Urban Agriculture Challenges of the Future

to this first issue of MAGAZINE Welcome VOLUME 1, NUMBER 1, JUNE 2000 NUMBER 1, 1, VOLUME the Urban Agricultural Magazine

Growing cities and urbam populations are one of the big The publication of the Urban Agriculture challenges of the future. The importance of urban agriculture Magazine (UA-Magazine) is one of the in sustainable urban development is growing. As recognition ways the RUAF Programme intends to grows, more people are becoming involved with the issue. facilitate the flow of information and dis- Many newsletters and magazines have devoted editions to cussion on the actual and potential roles the subject in recent years including GATE, Urban Age, of intra-urban and peri-urban agriculture. African Urban Quarterly, and the LEISA Newsletter and there The RUAF web-site, which soon will be have been many workshops and conferences on the subject. released, will be the main medium in this process. The site will provide additional information including reviews of recent Editorial n 1996 a group of international institu- publications, a guide with information tions - the Support Group on Urban on institutes and resource-persons and I Agriculture (SGUA) - gathered in institutions Ottawa to discuss the potentials and risks on urban The UA-Magazine will be associated with urban agriculture. They agriculture, published three times also discussed strategies that could be and a (inter- a year on the website used to overcome the principal con- active) straints to sustainable food production in bibliographic database. There will also and around the cities of the South. be news and networking. Some of this

www.ruaf.org information is also included in this hard- This group of experts concluded that a copy version of the UA-Magazine. major bottlenecks was lack of communication on urban agriculture among actual THE URBAN AGRICULTURE and future practitioners whether MAGAZINE researchers, city farmers, urban planners, We have discussed many formats for the consumer organisations, city administra- UA-Magazine. We have been trying to find tors, national and international support a balance between a fully electronic maga- The Urban Agriculture Magazine organisations, and other stakeholders. zine and the “hardcopy” version, some- RUAF, P.O. Box 64 The RUAF Programme (Resource Centre thing that would meet the needs of all our 3830 AB Leusden, The Netherlands on Urban Agriculture and Forestry) was readers and contributors. What you have [email protected] developed to fill this gap. before you is a magazine format that is still URBAN AGRICULTURE in an experimental stage. The UA-Magazine will be published three times a year on the RUAF-website. Subsequently it will be published and distributed in hard copy. Urban Agriculture and Biodiversity The UA-Magazine will act as a platform for Bringing back agriculture, forestry, aquaculture and livestock the exchange and discussion of quality rearing to the human settlement is a key component to reduce information on urban agriculture including the ecological footprint of cities. This statement is defended research results, project experiences, criti- and illustrated in this article with different examples. cal analysis of conventional and innovative policies on urban agriculture. We hope that the UA-Magazine will stimulate and facili- agriculture and promote analysis and the development of more adequate and tate an interdisciplinary debate. Urban debate on critical issues for the develop- operational local standards and regula-

agriculture is a typical cross sectoral phe- ment of the sector. We welcome contri- tions for urban agriculture. PAGE 11 nomenon and joint reflection and active butions on new initiatives at individual, co-operation between various disciplines – family or enterprise, neighbourhood, city All issues of the UA-Magazine will focus on including planners, health specialists, and national levels. We want to publish a selected theme, which will be prepared water management experts, agriculturists the “best” or “good” or even ‘bad” prac- and edited in collaboration with a guest and environmental specialists - is essential. tices in urban agriculture. editor who is a specialist in that theme. At the same time the UA-Magazine is not The next issue will focus on Urban just another journal for experts. All types We will give attention to the technological Livestock, and is planned for October of stakeholders are needed to build, aspects - appropriate cultivation technol- 2000. This issue has been planned for examine and consolidate the growing ogies for urban conditions, for example - some time. Urban Livestock is an often body of knowledge on urban agriculture. as well as to social and economic aspects neglected issue, because attention tends to The experiences presented should reflect of urban food production and distribution focus on vegetable production in the cities. the viewpoints of all city farmers, men or systems such as gender aspects, distribu- women, consumers, local authorities, tional aspects, consumer-producer link- FORTHCOMING ISSUE local private enterprises, and other ser- ages. Special attention will be given to the During two workshops, in Quito and vice organisations. Development of sus- integration of urban agriculture into city Hanoi (see page 34/35), a survey was tainable urban food systems requires the development and land use planning and carried out on the issues respondents active involvement and support of various actors - the general public, local neighbourhood groups as well as urban food producers and consumers. The The UA-Magazine will facilitate the shar- Support Group ing of information on the impact of urban on Urban Agriculture (SGUA)

The Support Group on Urban Agriculture (SGUA) dates back to 1991 when UNDP established the Urban Agriculture Advisory Committee, which in the next year resulted in the establishment of the Support Group on Urban Agriculture (SGUA). This Group has been looking into the identification of key research and development needs in urban agriculture and how to co-ordinate and pool support of SGUA-participants. In this past decade, the number of international support organisations involved in Urban Agriculture has rapidly grown, which is reflected in the growing number of organisations participating in the SGUA (actually over PAGE 8 thirty international organisations participate).

Urban Food Security; The SGUA aims to stimulate and facilitate activities regarding urban agriculture by urban agriculture response to crisis national and local governments, NGOs, and agencies for international and bilater- This article is based on information al development co-operation, and the direct involvement of local stake holders extracted from 20 city case studies (associations of urban farmers, neighbourhood organisations, small entrepreneurs on urban agriculture world-wide and active in recycling of organic wastes, etc.) in the planning and implementation of additionally draws from experiences such activities. of the Urban Vegetable Promotion Project in Dar Es Salaam (Tanzania). The SGUA is guided by a Steering Committee in which at present participate rep- It is argued that local authorities have resentatives of IDRC (secretariat), UNDP, FAO, DGIS, CIRAD, ETC and TUAN. to take their responsibilities in securing Members of the SGUA meet at least bi-annually since 1992, hosted by one of its urban food security. members: In 1999 SGUA members met in Havana, Cuba, hosted by DSE, taking Ahmedabad Green Partnership Project To make an urban forestry programme a success, the wanted to address in a Magazine forthcoming electronic confer- project partners need to keep a constant dialogue and on urban agriculture. ence, organised by FAO and ETC a long-term commitment to make it happen. This is The respondents were requested (see page 33), will supply us with illustrated by the to give their opinion on important a lot of potential contributions, Ahmedabad Green issues in urban agriculture that the following planning for the Partnership Project, should be tackled in forthcoming next six issues is made: an effort between the issues on the UA-Magazine, both No. 3 Integration of urban Ahmedabad Municipal in an open question, and by giving agriculture in urban planning Corporation (AMC) a score (1-5) to a list of given (January 2001) and the Private Sector issues. They were further asked No. 4 Management of urban in Ahmedabad, India. how they preferred to receive the agriculture related health aspects Magazine. On the latter question, (April 2001) half of the respondents indicated No. 5 Methodologies in planning that they preferred the internet, and facilitation of urban agricul- while the other half would like to ture (September 2001)

receive a hard-copy or a diskette. No. 6 Urban agriculture and food PAGE 21 According to the open questions, security (December 2001) the next issues of the UA-Magazine should deal with Technologies; A questionnaire similar to the one with regional institutions and net- Policy Development; Methodology used in the two workshops men- works. This year we will only dis- (in assessment, planning and tioned above has been included in tribute an English version to mem- implementation); and Impact this issue. We would be grateful if bers of the SGUA and readers that Monitoring. The rankings of the you would fill it in and return it to do not have access to the Internet given subjects, showed that a the editors so we can take or will use the hard copy version focus on Methodologies; Health; account of your suggestions and for local promotional activities. Waste Management; Marketing; comments. Planning; and Methodology THIS ISSUE Development, would be preferred. In the near future RUAF will also For this first issue, we decided to produce regional hard copy ver- present a range of topics on urban Based on the results of these sions of the UA-Magazine in local agriculture, rather than a thematic surveys, and considering that the languages, in close co-operation selection, in order to give the In this issue readers an idea of the array of subjects that could be dealt with 5 Concepts and in the UA-Magazine in future. Definitions The collection of articles sought 8 Urban Agriculture, a advantage of their participation in the international workshop ‘Growing Cities and received (no call was done for Response to Crises? Growing Food’. The next meeting is foreseen in July 2000 in Berlin. this issue), do show a certain the- 11 Urban Agriculture and matic focus: various articles deal, Biodiversity The main functions included in the Global Initiative of the SGUA are the following: explicitly or sideways, with urban 13 The Integration of ❖ Policy development; SGUA-members actively support awareness creation among agriculture as a response to crisis Agriculture in Urban local authorities regarding the potentials of urban agriculture, seeking the integra- and as a mechanism applied by Policies tion of urban agriculture in city development. Research; SGUA stimulates innovative disadvantaged families to secure 16 Living with Livestock research on urban agriculture, with an emphasis to removing roadblocks for the their livelihood under adverse in Town integration of urban agriculture in policies and planning at national and local levels. conditions. Economic crisis, and 19 Dynamics in Tropical ❖ Technical assistance: SGUA encourages and facilitates that technical assistance is related problems of unemploy- Home Gardens made available to target group organisations and support organisations active in ment, lowering cash incomes and 21 The Greening of the field of Urban Agriculture, with an emphasis on South - South co-operation. Ahmedabad ❖ Investment and credit: SGUA encourages private investment in urban and peri 24 The Urban Farmers of urban dairy and small livestock, vegetables and poultry production, the produc- St. Petersburg tion and distribution of agricultural inputs, and other urban agriculture related 27 Urban Agriculture in small and micro enterprises. Havana ❖ Information and Communications; were identified as one of the main functions of the Global Facility. SGUA members jointly formulated the RUAF Programme in order to facilitate communication on urban agriculture and to enhance documentation and exchange dissemination of experiences.

