locoileus gnaw. N4-8 humerus proximal O:locoileus dry-bone break; gnaw. NS-l vertebra Cervus probable gnaw. NS-2 rib O:locoileus gnaw_i puncture; transverse cuts NS-3 rib O:locoileus gnaw. & scoring NS-4 rib Cervus gnaw.; scoring; pitting NS-5 vertebrae Sylvilagus broken NS-6 vertebra O:locoileus extensively gnaw. NS-7 femur distal O:locoileus gnaw.; furrowing, spiral fracto NS-8 rib O:locoileus dry-bone break; gnaw. & punctures; transverse cuts NS-9 calcaneus O:locoileus undamaged N5-l0 metapodial O:locoileus gnaw. at both ends NS-ll tibia distal O:locoileus spiral fract.; gnaw. & scoring; transverse cuts NS-12 fragment damaged NS-13 antler Cdocoileus undamaged NS-14 metapodial O:]ocoi leus undamaged epiphyses NS-lS fragment gnaw. on ends NS-16 fragment gnaw. on ends N6-l phalange O:locoileus extensive rodent gnaw. N6-2 phalange O:locoileus extensive rodent gnaw.

*refers to a bone in which the agent that caused the damage is unclear **refers to those bones that display no damage or strictly weathering damage

30 86.5% of the total identified. Wocdrats also collect coyote Figure 1 illustrates the deer scats for nest-building material. A elements collected by the woadrats, total of three coyote scats were and the number of identified collected in two of the six nests. specimens per element. The axial Bushytail woodrats in the study area skeleton is well represented by are potential contributors of scats twelve (37.5%) of the thirty-two (and thus the micro faunal remains deer elements. found within these scats) to archeological sites (see Hockett The deer elements collected by 1988 for further details regarding the woodrats are probably a the scat bones). reflection of several factors. The vertebrae and ribs may be common Few bones had been gnawed by simply as a reflection of the fact the woodrats. Although signs of that they are abundant elements in gnawing on bones have been an ungulate carcass. Another considered in the literature to be a potential reason for their abundance clear indication of the relative may be the biasing that results from contribution that porcupines made to carnivore scavenging of limb bones. fossil bone assemblages (Binford The majority of the deer carcasses 1984; Brain 1981; Hendy and Singer observed in the study area were 1965), it does not appear that represented by the complete pelvic gnawing is as diagnostic a girdle, vertebrae, and ribs, while characteristic for woadrats. the entire crania and all or most limb bones were typically absent The weathering stages of the from the main carcass scatter. If bones (Behrensrreyer 1978) ranged the ungulate death site is outside from Stage 1 (degreased but still the woodrats' foraging range, fairly fresh) to Stage 4 (extreme carnivores such as coyote may carry weathering) • The condition of the limb elements within the woodrats' bones at the tirre woodrats first foraging range. Many ungulate limb collected them is unknown. bones were located near rresa bases directly underneath the woodrat Wocdrat bone-collecting nests. behavior is a complex process. For example, both direct and indirect Support for the proposition interactions between woodrats and that carni vore behavior must be coyotes may accumulate bones in understood to understand woadrat archeological si tes. The direct bone-collecting behavior comes from interactions include coyotes feeding the fact that 51.3% of the nonrodent on woodrats and defecating bones collected by the woadrats micro faunal woodrat remains in specifically displays signs of archeological assemblages. The carnivore damage. In addition, indirect interactions include nearly all deer limb elements show woodrats exploiting bones damaged by positive signs of carnivore damage. carnivores and the scats of coyotes for nest-building material. Coyotes Another factor affecting may also utilize archeological sites element composition may be the to feed on rabbit, deer, and elk dirrensions and weight of particular remains. Therefore, coyotes elements. This will be discussed in directly contribute similar bones the next section. indirectly collected by wood rats for nest-building and gnawing purposes.

31 Table 2 distinguish between bones brought to Individual CR Measurements for a site by woodrats from those Large Bones Collected from Six brought to a site by other agents Bushytail Woodrat Nests in (including humans)? A Carrying Gunnison County, Colorado Range (CR) is proposed as an initial step toward answering this question.

