The Crew of Captain Cook's Third Voyage of Discovery

THE BACKBONE OF SUCCESS: THE CREW OF CAPTAIN COOK’S THIRD VOYAGE OF DISCOVERY

Tyler G. Mower Senior Thesis Writing Component December 14, 2010

CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION 1

COOK’S THIRD VOYAGE 1776-1780 3

THE EVER IMPORTANT CREW 6

DEVOTED TO EXPLORATION 10

DUTIES WHILE SAILING 15

DUTIES ON LAND 31

REPARING THE SHIPS 42

CONCLUSION 53

BIBILOGRAPHY 58

ii ILLUSTRATIONS

Figures

1. R. T. Sexton, Line-drawing of Captain Cook’s Resolution iv

2. William Hodges, The Resolution & Adventure 17

3. William Hodges, A View of Cape Stephens in Cook’s Straits 22 with Waterspout

4. William Ellis, A View of Point Venus 26

5. William Hodges, View in Pickersgill Harbour, Dusky Bay, 27 New Zealand

6. Geoffrey C. Ingleton, Crossing the Line; King Neptune’s Court 29

7. Alexandeer Buchan, The Watering place in the Bay of Good Success 35

8. James Cook rendition of Sydney Parkinson’s drawing, 36 Watering place in Tolaga Bay

9. John Webber, A View of Christmas Harbour in Kerguelen’s Land 40

10. John Webber, The Resolution and Discovery in danger 45 of being trapped in the ice north of Bering Strait

11. Sydney Parkinson, William Byrne engraver, 50 The Endeavor under repair in Endeavour River

12. Sydney Parkinson, Repairing the Endeavour 51

iii GLOSSARY

Boatswain. A ship’s officer in charge of equipment and the crew.

Coxswain. The steersman of a ship’s boat, lifeboat or other boat.

Fathom. A unit of length equal to six feet, chiefly used in reference to the depth of water.

Furl. Roll or fold up and secure neatly.

Grog. Spirits (originally rum) mixed with water.

Jib. A triangular staysail set forward of the forward-most mast.

Main-topmast. The second section of a sailing ship’s mainmast.

Shoal. An area of shallow water, esp. as a navigational hazard.

Sound. Ascertain the depth of water, typically by means of a line or pole.

Tack. An act of changing course by turning a vessel’s head into and through the wind, so as to bring the wind on the opposite side.

Figure 1. “The names of the masts and sails have been added.” (Badger, 93.) R. T. Sexton, Line-drawing of Captain Cook’s Resolution.

iv THE BACKBONE OF SUCCESS: THE CREW OF CAPTAIN COOK’S THIRD VOYAGE OF DISCOVERY

People yearn to know what lies over the hill, around the next bend or beyond the horizon. Inquiry leads to exploration. Whether by sea, land or more recently, air and space, exploration has led to great discoveries in all fields of study. Expeditions of any kind, both those conducted in the past and present, require brave personnel to face the trials, dangers and roadblocks that constantly confront those who venture into the unknown. Prior to our modern era, most explorers and their crews had to put their lives on the line in order to gather information and explore new things. Such was the case in the mid-eighteenth century, as voyages of discovery were dispatched across the vast oceans to explore the far reaches of the world. The most well known explorer of the eighteenth-century was Captain James Cook (October 27, 1729 – February 14, 1779), who commanded three successful expeditions throughout the Pacific between 1768 and

1779.

Captain Cook is revered as one of the greatest nautical explorers. The three voyages that he commanded filled in the map of the world, which brought an end to significant sea exploration for the discovery and mapping of coastal land throughout the

North and South Pacific. Not only was Cook’s purpose to explore and discover new lands, but the Royal Society, an English organization devoted to scientific study, also sponsored his voyages for scientific purposes. Astronomers, botanists and artists were part of the voyages to help gather information on the far reaches of the world. Due to

Captain Cook’s great leadership and navigational skills, along with the work of the scientists, his voyages are viewed as some of greatest explorations of all time. However, without the assistance and constant hard work of the crewmembers Cook’s voyages

1 would not have been successful. The crew of Captain Cook’s third voyage guaranteed

the success of the expedition, because of their devotion to exploration, skillfully executed

duties on and off the ships, and their ability to repair all parts of the ships.

Though Captain Cook undertook three voyages of exploration, this paper will

focus solely on the crew of the third voyage. Artistic renditions of the duties of the crews

will be pulled from all three voyages, so as to get a view of as many of their tasks as

possible. The artwork depicts aspects of the crew duties that are not described by the

journals from the voyage and also give a visual of the situations and circumstances

encountered. A more complete understanding of the crew duties is therefore gained when

the artwork is accompanied with the explanations given in the journals.1

It should be noted that this paper is not about the chronology of the voyage, but

about the work of the crew. Other scholars have already considerably researched the chronology of the voyage and its impact,2 while the importance of the crew has been overlooked. This is due to the little information known about the crewmembers themselves. Nevertheless, within the journals from the voyage ample information concerning the various duties performed by the crew is given. There is a difference

1. Sketches and paintings of the crew and their tasks are few and far between. This is because depictions of everyday routines that were commonplace in the eighteenth century, were less important than the new and exotic islands, people, plants and animals that were found. However, the few pieces of art available do show the importance of the crews work. John Weber, Sydney Parkinson and William Hodges were the main artists of Cook’s voyages. Alexander Buchan, Henry Roberts, John Cleveley and William Bayly were other members of the voyages who produced important artwork depicting the voyages.

2. Scholarly work on Captain Cook focuses on Cook and his qualities as a leader and explorer. It follows his discoveries and voyages or focuses on the impact made upon the native people throughout the Pacific region. The former J.C. Beaglehole is credited as the expert on Captain Cook, while Richard Hough, Alistair Maclean and Rex Rienits have also contributed greatly to the scholarly work on Captain Cook.

2 between the chronology of the voyage and the chronology of the crew’s duties as

explained in the journals of those on board the ships.3 The chronological order of how a task was performed is the important aspect of this paper and therefore the chronological

order of the voyage will at times come across as boggled. Even though the chronology of

the voyage will not be strictly followed a brief understanding of the times and places of

the voyage is important to give a scope of the vast region where ships and crews went.

COOK’S THIRD VOYAGE 1776-1780

Cook’s third voyage consisted of two ships, the HMS Resolution, commanded by

Captain James Cook and the HMS Discovery, commanded by Captain Charles Clerke.

The purpose of Cook’s third voyage is described by Philip Edwards, an editor of the

official journals of Captain Cook. Philip wrote:

The instructions to Cook from the Admiralty were to make an attempt ‘to find out a Northern passage by Sea from the Pacific to the Atlantic Ocean.’ He was to proceed south from the Cape of Good Hope ‘in search of some Islands said to have been lately seen by the French’, then proceed to Tahiti…leaving in February 1777 for the coast of New Albion (north-western America) at latitude 45° and travel north to be in latitude 65° in June. If necessary he should winter in Kamchatka and make a second attempt in the following summer. (Edwards 1999, 328)

The search for a northern passage was the main goal of the voyage. Coupled with that

purpose, Cook was also to observe, describe, record and chart: the latitude and longitude

of places stopped at, the tides, currents, depths of the sea, shoals, the nature of the soil,

3. For example, Cook’s third voyage began in July of 1776 and ended in 1780. During those years the two ships, the HMS Resolution and HMS Discovery, stopped at and explored many islands and coasts. In dissecting and researching the manner in which the crew went about fulfilling their tasks, bits and pieces of the journals were used to discover how such tasks were performed. Often the beginning of a task is mentioned in one journal near the chronological end of the voyage, while the ending of the same task is explained in a different journal near the chronological beginning of the voyage.

3 minerals, vegetation, wildlife, and native inhabitants.4 Due to the unforeseen dangers or

opportunities that the voyage would encounter Cook was given the instruction from the admiralty, “to proceed as you shall judge most advantageous to the service on which you are employed.”5

Both ships set sail from Plymouth England, though on different dates, in mid July

1776. The course they pursued took them down to the Cape of Good Hope, where both

ships met in November of 1776 and fully restocked their ships for the voyage. The Cape

of Good Hope was the last “modern port” visited until December 1779. After leaving

the Cape of Good Hope the ships sailed southeast and stopped briefly at Prince Edward

Islands and Kerguelen Island. By January 1777 they past the southern tip of Tasmania,

south of Australia. They pressed onward to New Zealand, where they cast anchor on the

south side of Cook Strait in Queen Charlotte Sound, to replenish their supplies. They

remained at New Zealand throughout the month of February 1777. Upon leaving New

Zealand, their course was deviated by Cook’s decision and took them north to what is

known today as the Cook Islands. After which they continued on to the Tahitian Islands

where they remained from August through December 1777. The stay at the Tahitian

Islands was prolonged so as to sail into the North Pacific as the summer months were

coming, thus to avoid hindrance by ice and strong winter storms.

By January 1778 the ships had left the Tahitian Islands and were sailing north for

the Northwestern American coast when they came across the undiscovered Hawaiian

4. PH. Stephens, “Secret Instructioins for Captain James Cook, Commander of his Majesty’s Sloop the Resolution,” (July 6, 1776), quoted in A. Grenfell Price, The Explorations of Captain James Cook in the Pacific: As Told By Selections of His Own Journals 1768-1779. (New York: Dover Publications, 1971), 201-204.

5. Ibid,. 204.

4 Islands. However, their purpose was to survey along the Northwestern American coast in hopes to find a Northwestern passage to the Atlantic,6 so their stay at the Hawaiian

Islands was a brief few days. From February through December 1778 the Resolution and

Discovery surveyed along the Oregon and Alaskan coasts. They even traveled north of the Bearing Strait. Before winter set in, in the northern hemisphere, they had returned to

Hawaii to wait for the summer season and refit for another survey north of the Bearing

Straight. It was at this time in February 1779 that Captain Cook and five others of the crew were killed in a skirmish at Karakokooa Bay on the large island Hawaii with the native islanders.

Shortly following the skirmish, the Resolution, now under command of Captain

Charles Clerke and the Discovery under command of Captain John Gore, set sail and ventured again into the far north. This time they surveyed along the Siberian coast stopping along the eastern coast of Kamchatka at Avacha Bay in April 1779 to wait for the ice covered ocean to clear. Their survey of the Siberian coast, again taking them north of the Bearing Strait, confirmed no reasonable passage from the Pacific to the

Atlantic. The ships then being well worn from almost four years of sailing, made their way back to England making stops again at Avacha Bay in August 1779,7 at Macao

6. Alistair MacLean, author of “Captain Cook” wrote of the British Admiralty’s decision, to explore for a northern passage from the Pacific to the Atlantic. Such a passage had been sought for but never found. British expeditions under the command of Cabot, Frobisher, Hudson and Baffin had all sought for a passage from the Atlantic, but without success. The Admiralty then decided to make an attempt from the North Pacific. (Alistair MacLean, Captain Cook, [Garden City, NY: Doubleday & Company, 1972], 150.)