RUAF is a global initiative More information on the SGUA, its members and their activities can of the Support Group be encountered on the IDRC website http://www.idrc.ca/cfp/sguaf_e.html on Urban Agriculture, Contact Luc Mougeot (PhD), Co-ordinator Cities Feeding People Programme co-ordinated by ETC IDRC, telephone: 613 236 6163, #2310 fax: 613 567-7749 - [email protected] - www.idrc.ca/cfp Resource centre on Urban Agriculture relative high food prices, is certainly one of the factors inducing rapid growth of and Forestry (RUAF) urban agriculture. However, a crisis is not the only driving factor. There are numer- The aim of RUAF is to facilitate integration of Urban Agriculture in the ous cities where urban agriculture has policies and plans of city authorities and to facilitate the formulation of developed where there has been no expe- projects on urban agriculture with active involvement of all local stake- rience of crises or where the crisis –for holders. The duration of RUAF is five years, which started in October certain categories of the population- is an 1999. A midterm review will take place in the third year of the Programme. intrinsic part of the urban system. All the articles show that urban agriculture OBJECTIVES is extremely heterogeneous, in size, extent The general aim of RUAF is to facilitate integration of Urban Agriculture and management levels. Urban agriculture in the policies and plans of city authorities and to facilitate the formulation We hope you may be a matter of of projects on urban agriculture with active involvement of all local stake- appreciate survival, positively holders (like urban planners, groups of urban farmers, consumer organ- this UA-Magazine affect biodiversity, isations, technical and credit organisations, environmental groups, health increase food secur- authorities, related local small enterprises, and others). ity, improve waste-recycling, but may also The information pro-actively disseminated by RUAF is also intended to impose additional problems. They also call influence agricultural research and extension organisations to include for a need for systematic analysis of cases urban agriculture and to provide more support to urban farmers. and the impact of urban agriculture, the The specific objectives of the RUAF-Programme focus on: awareness rais- exchange of information and development ing; identification and analysis of critical issues; improving access to docu- of policies. mented experiences; supporting local capacity development and networking; secure embedding of RUAF activities in international organisations Two articles (Mougeot and Gündel, de Next to the Newsletter, RUAF outputs are: one electronic conference Zeeuw and Waibel) are reworked articles on a selected key theme per year; a bibliography on Urban Agriculture taken up in the Reader: Growing Cities, accessible by Internet and on diskettes; a resource directory; a “Reader” Growing Food (Bakker et al. 2000). The on Urban Agriculture and a homepage. Furthermore, it is envisaged full text of these presentations can also be that six Regional Focal Points are in operation. found on the RUAF website, while hard copies are available from DSE, Germany. ORGANISATIONS The RUAF-Programme will be administered by IDRC (in the “Cities We hope you appreciate this UA- Feeding People Programme”). The leading implementing organisation Magazine and that you make yourself will be ETC-International, based in Leusden, The Netherlands, who will known to us, so that we start to know co-ordinate the activities of six regional focal points, TUAN, City Farmer who our readers are. Network and other organisations participating in the Programme. RUAF will maintain close working relations with the IDRC’s Cities Feeding People Programme (CFP), FAO’s Food for Cities Programme (FFC) with the UNDP-UNCHS Urban Management Programme (UMP), WHO’s Healthy Cities Programme, The Local Environment Initiatives Agenda 21 (ICLEI), the CGIAR Strategic Initiative on Urban and peri- urban Agriculture (SIUPA) and other relevant international programmes. RUAF will also closely co-operate with existing and new regional networks on urban agriculture. An important aim of the RUAF Programme PAGE 19 is to have RUAF services integrated in regular programmes of organisations and networks. Dynamics in Tropical Homegardens RUAF receives financial support of DGIS (the Netherlands) and IDRC The importance of (Canada). Other institutions have contributed to specific components of home gardens, the the programme like CTA (database on resource persons), GTZ (city case small areas of studies / Reader), DSE (regional workshop, publication of the Reader) cultivated land and SIDA (annotated bibliography). immediately surrounding a home or a homestead, is often under- For more information, visit the RUAF Web-site: http://www.RUAF.org estimated despite its vital contribution to meeting Or contact Ir. Henk de Zeeuw, co-ordinator RUAF, Visiting address: various household-needs, especially for poor families ETC, Kastanjelaan 5, 3830 AB Leusden, the Netherlands in developing countries. In this article, the impact of E-mail: [email protected] Phone: +31-33-4943086 Fax: +31-33-4940791 homegardens in the Philippines is explored. Urban Agriculture in Lomé, Togo

functionality will it turn into a distinctive and useful tool for us to understand and intervene.

By internal coherence, we should ask, whether urban agriculture really is what we call, or want to call, what we perceive to be out there. The overarching definition should lead us into a full conceptual system or edifice, a structure of interconnecting compartments anchored into real-world experience.

With external functionality the position of urban agriculture in relation to other concepts, for Urban Agriculture: instance rural agriculture, sustainable urban development or Concept and definition urban food supply systems is needed. The concept should be clear enough, that users can easily Key features of current definitions of ‘urban agriculture’ generally have perceive its potential for comple- downplayed a critical trait that makes urban agriculture to be urban. Urban agri- mentarity and synergy with relat- culture is different from, and complementary to, rural agriculture in local food ed concepts. systems: urban agriculture is integrated into the urban economic and ecological system. Unless this dimension is enhanced and made operational, the concept CURRENT DEFINITIONS will remain little useful on the scientific, technology and policy fronts. The more common definitions of urban agriculture are based on the following determinants (see n the ground, urban agricul- some places and less so in others, figure 1): ture is growing out of its fitting today but perhaps less so ❖ types of economic activities; O ability to assist with, resolv- tomorrow. The urban agriculture ❖ food/non-food categories of ing or coping with diverse devel- concept needs to evolve out of products and subcategories; opment challenges. It is spurred our need to codify and refine our ❖ intra-urban and peri-urban by a complex web of factors still perceptual experience with a character of location; little understood, not the least of rather new world phenomenon, which are urban poverty and food so as to ensure that it remains or insecurity. A common agreed con- becomes more useful to us where cept is necessary, because policy we will need it. Its identity Economic and technology interventions depends on this external func- Activities need first and foremost to identify tionality as much as on its inter- meaningful differences and grada- nal coherence. Destina- Location tions, if they are to better assess tion and intervene with appropriate The expression Urban Urban Agri- means for promotion and/or Agriculture, or “Intra- and Peri- culture management of urban agriculture. Urban Agriculture”, originally used only by scholars and occa- Products Areas CONCEPT DEVELOPMENT sionally in the media, has now Concepts are mental tools that we been adopted widely (Smit et al. Scale forge – and eventually rework – 1996b, FAO, 1996; COAG/FAO to better understand, interact 1999). This makes the need to fur- Luc J.A. Mougeot with and modify our real-world ther define and specify the con- International Development experience. They are historically cept important. Only with greater Figure 1: Urban Agriculture: Research Centre (IDRC), and culturally bound, relevant in internal coherence and external Common Dimensions Cities Feeding People Programme, Ottawa, Canada Rural ❖ types of areas where it is sheep, cattle, pigs, guinea pigs, fish, etcet- Agriculture practised; era) is made. Within the food category, Urban Urban ❖ types of production systems; definitions clearly stress the more perish- Land Food Supply ❖ product destination and able and relatively high-valued vegeta- Manage- Systems production scale. bles and animal products and by-prod- ment Urban ucts. To exclude the non-food category Agriculture Economic Activities from the general urban agriculture con- Sustain- Most definitions refer to the production cept would truncate the understanding of Urban able phase of agriculture, while recent city farming at large. Survival Urban definitions add processing and trade to Strategies Development production and emphasise the interac- Exchanges are taking place across pro- Urban tions between these. In urban agriculture, duction systems and within particular Food Security production and marketing (and also production units. Many ways exist in processing) tend to be more interrelated which urban agriculture interacts with in time and space, thanks to greater geo- other urban functions to use and provide graphic proximity and quicker resource resources, outputs and services to the city. Figure 2: Urban Agriculture and other flow. Economies of agglomeration seem “Kids on the Block” to prevail over those of scale. Location By far the most common element of the Categories of Products reviewed definitions is location, and or off-plot), development status of site (- The definitions here may highlight food probably the biggest source of conten- built-up vs open-space), modality of ten- production for consumption by either tion. Few field studies actually differen- ure/usufruct of site (cession, lease, shar- people or livestock. Further, a difference tiate between intra- and peri-urban loca- ing, authorised through personal agree- between type of crop (grain, root, vegeta- tions, or if they do criteria used vary ment or unauthorised, customary law or ble, aromatic and medicinal herbs, orna- widely. Those who do differentiate have commercial transaction) and the official mental plants, tree and fruit crops) and used as criteria for intra-urban agriculture: land-use category of the sector where types of animals (poultry, rabbits, goats, population sizes, density thresholds, offi- urban agriculture is practised (residential, cial city limits (Gumbo & Ndiripo 1996), industrial, institutional, etc.). municipal boundaries of the city (Maxwell & Armar-Klemesu 1998), agri- Product Destination REFERENCES cultural use of land zoned for other use Most definitions embrace agricultural - Aldington T. 1997. Urban and peri-urban agriculture: some thoughts on the issue. Land Reform, Land Settlement and Co-oper- (Mbiba 1994) or agriculture within the production for both self-consumption atives 2: 43-44. legal and regulatory purview of urban and some trade. Both destinations usually - COAG/FAO (Committee on Agriculture, Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations). 1999. Urban and peri-urban authorities (Aldington 1997). agriculture. COAG/99/10. Presented at 15th Session of the COAG, The most common FAO, Rome, 25-29 Janurban agriculturery 1999. - FAO. 1996. Urban agriculture: an oximoron? In: The state of food For peri-urban agriculture, the location def- element is location and agriculture 1996 (Rome: FAO), pp 43-57. inition is more problematic. Peri-urban - Gumbo DJ & Ndiripo TW. 1996. Open space cultivation in Zimbabwe: case study of Greater Harare, Zimbabwe. African Urban locations are in closer contact with rural are targeted to varying degrees by the Qurban agriculturerterly 11 (2-3): 210-216. - Lee-Smith D. 1998. African urban policy: issues and priority. Paper areas and tend to undergo, over a given producers or households studied. presented at International Conference on Urban agriculturePolicy period of time, more dramatic agricultural Economic research recently has been in Southern Africa, Technikon, Pretoria, 3-5 March 1998. - Losada H, Martinez H, Vieyra J, Pealing R & Cortés J. 1998. Urban changes than do locations in more central aimed at specific (export) market-orient- agriculturein the metropolitan zone of Mexico: changes over time in and built-up parts of the city. Authors ed production and has helped us to better urban, sub-urban and peri-urban areas. Environment and Urbanization 10 (2): 37-54. have been trying to delineate the outer understand the economic performance of - Lourenço-Lindell I. 1995. Food for the poor, food for the city: the role of urban agriculturein Bissau. Paper presented at ODA boundary of the peri-urban area, using for urban agriculture and its comparative Workshop on The Social and Environmental Implications of Urban instance urban, sub-urban and peri-urban advantages over other supply sources, Agriculture, University of Zimbabwe, Harare, 30-31 August 1995. - Maxwell D & Armar-Klemesu M. 1998. Urban agriculture: intro- zones based on varying ratios of buildings both at the producer and consumer level. duction and review of literature. Accra: Noguchi Memorial Institute and roads and increasing ratios of open for Medical Research. 2 - Mbiba B. 1994. Institutional responses to uncontrolled urban culti- space per km (Losada et al. 1998). Others Production System and Scale of production vation in Harare: prohibitive or accommodative? Environment and use the maximum distance away from city Few definitions clearly include or exclude Urbanization 6 (1): 188-202. - Mbiba B. 1998. Urban agriculturepolicy in Southern Africa: from centre within which farms can supply specific types of production systems a pri- theory to practice. In: Productive open space management with a shared focus on the potential of urban agriculture(urban food pro- perishables to the city on a daily basis ori. Surveys collect data on the different duction) policy and Agenda 21. Draft papers for an International (Moustier, 1998), or the area within which types of systems found in the area under Conference, Pretoria, 3-5 March 1998. - Mougeot LJA. 1999. For self-reliant cities: urban food production people living within the city’s administra- study (see other section for details). in a globalizing South. In: Koc M, MacRae R, Mougeot LJA & Welsh tive boundaries can travel to engage in Generally, the research effort has focused J (eds), For hunger-proof cities: sustainable urban food systems (Ottawa: IDRC), pp 11-25. agricultural activities (Lourenço-Lindell, on individual/family micro, small and - Moustier P. 1998. La complémentarité entre agriculture urbaine et agriculture rurale. In: Olanrewaju B Smith (ed.), Agriculture urbaine 1995). medium sized enterprises, as opposed to en Afrique de l’Ouest: une contribution à la sécurité alimentaire et à large scale, national or transnational l’assainissement des villes (Wageningen: CTA / Ottawa: IDRC). - Moustier P (ed.). 1999. Filières maraîchères à Brazzaville: qurban Types of Areas undertakings. agriculturentification et observatoire pour l’action. Montpellier: Criteria according to which such areas CIRAD - Agrisud International - Agricongo. - Smit J, Ratta A & Nasr J. 1996b. Urban agriculture: food, jobs and are typified vary from author to author: The urban ecosystem connection sustainable cities. Publication Series for Habitat II, Vol. I. New York: location respective to residence (on-plot While referring to these dimensions of United Nations Development Programme (UNDP). - Yi-Zhang Cai 1999. Case study: urban agriculture in Shanghai. GATE Technology and Development 2 (April-June): 18-19. urban agriculture, most authors define it ble and livestock production in West and inputs and of networks of exchange or only in general terms. Studies rarely use Central Africa (Moustier et al., 1999). trade increases with city size (Lee-Smith their findings to refine the urban agricul- 1998). ture concept of the day (Mbiba 1998) or to A second relation is that across cities of analyse how this concept is related to oth- different size or complexity, at any given The third relation is that in any given city er development concepts (see Figure 2). time, more of the agriculture found in the and over a period of time, during urban- city will be of an urban nature in larger as isation, agriculture of an urban nature One striking feature of the reviewed defi- opposed to smaller centres. Systematic will grow as a percentage of all the agri- nitions is that few of them contrast urban evidence for this relationship however, culture found in that city. Some evidence and rural agriculture, even less so the remains more limited than for the first. is available on multiple-year trends for implications of one for the other. Indeed, A six-city Kenyan study further shows specific systems and areas of Dar es all building blocks, perhaps except loca- that intensity and productivity increases Salaam, Dakar, Hong Kong and Cagayan tion, can apply to rural agriculture as well; with city size; similarly, the use of organic de Oro, where land-based farming they do not suffice to trademark urban systems have intensified or specialised, agriculture and justify the need for specif- and marginal agricultural activities have ic knowledge, know-how and policy. Agriculture been substituted by more profitable ones, increasingly combined with non-agricul- The lead feature of urban agriculture, tural land uses, when not relocated. which distinguishes it from rural agricul- Shanghai exemplifies several of these ture, is its integration into the urban eco- processes at work, with land-extensive nomic and ecological system (hereafter systems (vegetables and livestock) referred to as “ecosystem”). moving to the outskirts, while production within city limits is becoming more Resources It is not its urban location, which distin- efficient to deliver higher yields and guishes urban from rural agriculture, but Products labour productivity and value-adding the fact that it is embedded in and inter- Services (Yi-Zhang Cai, 1999). acting with the urban ecosystem. This integration into the urban ecosystem is In all three relationships, agriculture will not captured in most definitions of the become more urban, or will integrate concept, and less so developed in opera- Mexico City itself more into the urban ecosystem, tional terms. Though the nature of cities through a series of processes, which and of urban food supply systems has accumulate over time and are more changed, the need for urban agriculture Intra-Urban numerous in the larger urban centres. to interact well with the rest of city, on one hand, and with rural production and Peri-Urban imports, on the other, remains as true today as it was thousands of years ago. Rural