The rationale for establishing a CR is that there must be a fixed >-,1 -1 2 p.m ':>.4g 40 rnl' Nl -? 1; range to the width, weight, and "'" 37.69 176 ~o Nl - -; ~, om 23.9g 163 ,~ length of a bone which a woodrat can Nl-4 4 [TIll 2.1q 34 flf'-, In uS 1 lIn ;;.99 41 m, clasp and carry or drag into Nl-6 1 fIll1 1.1g )7 archeological sites. These ranges >i1 - 7 5 ~o 27.Bg 94 "'",mT ,-12 _1 2 om 10.49 5) ~, are expected to be much less for :12-2 } om 18.8g 123 rift woodrats than for coyotes and many N2-J .5 rnn 17.89 128 CTm W-4 J lml 4.19 101 ~, other carnivores and humans. NJ-l 2 "'" 14.2g 59 roT N3-2 2 "'" 6.5g 34 NJ-J ) ~ffi1 17.7g 80 '00"'" The CR was developed by taking U4_1 2 ern 1.4g 37 N4-3 5 ",a 3.0g 18 "'"rnT three measurements on each bone N4-~ 4 .99 20 "'0 collected from the six bushytail N4:-5 J "'" 54.5g 95 N4:-6 ] "'" 22.6g 95 "'" woodrat nests. The minimum width of N4 _7 3 "'" a.Og 44 "'" each bone was measured to the N4-8 ) "'" 49.2g lal "'"ern N5-1 5 "'" 27.7g 107 JTJTI nearest millimeter. The minimum N5-2 2 "'" 18.1g 295 width measures how wide a woodrat NS-J 2 "'" 7.0g 153 "'" "'" "'" NS-4 2 "'" 31.Bg 199 rrrn must have opened its jaws to clasp NS-S ) "'" 3.6g 117 "'" onto the thinnest portion of each N5-6 2 ern 2.5g 65 "'" NS-7 3 19.1g 70 "'" bone. The weight of each bone was N5-8 1 "'" 8.0g 182 recorded to the nearest tenth of a "'"~, "'" NS-9 5 27.1g 91 "'" NS-l0 7 ern 36.Bg 180 "'" gram. Finally, the length of each ~15-11 ) ,m 51.19 179 bone was measured to the nearest N5-12 J om 12.1g 99 ern"'" NS-13 ) 33.2g 86 mi 11 imeter. N5-14 3 "'" 2.7g 20 "'" NS-15 2 "'" 7.ag 103 "'" NS-16 2 "'",mT 14.99 85 ern"'" The results of the three ~16-1 8 4.90 )0 N6-2 6 "'"rnT 8.7g 49 "'" measurements taken on each bone are "'" displayed in Table 2. Bones N3-4 through N3-6 were not included since they were not physically in the Put another way, woodrat and coyote woodrat nest, but were found on a utilization of a cave or rockshelter slope leading up to the nest. may contribute similar faunal remains with few apparent diagnostic The greatest minimum width of attributes to distinguish between any of the bones is eleven them. Nevertheless, deciphering the millimeters, measured on a deer agents and events responsible for metapodial collected from Nest l. the deposition of all bones at The heaviest bone is a deer femur archeological sites is crucial to weighing 54.5 grams. The longest accurate interpretations. bone is a deer rib which measures 295 millimeters in length. These three measurements may be viewed as DevelCl{m!llt of the Carrying Range individual ranges which comprise a more general Carrying Range. These How can archeologists individual ranges are a maximum

32 minimum width range (MMW), a maximum MXL was carried or dragged 2.8 weight range (MXW), and a maximum meters up a nearly vertical slope length range (MXL). The combination into its nest. More quantification of the three ranges form the CR. data are needed to establish if The Neotama cinerea orolestes CR is different Carrying Ranges are established at llmm, 54.5g, 295mm. necessary for variation in vertical access to sites. It may be that a woodrat cannot carry or drag a bone which has the The CR must be used wi th other dimensions and weight equal to the types of data and an appreciation CR into archeological sites. This for all current taphonomic will be determined as more bones are knowledge. For exarrple, the collected from woodrat nests and percentage of articular ends present measured. Nevertheless, it is on ungulate limb bones, charring proposed that the CR may be a useful patterns, cut mark data, and the tool to separate assemblages in presence of hearths may all be terms of site-formation agents. It combined to suggest human is suggested that each bone modification to relatively recovered from archeological sites unambiguous faunal remains. The of known woodrat activity be CR's value lies with bones in measured for MMW, MXW, and MXL. If deposits whose origins are none of the three individual ranges ambiguous. It is philosophically exceed their CR counterpart (llmm preferable to discount certain bones for MMW, 54.5g for MXW, 295mm for as potentially brought to a site by MXL), then the bone in question may woodrats than to assume they were have been deposited at the site by brought to a site by humans. woodrats. Bones whose individual Finally, one of the CR's greatest range(s) exceed their CR counterpart assets is that it is not affected by were probably deposited at the site disturbance. Many North I\merican by agents other than woodrats. archeological sites have been heavily disturbed, yet disturbance It is understood that variation has no affect upon woodrat CRs. between woodrat species and among members of the same species will have an affect on the bones each Conclusion individual is capable of dragging or carrying. Therefore, a different CR Archeologists are growing more may be needed for each species of sensitive to the role natural agents woodrat. play in bone accumulation. Yet, often conclusions about the role of The difference between ground­ human behavior in deposi ting bones level sites and those sites that are drawn based upon spatial require vertical climbing to access associations between bones and them will also affect the CR. The artifacts alone. The presence of deer metapodial which measured llmm human artifacts or bones modified by for MMW was carried or dragged 2.4 hurr~ns does not unequivocally mean meters up a nearly vertical slope that all of the associated bones into its nest. The deer femur which were deposited by humans as well. weighed 54.5g for MXW was carried or Wherever woodrat activity is found, dragged 3.5 meters up a nearly woodrat bone-collecting behavior vertical slope into its nest. The must be considered. deer rib which measured 295mm for 33 It is conceivable that woodrats san Diego State exploited bones from culturally University. modified carcasses in the past. Sticks and twigs make up the bulk of Behrensmeyer, A.K. woodrat nest-building material, and 1978 Taphonomic and ecologic it is possible that woodrats could information from bone have brought arrow and shafts weathering. Paleobiology into archeological sites. Stone 4(2):150-162. artifacts and human feces may also be collected by woodrats. Binford, L.R. Understanding all facets of woodrat 1984 Faunal Remains from collecting behavior is vital. Klasies River V~uth. Woodrat Carrying Ranges may playa Orlando: Academic Press. role in increasing the accuracy of archeological interpretations of Brain, C.K. past human lifeways. 1981 The Hunters or the Hunted? Chicago: university of Chicago Press. AcImowl~ts Durrant, S. and E.B. Robinson Gary Haynes made helpful 1962 Mammals of the Gunnison comments and suggestions on an River Basin. IN D.M. earlier draft of this paper. Pendergast (Ed-:), pp. 233- 263, Ecological Studies of This report stems from a thesis the Flora and Fauna of the completed at San Diego State Curecanti Reservoir University. I thank my committee Basins, Western Colorado. manbers - Lois Lippold, Larry Leach, University of Utah and Thomas Rockwell - for their Anthropological Papers 59. interest and helpful comments. Lois Lippold and Richard Cerutti of the El:nslie, S.D. San Diego Natural History Museum 1988 Vertebrate paleontology helped in identifying the bones. and taphonomy of caves in Grand Canyon, Arizona. I am indebted to David Nash for National Geographic including me in the cBystack Cave Research 4(1):128-142. field crew. Arden Anderson and all the Park Rangers and government Finley, R.B. personnel working in and around 1958 The wood rats of Colorado: Gunnison have been more than Distribution and ecology. supportive. University of Kansas Publications, Museum of Natural History 10(6):213- References Cited 552.