7. Captain Clerk died just a few days before returning to Avacha Bay making John Gore captain of the Resolution and James King captain of the Discovery.

5 China in December of the same year, the Cape of Good Hope in April 1780 and finally

arrived in England in October 1780.

Throughout the lengthy voyage, the crew fulfilled the important tasks that ensured

the continuance of the expedition. Without their work the ships would have sunk or been

rendered useless, those on board would have perished with dehydration or starvation and

Cook’s third voyage would have been a failure. The fact that the third voyage was

successful, even after the death of Captain Cook, demonstrates the skill of the crews’

work and their ability to fulfill all the requirements that enabled the voyage to continue.

THE EVER IMPORTANT CREW

The focus of the paper is on the crew and the role they played in making the

voyage a great success. Due to the lack of available journals of the crew,8 the journals of

the officers will be used, since they refer to the work in which the crew was engaged.

Understanding the context of the crews’ role as told by the officers is important and is explained by a simple analogy. On a ship the three most important parts are the sails, wheel and rudder. Of these three items, only the sails work due to an outside force, the wind. In the case of the wheel and rudder, the wheel activates the rudder and the rudder enables the ship to maneuver about. The wheel without the rudder is useless. The wheel is analogous of the officers for they were the ones that gave the orders to furl and unfurl

8. The lack of crew journals is explained by J.C. Beaglehole by his description of the crew, labeling them as illiterate. (Beaglehole 1974, 503) However, George Gilbert wrote about the orders to gather the journals from every officer and “a diligent search was likewise made amongst the sailors.” (Gilbert 1982, 153) This indicates that at least some of the sailors had journals or writings of some kind. A “Diligent” search may mean the journals were sought after, but concealed, simply were not there to collect due to illiteracy or gathered, but since they were the journals of sailors, people who were considered of a low social class, their journals were ignored in the official reports of the voyage.

6 the sails, tack, stand, drop anchor, go sound, fill the casks, gather wood, clean, and repair

the ship.9 Though these directions came from the officers, the crews’ execution of those

orders was the source that kept the ship moving, stocked and in repair. Without the

crews’ work the ships were dead in the water, unsupplied, and sunk. The crew was the

ever important rudder.

Describing the common crewman of the voyage, J.C. Beaglehole (June 1901 –

October 1971) renowned scholar on Captain James Cook, wrote, “We cannot call them

anonymous because we know their names; but there is little else we know about them.”10

He continued, “Like their officers, they were nearly all young. We can see them ignorant, illiterate, irresponsible, blockishly conservative, prone to complaint when faced by novelty; drunken when opportunity offered, lecherous; capable of tears; capable of cruelty.” Furthermore Richard Hough, another scholar on Captain Cook, wrote of the crew that they were “the usual rough, fearless, sentimental, unscrupulous lot to be found in almost any of HM ships.”11 “The people” as they were commonly referred to as by the

officers, were a hard bunch of people. Nevertheless, these were men educated by the sea,

confined to small quarters and a ship of men, subject to strict British naval discipline,

whose work was constant, arduous and piteously compensated for. In spite of the crews lacking of “gentlemen’s qualities” and as a tribute to their work, Beaglehole also wrote,

“They endured much, these men of diverse origins and qualities, stowed so close through

9. For definitions of nautical terminology refer to the glossary.

10. J. C. Beaglehole, The Life of Captain James Cook, (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1974), 503.

11. Richard Hough, Captain James Cook, (New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 1995), 279.

7 four years in those small ships; they did not pursue honour, but the muster-books are a

sort of roll of honour; there are not many names we should wish removed from them.”12

One of the important aspects about the crew was their age differences and their ability to work effectively together.

The ages of the men that made up the crew on Captain Cook’s third voyage ranged from teens, to middle aged well-seasoned sailors. The oldest person on either ship

was Captain Cook being 47 years of age. The youngest officers were about 18 years of

age.13 The ages of all the men on board are not known, however an average age of the

crew including officers, based on the ages of the men on record was about 29 years old.

Even though there were various levels of experienced sailors on board, they were all skilled and capable in handling the ropes, stresses and dangers that they faced. The crew was willing to face these challenges in part, because James Cook was the commander of the voyage. “We must assume, even if we do not know, [they] were willing or eager to sail with [Cook],” because they “could reflect that, while they would undergo discomfort, as long as they were with Cook their lives would be reasonably safe,” as explained by

Beaglehole.14 Nevertheless, those who had not experienced long-term voyages were

apprehensive of what was to become of them.

After the fist month of the voyage, John Rickman Second Lieutenant on board the

Discovery, explained the difference between seasoned sailors and inexperienced sailors

to long distance voyages: “It was observable, that those who had never been employed on

12. Beaglehole, The Life of Captain James Cook, 504.

13. Ages based on the time that the ships left England in 1776. (Beaglehole, The Life of Captain James Cook, 495-503). (Hough, 274-280).

14. Beaglehole, Life of Captain James Cook, 503.

8 discovery before, were more impatient to depart, than those who had already experienced

the severities of a Southern Navigation.”15 On October 1, 1776 having been at sea for two months and not having set foot on land, Rickman explained the change in sentiments of the inexperienced sailors, “those who were unaccustomed to such long voyages, began to put on a very different aspect to that they wore at first setting out.”16 Not being accustomed to be at sea for months on end without seeing land or at least setting foot on land, led many of the younger sailors to regret their choice for joining the crew. On the other hand, sailors familiar to discovery understood all the hardships that they had to face, and also understood the excitement of going to new and exotic places; places where their modern world had not tampered with, where life seemed peaceful and relaxed.

Crewmen who were new to discovery had great examples in their seasoned crewmates. Rickman wrote how the seasoned sailors helped keep the new sailors in good spirits. The new sailors “were indeed, somewhat comforted by the chearfulness and vivacity which they observed to prevail in almost every countenance…from whence they concluded, that many days could not pass before the painful sensations of a solitary sea

life would be recompensed by the pleasurable enjoyments they would find, when they

came on shore.”17 The “pleasurable enjoyments” such as: visiting an exotic new location,

establishing relationships with foreign people, trading for curious items of craft, or

enjoyable provisions that foreign lands provided, were major reasons why many of

Cook’s crew from his first and second voyages returned to sail with him again on the

15. John Rickman, Journal of Captain Cook’s Last Voyage to the Pacific Ocean, London: 1781, (Ann Arbo, University Microfilms, 1966), 9.

16. Ibid., 16.

17. Ibid,. 16-17.

9 third voyage.18 Exploration has an excitement; a drive to see new things, to go where no

one has gone before and even though hard work, tireless nights and complete boredom

fill most of the time, it was the awe of a new discovery that drew the sailors to rejoin

Cook’s crew and set out again for a four year journey.19

DEVOTED TO EXPLORATION

Two years and five months into the voyage and after a long difficult survey of the

Alaskan coast, Captain Cook’s ships returned to the topical islands of Hawaii. George

Gilbert explained the feelings of returning to the Hawaiian Islands they had found eleven months before: “The joy that we experienced on our arrival here is only to be conceived

by ourselves or people under like circumstances; for after suffering excess of hunger and

a number of other hardships most severly felt by us…we had now come into a delightful

climate were we had almost everything we could wish for.”20 Even though an extreme

amount of work was performed when the ships came to the tropical islands, such as

unloading supplies, repairing damages, gathering provisions, setting up camp and

guarding all that was going on, the stay at the islands boosted morale and gave the

18. Beaglehole, The Life of Captain James Cook, 503.

19. Note that the voyage began on July 12, 1776 only ten days after the Continental Congress passed the Declaration of Independence in the American Colonies. The British Navy had been and continued to gather at New York. It is important to consider that sailors uninterested in going to war may have eagerly joined a long distance voyage to avoid being enlisted. Going on such a voyage also guaranteed them work for the next four years. Though the fact that many of the crew returned to sail with Cook testifies of their devotion to exploration.

20. George Gilbert, Captain Cook’s Final Voyage: The Journal of Midshipman George Gilbert, ed. Christine Homes (Honolulu: The University Press of Hawaii, 1982), 99.

10 crewmembers a dose of the exploration narcotic. A narcotic that as Rickman said, filled

them with joy and provided “almost everything [they] could wish for.”

Aside from going to new places the crew also participated in observations that

helped gather information about the far reaches of the world. A natural desire of

mankind is to explore and see new things. Upon arriving at foreign islands or coasts such

a desire was easily filled. One of the most important aspects associated with Cook’s

exploration was observation of the new things that were encountered. Though the crewmembers were not the ones in charge of making official observations they assisted in the endeavor. Therefore they participated, though unofficially, since they were not credited with observations in the discoveries that were so eagerly desired by the people in

Europe.21

After a voyage was completed, the scientists and officers journals were compiled

and published.22 Some of the observations had been made by the crewmembers as they

went about fulfilling the orders that had been given them. Their observations enabled the scientists and officers to gain a better overall knowledge of the places where they had stopped. One instance occurred on December 28, 1776. After anchoring at Kerguelen

Island, located in the South Indian Ocean, “parties were sent out to procure what vegetables the island produced, by way of refreshment; but none were found for culinary

21. Geoffrey Badger’s book explains how fast publications of Cook’s voyages sold out and how many reprints were made to fill the popular demand for the information gathered about the far reaches of the world. (Geoffrey Badger, The Explorers of the Pacific, [Kenthurst, Australia: Kangaroo Press, 1996], 7-8).

22. Journals were gathered prior to reaching Macao China 1779 to keep individuals from publishing their writings without the approval of the Royal Society or Admiralty. Gilbert, 153.

11 pruposes, except a kind of wild cabbage.”23 Though the parties, which consisted of crewmen not detained by other duties, were only seeking plants that could be used for food, they confirmed only one kind of edible plant existed in the area. This knowledge was put in the notes concerning the island and such notes were required to be taken as stated in Cook’s orders form the admiralty.24 Since the officers and scientists recorded the findings of the crew, they got the credit for such discoveries when their journals, charts and records were published. Without the discoveries and observations made by the crew, the officers would not have acquired as much information about the locations where they landed and therefore their journals and charts would have been lacking. Just as the crews were denied the credit they deserved for the discoveries they made and reported to their officers, they were ignored when it came to the one thing they understood best, sailing.