The principle of agriculture’s integration Figure 3: Three types of relationships into the urban ecosystem enables to recognise three types of situations, or relationships, with regard to the degree to which agriculture found in the city is CONCLUSIONS actually integrated into the city organism The urban ecosystem link of urban agriculture throughout its entire conceptual framework (figure 3). remains to be fully developed. Its conceptualisation currently offers a generic definition and some indications of its distinctive traits. A de-codification of this definition is needed to help A first relationship is that, in any given to identify its distinctiveness, in both theoretical and operational terms. Efforts in that direction city, at any given time, agriculture will be have already begun and are forcing to distinguish between intra-urban and peri-urban agricul- found that is rural, peri-urban, and intra- ture, and to examine the place of urban agriculture within larger conceptual frameworks. urban in nature, the three interacting and Because urban agriculture is reported to interact with so many facets of urban development, complementing each other to varying city farming also holds the potential to help to diversify and strengthen urban management extents. strategies. This is not a small opportunity, as city-based electorates struggling for access to food, income and sanitation are increasingly calling the shots in local and national policy arenas. Several studies exemplify the principle of integration through comparisons The above, is the background for the following revision of the concept: Urban agriculture is between intra-urban, peri-urban and located within (intra-urban) or on the fringe (peri-urban) of a town, a city or a metropolis, and rural activities. Urban agriculture is grows or raises, processes and distributes a diversity of food and non-food products, (re-)uses found to complement rural agriculture in largely human and material resources, products and services found in and around that urban terms of self-provisioning, marketing area, and in turn supplies human and material resources, products and services largely to that flows and market-supply flows, as shown urban area. for instance by CIRAD studies on vegeta- Urban Food Security mention “urban” areas here, Urban agriculture, referring to both, intra-urban and peri-urban areas (the Editor: for definitions see the article by a response to crisis? Mougeot in this Magazine).

It is estimated that 800 million Urbanisation is one of the major problems of mankind in the near future. people are engaged in urban agri- By 2015 about 26 cities in the world are expected to have a population of culture world-wide and play an 10 million or more (figure 1). To feed a city of this size today - for example important role in feeding the Tokyo, São Paulo or Mexico City - at least 6000 tonnes of food must be world’s cities (UNDP 1996, FAO imported each day (FAO-SOFA 1998). In 1988, about 25% of the developing 1999). Urban agriculture is emerg- world’s absolute poor were living in urban areas, by 2000 about 56% of the ing strongly in Sub-Saharan Africa, absolute poor would be living in urban areas according to the World where the fastest urban growth Resource Institute (WRI 1996) while, urban areas are expected to surpass will occur in countries least rural areas in population around the year 2005 (FAO 1998). equipped to feed their cities (Ratta & Nasr, 1996 in Mougeot 1999).

here are significant regional ❖ Availability of food (which The objective of this paper is to differences in the degree of depends on food production in discuss why people get involved T urbanisation. In the past the rural and urban sectors, food in Urban Agriculture (UA). Africa was a predominantly rural imports, marketing and distribu- Food production in the city is in continent. However, in the tion, infrastructure, availability of many cases a response of urban present the cities in Sub-Saharan fuel energy, etc.) poor to: Africa are growing with an excep- ❖ Access to food (depending on ❖ inadequate, unreliable and tional rate of 5% or more annual- purchasing power of urban irregular access to food supplies, ly, by the year 2020 half of the households, subsistence produc- partly due to either a lack of avail- population in this region will be tion, rural-urban linkages, house- ability or a lack of purchasing urban (WRI 1999). hold networks etc.) power 1 ❖ Quality of food (depending on ❖ inadequate access to formal The capacity of governments to preservation of street food, qual- employment opportunities, due manage this urban growth is ity of production, abuse of pesti- to deteriorating national econo- threatened in many developing cides, use of waste water for pro- mies in developing countries countries, or already on the duction, sanitary conditions on decline. The identification of markets, air quality etc.). Economic or food crises are cer- ways to provide food, shelter and tainly not the only driving factor basic services to the city residents URBAN AGRICULTURE behind the upsurge of UA. There and create “sustainable cities” are The phenomenon that a growing are numerous cities where urban challenges for many city author- number of urban dwellers are agriculture has developed with- ities around the world. engaging in agricultural activities, out having experienced a special especially in the less developed crisis period (or where the crisis – Urban food security depends on countries has been witnessed all for certain categories of the popu- various factors: over the world. We will further lation- is an intrinsic part of the urban system).

URBAN AGRICULTURE AS INTRINSIC PART OF A CITY Agriculture, in general and the food production for the urban population was, and still is, thought to take place in the rural sector only. In reality this undertaking has failed in many coun-

✱ 1950 ● 1975 ▲ 2000* ◆ 2015* A.W. Drescher - University of Freiburg, * projected Germany, P. Jacobi and J. Amend German Development Co-operation (GTZ) and Ministry of Agriculture, Dar Es Salaam, Tanzania

Fig. 1: The development of mega cities since 1950 (after FAO-SOFA 1998) This article is partly based on information extracted from 20 city case studies on urban agriculture world-wide and additionally draws from experiences of the Urban Vegetable Promotion Project2 in Dar Es Salaam (Tanzania). Most of the case studies were commissioned by the German Development Co-operation (GTZ) in 1998/1999 and presented at the International Workshop in Maize is cultivated at many open spaces in Harare, Zimbabwe Havana, Cuba in October 1999 (Bakker et al, 2000) tries due to missing infrastructure (deliv- staple food production, gathering, hunt- Additional literature and own ery of seeds and fertilisers to rural areas ing, and even urban forestry often com- experiences of the authors and delivery of the harvested produce to bined with food production (figure 2, p.10). in urban agriculture will urban centres) and lack of purchasing complement the information. power of the urban poor. Although the The locus of poverty is shifting to urban interest in agriculture in urban centres is areas (Haddad, Ruel, & Garrett. 1998). quite recent, it is practised for a long time. Economic crisis and structural adjustment First urban areas were dramatically policies introduced in developing coun- affected. Alarming food related problems Evidence suggests that urban agriculture tries have had a disproportionate impact were reported (FAO 1999a). As a reaction complements rural agriculture and on the urban poor, especially women, and to this people started to produce food on increases the efficiency of the national have resulted in rising food prices, declin- small plots and open spaces all over the food supply in that it (IDRC 1998): ing real wages, redundancy in the formal city—even transformed former public ❖ provides products that rural agricul- labour market, cuts in food subsidies for parks into gardens and government bod- ture cannot supply as well, e.g. perishable urban consumers. and further reduced ies encouraged the people of Jakarta to products, export crops that require rapid public expenditure on basic services and grow their own food. Problems started in delivery upon harvest; infrastructure. It is often overlooked, that urban areas to spread to rural areas later ❖ can substitute for food imports economic crisis has different impacts on caused by migration. In some rural com- intended for urban consumption, and women and men (see e.g. Drescher & munities the population has increased up thus save on foreign exchange; Iaquinta 1999, Foeken & Mwangi 1999, to 30%, putting severe pressure on those ❖ can release good rural agricultural Hasna 1998, Mbiba 1999 and others). areas (FAO 1999a). land for export-oriented production; and ❖ can reduce pressure to cultivate new The short- and medium-term results of Maidar (1996) reports an example from rural land, relieving stresses on marginal conditionally programs have put an eco- Mongolia. The recent “shock therapy” rural lands. nomic squeeze on poor populations in measures taken by the Government have developing countries, narrowing of the created great hardship as prices for con- Additionally urban food production: income gap between rural and urban sumer goods rise while salaries remain ❖ can contribute to the generation of dwellers, and resulting in accelerated unchanged. The prices for food, coal, income in the rural sector by various and migration from rural to urban areas wood, electricity, transportation, etc. are multiple interactions between the areas (Nugent 1997). These urban poor fre- skyrocketing. In 1990/1991, 850 families and its inhabitants (Drescher & Iaquinta quently resort to the non-market (infor- grew vegetables in the city. In 1996 this 1999). mal sector) activities for survival, like number has increased over 20 times urban food production (Drescher & reaching 21,000. More and more families Urban people are not passive food recip- Iaquinta 1999). have begun to realise that urban agricul- ients; in many cities they are actively ture might be a way to improve their involved in food production (Drescher & Under such circumstances, urban food standard of living. Iaquinta 1999). production can be defined as a “crisis induced strategy”, ensuring survival of the Globally induced economic crisis, rapid URBAN AGRICULTURE AS A poorer segment of the population. The fol- population growth and rural to urban RESPONSE TO CRISES lowing examples of people’s survival strat- migration, deteriorating national econo- Urban agriculture refers not only to food egies during periods of economic decline mies or persisting economic difficulties crops and fruit trees grown in cities but and social unrest in densely populated cit- encompasses animals, poultry, bees, rab- ies support the “crisis model” view. bits, snakes, guinea pigs and other indige- 1 Unreliable and irregular access can be caused by natural disasters (as the nous animals. Urban fish production is Jakarta is one example in recent history. hurricanes Georges and Mitch in 1999, flooding or economic disasters (like also part of the food system in many trop- The economic turmoil that first hit recent strikes in Ecuador, causing lack of food provision for several days)

ical cities (Drescher & Iaquinta 1999). The Indonesia in 1997 has left millions of peo- 2 The Urban Vegetable Promotion Project (UVPP) was launched 1993 as a urban farming system is a composition of ple vulnerable to food insecurity, without bilateral project between the Ministry of Agriculture and Co-operatives (MAC) and the German Development Co-operation (GTZ). It is financed by many different activities like gardening, enough money to buy sufficient food. the Ministry of Economic Co-operation (BMZ). Urban Small Scale Farming System (Microfarming-System)

Plant Production Livestock Production mediating role between rural and urban Small Scale (Iaquinta & Drescher 1999). This implies Production of staples Livestock Keeping manifold rural- urban linkages: and cash-crops