Ashley, T.R. Heizer, R.F. and R.A. Brooks 1971 Arthropods in the sleeping 1965 Lewisville - ancient nests of the dusky-footed campsite or wood rat wood rat, Neotorna houses? Southwestern fuscipes, in San Diego Journal of Anthropology County, California. 21 (2) : 155-165. Unpublished M.A. Thesis,

34 Hendy, Q.B. and R. Singer Mead, J.I. and A.M. Philips, III 1965 Part III: The faunal 1981 The late Pleistocene and assemblages of the Gamtoos Holocene fauna and flora Valley shelters. South of Vulture Cave, Grand African Archeologicar-­ Canyon, Arizona. The Bulletin 20(80):206-213. Southwestern NaturalIst 26(3):257-288. Hockett, B.S. 1988 Woodrats, coyotes, and Miller, S.J. Haystack Cave: Taphonomic 1979 The archeological fauna of investigations in Gunnison four sites in Smith Creek County, Colorado. Canyon. IN D.R. Tuohy and Unpublished M.A. Thesis, D.L. Rendall (Eds.), pp. San Diego State 272-329, The Archeology of University. Smith Creek Canyon, Eastern Nevada. Carson Hoffman, R. and C. Hays City: Nevada State Museum 1987 The eastern wood rat AnthrOpological Papers, (Neotoma floridana) as a 17. taphonomic factor in archeological sites. Olsen, R.W. Journal of Archeological 1973 Shelter-site selection in Science 14:325-337. the white-throated woodrat, Neotoma albigula. Linsdale, J. and L.P. Trevis, Jr. Journal of Mammalogy 1951 The Dusky-Footed Wood-Rat: 54(3):594-610. A Record of Observations Made ~ the Hastings Warren, E.R. National History 1910 The Mammals of Colorado. Reservation. Berkeley: New York: G.P. Putnam's University of California Sons. Press.

35 THIN-SBCTION ANALYSIS OF MISSION PERIOD POTTERY FRCI'1 BAJA CilLIFORNIA, MEXICO

Donald R. Tuohy Nevada State Museum Carson City, Nevada

Mary B. Strawn Idaho State University Museum Pocatello, Idaho

Introduction help answer these questions?

This paper summarizes the results To provide answers to sane of of thin-section analysis of a dozen these questions, sherd samples must plain brownware potsherds recovered be well controlled and carefully at ten mission sites from an area provenienced from the various extending from above the 31st mission sites. The data reported parallel to well below the 25th here represent "grab" samples of parallel on the Baja California sherds from surface deposits found peninsula, Mexico (Fig. 1). The in and near the ruins or still pottery is here called "Mission extant chapels of ten/ missions,. San Period Brownware" (May 1973). The Bruno, San Juan La nd 0, San LulS / distance from Mission San Vincente Gonzaga, San Borja, Santa Rosalia de in the north to ~lission San Luis Mulege', San Fernando Velicata', Gonzaga in the south is roughly 3/4 Calamajue, El Rosario I and El the total length of the peninsula Rosario II, and San Vincente (Fig. itself. The latter is usually given 1). Therefore, sane mixing of as approximately 700 miles, or as Mission Period pottery with later or 1,059 road miles. contemporary Mexican types may well The sample is made up of twelve have taken place. Some care was potsherds, two each from two exercised, however, in the selection missions and eight single sherds of sherds that were collected. from eight other missions. Such a Preference was given to sherds found small sample can do little but add at or near living quarters near impetus for further efforts in this church ruins, or those that were data-gathering stage of the partially buried in mission research. cO!!q')Ounds.

Sane of the questions posed by this research are: What constitutes Age of the SalIples "Mission Period" pottery? How does Mission Period pottery differ from The temporal range of the sherds surrounding pottery types of begins with the late 20th century prehistoric, aboriginal, and and extends to as early as A.D. contemporary Mexican manufacture? 1683. This early date represents Was pottery traded during the Father Kino's first Jesuit mission Spanish Mission Period? Were settlement at San Bruno on the gulf ceramics manufactured locally or coast north of La Paz. The imported from nearby geographic settlement was unsuccessful, regions? Can thin-section analysis however, and was abandoned in 1685.