Many sailors were just as knowledgeable as the offices about how to sail the ship, what direction should be taken and how fast they should travel. Nevertheless, mid- eighteenth century social status was a great hindrance for tapping into the knowledge of the common crew; thus inhibiting smoother sailing, both physically for the ships and in the morale of the crew. While sailing north from New Zealand towards the Cook Islands,

John Rickman, though an officer himself, recognized the folly of the officers in not using the vast knowledge of the sailors on board the ships:

There were some on board who disapproved of the course we steered from the beginning, foreseeing, that by going so fast to the northward, we should fall too suddenly into the trade winds, especially if we should be met by an easterly wind before we approached the Tropic. Among the seamen on board a king’s ship, there are always some expert navigators, whose judgment, ripened by experience, is much to be depended upon; but the misfortune is, that these men are never

23. Rickman, 38.

24. Price, 203.

12 consulted, nor do they even dare so much as to whisper their opinions to their superior officer. (Rickman 1966, 78)

The decision to take an indirect course to the Tahitian Islands, by first going to the Cook

Islands was Captain Cook’s. This was a decision that almost caused the voyage to perish.

Rickman wrote “We had now been just sixty days in a passage, which in a direct course

would not have exceeded ten, and had been exposed to the severest trials, owing to some

fatality in pursuing a course which there was not a seaman on board that did not

disapprove.”25 This was not the only time in which the crew disapproved of the decisions

of their superior officer.

Along the Alaskan coast in uncharted water and during a bad spell of weather the

ships had almost run aground. The seamen thought they should not have been sailing so

fast in such an uncertain area. Heinrich Zimmermann, the Coxswain on board the

Discovery wrote, “Both crews expressed their disapproval of Captain Cook’s unpleasant

manner towards the two men who had apparently come to us for help and from whom we

might have acquired information, which would have averted the danger.”26 Another

instance occurred on their return to Hawaii.

When George Gilbert wrote about the joy they received upon returning to the

Hawaiian Islands for want of a rest and opportunity to procure much needed provisions,

Cook ordered the ships to tack on and off the large island of Hawaii for over a month, as

they made their way around the island. At no other time throughout the voyage was there

25. Rickman, 96.

26. Judge F.W. Howay, editor, Zimmerman’s Captain Cook (Canadian historical Studies, Toronto: The Ryerson Press, 1930), 78, quoted in John Ledyard, John Ledyard’s Journal of Captain Cook’s Last Voyage, (Harford: Nathaniel Patten, 1783), ed. James Kenneth Munford. (Cornvallis, Oregon: Oregon State University Press, 1963), 84.

13 greater discord among the crew than during that month of tacking. Rickman wrote,

“Heavy complaints again prevailed among the ship’s company. Their sufferings, from

incessant labour and scanty provisions, were grown confessedly grievous.”27 Even

Rickman, an officer himself, recognized the complaints of the crew were not without

reason. The men needed a rest from the labors of sailing. They wanted to get provisions

to fill their bellies. Tacking on and off an island that contained the provisions they

needed and offered the chance to stand on stable ground was too much to bear and caused

discord among the crew with their officers.28 Despite the deaf ear of the officers to the

crewmen the crews developed a strong camaraderie, due to the vast experiences they

shared and the trials they faced.

When it came to living on a small confined ship for years on end there was

discord, excitement, danger and boredom. Working in close quarters the crew of the

Resolution and Discovery established strong fraternity. Camaraderie is vital; it bonds the men together. When friendship abounds, even if conditions are harsh, work proceeds undeterred and progress is made. David Samwell, the Surgeons Mate on board the

Resolution, wrote, “We are perhaps somewhat partial to one another, for it is an article of faith with every one of us that there never was such a collection of fine lads, take us for all in all, got together as there was in the Resolution and Discovery.”29 After the voyage

27. Rickman, 295.

28. Here lies one thing that Cook and his officers could have done to make the voyage run more smoothly, that was to have listened to the expert navigational opinions of the seamen who were on board the ships. However, it was the mid-eighteenth century, on board a British vessel when it was believed that social class determined the education of men, rather than experience.

14 in a statement declaring the fraternity of the crew David Samwell also wrote, “we find no

small satisfaction in talking over the eventful History of our Voyage and are happy

beyond measure when any of our old Companions come to see us from another Ships

which they do as often as they can.”30 Such great camaraderie was established while

working side by side, day by day, assisting each other face the dangers and challenges

that were constantly confronted. John Rickman wrote, “It is natural for men, who have

just experienced any signal deliverance, to feel poignantly for the safety of others under the same critical circumstances.”31 The crew went through the same trials, dangers and

experiences through which they understood each other. By skillfully fulfilling the demands on and off ship and carefully repairing the damaged parts of the ships, the crewmen guaranteed Captain Cook’s third voyage to be one of the most successful expedition of discovery ever performed.

DUTIES WHILE SAILING

Duties on board the ship were essential for arriving safely at their destinations and get to each location at the proper time of year. The sailing of the ships required constant work, day and night. Even though there was much to do, sailing was determined by the weather. Wind was required for the ships to continue the journey, but it could also be destructive to the ships. Since Cook’s third voyage required the Resolution and

Discovery to sail in both the South Pacific and north of the Bering Strait, timing was essential to ensure they would be at either extreme of the world during the summer

29. Richard A. Hough, Captain James Cook, (New York: Norton & Co., 1995), 280.

30. Gilbert, 8.

31. Rickman, 203.

15 season of the particular hemisphere they were in. Not only was it necessary to be at the northern and southern extremities of the world during the summer, but in other areas of the world it was important to stay ahead of the stormy seasons. Rickman explained the haste to ensure such timing one month after leaving England. While trying to catch up to the Resolution the people on board the Discovery learned at Santiago, Cape Verde that

“the Resolution had touched at that Port; but had hastened her departure, as the rainy season was approaching, and it was unsafe to remain there long during its continuance.”32

Understanding the weather patterns and where they needed to be to avoid excess dangers

kept the ships safer and in better repair. However, traveling into the unknown gave them

plenty of danger to be concerned about.

On a voyage of discovery, the ships were many times in uncharted waters, which required the crews to gather enough provisions to hopefully last until they reached a place where they could restock. In the event of doldrums or the ships being pushed off course

provisions could run dangerously low or in the worst scenario run out. The ships

provided in part, a safe haven, a shelter and a place to store supplies from the dangers that

were encountered. Nevertheless, the ships were small and cramped. To better

understand the work that the crews performed on the ships, it is important to recognize

the environment of the ships themselves.

Ships can seem like large crafts when looked at from a dock. On the open ocean

however, when the closest known land is weeks away, a ship becomes a very small and

32. Ibid., 11-12.

16 insignificant place. A sketch by William Hodges, depicting the Resolution next to some

icebergs, gives a good idea of how small a ship is upon the open seas.33

Figure 2. William Hodges, The Resolution & Adventure, January 1773, Mitchell Library, State Library of New South Wales, Sydney.

In comparison to gigantic icebergs or the immense ocean the ships were minuscule. The ships themselves being small were actually even smaller to the men because of all the supplies that encumbered them. The Resolution had a length of 110 feet and at the widest beam 30 feet, while the Discovery was just over 90 feet long and 27 feet at the widest beam; neither were very large ships.34 The decks of both ships were covered with

supplies, rigging, and long boats. Below deck, living quarters as described by Geoffrey

33. This sketch also includes three important tasks of the crew: hunting birds for food, gathering ice for water, and rowing about the ships. http://www.captcook- ne.co.uk/ccne/gallery/gallery4.htm (accessed November 12, 2010).

34. John Ledyard, John Ledyard’s Journal of Captain Cook’s Last Voyage, (Harford: Nathaniel Patten, 1783), ed. James Kenneth Munford. (Cornvallis, Oregon: Oregon State University Press, 1963), XXV.

17 Badger states, “The captain, occupying the ‘great cabin’ in the stern, enjoyed about as much space as a small bedroom in a modern home. An officer usually had a cabin about two meters square, and barley high enough for him to stand upright. The seamen had less than a metre apiece in which to sling their hammocks.”35 Aside from the allotted spaces to sleep, the rest of the ship was crammed with supplies for both sailing necessities such as spare ropes, sails, spars, masts, and land items such as tents and observatories. Along with these supplies both ships also carried, “Frames of two decked vessels, of about 20 and 17 tons, to be packed in cases for exploring or surveying or any emergency.”36 Even though the open space which the crew worked was relatively small, the work they performed in that space was extremely important for securing and sailing, guiding and keeping the ships clean.

Animals filled the hull of the Resolution for the purpose of stocking some pacific islands. John Ledyard a colonial American from Connecticut, who served as the

Corporal of the Marines on board the Resolution wrote down the quantity of animals that were on the Resolution: “we took on board four horses, six horned cattle, a number of sheep and goats, hogs, dogs and cats, besides, hares, rabbits and monkeys, ducks, geese, turkies and peacocks.”37 Combined with all the animals and ship supplies were casks of water, grog, stores of meat, vegetables, sugar, wood for cooking and heating and bails of hay for the animals. Together with the already cluttered ship, the Resolution “had a complement of 112 officers and men, the Discovery 80, both including the marine

35. Badger, 21.

36. Hough, 274.

37. Ledyard, 8.

18 detachments.”38 Once the ships were fully stocked and ready to sail there was little room

to stretch one’s legs. Despite the little amount of room on board the ships the crew

moved about with skill fulfilling their daily duties, which ultimately enabled the voyage

to continue and progress. Managing the ship in any situation was a major part of the

crews’ onboard duties. Their expert skill in sailing kept the ships in sailable condition,

which made it possible to reach each destination.

Even though the open space upon which the crew worked was relatively small,

the work they performed in that space was extremely important for securing and sailing,

guiding and keeping the ships clean. Christine Holmes, the author of the introduction to

George Gilbert’s journal and editor of the journal, wrote of some of the duties performed while at sea. “On Cook’s ships they worked very hard. They were not exempt from

scraping decks, hauling sails, and manning pumps, and we know that they rowed their

captain for hours at a time in the ships’ boats.”39 Though while at sea the managing of the

ropes and sails are most important.

Tony Horwitz, an acclaimed journalist and author, described the precision that is

required to properly handle sails on a ship similar to the Resolution.40 In order to work

the sails effectively to catch the wind they had to “ease on one side of the ship so [they

38. Ibib,. XIV.

39. Gilbert, 4.

40. Tony Horwitz’s book “Blue Latitudes” chronicles the retracing of Cook’s voyages in a replica of the HMS Endeavour, the ship Cook used on his first voyage. Though Tony Horwitz is not a sailor by profession, his experiences described in his book help fill in some of the most common tasks that the crew on Cook’s third voyage performed on a daily basis.