Open Spaces Local urban governments are often rela- Fields tively weak. Municipal councils which Gardens started off as colonial institutions were Roadstrips never fundamentally transformed to Vegetable Production PRODUCTION SITES cater for a growing urban population especially in Africa (Unchs 1998). They Fruit Production Fishponds Rivers however play an increasing important Lakes role in development activities. Little is actually known on the functioning of these local institutions. We presume that local institutions (formal or informal) like Urban Fishery Urban Forestry Hunting Gathering e.g. farmer groups, water users etc. have (UFi) (UFo) Fishing little influence on the decision making in the urban centres. Capacity building for Figure 2: The wide range of urban agriculture within an interaction local institutions and support for the for- system (after Drescher 1998, modified) mation of new, more efficient and interdisciplinary institutional approaches towards the urban-rural continuum are are pre-conditions for urban food pro- mal sector of the urban economy. therefore needed. Greater collaboration duction in many developing countries The term urban greening could assist in between research and development and countries of transition. Nevertheless broadening the idea of urban agriculture. capacities in urban planning and those in urban food production would by far have The new concept of “urban greening” agricultural development is needed to less importance if there would not be a (Kuchelmeister 1997), comprises the make urban farming more efficient and shortage of adequate and accessible planning, and managing of trees, forests sustainable (Mougeot 1996). income opportunities and an unsatisfied and related vegetation to create or add demand for appropriate quantity and values to the local community in an REMAINING QUESTIONS quality of agricultural products in cities. urban area. Open questions will remain for discussion and solution: Responsibilities have to be taken over by There is an increasing perception that ❖ How does urban agriculture develop, the appropriate authorities to ensure and rural and urban environments operate as when the “crisis” is over? to support food security in cities and have a system („continuum“) rather than inde- ❖ How can UA be integrated in urban an impact on urban poverty alleviation. pendently. Therefore it is needed to planning ? bridge the rural-urban artificial detach- ❖ How can UA institutionally and tech- CRITICAL ISSUES ment. In terms of migration and urban- nically be linked to sustainable city pro- A major problem in the acceptation of isation, peri-urban environments play a grammes? urban agriculture as a serious contributor to food security in the city and sustainable urban development. Another critical institutional constraint to urban agricul- REFERENCES - Bakker, N., M. Dubbeling, S. Gundel, U. Sabel-Koschella, H. de - Kuchelmeister, G. (1997): Urban trees in arid landscapes: ture, particularly crop cultivation, is Zeeuw, (2000), Growing Cities, Growing Food, Urban Agriculture Multipurpose urban forestry for local needs in developing coun- access to land. This uncertain legal status on the Policy Agenda, DSE, Germany. tries. In: The Arid Lands Newsletter (e-mail version), Fall/Winter - Drescher, A.W. & D. Iaquinta (1999): Urban and peri-urban 1997: Number 42. of urban agriculture is such that official Agriculture: A new challenge for the UN Food and Agriculture - Maidar, Ts. (1996): City Farming in Mongolia. Urban Agriculture projects or programmes aimed at Organisation (FAO). FAO - Internal report. Rome. Notes. Published by City Farmer, Canada’s Office of Urban - FAO (1998): Majority of people live in cities by 2005. Web Page Agriculture, www.cityfarmer.org. improving urban agriculture have been Information FAO: http://www.fao.org/NEWS/FACTFILE/FF9811- - Mbiba, B. (1998): City Harvests: Urban Agriculture in Harare relatively rare. Typically urban agricul- E.HTM (Zimbabwe). In: City Harvest - a Reader on Urban Agriculture. - FAO-SOFA (1998): The State of Food and Agriculture. Food and GTZ, Eschborn. ture is not taken into account in the Agriculture Organziation of the United Nations, FAO, Rome. - Mougeot, L. (1999): Urban agriculture: Definition, Presence, - FAO (1999):Issues in urban agriculture - Studies suggest that up to Potentials and Risks, and Policy Challenges. Paper presented to the urban planning process (Drescher & two-thirds of city and peri-urban households are involved in farm- International Workshop “Growing Cities, Growing Food”, October Iaquinta 1999). ing. Web Page Information FAO: http://www.fao.org/ag/maga- 11-15 1999, La Habana, Cuba. zine/9901sp2.htm - Nugent, R.A. (1997): The Significance of Urban Agriculture. - Foeken, D. & A. Mboganie Mwangi (1999): Farming in the City of Published by City Farmer, Canada’s Office of Urban Agriculture, Urban agricultural activities must be inte- Nairobi. In: City Harvest - A Reader on Urban Agriculture, GTZ, www.cityfarmer.org. Eschborn. - Ratta, A. & J. Nasr (1996): “Urban Agriculture and the African grated into cross-sectoral and multi- - Haddad, L., M. Ruel, & J. Garrett (1998): Growing urban poverty Urban Food Supply System,” African Urban Quarterly 11/2-3. and undernutrition and some urban facts of life. International Food - UNDP (1996): Urban Agriculture: Food, Jobs and Sustainable stakeholder strategies for mutually bene- Policy Research Institute, Washington (forthcoming). Cities. United Nations Development Program, Publication Series ficial urban and agricultural development - Hasna , M. K. (1998): NGO Gender Capacity in Urban Agriculture: for Habitat II, Volume One. UNDP, New York. Case Studies from Harare (Zimbabwe), Kampala (Uganda) and - UNCHS (1998): Privatisations of municipal services in East Africa: (Mougeot 1996). Gender plays an impor- Accra (Ghana). Cities Feeding People CFP Report Series, Report 21. A Governance Approach to Human Settlements Management. tant role. Women tend to dominate urban IDRC, Ottawa. United Nations Centre for Human Settlements (Habitat) Nairobi, - IDRC (1998): Other Organizations Active in Urban Agriculture. Kenya. cultivation because they are marginalised Web Page information: www.idrc.ca/cfp/other_e.html. - WRI (1997): World Resources 1996-97: The Urban Environment. in other forms of employment in the for- - Jacobi, P., A.W. Drescher & J. Amend (2000): Urban Agriculture, World Resource Institute, Washington DC. Justification and Planning Guidelines. UVPP, GTZ/MAC, Dar es - WRI (1999): World Resources 1998-99: The Urban Environment. Salaam. World Resource Institute, Washington DC. Several studies have found that modern cities, but also ancient ones, have a negative ecological footprint that is 50 to 125 times the area of the metropolis itself. Rees defines this ecological footprint as “the land area functionally required to support any given population. The resultant aggregate area can be called the relevant community’s total ‘ecological footprint’ on the Earth.” In addition, Girardet invented the term ‘biocidic cities’ – with which he labels “human settlements that take natural resources and give nothing back to mother earth”. Folke et al., find that the pollution from cities on the Baltic sea diminishes the biosphere over 200 times the area of their collective built-up area. Future studies will tell us whether [a] the harvesting of resources to feed the city or [b] the poisoning of the ecology by the cities’ waste streams are the more damaging. Urban Agriculture and Urbanisation and Diminishing Biodiversity Biodiversity

n earlier geographic times, one There is an earth-wide commit- ture? Modern engineering, archi- spoke of the hinterland, the ment by national governments to tecture and city planning have I peri-urban and the sub-urban reverse this linear process and mit- created cities that exclude agricul- area as systems for the city. Today, igate its damaging consequences. ture: could urban agriculture be New Yorkers eat Bengali shrimp Clearly no single solution can compatible with the modern city? daily, while Japan engorges address this infinitely complex Canadian and Malaysian forests. problem. One could argue that a CITY FARMING’S DIRECT In a way, this is not so different in key component to transforming AND INDIRECT IMPACT process than Athens mining the this vicious process is to bring back ON BIODIVERSITY forests of Calabria (Magna agriculture, forestry, and livestock A great variety in the types of Greacea), or Rome the wheat and rearing to the human settlement, ecological impacts are given in soil of the North African coastal as was done in earlier civilisations. reports of agriculture in towns hills and plains. What is different In the real world, such a trend may and cities. At the metropolitan is that today, with over six billion already be taking place, as the scale, urban agriculture cleans the humans living on Earth and with growing literature on urban agri- air and returns carbon to the soil. half the population now urban culture and the rapid increase in its It restores microclimates, con- (and increasingly more), it is on an share of the food market, from serves urban water resources in entirely unprecedented scale that Russia to Tanzania to Indonesia to some cases, but degrades them in the global environment (and its the USA, is making clear. others, and maintains a penetra- biological diversity) is being ble surface between air and land. diminished by urbanisation. The importance of urban agri- And although livestock and poul- culture as a response to crises is try can contribute to disease and The urban footprint is an indica- illustrated in numerous situations. pollution, they are also powerful tor more of the nature of the But the hypothesis that urban waste converters and soil enhanc- economy and of our lifestyle than agriculture has a role to play in ers. At the community scale, of the number of urban residents. sustainable development of urban agriculture can either Estimates at the time of the Earth modern cities is more difficult to improve the “landscape for liv- Summit (Rio) in 1992 found that address. This question has several ing” but it may also cause pollu- 75 percent of the natural resourc- subsets. As urban land, water, tion and diminish human health. es that we harvest and mine from energy, money, and research the Earth are shipped, trucked, systems are well established, Urban farmers are not inherently railroaded and flown to 2.5 per- how can urban agriculture as more environmentally conscious; cent of the Earth’s surface, which “community or civic agriculture” they use the waste because they Jac Smit, The Urban is metropolitan. At that destina- be integrated? If modern capital- are farming on the 2.5 percent of Agriculture Network (TUAN), tion, 80 percent of those resourc- intensive commodity agriculture the earth where the waste is. A USA es are converted into ‘waste’. This is efficient, is there a role in the TUAN (The Urban Agriculture linear process of resource to pol- agri-food system for community- Network) study for CARE lution reduces biodiversity. based, labour-intensive agricul- International found that much of what didn’t get to the dump produced ture in cities played a major role in their governments, awareness of the threat both food and green. substantial disappearance in 20th centu- of losing local and global biodiversity is ry Europe and North and South America. becoming well established. Agriculture in urban areas can mitigate Today, as in earlier times, agriculture in negative impacts on surrounding and the city poses a range of possible negative The 1996 USA Census of Agriculture more distant biodiversity (the urban foot- impacts. Irrigation with polluted water, reports that the number of farms, farmers print). It is argued that urban agriculture is animal waste in the streets, or praying and value of crop is increasing in both inherently more biodiversity-prone than chemical insecticides next door to a cities and the so-called sub-urban belts or modern rural agriculture, by being more school of church can be injurious to man metropolitan fringes. This is said to be a sustainable, less chemically dependent and the community biosphere. response to convenient markets and and more biologically friendly. Urban agri- Converting park-like open space to improved access to land and inputs, but culture occurs on smaller sites and typical- mono-cropping can diminish biodiversity is without national policy support. ly has a more diverse/integrated crop mix. of the site (a vineyard is not a wilderness). Similar data is emerging half a world Urban agriculture closes open nutrient away, in South Africa where national and energy loops. Perhaps the most effec- The management of a ecologically sus- policy supports urban agriculture. tive example is modifying urban wetlands tainable or ‘biogenic’ city, which con- to food, fuel and recreation instead of fill- serves biodiversity, will require a much The alternative to the WTO scenario of ing them with waste and converting to higher level of environmentally sophisti- liberalisation and international trade, built-up uses. Further research might be cated management than current practices. may mean street trees on the main shop- worthwhile on differences in biodiversity ping street; vegetable production com- in different climate zones, associated with IMPACTS OF URBAN AGRICULTURE bined with chicken production in a small urban versus rural farming. Agriculture at community level is a good watershed; or a home garden containing tool to self-management of resources, and 179 plant species (as an FAO study found As urban agriculture grew in the the strive towards maximum or optimum in one sub-district in Java). Washington USA metropolis from 1978 biodiversity. With the rise of metropolis, to 1998, the variety of tomatoes available a great deal of community responsibility The essence of community ecological in the market increased from eight to sev- has been handed over to the city and to management is the principle of “closed enty- four. Urban agriculture is the con- large profit-making corporations. nutrient loops”. Urban waste management servator and generator of biodiversity in policy could benefit biodiversity by con- agricultural crops from poultry to lettuce. The appropriate level of biodiversity centrating on closing open nutrient loops. One acre of urban agriculture, using management may well be the bio-region This requires public and private organisa- urban waste as an input, can save five (watershed, island, coastal plain, or range tions to maximise the re-use of waste acres, or more, of rural marginal agricul- of hills). Here rural and urban jurisdic- within urban regions to ecological benefit. tural land or rain forest. Food production tions and interest groups will need to On the negative (control) side, there could in our own back yards and city parks meet and negotiate to discover and assign be polices to reduce burning, use of does not require genetically modified the best role of urban agriculture. This chemicals, and long-distance hauling. crops to be economically viable. may be done on a crop-by-crop basis, or at the farming system level, taking The Climate Change Convention urges Urban agriculture produces food and ener- account of implications of the interaction member countries to “enhance carbon gy crops close to the market demand, some between crops for biodiversity. sequestration in forests and agricultural within the neighbourhood. This proximity land“. The International Centre for Local of production to consumption reduces Taking the discussion a level higher, the Environmental Initiatives (ICLEI) is cur- traffic, storage, and packaging as sources of appropriate role of urban agriculture in rently recommending “carbon trading” the pollution that erodes biodiversity. The sub-Saharan Africa, may be quite differ- by towns and cities. average distance travelled for a food item ent than for the Caribbean archipelago of small islands, where shipping costs and There is some degree of consensus Urban agriculture is waste management are more critical. It amongst international development an effectice tool to slow down may be desirable for a “low-income, food- organisations and national governments the loss of biodiversity deficit” country to concentrate on food in favour of “sustainable agriculture”, production within urban areas in order to “sustainable urbanisation” and conserv- on a supermarket shelf in New York was concentrate on foreign earnings from rur- ing a bio-diverse Earth. Urban agriculture determined in 1995 to be 2,000 kilometres. al agriculture, and to conserve national is an effective tool to slow down the loss In contrast, Rikers Island prison within natural resources for future generations. of biodiversity. Sustainable urban agricul- New York City produces fresh food for the ture may be a smart policy option. To be occupants, and for a catering service, with- POLICY CHANGES sustainable throughout the 21st century, in one kilometre of its consumption. The 1990s have witnessed a worldwide agriculture, our burgeoning urban commitment to biodiversity. Beginning human settlements and mother earth However, it is also possible to have a neg- with the Environment Conference in Rio need city farmers. ative impact on the biodiversity of a city, de Janeiro in 1992 and advancing through by using poor urban agricultural practic- the work of the environmental NGOs, the es. The negative health impacts of agricul- green political parties, and some national This article is a shortened version of the article published in Bakker et al., 2000. It presents the policy options for facilitating and regulating the development of urban agriculture in Third World cities, as identified by the participants of the International Workshop on Urban Agriculture “Growing Cities, Growing Food – Urban Agriculture on the Policy Agenda”, Havana, Cuba, October 1999.