36 < I I I J-~~ ~ __ «_~I._. __ _

---- <'~ BAJA CALIFORNIA

o >­ _'~0-,c,--~'.c00___ '~5 <~)_~..cc;;OO )'1. IIOJ o 50 100 ISO 2if) 250 )00 I(dQ",.lfQS

:.2 110 ,~--, ,...... -,~ "-- ~ ~ '-'""-'~ "'-"'-

Figure 1 Site Locations

37 The Jesuits returned after an '!he Ethnographic Record absence of 12 years, and in 1697 founded the first permanent mission From what is known of the settlement at Loreto, also located ethnographic record south of the on the southern gulf coast. The 30th parallel in Baja California, Jesuits' tenure on the peninsula all authorities agree that pottery­ lasted until 1767 when they were making was unknown to all aboriginal expelled from all of t~xico groups south of El Rosario (A§hmann including Baja California. At the 1959: 59; Clavigero in Lake and' Gray time of their expulsion, they had 1937:93; Kirchhoff 1942:XXIX; established a chain of 18 missions Martinez 1956:39; Massey 1947a:354). extending from the Cape Region to According to Clavigero (in Lake and nearly the 30th parallel at Arroyo Gray 1937: 91): El Rosario. "When some indians found among The Jesuits were succeeded by the the sands of the Pacific Sea Franciscans, who founded their first some large earthen jars, left peninsular mission in 1768 at there without doubt by the Velicata~ The Franciscans were more sailors of some ship from the interested in Alta California, Philippine Islands, they however, and their major efforts marveled at them because they were directed there during ensuing had never seen similar vessels. years. The Dominicans took over the They carried them to a cave a missions in Baja California in 1773. short distance from their usual Their first mission was founded at habitation and placed them El Rosario in 1774, and between then there with the mouths turned and 1797 six additional missions toward the entrance, so that were founded between El Rosario and all might observe them well. the border. The Dominican Period on Afterward they went frequently the peninsula lasted until 1854 to look at them without ever (Englehardt 1929:555-714). The failing to wonder at those Augustinians, another of the great mouths always open; and monastic orders, also entered the in their dances, where they mission field on the peninsula, but imitate the movements and cries their influence was negligible. of animals, they imitated the mouths of the jars with The dozen potsherds comprising theirs." the sample came only from Jesuit, Franciscan, and Dominican missions. The ethnographic record is clear Seven sherds came from Jesuit that aboriginal (pre-mission) missions, including one from the pottery was restricted to the area first Jesuit settlement at San north of the 30th parallel. Yet Bruno, and one from the last Jesuit some of it was being traded into the mission at Calamajue. ']Wo sherds northern gulf region from the Cocopa were collected from the first (Burrus 1966:81), and the Franciscan Mission at Velicata(, and archeological record shows that at three sherds came from Dominican least some of this painted and plain missions at, and north of, the 30th pottery from the northern regions parallel. Table 1 presents reached as far south as Catavina, descriptions of the morphological located just north of the Central traits of the potsherds. Desert (Chace 1967:50; Green and Brennan 1982).

38 At the same time as the also was recorded archeologically by establishment of the Jesuit missions Meighan (1966:372) in Gardner Cave (1697-1767), pottery containers were located just below the 28th introduced to the Indians living parallel, and by Massey and Tuohy south of the 30th parallel. Pottery (1960) from the Sierra de la Giganta vessels comprised part of the in the vicinity of the 26th individual priest's household goods parallel. Because the potsherds (Baegert in Brandenburg and Baumann found at Gardner Cave were "tempered 1952:125), and became part of the with grass," Meighan (1969:40-42) apparatus used by Indians thought the brownware he recovered (Aschmann 1966: 81). '!he usual to be .....more likely of aboriginal Spanish household utensils in use origin". during the 18th Century included a brasero, or brasier, which utilized both a large pottery bowl and jar 1hin-section llnalyses (DiPeso 1953:228). O'Crouley, (Aschmann 1966:81) quoting a In order to check the temper of manuscript probably written by the plain brownware pottery from caves Jesuit, Fernando Consag, notes that of the Sierra de la Giganta, known after contact with the Spanish the to date to the Jesuit Mission Period Indians " ••• cooked flour and made (1697-1767), a potsherd from mush or cakes of it," and that: Cave was analyzed in thin-section by one of us (M.S., an experienced "The latter type of cooking petrographer at Idaho State occurs at the present time University, Pocatello). '!he since the Indians now possess analysis of specimen 3-13825 was some pottery cooking vessels, previously published as follows and some women who know how to (Tuohy 1970:42): cook. While they were gentiles "Core (cross-section) the Indians never ate anything Color: light brown on exterior boiled because they had no and interior. Dark brown in vessels in which to cook; all center of core. Carbon and their foods were either toasted some Fez03 present. or roasted .. 1t 'l'emper: Amount -- moderate. Texture -- fine to medium, (most fragments less than ff.2 Baja California Containers rom). Shape -- angular. Temper Material: Plagioclase Following Massey (1947b), Tuohy predominates, also a few sherd (1970:40-51) previously mapped the fragments, and a few fragments distribution of various types of of an igneous rock (silicic)." bark, turtle shell, skin, basketry, and pottery containers used on the Because potsherd fragments were peninsula in ethnohistoric times. noted as part of the temper in this The recorded archeological initial analysis, and because occurrences of plain brown pottery crushed potsherds were commonly used south of Catavina were summarized in as temper in pre-mission pottery that paper. It had been noted as found north of the 30th parallel present on the Gulf Coast at Bahla,/ (Davis 1967:61; Gifford 1931:42; de Los ADgeles by Massey and Osborn Rogers 1936:22) as well as among the (1961:343) and by E. L. Davis (1968: Seri on the eastern Gulf Coast 184, 190) at .the same locality. It (Bowen and Moser 1968: 92), and

39 because one cannot rule out use of lIIOOunt crushed potsherds as temper in Mission Period pottery found south The percentages of temper in the of the 30th parallel, further thin­ sherds were determined by comparison section work became mandatory. with Terry and Chilingar's (1955) chart for estimating percentage The purpose of recent thin­ composi tion of rocks and sediments. section studies is to find Six to eight comparisons were made similarities and differences among over the section and the percentages amounts, textures, and kinds of of temper averaged. rocks and minerals used as temper in potsherds. Such analysis of Baja mission sherds might help Crnposition distinguish pottery from one region or sub-region from that of another. Most of the mineral grains Accordingly, the twelve additional identified were silicates, quartz thin-sections were analyzed by and feldspar with lesser amounts of Strawn. amphibole (hornblende) and pyroxene (augite). The rocks present in the sherds and their distribution is Size given in Table 2.