19 could] haul on the other. Haul or ease away, either way the order is ‘Haul away!”41 He

continued, “If we didn’t clutch and release ropes at exactly the same moment, we were

quickly pancaked, like losers at a tug of war match.”42 Speaking of the process of rope working, Horwitz explained, “We yanked another rope, and then another, maneuvering some small part of the impossibly complex rigging. The horizontal yards shifted along the masts, like rotating crucifixes. The first of the ship’s twenty-eight sails fluttered from the bowsprit. Rope rained down all around us, twenty miles of rope in all.”43 Tugging,

pulling, tying, lashing and climbing are the major action in sailing a ship. Horwitz found

the work to be grueling, yet exhilarating, dangerous and challenging. These feelings are in part explained in his first climb to the top yard on one of the masts. “Earlier in the day, in full light and calm seas, the much lower and larger fighting top had seemed a relatively

secure haven. Now, at dust, in a brisk wind, this tiny way station felt horribly precarious.

Height radically amplifies a ship’s motion; a roll that tilts the deck a foot will move the

tip of the mast five times as much.”44 Though these descriptions of what it is like to be a

sailor comes from a non-sailor, they do help better understand the kind of work and

circumstances the crew of Cook’s third voyage faced every shift they worked while at

sea.

Both ships always had a crew on deck ready to act upon the orders that were

issued. Those orders came at any time, whether in the early morning as the sun rose,

41. Horwitz, 18.

42. Ibid., 20.

43. Ibid., 19.

44. Ibid., 26.

20 during the heat of the day, throughout a storm in the evening or in the blackness of night.

William Ellis, the Surgeons Mate on board the Discovery, in testament of the crews

constant work at any hour wrote, “May 30th, [1778] at one in the morning, we weighed

and made sail.”45 In order to better maintain the health of the crew by ensuring they

received sufficient rest Sinclair Hitchings, the author of the introduction to John

Ledyard’s journal wrote, “Cook divided his men into three watches, so that they stood

one in three rather than the usual watch on, watch off.”46 The importance of this watch

schedule was further explained by Cook, “By this means they were not so much exposed

to the weather as if they been at watch and watch.”47 Working one in three shifts rather

than every other shift while at sea gave the crew a little more down time, which could

have been a good boost to morale, as well as stave off illness due to over exertion.

Morale based on camaraderie, health to ensure good mentality and strength, and expert

skill in handling the ship were all required to save the ships in the most critical situations.

In clear breezy weather the ships cruised ahead delightfully, but when optimal

weather turned and threatened to destroy the ships all hands were called to man a position

to secure the ships. While sailing about the Tongan islands on July 30, 1777 the ships

were overtaken by a severe storm. John Rickman not only recorded the dangerous

45. William Ellis, An Authentic Narrative of A Voyage Performed By Captain Cook and Captain Clerke: In His Majesty’s Ships Resolution and Discovery, During the Years 1776, 1777, 1778, 1779 and 1780, in Search of North-West Passage Between the Continents of Asia and Ameri Vol. I. (Nabu Public Domain Reprints. London: 1783), 256.

46. Ledyard, XXV.

47. James Cook, “The Method Taken for Preserving the Health of the Crew of His Majesty’s Ship the Resolution during Her Late Voyage Round the World,” Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, Vol. 66 (1776). The Royal Society, http://www.jstor.org/stable/106286 (accessed November 11, 2010), 404.

21 situation the ships were in, but wrote one of the greatest tributes in honor of the expertise

of the crews. He wrote:

A sudden squall carried away our main-top and top-gallant mast, split our main- sail, and carried away the jeb. It is astonishing to see with what spirit and alacrity English sailors exert themselves on such occasions. Amidst a storm, when it is almost impossible for a landsman to trust himself upon deck, our sailors mounted aloft, and with incredible rapidity cleared away the wreck, by which they preserved the ship. (Rickman 1966, 128)

Clearing away wreckage, tangled masts, rigging, and sails in the middle of a storm to

preserve the ships, was a feat of amazing dexterity. Storms were a constant threat

throughout the voyage and the call to furl the sails was a routine that was well oiled and efficient to the point that it saved the ships on various occasions. A dramatized depiction

of Cook’s ship off the coast of New Zealand helps show the extreme danger that befell the ships due to the powerful storms of the Pacific.48

Figure 3. William Hodges, A View of Cape Stephens in Cook’s Straits with Waterspout, 1776, 1359 x 1930 mm, National Maritime Museum, Greenwich, London.

48. www.nmm.ac.uk/collections/explore/object.cfm?ID=BHC1906 (accessed November 2, 2010).

22

Three days later on the third of August Rickman wrote, “We met with a storm…which

required the utmost exertion of our strength to encounter; every hand in the ship was

employed, some at the pumps, and others in handling the sails, which was a work of the

greatest danger, yet happily accomplished with out an accident.”49 Even though the crews

were expert at what they did, accidents did occur, sometimes ending in fatality.

On their return to the Hawaiian islands, after surveying the Alaskan coast Captain

Cook wrote, “Captain Clerke came on board and informed me of a melancholy accident that happened on board his Ship…the Main tack gave way, killed one man out right and wounded the Boatswain and two or three more.”50 Ropes and cords used to secure the

ships were both apt to loosen and rot with time. Accidents did occur, but only a few are

mentioned in the various journals of the voyage.51 Two other duties constantly kept the

ships from danger. The first, sounding, kept the ships from physical danger of shoals and

rocks. The second, cleaning, kept the ships from being vessels of disease.

A main task on board the ships was lookout, usually placed at the bow of the ship

or high up on the foremast. William Ellis wrote of the “troublesome and dangerous” time

the ships had after leaving the island of Anamooka in the Friendly Isles, now known as

the Tongan Isles, “We could clearly perceive the bottom (which was one continued bed

of coral), throughout the time, and here and there a rock towering its head above the rest.

The Discovery did fall foul of one, and had we not the advantage of smooth water and a

49. Rickman, 130.

50. Price, 249.

51. Other accidents mentioned include, two men who lost their lives, due to falling overboard (Edwards 2003, 450) and an anchor lost due to not securing its’ cable. These incidents and the above-mentioned accident are connected with sailing the ship.

23 steady breeze, in all probability we might have run upon more of them.”52 Ellis notes that

those on ship were watching the water in an effort to know where to guide the ships, but

in such a precarious location with dangers all around it is difficult to keep clear of them

all. One way to guide the ships through uncertain areas was to man the long boats and

have the crew reconnoiter or sound ahead of the ships, so as to lead the ships on a safe

course and usher them through a hazardous area or to a safe anchorage.

Reconnoitering and sounding ahead of the ships was an important duty. Without

this task the ships would have been doomed on numerous occasions. In areas where the

water was shallow the ships would not advance, until the crew found a safe course for the

ships to follow. This information was gained by rowing ahead and dropping a line with a

weight tied to the end and marked with knots to give a measurement of depth. This was

the process of sounding. Such tasks often meant many hours, day or night, rowing in

search for a suitable course for the ships. Near Bristol Bay off the Alaskan coast on July

16, 1778 and having found themselves in a labyrinth of shoals and rocks, John Ledyard

wrote, “Our boats were out all night, sounded in different directions without being able to

find a channel to the northward, eastward or westward.”53 Two days later he wrote, “The

19th was spent in sounding without success.” The next day and perhaps in frustration,

“Captain Cook himself went out and found a channel with regular soundings” which enabled the ships to sail out of the shoaled area. Along the uncharted coast of Alaska and

Siberia sounding was a seemingly never-ending endeavor.

52. Ellis, 71.

53. Ledyard, 85.

24 Reconnoitering of large inlets often took days to complete and required the men

to row the boats for many miles, sounding as they went. This was done many times in

attempts to find a passage to the Atlantic Ocean. John Rickman explained one such

attempt:

The boats were ordered out, and after a fruitless search to find a passage, sounding from two to four fathom…they returned in the morning. In the evening they renewed their labour, sounding to the north eastward, as the day before they had sounded in the opposite direction. Here they discovered a large river…with sounding from 8 to 3 ½ fathom. This they examined for more than 20 miles. (Rickman 1966, 253)

The soundings, along with the fast current of the river and high mountains on both sides

confirmed that no passage to the Atlantic existed at this inlet, “all hopes therefore of a

communication with any other sea in this passage vanished,” commented Rickman.54

This is one example of many, which describes the hours and miles covered in the boats in efforts to find a northern passage to the Atlantic. Not only was it required to sound in hopes to find a channel for the ships to sail through, but also was also necessary to reconnoiter bays to locate suitable anchoring sites.

Locating a good spot for anchoring was generally easier along the Alaskan coast than amongst the islands of the South Pacific. This was due to the large rivers flowing into the ocean, which created deep channels that provide great places to anchor. Usually the ships had to anchor far from the shore so as not to get stuck or put the cables of the anchors in danger, due to the incoming and outgoing tides. A depiction of the ships at anchor off the coat of the island of Tahiti shows the distance the ships anchored from

54. Rickman, 253.

25 shore and how far the crew had to row to and from the shore.55

Figure 4. William Ellis, A View of Point Venus.

In such places when it came to getting on shore it required the crew to row supplies and men to the shore and back again, sometimes at distances up to a mile. On the other hand, in areas such as the Alaskan coast or around New Zealand the ships could sometimes anchor within feet of the shore. William Hodges depicted how convenient it was for

55. This painting also shows the work the crew had to complete by setting up camps at the places where the ships anchored, which included tents and observatory tents (the round tents with tripods over them). William Ellis, View from Point Venus, in Rex and Thea Rienits, The Voyages of Captain Cook, (New York: Paul Hamlyn, 1970), 137.

26 work purposes when a deep harbor was found for anchoring.56

Figure 5. William Hodges, View in Pickersgill Harbour, Dusky Bay, New Zealand, 1776, 665 X 745 mm, National Maritime Museum, Greenwich, London.

Close proximity to shore drastically cut the time it took to get on and off shore.

Ultimately a close anchorage to shore found by the crews helped speed up the preparation time for duties performed on land. However, when it came to anchoring near the islands of the Pacific it was much more difficult to find a good anchorage.

In late March 1777, the ships approached Mangaia located in the Cook Islands.