contribution, and be based on participatory and multi-stakeholder diagnosis and planning processes.

Direct marketing from producer to consumer in Dar Es Salaam, Tanzania In this section a range of potential policy options will be presented, which were identified by the participants as (potential) suitable The Integration of policy responses to urban agriculture. It is clear that such recom- in Urban Policies mendations are of a general Agriculture nature and will have to be refined according to specific local condi- Urban agriculture is seen as a dynamic concept that comprises a varie- tions. The policy options are ty of farming systems, ranging from subsistence production and pro- described in relation to the inte- cessing at household level to fully commercialised agriculture. Urban gration of urban agriculture in the agriculture normally has a niche function in terms of time (transitory) following urban policy areas: land and space (interstitial), as well as social (e.g. women and low income use policy; food security; health groups) and economic (e.g. financial crisis, food shortage) conditions. policy; environmental policy, and social development policy.

t has been observed that urban tion to urban greening and micro- Land Use Policy agriculture exists within heter- climate development or to the re- Access to land and water resourc- I ogeneous resource utilisation use of urban organic wastes. es, as well as security of user situations. In terms of its contri- rights and the level of the land butions to development, urban The diversity of urban agriculture rent, are crucial factors in the agriculture enhances food secur- is one of the main attributes, development of urban farming. ity, provides additional income which contributes to its impor- Access to prime locations is fierce- and employment for poor and tance within a wide range of ly disputed. Especially subsistence middle-income urban dwellers, urban situations and for a diverse type of urban agriculture often and contributes to an ecologically range of stakeholders. takes place on lands where prop- sound urban environment. erty rights are in dispute. In plan- Thus urban agriculture can have OUTLINE OF A POLICY ning land use in city development, different purposes, which are by FRAMEWORK FOR URBAN more often than not, land alloca- no means mutually exclusive and AGRICULTURE tion for urban food producers is co-exist in a range of different The fore mentioned variety of excluded from land use plans. The combinations. For instance, poor conditions, characteristics and policy instruments identified by families might be engaged in purposes of urban agriculture, the participants to achieve the urban agriculture for several rea- indicates the importance of a objective of integrating urban sons. Whereas the woman may careful analysis of the specific agriculture in land use planning emphasise the importance of context, and carefully designed fall in the following categories: urban agriculture for subsistence, interventions and policy meas- ❖ Removal of legal restrictions. Henk de Zeeuw, ETC her husband might stress the ures for urban agriculture. The first step that needs to be tak- International, The Netherlands additional income generating Interventions must be linked with en is to persuade urban planners Sabine Gündel, National benefits of it. Meanwhile, urban specific development objectives, to accept urban agriculture as a Resources Institute, UK and planners may evaluate these activ- to which urban agriculture is legitimate form of urban land use. Hermann Waibel, University ities on the basis of their contribu- expected to make a significant Participants strongly felt that a of Hannover, Germany Youth in Lima, Peru with small gardens at school

review of existing policies and bylaws is to achieve food security for the urban necessary as a precondition for the poor, a sole reliance on food produced in removal of unsubstantiated legal restric- rural areas is insufficient. It is necessary tions on urban agriculture. Such a review for cities to develop plans to enhance should go hand in hand with the devel- urban and peri-urban food production. opment of a number of measures to pre- This was already found to be 60% in vent encroachment on biologically sensi- Kampala, and 50% in Nairobi (Maxwell tive areas, the use of drinking water for 1995). Policy instruments link to the fol- irrigation, or contamination of ground- lowing two areas. water by high-external-input agriculture. ❖ Improved access of urban farmers to agri- ❖ Integration of agriculture in urban devel- cultural research, technical assistance and opment planning. A second important step credit services. Overwhelmingly, access of is the revision of actual urban zoning urban farmers to agricultural extension bylaws and the integration of urban agri- services in most cities is very restricted. If culture in zonification plans, indicating in it exists at all, it is directed at full-time which zones urban agriculture is allowed commercial farmers mainly producing in (or what type of agriculture is allowed), peri-urban areas. Consequently, urban and other zones where (certain types of) farming is often technically inefficient and cities may attract rodents, mosquito farming are prohibited, due to special ignores the potential human and environ- breeding in puddles of rainwater, irriga- conditions (eg. water retention zones). mental risks to a larger degree than in tion tanks and wells that may further lead Kampala and Kumasi are two examples rural areas. Recommendations include: to malaria or dengue. Certain diseases where such a revision has recently been the stimulation of participatory field can also be transmitted to humans by undertaken (Atukunda 1998; Abutiate research, field training and technical livestock kept in close proximity to them, 1995). advice to urban farmers, and improve- or related to aquaculture. Crops pro- ❖ Temporal use of vacant land. Another ment of access to credit schemes. In Dar duced in soils polluted by local industry, measure is the promotion of urban agri- Es Salaam a broader urban agriculture irrigated with polluted irrigation water, culture as a temporal use of vacant public programme was implemented targeting or produced close to main roads, can be and private lands. For example, the gov- both, strengthening the self help capacity contaminated with heavy metals (lead, ernor of Jakarta issued a decree on the use of the urban farmers, and the capacity of cadmium, etc.). of vacant land to mitigate the fallout of the city and governmental extension struc- Asian crisis for the laid off workers (Ning ture to deliver services to urban farmers City authorities should develop and Purnomohadi, 2000). (Jacobi et al. 2000) implement policies that minimise health ❖ Multifunctional land use. The promo- ❖ Improved systems for input supply and risks without compromising the food tion of multifunctional land use and product distribution. Local governments security needs of the urban poor. Based encouragement of community participa- could facilitate the local marketing of on examples in many cities around the fresh urban grown food, by authorising world, participants proposed the follow- A sole reliance on food farmer markets and other forms of direct ing measures. produced in rural areas selling of fresh agricultural produce from ❖ Producer and consumer education. is insufficient urban and peri-urban producers to local Creating awareness among farmers of consumers. health risks associated with urban agri- tion in the management of urban open The supply of natural fertilisers, bio-pesti- culture and providing information and spaces. Under certain conditions food cides, etc should be promoted, by provid- training on ecological farming tech- production may be combined with other ing incentives and facilitating the creation niques, proper selection oif crops, ani- urban functions such as recreation, and of a network of local stores, among others. mals and irrigation techniques, depend- nature conservation. Small-scale enterprises linked with urban ing the local situation of soils and water is ❖ Integration in new housing projects. agriculture could be stimulated by provi- of vital importance. This should go hand The inclusion of space for individual or sion of licences, technical and manage- in hand with clear quality standards for community gardens in new public hous- ment assistance and in the creation of urban grown products and introduction ing projects and private building schemes, local infrastructure. For example, Brasilia of “green’ or ‘safe food’ labels Consumers like in Dar Es Salaam where urban agricul- D.F. is furthering the integration of small- should be educated on the advantages ture was included as interim or permanent scale food production with local food pro- and risks of eating fresh locally produced land use in public housing schemes cessing and marketing (de Carvalho 1999). food and the necessity to clean and cook (Mwalukasa 2000, Jacobi et al. 2000). such food well. Health Policy ❖ Soil and water quality. Participants Food Security Policy One of the drawbacks of urban agricul- recommend periodic testing of soil and Analyses of current trends regarding ture is the potential negative health water quality in zones where urban agri- urban food systems reveal that, in order effect. For example, cultivated areas in culture is practised. Zoning regulations should indicate what type of crops/ani- development was stressed. It was said to organised. The participants of the mals are allowed in a zone with certain enhance social cohesion in neighbour- Havana workshop recommended a series type of pollution. Bio-remediation can be hoods and bring people together. of activities oriented at the creation of an applied to regenerate polluted zones. Degraded derelict land can be trans- enabling policy environment. Intensive use of agro-chemicals is to be formed in green community or allotment prevented. gardens, and contribute to feelings of ❖ To raise awareness among national higher self-esteem or safety in lower class and city administrators, planners and Environmental Policy neighbourhoods. In Brazil, urban agricul- NGOs and to provide them with reliable A large part of city garbage is organic, but ture is promoted by the city authorities to data and positive examples; it is often simply dumped or illegally facilitate the social integration of recent ❖ The selection of a national lead agency burned. Waste water and sewage sludge immigrants in the socio-economic fabric on urban agriculture and the establish- contain nutrients that are of high value in of the city by creating access to municipal ment of an interdepartmental working agriculture. Urban agriculture can help to land, credit and technical advice (Bakker group at national level. reduce environmental pollution by recy- et al, 2000). Garnett (1996) describes the cling solid and liquid waste in the process positive impact on women’s social well The Ministry of Agriculture of agricultural production. Urban agricul- being in a community gardening project usually lack a political ture also plays a role in greening the city, in Bradford, North England. mandate for urban agriculture helps to improve the micro-climate, to reduce erosion, reduces noise, and to Policy measures can further enhance this ❖ Stimulation of documentation and plays a role in maintaining bio-diversity social development within communities exchange of experiences at local, national (see Smit, this issue). However, urban through urban agriculture. For instance and regional level through networks, agriculture may also have some detri- by stimulating inclusion of urban agricul- workshops, exchange visits, newsletters, mental effects on the urban environment, ture in urban regeneration projects link- etc. For instance, the establishment of like the pollution of local water sources, ing urban agriculture with educational databases on urban agriculture with or the accumulation of animal wastes. and community development activities; information on successful policies and allowing for communal ownership of projects, appropriate technologies for In order to enhance the positive environ- land; and by facilitation of local exchange urban agriculture, effective and participa- mental impacts of urban agriculture and systems bringing local producers and tory planning and research methodolo- to prevent negative effects on the urban consumers together. gies, and available expertise. environment, the following measures ❖ The creation of city level inter-agency may be applied. CREATING AN ENABLING POLICY committees on urban agriculture and ENVIRONMENT stakeholder platforms for dialogue and ❖ Safe re-use of urban organic wastes Historically urban agriculture does consensus building at city and neigh- and wastewater, through the establish- not have an institutional home. Organisa- bourhood levels. ment of low cost facilities for “close to tions like a Ministry of Agriculture usual- ❖ The promotion of participatory, site source “ collection and sorting of organic ly lack a political mandate for urban specific and interdisciplinary field waste; agriculture. Urban agriculture projects research with a strong policy and action ❖ Compost or biogas production (and are rarely integrated in overall urban orientation and stimulation of self the stimulation of applied research on planning. Generally there is little co-ordi- –organisation of urban farmers. composting and digesting technologies); nation between NGOs and municipal ❖ Facilitating networking and dialogue. ❖ Investments in systems for rainwater agencies, and urban farmers are often not collection and storage and for small-scale water saving irrigation systems (e.g. drip irrigation) in order to reduce the demand for treated water; REFERENCES ❖ -Abutiate WS. 1995. Urban and peri-urban horticultural activity in Ghana: an overview. In: NRI (ed.), Introduction of preferential prices for Peri-urban interface research: workshop proceedings (UK Overseas Development Administration / British wastewater treated to secondary level for Council), Kumasi, Ghana, 23-25 August 1995, pp 45-50. -Atukunda G. 1998. An analysis of the impact of IDRC funded research projects on urban agriculture in irrigation and fully treated potable water; Uganda. Makerere Institute of Social Research, University of Kampala, Kampala. Paper presented at IDRC ❖ Farmer education on proper handling Cities Feeding People Workshop on Lessons Learned from Urban Agriculture Projects in African Cities, Nairobi, July 1998. of waste and wastewater. -Bakker, N., M. Dubbeling, S. Gundel, U. Sabel-Koschella and H. de Zeeuw, 2000, Growing Cities, Growing Food, urban agriculture on the policy agenda. DSE, Germany. -Carvalho JLH de. 1999. Combatir a la pobreza ayuda a dinamizar la economia. La Era Urbana 5 (3), For example, in Lima (Moscoso 1999) a Suplemento para América Latina y el Caribe 1: xiv-xvii. Garnett T. 1996. Growing food in cities: a report to highlight and promote the benefits of urban agriculture sequence of settlement ponds allows in the UK. London: National Food Alliance & SAFE Alliance. effluents of a higher quality to be safely -Garnett T. 2000. Urban agriculture in London: rethinking our food economy. -Jacobi P, Armend J & Kiango S. 2000. Urban agriculture in Dar es Salaam: providing an indispensable part of applied at each step of treatment for a the diet. specific use (woodland irrigation, aquatic -Maxwell D. 1995. Alternative food security strategy: a household analysis of urban agriculture in Kampala. World Development 23 (10): 1669-1681. weeds and fish farming, crop farming). -Moscoso J. 1999. El uso de aguas residuales en la agricultura urbana. La Era Urbana 5 (3), Suplemento para América Latina y el Caribe 1: xix-xxi. -Mwalukasa M. 2000. Institutional aspects of urban agriculture in the city of Dar es Salaam. Social Development -Ning Purnomohadi. 2000. Jakarta: urban agriculture as an alternative strategy to face the economic crisis. -Rees W. 1997. Why urban agriculture? Notes for the IDRC Development Forum on Cities Feeding People: During the Havana workshop, the impor- A Growth Industry, Vancouver, 20 May 1997. tance of urban agriculture for social -Yoveva A, Gocheva B, Voykova G, Borissov B & Spassov A 2000. Sofia: urban agriculture in an economy in transition. Living with Urban Animal Husbandry and Human Welfare Livestock in Town