Measurements of rock fragments Both rock fragments and mineral and mineral grains were taken with a grains showed considerable micrometer attached to a weathering and alteration. The petrographic microscope. A hundred alteration was mainly to clay power was used and the long minerals, but only kaolinite and dimension of the particles was sericite were identified. recorded. Both rock fragments and mineral grains are included in Varying amounts of magnetite measurements of size ranges given grains were present in most of the for each thin section. In most sections, and so its presence was cases, at least twenty measurements not considered diagnostic. were made. Rock fragments were consistently larger than mineral Quartzite was abundant in the grains. sections; where sutured contacts between quartz grains indicated some degree of metamorphism the rock was called metaquartzite.

Shape designations were made using Powers' (1953) roundness scale. The designations were necessarily subjective and the Photographs of the sherds were distinction between "subangular" and taken with a 35mm camera using VR- "subrounded" was difficult to make. 100 film. The photos show mineral Broader categories such as "angular" grains and rock fragments and "rounded" were more clear-cut. characteristic of all the slides, In general, the rock fragments with the exception of NSM l39b which appeared to be more rounded than the shows the only observed specimen of mineral grains. welded tuff.

40 TABLE 1 Provenience and Descriptive Data on Mission Period Pottery from Baja California

Cat. Vessel Thickness Core Ext. No. Mission Type (?) (mn ) Color Color Notes

134 Velicata bowl 7.3 7.5YR 3/0 2.5YR 5/6 135 S.J. Londo' jar 10.4 2.SYR 3/0 7.5YR 5/2 Int. color 5YR 6/6 138 San Bruno bowl 10.0 7.5YR 3/0 5YR 6/4 Coiled 139 S. J. Londo' bowl 8.6 5Y 2.5/1 5YR 2.5/2 No visible temper 140 S.L. Gonzaga large jar 20.7 2.5Y 4/0 5YR 5/4 141 San Borja large jar 14.0 5YR 4/1 5YR 5/4 Pebble-smooth into 142 s. R. Muleje' bowl 7.3 5YR 5/4 5YR 4/2 Light colored core 143 Velicata bowl 7.3 7.5YR 3/0 7.5YR 3/2 Int. color 5YR 3/4 144 Calamajue~ jar 11.6 5YR 4/1 7.5YR 6/2 Int. color 5YR 5/3 145 Rosario I bowl 8.0 5YR 4/1 l0YR 5/3 146 Rosario II bowl 12.7 l0YR 4/1 2.5YR 5/8 147 S. Vincente bowl 8.0 2.5YR 5/0 l0YR 4/3 Light colored core to 2.5YR 5/2

TABLE 2 The Di stribution of Rock Types in Thin Sections

NSM Grani tic Rock Quartzite Siltstone W. No. Locality Chert Granite M2tag,tzite Silty Shale Basalt Tuff

134 Velicata X X X 135 San Juan Londo' X X 138 San Bruno X X X 139 San Juan Londo" X X X 140 San Luis Gonzaga X X X X X X 141 San Borja / 142 Santa Rosalia (~lulege) X X X 143 Velicata~ X X X 144 Calamajue X X X 145 Rosario I X X X 146 Rosario II X X X 147 San Vincente X X

41 Resul ts of the Petrographic St~ particularly those founded by the Jesuits, are located adjacent to Evidence from the petrographic large arroyos where there was a study seems to indicate that constant and reliable supply of sediments were used for temper. potable water. Sediments in these Data bearing this out are (1) the arroyos presumably match the wide range of rocks represented in sediments used as temper in the the rock fragments of the sherds; sherd samples. Future research (2) the rounding of the fragments of should test this proposition. rock as dissimilar as silty shale and metaquartzite; and (3) the large amounts of clay associated with the Discussion rock and mineral particles, sometimes making identification Several conclusions are apparent, difficult, if not impossible. but because they are derived from such a small sample of tested However, it is possible that the potsherds, they may be more apparent rounded mineral grains and rock than real. We do not know, for fragments were deposited with the example, whether the sample truly clay that was used for making the represents "Mission Period pottery, and are autochthonous and Brownware" pottery. We think it not introduced. In other words, the does, but we still do not know how grains and fragments were part of the samples differ from the the paste, and were not terrper. contemporary pottery made on the However, the mineral grains in the peninsula, or imported from the sherds are more angular than the mainland. The absence of welded rock fragments and consist of quartz tuff in all specimens save one from and feldspar mainly. The angularity San Juan Londo' (No. 139, Table 2) would be consistent with grinding of suggests that that particular vessel rocks for temper. may have been locally made. 'Ibis could have been done as early as the The absence of crushed potsherds late 17th Century since San Juan in this sherd sample, and the Londo'was a puebla de visita (known preponderant use of sediments and as San Isidro), or an outlying crushed granitic rock, high in mission station of San Bruno, as quartz and feldspar, may reflect a Father Kino's diary attests (Mathes particular aspect of ceramic 1969:15). Another vessel, technology rather than anything represented by sherd sample No. 138 else. For such a temporally and (Table 1), came from nearby San geographically disparate sample to Bruno, and it clearly was handmade have a concordance among rock types by the coiling method, but lacked used as temper was totally welded tuff in the temper. As unexpected • nearly as can be determined (because of the small physical size of all On the other hand, when one sherd samples), all other vessels considers that there was always a appeared to have been hand-molded or paramount need behind the selection made on a potters' turntable. of sites for peninsular missions -­ the need for adequate sources of other practices, such as the water -- then such similarities in inclusion of dung, grass, and rock types became explicable. crushed rock or potsherds, may have Nearly all permanent missions, been part and parcel of unglazed