Like most Pacific islands, Mangaia, is a volcanic cone surrounded by coral reefs. As the ships were in need of fresh water, it was required to anchor in one of the bays to get fresh water from the island. Ledyard wrote, “We sent three boats manned and armed to reconnoiter the shore, and determine if it was accessable. They were absent the best part

56. www.nmm.ac.uk/collections/explore/object.cfm?ID=BHC2370 (accessed November 8, 2010).

27 of the day, and finally returned with an account that the island was surrounded by one

continued reef of coral rocks and could not be approached.”57 In this situation they had to

press on with hopes to find access to the next island. In another situation, as the ships

approached the Prince Edward Islands in the south Indian Ocean on Christmas day

December 1776, Ledyard wrote, “Stood in to land, and sent boats to reconnoiter the coast. On the 26th having received a favorable report from the boats we entered a deep

bay that afforded us a good retreat and came to anchor.”58 Thus, in order to keep the ships

safe from running aground59 long boats were always sent ahead to make sure the ships

would be safe from any underlying dangers. By doing so the ships were saved from

unnecessary and detrimental hull damage that would either terminate the voyage or

greatly hinder it. Though sounding and reconnoitering protected the hull of the ship, cleaning the ship protected the interior from disease.

Cleanliness was an important aspect on board Cook’s voyages and it was the crew that executed the tasks to clean the ships. This included both the cleaning of the ship and personal hygiene. Of these two, personal hygiene was adhered to the most. Sinclair

Hitchings wrote of Cook, “He insisted on cleanliness, though rats and cockroaches flourished in spite of his rules for cleaning the ships. Personal cleanliness was

57. Ledyard, 22.

58. Ledyard, 9.

59. For an account of when the HMS Endeavour, on Cook’s first voyage, ran aground on the Great Barrier Reef, see Price, 69-73. This occurred when the boats were not in front reconnoitering for the ship.

28 enforced.”60 Cleanliness was to be conducted both on the ships and on land. One of the common forms of personal cleanliness was bathing.

Though I have not come across a source mentioning bathing on ship, a sketch by

Geoffrey C. Ingleton (1908-1998), who specialized in depictions of ships, explorations, and life on ships, depicts the festivities of crossing the equator on Cook’s third voyage.61

Figure 6. Geoffrey C. Ingleton, Crossing the Line; King Neptune’s Court.

A sail placed on deck, hoisted up to make it bowl shape and filled with water would provide a facility for bathing. Though this is a modern rendition of the festivities that were held while crossing the equator, it is possible that a small sail was used for bathing.

Though bathing on the ship is not referenced in the journals, Cooks’ strict instructions and orders for cleanliness did include frequent bathing on land. Therefore, it is not unlikely that bathing also occurred on the ships, especially since they were often on the open ocean for weeks on end. In reference to bathing on land, George Gilbert wrote about a pool of water on one of the Tahitian Islands, “where all of us frequently went for

60. Ledyard, XXV.

61. Price, 197.

29 that purpose.”62 Though personal hygiene was important it was the cleaning of the ship

that ensured a healthier environment that was not prone to causing illness.

On the ships routine inspections were made to remove anything that had rotted or

gone putrid. Captain Cook wrote, “While we lay here we inspected into all the

provisions that was in the Main and Forehold, got the Casks of Beef and Pork up out of

the ground tier, the Coals and took in some ballast.”63 John Rickman further explains the

routine efforts of cleaning the ship:

The weather continuing fine, the Captain ordered the great guns and small arms to be exercised; the ship to be smoaked, and the bedding to be aired. These last articles…were never omitted during the whole course of the Voyage, when the weather would permit; but were more particularly necessary in crossing the Line, as it has been observed that the whole wood-work between decks, in this low latitude, is more apt to become mouldy, and the iron to rust. (Rickman 1966, 14)

Cook explained the process of smoking and drying the ship as follows:

Proper methods were employed to keep their persons, hammocks, bedding, cloths &c. constantly clean and dry. Equal pains were taken to keep the ship clean and dry between decks. Once or twice a week she was aired with fires; and when this could not be done, she was smoaked with gunpowder moistened with vinegar or water. I had also frequently a fire made in an iron pot at the bottom of the well, which greatly purified the air in the lower parts of the ship. (Cook 1776, 404-405)

These routine tasks of cleaning and drying the ship were an important part to maintain the health of the crew. Without these duties completed, Cook wrote, “the least neglect occasions a putrid, offensive smell below, which nothing but fires will remove: and if these be not used in time, those smells will be attended with bad consequences.”64

Routine efforts to keep personal hygiene and the ship clean would have kept the crew

62. Gilbert, 51.

63. Edwards, 495-496.

64. Cook, The Method Taken for Preserving the Health, 405.

30 healthier, because it removed anything that was putrid, rotten or moldy, all of which can

cause health issues. A healthier crew meant stronger men more capable of fulfilling their

work, day by day.

The duties performed by the crew at sea, their ability to manage the ships in a myriad of situations, the careful reconnoitering ahead of the ships, and the standard of

cleanliness, enabled the voyage to continue and progress from island to island and along

the vast expanse of Alaskan and Siberian coasts. Had these tasks not been performed by

the crew, the ships would not have had enough hands to sail the ships, the ships would

have run aground possibly stranding the ships, disease would have run rampant and

would have devastated native populations. Just as the duties on the ship were essential to

success, so were the duties performed on land, which provided the necessities for life on

the ships while at sea.

DUTIES ON LAND

Stockpiling water and provisions were essential tasks in order to maintain life on

the ships while at sea. The great importance of these tasks was such that, if not

completed the men perished and the voyage failed. If such had been the case, Cook’s

third voyage would have been remembered as the lost expedition. Land provided the

opportunity to gather water, wood, grass for the livestock, and provisions for the crew in

sufficient supply to hopefully last to their next destination. Camps were erected to

provide a base for scientific purposes, a stable location for the caring of the sick, a safe

site for repairs and other duties and an area to regulate trade.65 While sailing the crews

were divided into three groups, so they only had to work one in three shifts. However on

65. Gilbert, 24, 31, 33.

31 land, depending upon the necessities and condition of the ships, all hands were usually

busy with work. One of the most important jobs was the replenishing of the water supply.

Water on board the ships was held in large casks. Geoffrey Badger explained how the water on board ships was used and why it was required to routinely replenish the supply. “Fresh water was carried in wooden casks, and rationed at three quarts

(3.41litres) a day for cooking, drinking and washing. On a long voyage this ration was steadily decreased, and after a few weeks at sea the water had developed a bad smell and taste.”66 The worst-case scenario was if the water ran out, nevertheless both the

Resolution and Discovery had “coppers fitted with Irving’s [water distilling] apparatus

and Lieut Orsbridge’s machine for rendering stinking water sweet.”67 Though this

equipment came in handy when the water supply had been extinguished they were not

considered efficient to what was needed.

Captain Cook wrote of the distillation devices and described the, time-consuming

job required just to get some drinkable water. “In order to save our Water I ordered the

still to be kept at work from 6 in the Morning to four in the after noon, during which time

we procured from 13 to 16 gallons of fresh Water: There has been lately made some

improvement as they are pleased to call it, to this Machine, which in my opinion is much

for the worse.”68 John Rickman described the insufficient effect of the distillers, during

66. Badger, 21.

67. Hough, 274. 68. A ten-hour shift of work only produced enough water for a full days ration for 13 to 16 men, when there were 112 men on the Resolution and 80 on the Discovery. Though the distillation machine allowed them to get much needed water it was not sufficient to rely upon to service the entire crew. Edwards, 460.

32 the long stretch at sea between New Zealand and the Friendly Islands when Captain Cook

had ordered the ships to take an alternate route. “The alarming situation of the

Resolution, for want of provisions and water for the life stock; that they were obliged to

kill a great part of their sheep, hogs and goats for the use of the crew; not having a

sufficient quantity of water to keep them alive.”69 This describes the serious situation on

board, though these penned lines from Rickman focus on the animals it shows that needed water was given, rightfully so, to the crew to keep them alive, at the cost of losing many of the livestock. The fault was not on the crew for not gathering enough water and provisions to last the duration out on the open sea,70 but it does show the great distress

that could come by not having a sufficient supply of water and provisions.

The first challenge of replenishing the fresh water supply was getting the casks of

water from the ships to the shore and then to the location where fresh water could be

procured. In late June 1778, near Unalaska Island, one of the first islands west of Alaska

in the Aleutian Islands, William Ellis wrote, “Early the next morning, all hands were

called, the empty casks go out of the hold, the boats hoisted out, and a large party of men

sent on shore to water.”71 Each boat held eight to ten men. Casks when empty floated

and could be tied together and pulled behind the boat to shore, if the surf was not too rough. If the surf were threatening the casks would have to be placed in the boats and

69. Rickman, 80.

70. Rickman commented they had expected a ten-day voyage on the open ocean, but Cook’s detour put them on the ocean for over sixty days; hence the lack of fresh water on board. See Rickman, p. 96.

71. Ellis, 285.

33 rowed to shore. Many trips were required to get all of the watering party and the casks to

the shore.

Once on shore the casks had to be transported to where fresh water could be

acquired. Many times this was close to the shore. Sometimes it was miles inland to a

sufficient watering location. At times they had to fill their casks with whatever water was

available. While at the Tongan islands, Cook wrote of one watering hole that was used,

“I was conducted to a small Pool that was tolerable and had it cleaned out.”72 After a

watering location was approved and cleaned, if necessary, the filling of the casks began.

At their first landing at Kauai, Hawaii, Captain Cook had arranged all the

necessities to fill the water casks. Cook wrote, “We met with no obstruction in watering

on the contrary the Natives assisted our people to roll the casks to and from the pond.”73

In order to carry an empty cask of water, two men were required to lift each end of the cask. In order to carry a full cask of water, at least four men were required, due to the weight. By rolling the casks, one man would be able to roll an empty cask and perhaps two to role a full cask, especially when rolling up or down a hill. A painting by

Alexandeer Buchan depicts the watering party at Tierra del Fuego, on Cook’s first voyage. This clearly shows six casks of water. A sailor is rolling one cask, while two other sailors gather water in pails from a nearby stream, which is then poured into the casks.74

72. Edwards, 478.

73. Price, 218.

74. Other important tasks depicted are interaction with natives, cooking, guarding and camp structure. http://www.captcook-ne.co.uk/ccne/gallery/gallery3.htm (accessed November 8, 2010).

34

Figure 7. Alexandeer Buchan, The Watering place in the Bay of Good Success, January 1769, 248 x 337 mm, British Library.