ers, also employees living on hos- pital and school compounds keep animals. For example, 81% of people living on the university campus in Zaria, Nigeria, keep livestock, mainly poultry and small ruminants (Gefu 1992). Small livestock Off-plot. Livestock kept off-plot easily kept tend to be grazing animals, such at home, as sheep, goats, pigs, cattle, buffa- like these lo and donkeys. They are herded, “cuy” in tethered or allowed to roam freely Lima, Peru on land used by agreement or without the landowner’s consent. Some of these animals belong to the above-mentioned homeown- ers, but most belong to landless Government services concerned with livestock production for urban popula- families. For example, in towns of tions have given most attention to large-scale enterprises with exotic breeds northern and central Nigeria, milk producing eggs, milk or pork in peri-urban areas. Small-scale raising of ani- is produced by settled Fulani with mals by families living inside the cities is usually ignored and often forbidden. small herds or by Fulani who keep Such urban livestock keeping is much more widespread than most city author- only their milk cows in town. The ities would care to admit. It consists mainly of low-input production of poultry, cows are grazed on unoccupied small ruminants, pigs, rabbits, guinea pigs or of a few milk buffalo or cattle, land in and near town, and are fed usually indigenous breeds. With deteriorating economic conditions and rapid some purchased agro-processing urbanisation, small-scale urban farming, including animal husbandry, is being by-products and crop residues. practised by a growing number of families in all income groups in the tropics. The women process the milk and sell it directly to consumers. The manure is sold as fertiliser to near- ivestock numbers are grow- is the raising of pigs, poultry and by farmers. When only the milk ing in many African cities. fish there, and will know of the clo- cows are kept in town, the rest of L While throughout Africa, se links between animal keepers the herd is taken by the men to large-scale “modern” production and restaurants for feed supply and in peri-urban areas is declining in produce marketing. Likewise, those Livestock numbers many countries struggling with who have been in poor quarters of are growing Structural Adjustment Latin American cities such as Lima, in many African cities Programmes, numerous small- La Paz or Mexico City will have seen scale livestock enterprises are pigs, poultry and guinea pigs being grazing pastures further from being started up to sell through raised in backyards and on rooftops. town, where a second temporary informal channels and to meet camp is set up (own observations). the families’ own food needs. CLASSIFICATION Relatively little is known about Next to the above, there are vari- The costs of imported inputs have the small enterprises inside the ous other possibilities of classifi- soared and the luxury markets cities and between city quarters. cation, such as according to: served by these enterprises have These intra- and inter-urban live- ❖ main production aim: commer- dwindled. Urban consumers are stock keepers can be roughly cial, semi-commercial, subsistance; buying products from livestock divided into: ❖ scale of production: large, reared on low-cost local resourc- medium, small, micro; es and sold through unofficial On-plot. Livestock kept on-plot ❖ intensity of production: high, channels rather than dairy plants are often enclosed by a fence, medium or low level of external or certified butchers. walls or cage or are tethered, and inputs Ann Waters-Bayer, their feed and water are brought ❖ husbandry methods: free- ETC International, Those familiar with Asian cities to them. Larger animals may be roaming, herding, tethering, stall- The Netherlands such as Hong Kong, Singapore or allowed to graze part of the day feeding or a combination; Calcutta will know how widespread or seasonally. Besides homeown- ❖ land tenure: private, usufruct This article was published earlier in the proceedings of the Eighth International Conference of Institutions of Tropical Veterinary Medicine, held in Berlin, Germany in bundles of cut grass or lopped browse, can be a resource for animals: organic 1995. This abridged version is reprint- groundnut hay and other crop residues are wastes from households, streets, market- ed with the permission of the author. offered for sale, not only by farmers but places and agro-industries can provide A longer version is available on the also by poor urban dwellers who make dai- valuable feed. Urban wastewater can also RUAF website. The next issue of the ly forays beyond the city to collect feed for be a resource for urban animals and Urban Agriculture Magazine will be urban stock. Some people without animals crops. For example, the City Council of fully dedicated to Urban Livestock even grow forage for sale, such as the Harare uses recycled water to irrigate pas- (see the call for contributions below). Napier grass grown around Nairobi to sell tures for grazing herds, and sells the meat to urban livestock keepers (Lado 1990). to urban market outlets (Mougeot 1994). Another use of wastewater is aquaculture, rent or lease, informal agreement, OPPORTUNITIES a fast-growing form of urban livestock unsanctioned. Livestock keeping also offers opportu- keeping. Fish can be raised in wastewater In any given setting, the most useful clas- nities at the city level. The few studies purified less completely than needed for sification will depend on the historical made thus far suggest that public benefits direct human consumption. development, the settlement patterns derived from urban livestock keeping and the major resource constraints. include: more efficient land use; providing Authorities must employment, also upstream and down- recognise the existence Urban livestock systems could also be stream from the production itself; reduc- of livestock in town classified according to the overall income ing transport and energy costs; reducing level of the households, i.e. not only the public costs for land maintenance or Just as livestock can turn urban wastes income from animals. Some types of live- municipal services; improving the supply into resources, also the wastes from livestock keeping are more widely practised of perishable but nutritious foods; provid- stock keeping can become a valuable input by the relatively rich, and others by the ing lower-cost food for urban dwellers. for urban growing of staple foods, vegeta- relatively poor. This is important to dis- bles and fruits. Indeed, it is reported from tinguish if development is to be aimed at One of the greatest strengths of small-scale Indonesia that animal manure mixed with alleviating poverty, as the functions of urban livestock keeping is its great mobility rejected feed and sold as fertiliser makes keeping livestock and the possible strate- and flexibility. It gives value to municipal up a large part of cash generated from gies for improvement will differ. and private land momentarily not being stall-kept ruminants (Orskov 1994). used for other purposes, making opportu- Off-plot livestock-keeping, such as road- nistic use of land in a positive sense. The efficient recycling of sewage and side grazing, appears to be mainly an organic wastes for and from animals will activity of lower-income and landless A key opportunity offered by urban live- be one of the major tasks for research and groups. On-plot livestock keeping by the stock keeping is waste recycling. One of extension services for urban livestock poor is largely restricted to micro-live- the biggest problems in cities - garbage - systems. stock such as poultry, rabbits and guinea pigs, and a few small ruminants. Here it should be noted that the majority of low- income urban farmers, many of whom CALL FOR CONTRIBUTIONS ON URBAN LIVESTOCK keep some smallstock, are women The next issue of the Urban Agriculture Magazine will focus on Urban (ENDA-ZW 1994, Maxwell & Zziwa 1992, Livestock (UL). The publication is planned for October. Sawio 1994). These producers have little access to veterinary care and can afford There is a clear need for determination of the impact of urban livestock in only very limited amounts of purchased the city and the need and effect of policy measures. Many issues you could feeds. Very poor urban dwellers rake up write on, are raised in the article on Urban Livestock in this issue. garbage to find food for their small stock, or spread out garbage piled on city streets The following issues are suggested: Concepts and definitions; Poverty to let their goats select from it. alleviation; Zoonosis / Public Health; Environmental issues – waste and recycling; Policies; Gender; Economics and Market Relations; Extension /PTD/knowledge For low-income as compared with high- development; Ethno-Veterinary Knowledge; Cultural Preferences; Benefits and income urban families, livestock keeping Savings; Industry-Agricultural Activity in the city. plays a far more important role as a source of food, income and security. Urban live- You are invited to contribute to this first issue of the Urban Agriculture stock keeping provides a source of employ- Magazine with an article, further suggestions, description of best (or bad) ment not only for the animal keepers practices in general, photo’s and information on interesting publications, themselves but also for people operating in websites, workshops and training courses. Your article should give a clear the informal supply systems: herders, sell- description of the livestock system, the urban aspects and should address ers of leaves and grasses, and collectors policy implications and recommendations. Articles should be written in such and sellers of produce (Centres 1991). a way that they can readily understood by those working with farmers. Poorer women go house-to-house to buy If you are interested in writing an article, please send a full draft before cereal bran to resell to livestock keepers in 1 September 2000, to: The Editor of Urban Agriculture Magazine, RUAF, town. On urban markets and roadsides, P.O. Box 64, 3830 AB Leusden, The Netherlands, fax: + 31 33 4940791, [email protected] PROBLEMS In the past, government support was which can negotiate with other local stake- Living with livestock in town also gives given mainly to large-scale intensive holders in jointly defining and implement- rise to problems. As veterinarians well meat, milk and egg production units. ing regulations for using urban resources know, the proximity of animals to humans Government incentives included tax such as garbage or public land for grazing. increases the risk of transmitting diseases. exemption, low-interest credit and subsi- Governments need to set up policy and Manure, dirty bedding material, feed rests dies on inputs and/or outputs (Krostitz services which favour small-scale live- and the wastes of animal processing, if not 1984). Recent economic changes have put stock production based on local inputs: properly handled, can attract flies and lead encouraging the use of local non-conven- to water pollution. With more direct sales More research tional feeds and focusing on animal spe- through informal channels, control of is needed cies and breeds (e.g. local cattle, buffalo, hygiene conditions and food quality goats, rabbits) which can use the avail- becomes impossible, in view of the lack of an end to many of these ventures, partic- able roughages and depend less on con- laboratories and qualified staff in most ularly in Africa. A study of the effect of centrates. Combined efforts of farmers developing countries. Traffic accidents structural adjustment in Nigeria revealed and animal nutritionists will be needed to may be caused by roaming animals. that small-scale food producers are react- identify locally-available resources and to Neighbours often complain about the noi- ing more flexibly and productively than design feed mixtures to meet the needs of se and odours from livestock in town. the large-scale units, and further financial different animal species. Particular atten- support for the latter is strongly question needs to be given to the role of Banning ani- tioned (Porter 1994). women in urban livestock keeping. mals and sales of non-con- Micro-entrepreneurs have developed In summary, the challenge for veterinary trolled products inner-city livestock keeping through pro- services confronted with the reality of is not the cesses of indigenous innovation, without livestock in cities is to interact in a posi- answer, as this external support. Development agents and tive, enabling manner with urban dwell- would deprive government officials are only beginning to ers, rather than making vain attempts at many urban recognise what is happening under their banning livestock. What is needed from families of a very noses. The questions are now: What government services is well-founded and vital source of can and should be the role of government locally applicable information and appro- livelihood. and development agencies in the face of priate low-cost inputs for healthy and Besides, in these local initiatives? How can urban live- productive livestock in town. All stake- many cities, the stock keeping be assisted to alleviate pov- holders will then be in a better position bans are already erty and improve human welfare in cities? to make wise decisions when jointly in the books, planning the use of urban resources for but cannot be First of all, authorities must recognise the livestock keeping and other sources of Waste recycling using imposed. Most existence of livestock in town. Official livelihood for urban dwellers. animals in India importantly, recognition makes it easier for veterinary bans prevent and extension services to deal with the the state from intervening to improve ani- dangers of livestock to human health and mal health and productivity and to mini- environmental quality, and to maximise mise risks to human health, as animal the opportunities. REFERENCES - Centres JM. 1991. Améliorer I’approvisionnement de keeping will be clandestine. Bamako en produits maraichers et en protéines animales. More research is needed into livestock- 1. Agriculture et élevage à Bamako. GRET, Paris, n.p. ENDA-ZW. 1994. Urban agriculture in Harare: report on Further major problems experienced by keeping systems and their constraints, an IDRC-supported project. ENDA-Zimbabwe, Harare, urban livestock keepers are high animal taking into account the concerns and val- 47 pp. - Gefu JO. 1992. Part-time farming as an urban survival mortality and uncertain feed supply. For ues of the producers themselves, their strategy: a Nigerian case study. In: J Baker & PO Pedersen example, the value of animals that died neighbours and city authorities. The (eds), The rural-urban interface in Africa. Scandinavian Institute of African annually was found to be higher than the results of such studies need to be made Studies, Stockholm, pp 295-302. - Krostitz W. 1984. Poultry development in the develop- value of animals consumed or sold by widely known among political decision- ing countries. World Animal Review 52: 17-23. urban cattle keepers in Nairobi (Lee- makers in clear, concise language. - Lado C. 1990. Informal urban agriculture in Nairobi, Kenya: problem or resource in development and land use Smith & Memon 1994). It will be a chal- planning? Land Use Policy 7 (3): 257-266. lenge for livestock services to find eco- Information also needs to be spread to pro- - Lee-Smith, d. & P.A. Memon. 1994. Urban Agriculture in Kenya, IN\n: A.G. Egziabher et al. (eds) Cities Feeding nomic ways to reduce mortality. ducers and consumers about livestock- People: An Examination of Urban Agriculture in East Africa, Ottawa, IDRC. related dangers for human health and how - Maxwell D & Zziwa, S. 1992. Urban agriculture in ACTION to avoid or reduce them. Development Africa: the case of Kampala. ACTS Press, Nairobi, 74 pp. - Mougeot LJA. 1994. Urban food production: a survey of Many planners in developing countries agencies should be creating opportunities evolution, official support and significance. Habitat 94, regard urban livestock keeping as a tran- for livestock keepers and other city dwell- 20 September 1994, Edmonton, 42 pp. - Orskov R. 1994. Landless livestock keepers. ILEIA sitory phenomenon. However, there is no ers to communicate with each other, Newsletter 10 (4): 24. indication that livestock and other forms understand each other’s actions and - Porter G. 1994. Food marketing and urban food supply on the Jos Plateau, Nigeria: a comparison of large and of farming decrease, the longer people encourage changes in behaviour. One pos- small producer strategies under “SAP”. The Journal of Developing Areas 29: 91-110. live in cities. Indeed, quite the contrary sibility would be to promote producer - Sawio CJ. 1994. Who are the farmers of Dar Es Salaam? appears to be the case. organisations: common-interest groups In: AG Egziabher et al. (eds), Cities feeding peoples: an examination of urban agriculture in East Africa. IDRC, Ottawa, pp 25-46. Backyard vegetable garden in The importance of home Cagayan gardens is often under- de Oro, estimated. The small are- Philippines as of cultivated land immediately surrounding a homestead make a vital contribution to meeting various household needs, both rural and urban, in developing countries. Providing research and development support to home gardens is even more significant as it implies reaching out to the Elevations range from 320 to 2938 meters “invisible farmers” – women and children who often play the key above sea level, extending from rain fed role in establishing and maintaining home gardens. paddy fields to partially cleared forest- lands. An initial survey revealed increasing erosion of biodiversity in the Dynamics in watershed. Plant and animal species were displaced due to deforestation and a shift away from subsistence farming towards a Tropical Home Gardens commercial monocropping system.