42 earthenware potters' repertoire A.D. 1705. A minimum of five antedating the Conquest, or brought vessels were represented and most to the New World from the Old, and had black cores. They were first practiced extensively at constructed by coiling, scraped and Spanish tradition pottery kilns in rubbed by hand, or paddled. They Mexico City. Surely, the potsherds were fired at low temperatures and herein called "Mission Period had a fine temper which included Brownware" are lineal descendants of organic materials and possibly some such Spanish tradition ceramics as ground shell. Color is given as 57% were made in 17th - 18th Century reddish brown (5YR 5/4) on the Mexico City, and in the 16th Century interior and exterior; 26% dark or Seville, Spain, during and after the light yellowish brown (10YR 5/6) or Spanish Conquest (Foster 1960:92-93; (10YR 5/2) on the interior; and 25% Lister and Lister 1982:61). red (2.5YR 5/6) to weak red (2.5YR 5/2) exterior color and reddish Such "Mission Period Brownware" brown (2.5YR 5/4, 4/4) interior ceramics may readily be color. Thickness of vessel walls distinguished visually from the averages about 9 mm, and ranges from varieties of Tizon Brownware 5 mm to 16 mm (Ritter 1979:328-329). ceramics of aboriginal manufacture Pottery from the other three sites found north of the 30th parallel on showed some variation, but, in the peninsula and in northwestern general, was similar in all respects Arizona and southern California. to the potsherds collected near the The several varieties of Tizon mission. Brownware are all coiled, paddle and anvil wares having a temporal range As indicated in Table 1, the of A.D. 700 to A.D. 1890 (Dobyns and single Muleje sherd in our sample, Euler 1958; Euler 1959). Thus, No. 142, had a different exterior gross sherd morphology is important color and a lighter colored core in distinguishing Tizon Brownware than any Mulej.{ Mission potsherds from "Mission Period Brownware". reported by Ritter (1979). Also, as May (1973) has called this pottery Table 2 shows, specimen 142 was one the "Mission Series" of Tizon Brown. of three in the sample which contained basalt as an inclusion or Ritter (1979:328-331) has a temper constituent; the other reported on ceramics found during sherds containing basalt were from the course of his studies in the San Borja and Rosario I, samples 141 Muleje/region on the south-central and 145. Gulf coast, and he sees similarities between the brownware found there May's (1973) "Santo Tomas Brown" and a variety of Tizon Brownware, is concentrated mainly around the Laguna Series, Santo Tomas Brown, as non-Jesuit missions north of the described by May (1973:59-60) for 30th parallel and probably dates Santo Tomas 11ission, a Franciscan between A.D. 1770 and 1850. mission in northwestern Baja Although such Tizon Brownware California. variants are similar to Mission Period Brownware found below the The largest sample of Ritter's 30th parallel, differences probably (1979:329) brownware sherds from the outweigh similarities. Mulej~ Region came from one of four sites yielding pottery, the Santa For example, thin section Rosal{a de Muleje Mission founded in analysis of 34 sherds of Tizon

43 Brownware from 20 aboriginal sites may be used as evidence for visits representing Gabrieleno, Serrano, of an alien group to the shores of Cahuilla, Luiseno, and Diegueno (all Baja California. Although southern California groups) has archeologists and ethnologists may shown that temper was not have suspected the close purposefully added to the paste of relationships between the Sed and this pottery, but was part of the the Cochimr, so far there is not one original raw material, and no rock shred of archeological evidence to fragments were present in the -­ support that presumed relationship. observed sections (Koerper et al. 1978:52). Further, these authors found that thin section analysis can Conclusion distinguish pottery having a common regional origin from vessels made In conclusion, thin-section outside the same region. analysis of a small surface sample Particularly useful for Tizon of potsherds from Baja California Brownware studies were " ••• size and missions has provided new knowledge angularity of the grains, the of a heretofore undescribed pottery percentage of different minerals in ware, called "Mission Per iod the terrper, •.• and the dark and Brownware". Tnis name, of course, opaque minerals" (Koerper et al. is tentative and is used herein only 1978:52). Quartz was always -­ to describe the small sample of present, and hence not particularly potsherds analyzed. Clearly useful in these studies, and the conservatism is called for in same conclusion is relevant to our deriving cultural inferences or study of Mission Period Brownware. taxonomic relationships from such a small sample. Nevertheless, as we Recently at a point just south of have shown, the thin section work the 29th parallel on the northern done on such plainwares has opened Gulf Coast, Foster (1984:61-68) up a useful avenue to explore -­ .--...1' / explored the Bah 1a de Los Angeles perhaps not the King's Highway, but region for trans-Gulf contacts by at least a mule train leading to the Sed Indians. He reports six further knowledge and understanding sherds of historic Seri pottery. of the peninsula's priceless Each sherd was less than 5 rrm in prehistoric and historic heritage. thickness, tempered with organic materials and thinned by scraping, and showed an interior slip, a l\clmowledg€ments defining attribute of historic Seri pottery (Bowen 1976:55). 'This paper was presented at the 19th annual meeting of the Society However, the site, Punta La for Historical Archeology, Gringa, is very late, dating between Sacramento, California, 1986. My 1700 and 1800 A.D., when historic thanks go to Drs. Sheilagh and seri ceramics replaced Tiburon Richard Brooks whose January field Plainware on the mainland (Bowen schools from 1975 to 1986 gave me 1976:53-54). This evidence for the opportunity to collect the trans-Gulf contact between the Seri potsherds used in the sample. and the mainland of the peninsula that evidence found by Bowen (1976) on Isla Tiburon and the Sonoran mainland. 'Thus, potsherds