This painting helps fill in some aspects of filling water casks that is not explained by the journals, such as filling the casks with pails of water where casks cannot be immersed in the water. It also backs up Cook’s description of the men rolling casks.

Another sketch, by Captain Cook while at Tolaga Bay, New Zealand, on the first voyage depicts sailors floating casks to the shore and then repairing or opening the casks to fill them with water. Again the artwork not only gives a visual of how the crew went about their tasks, but it also fills in some of the process of filling the casks that are not explained in the journals. This sketch confirms the use of floating casks to shore.75

75. William Ellis, View from Point Venus, in Rex and Thea Rienits, The Voyages of Captain Cook, (New York: Paul Hamlyn, 1970), 42.

35

Figure 8. James Cook rendition of Sydney Parkinson’s drawing, Watering place in Tolaga Bay.

On the third voyage, casks from two ships had to be transported to and from the ships and filled. This was a task that was repeated at every location where the ships anchored and a fresh supply of water available. Cook wrote of the importance of always renewing the supply of water, “I never failed to take in water wherever it was to be procured, even when we did not seem to want it.”76

Following the skirmish at Kealakekue Bay, on the big island of Hawaii the ships went to the island of Kauai in hopes they would be able to finish their water replenishing needs unmolested by the natives. George Gilbert, mentioned the time it took to fully replenish the water supply, “In three or four days we completed our water, which was

76. Though in wording Cook game himself the recognition of resupplying the water, it was the crew that fulfilled this most necessary duty. Cook, The Method Taken for Preserving the Health, 405.

36 exceeding good, without any further disturbance with the Natives.”77 The time to remove

the casks form the ships to the shore, roll the casks to the watering location, fill them with

water, roll them back to the shore and return them to the ships greatly depended on the

distance that had to be covered, the amount of men working on the project and if they

were allowed to work without any disturbances from the natives. Without fresh water

everyone would perish with dehydration, therefore completely restocking the water

supply with good water was a life saving task. Time was of the essence and watering was

only one of many tasks that had to be completed, before the ships could set sail.

Just as water was required to keep all on board hydrated, provisions were required

to maintain the strength and stamina of the crew. Even though at many places a large

quantity of provisions could be procured the shelf life of food on the ships was short.

Geoffrey Badger explained:

Fresh food lasted for no more than a few days after leaving port. After that, seafarers had to live on fresh fish and food preserved in the only ways then known: either by drying, as with peas and beans; or by salting, as with meat and fish. Flour and such cereals as oatmeal soon became putrid from dampness and infested with insects…The only ‘bread’ was hard thick biscuit, which also nourished weevils.” (Badger, 1996, 21)

Due to the short shelf life of most of the food, especially fruits and vegetable it was

important to gather these scurvy-fighting provisions at every opportunity. George Gilbert

wrote down the shelf life of some items that were gathered at the tropical islands. Yams, he wrote, were greatly sought after because they last a “good two or three months at sea.”78 On the other hand he continued, “Bananoes [sic] if brought away green will keep

77. It is important to note that much of the watering had already been completed at Kealakekue Bay and yet it still took three to four days to finish the task on the island of Kauai. Gilbert, 119.

37 two or three weeks, but are indifferent substitute. Sweet potatoes which are excellent

eating will not keep above 10 days but the bread fruit will remain good only two or three

days.” Then briefly explaining the rations that were allotted to the men while at sea

Gilbert wrote:

The yams that we brought with us were served at the rate of a pound per man; and lasted about a fortnight…after that we were put to 2/3 allowance of bread and had the pork served that we had salted at the Society Islands, which lasted out the greatest part of the season and kept very good all the time. We were allowed a small quantity of sowr Krout [sic], twice a week...We had likewise portable soup, three times a week boiled with our peas; which were much the worst article of provisions we had onboard. (Gilbert 1982, 67)

With most of the food lasting only a short while before it rotted, it was important to secure a sufficient amount of provisions that would last longer such as the yams, drying the fruits or vegetables and salting meat. These important tasks were a major part of the crew’s efforts while on land.

George Gilbert explained the desperation of their food situation, while at Prince

William Sound on the Alaskan coast, “A boat was sent on shore with a few people to haul the seine for Fish, we caught several cod alongside with hook and line which were a most welcome acquisition to us being almost starved with Hunger.”79 In order to sufficiently

feed the entire crew, day after day, a large supply of food was required. Meat could be

salted to give it a longer shelf life, but a carnivorous diet was not adequate to maintain

good health. Meat, herbs, fruits and vegetables were the main sources of food obtained.

78. Ibid., 64.

79. Ibid., 76.

38 There were two methods of gathering provisions; one was to physically hunt and gather, while the other was to trade European goods or trinkets for the produce of the natives.80

When gathering provisions the crews went about using the easiest methods possible. These methods included picking fruit or vegetables by hand, using clubs or guns for hunting and hooks for fishing. Sometimes the most difficult part of gathering provisions was finding them. Occasionally, no game or produce could be found at the places they landed. William Ellis described that the crews had prepared to hunt only to be disappointed by the lack of game at Nootka Sound Vancouver Island in April, 1778.

“We found ourselves not a little disappointed at the very scanty supply of game this place afforded. Before our arrival, every one was employed in getting his fowling piece in order, and forming bullets, as we fully expected to meet with plenty of hares and deer; but, so far from that, we scarce saw a single duck.”81 On the other hand sometimes they

met with easy success in their hunt.

While at Kerguelen Island in the southern Indian Ocean in December 1776, John

Webber, the official artist on the voyage, drew a depiction of the bay where the ships

anchored. The sketch shows how easily the crew hunted penguins. One sailor is shown walking amongst a group of penguins, hitting them with a stick and stacking them in a pile.82

80. The officers usually conducted the trade to maintain and establish set market prices for trade. See Gilbert, 72 for trade items and p. 100 for the time it took to trade for enough provisions to last 5 days. See Ledyard, 221 for Cook’s orders on trade. For the purpose of this paper the trade aspect will be omitted, because it focuses on the officers rather than the crew.

81. Ellis 196.

39

Figure 9. John Webber, A View of Christmas Harbour in Kerguelen’s Land, December 25-30 1776, Captain Cook Birthplace Museum.

An explanation of the easy hunting of penguins and seals is given by Cook, although it was written on his second voyage, “After dinner hoisted out three boats and landed with a large party of men, some to kill seals, others to catch or kill birds fish or what came in our way.”83 He continues, “They were all so tame, or rather so stupid as to suffer us to come so near as to knock them down with a stick but the large ones we shot as it was rather dangerous to go near them.” With such easy prey, Cook replied, “In the evening

we returned on board with our boats well Laden with one thing or a nother.” Since many of the places where the crews went hunting were uninhabited by humans the wildlife did not flee at the presence of the crew, thus offering them the opportunity to gather a large

supply of meat for the voyage. Meat was not the only kind of provision sought after.

82. http://www.captcook-ne.co.uk/ccne/gallery/gallery5.htm (accessed November 8, 2010).

83. Price, 181.

40 While at New Zealand in February 1777 and during the preparations to set sail, John Rickman wrote of the various uses of some of the plants found near the bay where they were at anchor: The foraging parties here…who were sent to the coves…to gather herbs to boil with the portable soup for the men; and those also who were stationed in the woods to get spruce to brew into beer for their preservation from the scurvy, against which that liquor, as has already been observed, was found a most powerful antidote. Of grass and herbs an immense quantity was brought on board, and of spruce as much as served the crews for drink near thirty days. (Rickman 1966, 69)

Gathering herbs and other items kept the men in better health and gave them the nutrients they needed to remain strong. Herbs, fruits and vegetables kept them from getting scurvy, a disease that plagued long distance sailors prior to Cook’s work on scurvy prevention.84 Near the bearing straight at Norton Sound on the Alaskan coast in

September 1778, George Gilbert wrote of the deficiency of fruit upon the ships, due to

the fact that fruit does not have a long shelf life. “We found Hurtle and Crane berries

[sic] here in great plenty which proved a far more delicious treat to us than the fruits of

the tropical Islands, being at present in much greater want of them.”85 In such moments

like those at Kerguelen Island, New Zealand, along the Alaskan coast and a few other

locations the crews hunting and gathering parties saved the voyages, by storing up

sufficient provisions to enable the men to continue working day after day with the

nutrients they required.

Many hands were vital in order to gather enough herbs, fruits, vegetables and

meat for all on board. Stockpiling provisions and water were essential tasks in order to

84. Captain Cook never lost a sailor to scurvy. His work on scurvy prevention increased life expectancy on long distance naval travel by half, since prior to his work it was not uncommon for half of a crew to die from scurvy, see (Price, 6-7).

85. Gilbert, 93.

41 maintain life on the ships while at sea. The crew provided the manual labor necessary to

complete these tasks, thus enabling the continuance of the voyage. Even though the

crews were able to skillfully handle the sailing of the ship and carry out their duties on

land, all of which greatly increased the success of the voyage, their ability to repair the

ships in a variety of situations guaranteed the success of the voyage.

REPARING THE SHIPS

The voyage took the Resolution and Discovery to areas of the world far from safe

harbors where repairs would have been facilitated by cranes, dry docks and all the tools

and hands that could be procured. Being isolated from such “modern commodities” the crews were forced to work with what they had in order to repair the ships to continue, or

either sink and die or be stranded. Geoffrey Badger explained the difficulty of keeping

ships bound on long distance voyages in good repair. He wrote, “the fact that a wooden

sailing ship was a steadily deterioration fabric which became more and more difficult to

handle on a protracted voyage and could actually break under the stresses of wind and

sea.”86 Both the Resolution and Discovery stood as testimonies of the battering ships take

from the ocean.

Keep in mind that the Resolution had already made a three-year expedition on

Cook’s second voyage, which was also Cook’s longest voyage, as far as ocean miles

covered. Near the end of his second voyage Cook wrote, “we were not in a condition to

support, our sails and rigging were so much worn that some thing was giving way every

hour and we had nothing left either to repair or replace them.”87 After returning to

86. Badger, 23.

87. Price, 188.

42 England the Resolution was quickly refitted for the third voyage. However, the

Resolution was not properly refitted. Philip Edwards explained the refitting as being,

“very badly carried out, as the recurring serious problems with the masts and with leaks were to show.”88 J. C. Beaglehole further explained the horrible condition of the

Resolution, even on the first leg of the voyage. “Badly caulked at the dockyard, her seams opened so much that in a few days hardly a man could lie dry in his bed, while the sails in the sail-room suffered great damage.”89 At harbor in England, the one place

where the Resolution could have been made as good as new, the ship was poorly refitted

and as a result was in almost constant need of repair while on the third voyage. The work

of the crew to keep the Resolution sail-worthy stands as a testament of their ability to repair the Resolutions vast array of defects and damages under a variety of trying

circumstances. They kept it afloat and in good enough condition to remain sailing and

able to continue throughout the voyage.