One recommendation to arrest further Sponsored by the International These studies also showed that home biodiversity loss and to help local house- Potato Centre (CIP), the gardening is also common among both holds satisfy food and cash income needs, A Programme, Users’ Perspectives rural and urban households. The choice was through home gardens. To identify with Agricultural Research and of garden crops is generally a function of opportunities for introducing and testing Development (UPWARD) is an Asian the intended use of the garden produce, improved home garden management agricultural research and development e.g. food needs of the household, feed for practices, prelim- network dedicated to enhancing partici- backyard animal raising, or cash crops inary assessment pation of users in technology and appli- which serve as a potential source of and long-term cation, especially by marginalized groups added income, and further aesthetic monitoring activ- such as women home gardeners. interests of household members. ities were con- ducted through a HOME GARDENS IN PHILIPPINES The range of crops is extensive, from veg- mix of participa- Home gardens are the small areas of cul- etables and multi-purpose tree species to tory methods and tivated land immediately surrounding a medicinal herbs and forage grasses. Most tools. homestead. There has been an increasing notably, assessment results suggest that number of global and local initiatives to the more biologically diverse a garden, A complete promote and support home gardens since the more likely the family is to consume a inventory of the 1980s. Most of the initiatives so fare nutritionally healthy range of food types. home garden have been directed to improved house- plants in the hold income, food production and family (BIO)-DIVERSITY DYNAMICS Manupali nutrition. Less attention has been given Following up on these earlier works, watershed Fig. 1: Location of the Manupali to exploring the inherent diversity within UPWARD initiated a study in 1994 in identified Watershed, Lantapan, Bukidnon, home gardens, and assessing its contribu- southern Philippines to further examine 167 plant Philippines tion to the achievement of the multiple biodiversity issues in home gardens, and species which functions and goals of this particular pro- their links to household strategies for include 24 forest trees, 25 fruit trees, duction system food security and family nutrition. The 4 cereal crops, 31 vegetables, 4 root crops, study sought to: 20 herbs, 5 spices, and 54 ornamentals Earlier studies by UPWARD (e.g. Verdonk ❖ characterise the prevalent home gar- (Prain and Piniero 1994). The inventory and Vrieswijk 1992; Mula and Gayao den systems in the area; supports the hypothesis that home gar- 1992, Gayao et al. 1992, Prain and Piniero ❖ assess their crop species diversity; dens in the tropics adopt the vertical dis- 1995) have not only confirmed the preva- ❖ identify home gardeners and their tribution of biological diversity found in lence of home gardens in tropical management of diversity; Philippines, but also highlighted the inti- ❖ evaluate and enhance the contribution mate and interdependent relationship of home gardens to various house hold- Raul Boncodin, Programme Associate between the food security and nutrition ing objectives. Dindo Campilan, Co-ordinator, CIP- improvement functions of home gardens, UPWARD, Makati City, Philippines, Gordon and their potential as a vehicle for help- Lantapan, the study site, is part of the Prain, Global Co-ordinator, CGIAR Strategic, ing to conserve local biodiversity. Manupali watershed in Mindanao island. Initiative on Urban and Peri-urban Agriculture (SIUPA), CIP, Lima, Peru (see page 34) Home garden contribution rises nearly to 50% among those in the lower income bracket natural communities (Troutner and Holle 1979). The home gardens across the watershed varied widely in terms of their the relationship of home garden diversity FAMILY NUTRITION species composition, which ranges from 4 to socio-economic variables. The analysis A total of 33 different food crops were to 35 species and are maintained and har- was able to substantiate the effect of the identified in local home gardens including vested year-round (Medina et al. 1996). gardener’s occupation and economic or green, leafy, and yellow vegetables; starchy wealth status to her home garden man- roots and tubers; as well as legumes, beans, Home garden diversity also varies agement strategies. Home gardens of nuts, and spices. While home gardening is according to the three distinct agro-eco- farmers of the lower economic strata, are directly aimed at providing subsistence logical zones of the watershed. Home dominated by annual crops primarily for and supplementary household food sup- gardens found in the middle zone (at an utilitarian purposes. Those maintained by ply, it was shown to concurrently make a altitude of approximately 700-1500 professional and self-employed garden- significant contribution to the amount of meters above sea level) have more plant ers, belonging to the higher economic nutrients and variety in the household species than those found both in the strata, are dominated by perennial crops food intake. Home gardens provide year- upper (1500 - 1800 meters ) and lower primarily for homesteads’ beautification round food supplements to households not (below 700 meters) zones. The dominant and are mostly found in residential or only in terms of quantity but also in terms species in the two lower zones are the “peri-urban” areas. of food diversity and variation. perennials (e.g. herbals, fruit and forest trees), thus no significant change in spe- HOUSEHOLD FOOD SECURITY The study showed that home gardens cies composition in these zones was Local households reported that home play an important role in provision of observed over the two-year monitoring gardens contribute an average of 14% of Vitamin A, (compensating for the lack of period. The number of species in the daily food intake costs, which is 22% of retinol in the diet of local households) and upper agro-ecological zone, however, the average household daily wage. More Vitamin C while they also supply one- significantly varied over the same period. significantly, home garden contribution third or more of calcium and iron needs. The gardens in this zone are planted with rises nearly to 50% among those in the These results are consistent with the find- vegetables and ornamentals, which were lower-income bracket. It is not surprising ings in a similar study on urban home gar- mostly annuals, and thus much more therefore that home gardens maintained dens in the Philippines (Velez 1997). reflective of other changes going on in by the poorer households are dominated households maintaining these gardens. by annual vegetable crops. LINKING BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION AND USE The study indicates that home gardeners The two-year long quarterly monitoring Aclose correlation between household in the area have consciously evolved some of home gardens also revealed cyclical food security and nutrition improvement rather specialised management strategies, changes in biodiversity ranges. Home gar- on the one hand, and home garden biodi- which cannot only be attributed to the den diversity decreases during the dry versity conservation on the other was differences in the micro-environments. season, which lasts from February until found. This offers significant research This impelled the researchers to analyse May. The onset of the rainy season in June opportunities for exploring ways to is accompanied by an increase in diver- improve and consolidate these comple- sity, peaking in November/December mentary functions of home gardens in when most of the garden crops, planted at overall household management. REFERENCES the start of the season, are ready for har- - Alvarez N. 1997. Biodiverse farming produces more. Seedling 14 (3): 6. vest or have been harvested. From the assessment results, the - Gayao BT, Alupias EB, Sim JM, Quindara HL, Gonzales IC & UPWARD project has subsequently Badol EO. 1992. Sweet- potato household gardening development. Progress report. La Trinidad, Benguet, Philippines: Home garden crops are most important worked with home gardeners to test and NPRCRTC-BSU. during the lean months, which start in introduce new crop species and accom- - Medina C, Prain G & Locht J van de. 1996. Assessing and developing the contribution of home gardening to biodiversity conser- May and become critical in July. By this panying home garden management prac- vation and household nutrition. Paper presented at the UPWARD time, the harvest of the previous field tices. The follow-up participatory action Participatory Monitoring and Evaluation Workshop, Pampanga, Philippines, 14-15 December. crops, such as rice and corn, have run low, research, consisting of home garden - Mula RP & Gayao BT. 1992. Urban and rural home gardens in the highlands of the Northern Philippines: The case of the sweet- but newly planted field crops are still not trials, validation workshops and field potato. Final report. La Trinidad, Benguet, Philippines: Benguet harvestable. Opportunities for casual monitoring, has a three-fold objective: State University. 86 p. - Prain G & Piniero M. 1994. Communities as Curators of Plant labour are also few and far between at first, to enrich the inherent biodiversity Genetic Resources: the case of rootcrop conservation in Southern this time, putting further strain on family of home gardens; second, to improve Philippines. In: Prain G. (ed.), Conservation and Change: farmer management of agricultural biodiversity in the context of devel- resources. Drought-tolerant crops planted access, regularity and adequacy of food opment (Los Baños, Laguna, Philippines: UPWARD). - Prain G & Piniero M. 1995. Approaches to community-based early in the garden and early-maturing supply for households; and third, to PGR conservation. In: UPWARD, Taking Root: Proceeding of the crops that can be quickly harvested are enhance nutritional quality in the house- 3rd UPWARD Review and Planning Workshop (Los Baños, Laguna, Philippines: UPWARD). thus of great importance to supplement hold diet through the diversity of food - Troutner M & Holle m. 1979. The homestead area in the atlantic the households’ food needs through these crops made available by home gardens. zone of Costa Rica: An efficient agroecosystem. Paper presented at the Meeting of American Society for Horticultural Sciences, hard times. This is especially the case for Medium- and long-term impact assess- Tropical Region, Mexico, November 1979. the low-income home gardeners in the ments are still being carried out. - Velez C. 1997. Home gardening as a strategy for food and nutrition security: a case study of selected households in Lantapan, upper agro-ecological zone where the Bukidnon. MSc paper in Applied Nutrition, submitted to the Faculty of the Graduate School, University of the Philippines, Los lean months most severely affect the Baños. households. - Verdonk I & Vrieswijk B. 1992. Sweetpotato consumption in two municipalities in the Cordillera. Project Terminal Report. Los Baños, Laguna: UPWARD. The Greening of trial houses, local entrepreneurs, insti- Ahmedabad tutes, service oriented organisations and An Innovative Urban Community Forestry Model NGOs the greening of the city is increased, developed and maintained. For instance companies such as Syntex Ltda., Torrent Ahmedabad is a very dynamic industrial city in India with a long- Lab., Anil Bakery, Ashima Sintex Ltda etc. standing history in the textile sector of India. The textile crisis in are involved in “road side plantations”, the seventies hit this ‘Indian Manchester’ hard, but today “development and maintenance of new Ahmedabad is again known as a city bustling with industrial and and existing parks and traffic islands”. commercial activities. The cities ongoing growth has been Under the Greening of Ahmedabad marked by a substantial influx of population, growth of slums Programme, the AMC also launched the and unauthorised colonies and a subsequent environmental Ahmedabad Green Partnership project decline. This deterioration of the environment in Ahmedabad is (AGP) as part of this greening drive. not only visible in the settlements of the poor, but in the city as a whole, and this fostered a process of awakening and awareness The AGP has been initiated as an innova- about the urgency to introduce corrective measures. tive scheme using the concept of ‘- partnerships’ and ‘participation’ as its main ingredients. The city has managed n 1995, the Centre of Environmental The Greening of Ahmedabad is a concert- to launch this program as an initiative Planning and Technology (CEPT), with ed effort between the Ahmedabad that provides responsibilities and space I support from USAID, carried out an Municipal Corporation (AMC) and the for innovation to its citizens, to civic Environmental Risk Assessment for the Private Sector. It aims to increase the organisations and to private sector City of Ahmedabad. A major finding of green cover and improving the environ- enterprises. For example, in an effort to the study determined that the city’s mental quality of Ahmedabad. The main increase road side tree plantation, private ambient air quality was a major health components of this Programme are and public sector institutions were risk to its residents. In response to these activities like the greening of roadside offered to “adopt” plantation units (500 findings the Ahmedabad Municipal and traffic islands; park and garden meters long, with trees planted at 5 meter Corporation gradually evolved a compre- development and maintenance; city spacing) along the main roads of the city. hensive approach, “the Greening of forest development; and natural They provide the funding for the saplings Ahmedabad Program” which includes regeneration and wasteland restoration and the tree guards while maintenance is efforts in various fronts to tackle the on vacant lots (taking the preservation of done by AMC. In exchange, they are city’s air pollution problems. the city’s watershed as a high priority). allowed to advertise their logos on the tree guards. Through this effort, between Responding to the decline in the city’s Through partnership agreements with 1996 and 1997, a total of 16.292 trees have environment, the Ahmedabad Municipal interested parties, like business and indus- been planted along main roads Corporation (AMC) has launched various improvement projects, in infrastructure, slum improvement projects, and initiated Table 1: Parks and Gardens the “Greening of Ahmedabad Programme”. Size No. of gardens No. of traffic islands Maint. by AMC Maint. by privite s.