44 Iefecences Cited Bowen, T. and E. Moser 1968 Sed pottery. The . Aschmann, H. 33 (3) :89-132. 1959 The central desert of Baja Cal ifornia: demography and Brandenberg, M.M. and C.L. Baumann ecology. Ibero-Americana (translators) No. 42. Berkeley and Los 1952 Observations in Lower Angeles. California ~Joh3ni1Jakof Baegert S.J., Berkeley: 1966 The Natural and Human University of California HIStory of Baja carrIornia Press. from Manuscripts ~ Jesuit Missionaries. Translated Burrus, E.J. and ed i ted by Homer 1966 Wenceslaus Linck's Diary Aschmann. Los Angeles: of His 1766 Expedition to Dawson's Book Shop. Northern Ba~a California. Translated into English, Baegert, J.J. edited and annotated by 1942 Noticias d'la Peninsula Ernest J. Burrus. Los Americana de California. Angeles: Dawson's Book Por el Rev-.-Padre Baegert. Shop. Con una introdu=ion por Paul Kirchhoff. Glace, P.G. Traducidos por Pedro R. 1967 A note on decorated Hendrichs. Mexico: pottery in Baja Antigua Libreria Robredo. California. Pacific Coast Archeological Society-­ 1952 Observations in Lower Quarterly 3(1):50-52. California. Translated from the original German, Davis, E.H. first published in 1771, 1967 Diegueno basketry and M.M. Brandenburg and Carl pottery. Pacific Coast L. Baumann, translators. Archeological QuarterlY Berkeley and Los Angeles: 3(1) :58-64. University of California Press. Davis, E.L. 1968 An archeological Bolton, H.E. reconnaissance in the 1948 Kino's Historical Memoir central desert of Baja of Primeria Alta. California. Archeological Berkeley: University of Survey Annual Report 176- California Press. 208. Los Angeles: Department of Bowen, T. Anthropology, University 1976 Seri prehistory: the of Cal Hornia. archeology of the central coast of Sonora, Mexico. DiPeso, C.C. Anthropological Papers of 1953 The Sobaipuri Indians of the University of Arizona the upper San Pedro river No. 27. valley, southeastern Arizona. Amerind Foundation Papers No.6.

45 Dobyns, H. and R. Euler Hoover, R.L. and J.G. Costello 1958 Tizon brownware. IN (Eds. ) Pottery ~ of the 1985 Excavations at Mission San South\€st. Museum of Antonio 1976-1978. Northern Arizona Ceramic Monograph XXVI Insti tute Series, No.3. of Archeology. Los Angeles: University of Englehardt, Z. California. 1929 '!tie Missions and MISsionaries of California Kirchhoff, P. (two volumes)--. Santa 1942 Las Tribus de la Baja Barbara. California y el Libro del P. Baegert. IN P. Euler, R.C. Baegert, NotiCias d' la 1959 Comparative comments on Peninsula Americana de California pottery. California (q.v.). Archeological Survey Annual Report, 1958-1959 Koerper, H.C., C.E. Drover, A. No. 41. Los Angeles: Flint, and G. Hurd Department of Anthropology 1978 Gabrieleno Tizon brown and Sociology, University pottery. Pacific Coast of Cali fornia. Archeological soci~ Quarterly 14(3):43-58. Foster, G.M. 196@ Culture and conquest Lake, S.E. and A.A. Gray America's Spanish (translators and editors) heritage. Viking Fund 1937 The History of (Lower) Publications in California ~ Don Anthropology No. 27. Francisco Javier Claviegero, S.J. Foster, J.W. 1984 A later period site from Laylander, D. Bahia de Los Angeles, Baja 1983 Ceramic analysis in California. Pacific Coast research designs for the Archeological Society prehistory of southern Quarterly 2@(1):6l-68. California. Casual Papers 1(2):144-159. San Diego: Gifford, E.W. '!tie Cultural Resource 1931 The Kamia of Imperial Management Center, Valley. Bureau of Department of American Ethnolog:y Anthropology, San Diego Bulletin 97:1094. State University.

Green, E. and L. Br ennan Lister, F.C. and R.H. Lister 1982 Site Files on Baja 1982 A descriptive dictionary California Field Trips for 5@0 years of Spanish - 1975-1982. Unpublished tradition ceramics (13th manuscript on file at the through 18th centuries) . Natural History Museum. Society for Historical Las Vegas: University of Archeology, Special Nevada. Publication Series No. 1.

46 r'lartinez, P.L. Meighan, C.W. 1956 Historia de Baja 1959 Archeological resources of California. Segunda Borrego Desert State Park. Edicion Espanola, Mexico, U.C.L.A. Archeological D.F. Services, Annual Report 1958-1959:27-40. Massey, W.C. 1947a Brief report on 1966 Prehistoric rock archeological paintings, Baja investigations in Baja California. American California. southwestern Antiquity 31(3):372-392. Journal of Anthropology 3(4):344-359. 1969 Indian ~ and History. The TestlIllOny of 1947b Historical Ethnography of Prehispanic Rock Paintings Baja california. in Baja California. Unpublished manuscript in Edited by Edwin Carpenter authors possession. and Glenn Dawson. Los Angeles: Baja California Massey, W.C. and C.M. Osborne Travel Ser ies. 1961 A burial cave in Baja California. The Palmer Olin, J.S. and A.D. Franklin Collection 1887. 1982 Archeological Ceramics. University of California Washington, D.C.: Anthropological Records Smithsonian Institution 16(8):363-388. Press. Massey, W.C. and D.R. Tuohy Powers, M.C. 1960 Caves of the Sierra de la 1953 A new roundedness scale of Giganta. Unpublished sedimentary particles. manuscript in authors Journal of Sedimentary possession. Petrology 23:117-119.