For three years the Resolution and Discovery and their crews were much like the

Apollo lunar landing expeditions, far from any modern help or assistance. Their own

knowledge and skill were the only things that could help them when dangers or damages

occurred. John Ledyard wrote about the dangerous situation the ships were in, north of

the Bearing Strait in September 1778. “We had blowing weather, which rendered our

situation among the ice dangerous. The ships too were in bad condition, the winter

approaching, and the distance from any known place of refreshment very great.”90 John

88. Edwards, 427.

89. Beaglehole, The Explorations of the Pacific, 290.

43 Rickman further explained their situation, due to being in an uncharted area, “We were

now so far advanced to the northward and eastward as to be far beyond the limits of

European Geography, and to have reached that void space in our maps.”91 After leaving

the Cape of Good Hope in December 1776, the ships did not reach a “modern” port,

according to the European standards, until December 1779 at Macao on the south coast of

China, which was under Portuguese possession at the time. Thus, for three full years all

repairs had to be performed without the assistance of a real harbor. This was no small

feat, because the ships were in constant threat from the dangers of nature and often showed the signs of such battering.

The ships were often damaged by savage storms that violently tossed the ships,

ripped the sails, broke masts, shattered rigging and filled the ships with water. Shoals

and ice fields could strip the bottom and sides of the hull. Snow and ice could weigh down the sails and deck to make the ship top heavy putting it in danger of capsizing. An image by John Webber demonstrates the grave danger of the ships, while surveying north of the Bearing Strait. Such a place was very precarious even in good weather, but in a storm or thick fog, both of which occurred often the situation became even graver.92

90. Ledyard, 88.

91. Rickman, 233.

92. Next page: Ice could easily puncture the hull or strip the hull of its protective tar. Rienits, 130.

44

Figure 10. John Webber, The Resolution and Discovery in danger of being trapped in the ice north of Bering Strait.

Storms sometimes came rapidly and unexpected. John Ledyard wrote on April 26, 1778:

Before 12 at night the wind veered from N.N.W. and E.SE. and was succeeded by a sudden and impetuous gale of wind that threw us into the utmost confusion from its unexpected approach and our unprepared situation to receive it. This gale continued with very little intermission until the 1st of May. This gale was very severe, and was the means of opening a defective place in the Resolution’s bottom, which was of an alarming nature. (Ledyard 1963, 77-78)

In similar manner, after leaving Kealakekua Bay at Hawaii, Ledyard described the storm

that forced the ships back to the same bay for repairs. Having already outstayed their

welcome at Kealakekua, the return of ships led to the skirmish that took the lives of Cook and five other crewmembers.93

On the 8th the gale became not only more violent but more irregular and embarrassing, and before night was improved into a mere hurricane; we wrenched the head of our foremast and sprung it about 9 feet below the hounds, and also

93. Price, 261. Gilbert, 104.

45 made a great deal of water. The excessive mutability of the wind, and the irregular sea, was such as demanded our best skill and unremitted attention to keep the ship under any kind of command. (Ledyard 1963, 140)

These two descriptions of severe storms explain the kind of trials that the crew had to

withstand to keep the ships from sinking, but also demonstrate the destruction that came

to the ships in such situations. Even with lost anchors, broken hulls, masts, rigging and

sails the crews were able to retrieve or repair these items to keep the ships sailing and

progressing on their voyage.

Anchors are a very important part of the ships. Without the anchors, the currents and tides of the ocean drive ships at rest. Deprived of anchors ships cannot securely stop.

Anchoring at an island or along a coast was necessary, because the duties of the crews shifted from sailing to gathering provisions and repairing damaged parts. In order to complete their duties on land the crew could not be detained, by managing a ship without the proper anchors. Therefore it was requisite that anchors were properly handled.

Anchors are practically indestructible, but the cables attached to the anchors sometimes

broke. This left an anchor on the floor of an inlet or bay. If an anchor was lost it was

necessary to retrieve it.

There were a couple ways the crew went about recovering an anchor. William

Ellis described that an anchor could not simply be left behind and anchor recovery was

important enough to require joint efforts by most of the crew. He wrote, “Most of the

boats and people were employed the next morning in sweeping for the anchor, which was

too valuable an article to be lost.”94 Along the Alaskan coast Ellis wrote about two

different ways to recover an anchor, “At eight captain Cook sent for the Discovery’s

94. Ellis, 61.

46 launch to assist the Resolution’s boats in recovering the anchor. They had nearly hoisted

it in last night by the buoy-rope, which unluckily broke. However, at seven in the

evening, they were fortunate enough to get the clinch of the hawser over one of the

flukes, by which means they secured it.”95 Recovering an anchor was no easy task and

the crews often spent many hours in the effort of trying to retrieve the anchor. John

Ledyard explained that after a fruitless attempt to recover an anchor, “we spent the day in

sweeping for our anchor which we finally recovered by the exertions of a mad-hardy Tar,

who dived to the freezing bottom and hooked a grapling to the ring. The anchor was in

five fathom water.”96 Of the handful of anchors that needed to be recovered only one was

never retrieved, which demonstrates the skill of the crews. This ultimately saved the

ships, because they were able to safely anchor, allowing the ships to stop when needed.

Another repair that preserved the voyages were repairs of the hull.

The hull was one part of the ship that could cause the most stress and anxiety

when it broke or leaked. This was because the hull is directly linked to the ship either

staying afloat or sinking. The fact that the ships did not sink, even under horrible circumstances proves the arduous labor and skillful work the crews performed. Hulls

were damaged out at sea during strong storms, on shoals close to the coasts or by the ice

fields in the North Pacific. Since the ships were at sea when the hulls got damaged the

crews were employed in pumping water out of the ships, until they could reach a place

where they could repair the damage.

95. Ellis, 306-307.

96. Here is one of only a few instances where one of the crew is named, at least by his nickname, for performing an important task. Mad-hardy Tar dove thirty feet to secure the much-needed anchor. Ledyard, 85.

47 Describing the seriousness of one situation where the Resolution sprung a leak on the back starboard side, Captain Cook wrote, the leak “which at first alarmed us not a little; where from the bread room we could both hear and see the Water rush in.”97 Once the hull emitted water into its interior, quick action had to be taken to stabilize the ship and keep the water from rising inside the ship. Along the southern coast of Alaska, John

Rickman wrote about a severe struggle with a leak in the Resolution. “The danger they were in of foundering in the late gale, by a leak, which increased fast upon them, that it baffled the utmost efforts of all the hands they had on board, gaining upon them considerably, though every man in the ship, even to the Captain, took it in turn to work at the pumps.”98 Again, later as the ships were sailing south to return to Hawaii, Rickman wrote, “all hands were employed at the pumps and in baleing [sic]; and that it was with difficulty they could keep her above water.”99 John Ledyard explained that the leak was

“so bad that we were kept pumping and bailing night and day until we again got into

Providence-Harbour.”100 Near the end of the voyage, Ledyard wrote, “We pumped and bailed [the Resolution] half the passage.”101 The fact that the crew of the Resolution was able to keep the ship afloat after so many hull damages, enabling the ship to sail throughout the South and North Pacific to complete the purpose of the voyage was a feat

97. Price, 231.

98. Rickman, 246.

99. Ibid., 284.

100. Ledyard, 89.

101. Ibid., 164.

48 that secured the success of the voyage.102 Pumping and bailing was not enough, the leaks and holes had to be patched and repaired.

One of the amazing accomplishments of the crews was their ability to fix, or at

least stop leaks, while at sea. William Ellis described a serious leak on the Resolution,

“but every one exerting themselves, it was fortunately discovered and stopped.”103

Another incident, after a strong storm and a night of pumping, the ships hove-to and the

both ships carpenters worked to stop the leaks.104 Even though at times the crews were

able to hold back the onslaught of water or even stop leaks while at sea, usually the

damage required repairs that had to be performed on a beach.

Breaches in the hull were usually below the water line. Due to this and

depending on the extent of the damage, the ships would have to be beached and careened.

This enabled the damage to be repaired out of the water. An image drawn by Sydney

Parkinson, gives a good depiction of what it was like to get a ship onto a beach in order to

fix the hull.105

102. Though the Resolution was know for the major leaks and holes, the Discovery also incurred many damages, especially in the North Pacific amongst the ice. Gilbert p. 147.

103. Ellis, 231.

104. Rickman, 285.

105. Next page: http://www.portcities.org.uk/london/server/show/conMediaFile.3973/The-Endeavour- under-repair-in-Endeavour-River-1770.html (accessed November 17, 2010).

49

Figure 11. Sydney Parkinson, William Byrne engraver, The Endeavor under repair in Endeavour River, June 1770, National Maritime Museum, London.

This is a depiction of the HMS Endeavour on Cook’s first voyage, after running aground

on the Great Barrier Reef, similar circumstances required both the Resolution and

Discovery to be beached as well. In order to get the ship on the beach, the crew would

unload the supplies and gear to make the ships sit higher in the water. Then during high tide the ship would be sailed as close to the shore as possible. Another sketch by Sydney

Parkinson shows the Endeavour very close to the shore with all the supplies clustered on the beach.106

106. Next Page: This is another view of the careened Endeavour showing large hole in the hull. http://www.portcities.org.uk/london/server/show/conMediaFile.4024/Repairing-of- Captain-Cooks-ship-in-Endeavour-River-(Cooks-first-voyage).html (accessed October 26, 2010).

50

Figure 12. Sydney Parkinson, Repairing the Endeavour, 1770, National Maritime Museum, London.

This piece of art is important, because it shows many of the anchors needed to properly hold the ship in place and heel it onto its side, so that the damaged portion of the hull can be worked on out of the water. It also shows the damage sustained in the hull.

George Gilbert, explained some of the process of fixing the hull damaged by a storm, while at Prince William Sound off the coast of Alaska:

The weather being moderate we heeled the ship to port as much as possible to examine the leak on the starboard buttock…which we were lucky enough to bring above water, it being close below the wale and occasioned by some of the seems being very open and the oakum quite rotten and great part of it got out. In two days we repaired this defect being obliged to put two and half inch rope along the seams which were too wide for caulking. (Gilberts 1982,77)

Gilbert mentioned the innovative repairs made by the sailors, by using rope to fill the gaps of the seams. They did not have the “modern” equipment needed to fully repair the ship. This repair to the hull was made in May 1778. The ship sailed for another two years and four months before returning to England.