Mathes, W. M. Reitz, E.J. and C. M. Scarry 1969 First from the Gulf to the 1985 Reconstructing historic PaCIfic the Diary of the subsistence with an Kino-Atondo Peninsular example from sixteenth­ Expedition. Los Angeles: century Spanish Florida. Dawson's Book Shop. Society for Historical Archeol~ Special May, R.V. Publication Series No.3. 1973 An archeological survey of Mission Santo Tomas, Baja Ritter, E.W. California. Pacific Coast 1979 An Archeological Study of Archeological Quarterly South-Central Baja 9(1):48-64. California, Mexico. Unpublished Ph.D. 1978 A southern California dissertation, University indigenous ceramic of California, Davis. typology. Archeological Survey Association of Rogers, M.J. Southern California 2:2. 1936 Yuman pottery making. San

47 Diego Museum Papers 2: 1- Tebiwa 13(2):41-51. 53. Tuohy, D.R. and M.B. Strawn Shu1z, P.D. and E. Richards Barter 1986 Nevada Shoshoni ceramics: 1985 Incised brownware sherds a comparative analysis of from Old Town San Diego. 36 thin sections from Pacific Coast plain brown pottery Archeo1og-r.;ar Quarterly vessels found in the 2 (4): 25-28. Desert West. IN S. Griset (Ed.), Pottery-of the Terry, R.D. and G.V. Chilingar Great Basin and Adjacent 1955 Chart for estimating Areas. University of Utah percentage composition of Anthropological Papers rocks and sediments. 111:85-95. Journal of Sedimentary Petrology 25:229-234. Webb, E.B. 1982 Indian Life at the Old Tuohy, D. R. Missions (Reprint - 1970 The aboriginal containers edition). Lincoln: of Baja California Mexico: University of Nebraska a search for origins. Press.

48 The Nevada Archaeological Association was organized in 1972 to provide a bond of communication be· tween professionals in the field of archaeology and its allied sciences, members of various amateU! organizations, and the people of Nevada towards the furtherance of public education and involvement in responsible preservation of Nevada's finite archaeological and historical resources. The need for recording these cultural resources of the past for the enlightenment of future generations grows more pressing with each day of development and progress. The goals of the Nevada Archae­ ological Association are: to provide a focal point for general information and study of non-renewable cultural resources; to provide a central point for recording artifact collections from Nevada and the Great Basin and the verbal knowledge of provenience and associations accompanying these collections; to correlate this knowledge with that information already professionally recorded for the mutual benefit of the amateurs and professionals with research interests; to provide assistance with education towardE responsible public participation in archaeology; to assist in the preservation of sites by the establishment and maintenance of a registry of available, capable, and technically skilled amateurs in Nevada who would be able to work with professionals in accordance with the Code of Ethics and Standards of Research Performance as advocated by the Society of Professional Archaeologists, particularly in the immediacy of I salvage archaeology; and to provide a bond of communication between professionals, amateurs, and the general public by publishing a journal, Nevada Archaeologist. To these ends the Nevada Archaeological Association was incorporated in 1972, in the State of Nevada, with its organizational and editorial offices as listed on the inside cover. Membership is open to all those inte~ested in the archaeology, ethnology, and history of the human inhabitants and their natural habitats in Nevada, the Great Basin, and adjacent environs.

ARCHAEOLOGICAL SOCIETIES IN NEVADA

NEVADA ARCHAEOLOGICAL ASSOCIATION OFFICERS NAA Presideflt 88 Helen Mortenson In Reno: AM-ARCS OF NEVADA NAA Treasurer 88 Robert Leavitt President: Analise Odencrantz NAA Secretary 88 Ramona Reno Treasurer: Lewis White NAA Board Jean Mvles Secretary: Mickey White NAA Board Dianne Jennings Telephone (Pres.): (702) 331-6840 NAA Board Robert Elston Address: P.O. Box 10384 NAA Board Gary Haynes Reno, NV 89510

[" Fallon: Churchill County Chapter of the In Las Vegas: THE ARCHAEO-NEVADA SOCIETY NEVADA ARCHAEOLOGICAL ASSN. Pre:>ident: Helen Mortenson Presidt'nt: Anan Raymond 876-6944 Vice-President: Campbell McNair Treasurer: David Dwyer 735-4878 SecretaTt/- Treasurer Maie Nygren Secretary; Barbara Boyer 6800 MiSSIOn Road 645-4529 Fallon, Nevada 89406 Activities & Teict,hOl1f' (702) 423-2212 Membership: Grace Burkholder 293-6311

Residents of all othl;-'f Nevada communities are asked to join the Nevada Archaeological Association until such time as there are sufficient numbers of people willing to form local chapters of the above organization.iniormation on the Constitutions and By-Ia\vs of the above organizations mily be obtained at cost from the secretaries of the above organizations. Reconstruction of a late Pleistocene mammoth, on exhibit at the Zoological Museum in Leningrad, U.S.S.R. (see related article by D. Tuohy, page 11).