51 In August 1779, Gilbert again explains the repairs made to the hull, this time of the Discovery, on account of being in the ice fields along the Siberian coast. “We heeled her to starboard, and on examining it found about two feet of the end of a plank close below the wale, strove right in…This was not the only stroke she received for the other bow was very much damaged; the carpenters of both ships immediately set about repairing them which they completed in eight or ten days.”107 Of course the Resolution did not come out of the ice unscathed. Explaining the repairs Gilbert wrote, the

Resolution “was obliged to be lightened Forwards and hauled with her head upon the

Beach at high water to have it repaired; which was done in a few days, and then she hove off again.”108

Repairs of the hulls saved the ships and were the most important repairs on the voyage. Not only did the crews keep the ships from sinking, by pumping and bailing water giving them enough time to get to shore to fix the leaks, but they were also able to heel the ships and repair the damaged hulls, so they could continue sailing. Without the efforts of the crews at these critical moments the ships would have sunk, thus ending the voyage and causing all the knowledge gained from the expedition to sink to the bottom of the ocean.

The repairs on the ships were vital duties. These were performed by the crew, both at sea when possible and on land. Though the anchors and hulls were the most important repairs, which allowed the ships to properly and safely anchor and remain afloat, a variety of other repairs kept the ships in good enough condition to remain sea

107. Gilbert, 147.

108. Ibid., 147.

52 worthy. Some of those tasks included repairing and strengthening ropes and cords,

mending shredded sails and repairing or replacing broken masts. Without these other

repairs the ships ability to sail would have been greatly reduced or rendered incapable.

Describing these other repairs, yet also commenting on how impressive the crew’s ability

to repair the ships was in places that did not have the commodity of a “modern” harbor

John Rickman wrote:

The mast that was shattered in the head, and carried ashore to be repaired, was in a short time rendered more firm than ever; the sails that had been split, and were otherwise rendered unfit for further service, were replaced; the cordage carefully examined, the masts new rigged, and in short the whole repairs completed with more celerity and strength than could have been expected in a place where many conveniences were wanting.” (Richman 1966, 150)

The crew of Captain Cook’s third voyage did save the ships by the repairs they made, thus securing the success of the expedition.

CONCLUSION

Like the other voyages led by Captain Cook, the third voyage was filled with dangers and trials. Even though dangers abounded, the expedition was able to gather valuable information about the far reaches of the world and practically fill in the North

Pacific’s blank spots on European maps. The voyage also confirmed that no passage from the Pacific to the Atlantic from the north existed. Aside from all the knowledge gained due to the voyage, it was the crew that made the success of the expedition possible.

The dangers, uncertainty, work and excitement of the voyage were some reasons why the crew went on the voyage. Those experiences brought the crews close together, establishing a strong camaraderie amongst them. That bond allowed the crew to work well with each other, because they were concerned for and looked out for one another.

53 This is explained by John Rickman, “It is natural for men, who have just experienced any signal deliverance, to feel poignantly for the safety of others under the same critical circumstances.”109

By working side by side and fulfilling their everyday tasks, the crew also participated in the many discoveries that were made. Their observations on land brought important information about the places they landed. Their hours of sounding around islands and coasts helped the officers make accurate maps of the regions where they ventured. The crew was not recognized for the information they gathered, because such information was recorded and published in the official documents of the officers. Not only was the crew valuable in the discoveries of the voyage, but also it was through their efforts that the voyage was able to continue.

The expert skill in which the crews executed the officers’ orders while sailing saved the ship on countless occasions. Their knowledge of sailing and understanding what had to be done in all situations enabled them to keep the ships as safe as possible and in the least amount of damage. As John Rickman testified, “It is astonishing to see with what spirit and alacrity English sailors exert themselves on such occasions. Amidst a storm, when it is almost impossible for a landsman to trust himself upon deck, our sailors mounted aloft, and with incredible rapidity cleared away the wreck, by which they preserved the ship.”110

One of the crews’ most important tasks while sailing was to guide the ships through precarious shoals or into a safe harbor. Their hours and hours of rowing and

109. Rickman, 203.

110. Rickman, 128.

54 sounding ahead of the ships saved the ships from running aground, which could greatly

damage the hull or even doom a ship. “Sent boats to reconnoiter the coast. On the 26th having received a favorable report from the boats we entered a deep bay that afforded us a good retreat and came to anchor.”111 The rowing of the crew ahead of the ships not only

guided the ships on a safe course, but also was the means by confirming that no north

passage to the Atlantic existed. This was because it was by rowing up the inlets and

rivers along the Alaskan coast that such information was gained.

Not only did their skill in sailing and guiding the ships preserve the voyage, but

also the crews’ efforts to keep the ship clean staved off disease. This ensured a healthier

and stronger crew more capable of fulfilling their duties. “Proper methods were

employed to keep their persons, hammocks, bedding, cloths &c. constantly clean and dry.

Equal pains were taken to keep the ship clean and dry between decks.”112 A cleaner ship

meant a healthier crew, which enabled them to put forth their full effort in their daily

tasks. Though the sailing was an important part of voyage, the duties executed on land

guaranteed life while at sea.

The crews’ ability to replenish the water and food supply when they came to

anchor at an island or along a coast provided them with proper provisions while sailing.

“A boat was sent on shore with a few people to haul the seine for Fish, we caught several

cod alongside with hook and line which were a most welcome acquisition to us being

almost starved with Hunger.”113 Without sufficient meat, fruit and vegetables sickness,

111. Ledyard, 9.

112. Cook, The Method Taken for Preserving the Health, 404-405.

113. Gilbert, 76.

55 especially scurvy, would set in and wreak havoc upon those on board. In such cases the voyage would have been doomed, because not enough men would have been able to fulfill the required duties for exploration in unknown areas. Lastly the crews’ skill in

repairing any part of the ship secured the success of the voyage.

Since the ships were made of wood they were in constant decay. Coupled with

the deterioration of the ships were severe storms and hazards that were encountered

throughout the voyage. Anchors, hulls, masts, rigging and sails were often broken and in

need of repair. If these items had not been recovered or repaired the ships would not

have been fit to continue and the voyage would have failed. Rickman summed it up by

writing:

The mast that was shattered in the head, and carried ashore to be repaired, was in a short time rendered more firm than ever; the sails that had been split, and were otherwise rendered unfit for further service, were replaced; the cordage carefully examined, the masts new rigged, and in short the whole repairs completed with more celerity and strength than could have been expected in a place where many conveniences were wanting. (Richman 1966, 150)

The crew of Captain Cook’s third voyage was essential for the success of the

voyage. Without them the expedition would have failed. Their devotion to their

everyday duties was the factor that kept the voyage progressing. They added energy into

discoveries and observations because of their strong camaraderie and morale. They

skillfully managed the ship upon the vast Pacific Ocean. Just as the ships were the safe

havens throughout the voyage for the crew, so to was the crew the caretakers of the ships.

By their work the ships remained stocked with ever-important water and provisions.

Through their efforts the ships were repaired from the many damages they sustained.

Without the labor of the crew, Cook’s third voyage would have ended in tragedy and failed to fulfill the purpose of the voyage. The crews have long been overlooked. The

56 time has come to recognize their great contribution to the success of one of the greatest oceanic explorers of all time. Ultimately, the crew of Captain Cook’s third voyage guaranteed the success of the expedition, because of their devotion to exploration, skillfully executed duties on and off the ships, and their ability to repair all parts of the ships.

57 BIBLIOGRAPHY

PRIMARY SOURCES

Cook, James. The Explorations of Captain James Cook In The Pacific As Told By Selections Of His Own Journals 1768-1779. Edited by A. Grenfell Price. New York: Dover Publications, Inc., 1971.

Cook, James. James Cook the Journals. Edited by Philip Edwards. New York: Penguin Books, 2003.

Cook, James. The Method Taken for Preserving the Health of the Crew of His Majesty’s Ship the Resolution during Her Late Voyage Round the World. F. R. S. addressed to Sir John Pringle, Bart. P. R. S. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, Vol. 66 (1776). The Royal Society. http://www.jstor.org/stable/106286 accessed 09/11/2010.

Ellis William. An Authentic Narrative of A Voyage Performed By Captain Cook and Captain Clerke: In His Majesty’s Ships Resolution and Discovery, During the Years 1776, 1777, 1778, 1779 and 1780, in Search of North-West Passage Between the Continents of Asia and Ameri Vol. I. Nabu Public Domain Reprints. London: 1783.

Gilbert, George. Captain Cook’s Final Voyage: The Journal of Midshipman George Gilbert. Edited by Christine Homes.

Ledyard, John. John Ledyard’s Journal of Captain Cook’s Last Voyage. Edited by James Kenneth Munford. Cornvallis, Oregon: Oregon State University Press, 1963. Harford: Nathaniel Patten, 1783.

Rickman, John. Journal of Captain Cook’s Last Voyage to the Pacific Ocean. Ann Arbo, University Microfilms, Inc., 1966. London: 1781.

SECONDARY SOURCES

Badger, Geoffrey M. The Explorers of the Pacific. Kenthurst: Kangaroo Press, 1996.

Beaglehole, John C. The Exploration of The Pacific. Sanford: Stanford University Press, 1968

Beaglehole, John C. The Life of Captain James Cook. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1974.

Horwitz, Tony. Blue Latitudes: Boldly Going Where Captain Cook Has Gone Before. New York: H. Holt, 2002.

58 Hough, Richard A. Captain James Cook. New York: Norton & Co., 1995.

Rienits, Rex. The Voyages of Captain Cook. London: Paul Hamlyn, 1968.

SOURCES CONSULTED

Block, Leo. To Harness the Wind: A short History of the Development of Sails. Annapolis: Naval Institute Press, 2003.

Conner, Daniel. Master Mariner: Captain James Cook and the Peoples of the Pacific. Vancouver: Douglas & McIntyre, 1999.

Dugard, Martin. Father Than Any Man: The Rise and Fall of Captain James Cook. New York: Pocket Books, 2001)

Fleming, Fergus. The Explorer’s Eye: First-hand Accounts of Adventure and Exploration. Woodstock: Overlook Press, 2005.

Taylor, Roger C. Knowing the Ropes: A Sailor’s Guide to Selecting, Rigging, and Handling Line Abroad. Camden: International Marine, 1993.

www.captaincooksociety.com – Contains articles, journals and will’s of the crewmembers.

www.hakluyt.com – Contains journal excerpts and modern articles about Cook’s voyages.

59