Up to 2 acres 38 45 30 15 Liliana Marulanda S. From 2 to 5 acres 19 - 17 2 Independent consultant in Lima, Perú. Above 5 acres 15 - 12 3 Totals 72 45 59 20 After 5 years the project will achieve financial sustainability

THE “AHMEDABAD GREEN PART- land was carried out by NGOs. Plantation NERSHIP” PROJECT (AGP) work started when weather conditions The Green Partnership is an initiative by were appropriate (in this case plantation the Ahmedabad Municipal Corporation work could only start during the mon- (AMC) to utilize empty plots, owned by soon season). the AMC, for urban forestry related activities in partnership with NGOs working For the fiscal year 1997/1998 the AMC with poor communities and other citi- budgeted Rs. 15 million (1U$ /34 Rs) for zens groups. This idea took quite some the greening of the city. Yearly provisions plot into a garden of medicinal trees and time to evolve into a feasible and benefi- of Rs. 10 million have been made for plants for the benefit of the community cial approach for the parties involved. implementation of the AGP in the next and the city. four years. The approach has been developed with The State Bank of India Officers the support of RHUDO/USAID. After the Financial resources are granted by AMC Association is the trade union of the bank Program Guidelines were developed to the implementing organisations for officers. It is developing a plot into an through several workshops, and agreed a fencing, saplings, tools, fertilisers, a port- urban forest, through its Social Service total of 17 plots were allotted to and able shed and other expenditures for the Wing which implements small projects agreements were signed with 12 NGOs first year. Additionally, the AMC provides for the benefit of communities and the for undertaking an equal number of one water connection, while the organ- city in general, while providing a good forestry and other greening related activ- isations are responsible to provide for corporate image to the Bank. ities in these plots. wages, maintenance, security and other planned amenities, which were not cov- Under the Green Partnership, Self Objectives ered by the grant. Employed Women Association (SEWA) The objectives of the AGP Project are: –an internationally well known NGO and ❖ To contribute to the greening of For the second year funding will be avail- winner of the HABITAT II award for its Ahmedabad through the development of able only for items such as watering, housing programmes- got allotted two urban forest and other greening related weeding and fertilisers. For the third year plots, located in residential areas, which activities in vacant plots owned by AMC. onwards, 10% to the amount provided are used to generate employment for the ❖ To facilitate and encourage participa- for the second year will be granted. It is members of the unions and to contribute tion of low-income residents, especially expected that after a period of five years to the greening of the city. women, through the formalisation of the projects will achieve financial public-private partnerships. sustainability. ISSUES FOR THE CONSOLIDATION ❖ To increase, through such partner- OF PARTNERSHIPS ships, the income generation possibilities Projects under the AGP The following lessons are learned: for low-income residents of the city. To give an example of the project activities a number of projects will be In the initial stages flexibility is needed, Operation and Management described below. to give room for identification of poten- Under the AGP, plots owned by AMC, are tial problems, and the necessary adjust- offered to NGOs and other organisations The Centre for Environmental Education ments. Technically realistic criteria have for the development of urban forestry is supporting a group of associated to be set for plot selection, taking into and related activities. Plots were allotted students to develop a plot into an urban account site-specific conditions, well in for a period of 5 years, with possibilities forest for research and academic purpos- advance so that the extra inputs and of extension of other 5 years. The es. The main objectives are creating resources required for its development Ahmedabad Green Partnership is man- awareness and understanding among are known to the parties involved, when aged by the Director Parks and Gardens communities of the importance of green the plot is allotted. under the Department of Special Estates, areas in cities, to create avenues, to devel- Parks & Gardens of the AMC. The list of op and disseminate information on the Full agreement of the proposals is need- available plots was prepared by the State diverse species that can thrive as an ed, in order to assess at beforehand, the Department of the Municipal urban forest. land uses allowed under the agreement, Corporation. but also for evaluation purposes. The Akhil Bharatiya Vanaaushadhi Abhyas involvement of residents, in the prepara- Plot demarcation and water connections Mandal is active in propagating tion, monitoring and evaluation of the were provided by the AMC. Fencing, con- ethno-botany and conservation of the areas where plots are located is vital for struction of sheds and preparation of the environment. They are developing a the success of these projects. This process This paper is based on the Documentation Report of the Ahmedabad Green Partnership Project included in the development policies of a tools, like in this case a very simple and prepared by the author city. From this particular case there are clear contract and an expedite, red tape for the Regional Housing three aspects we would like to highlight. free, application and plot award process, & Urban Development has encouraged the participation of the Office (RHUDO) of the Urban Agriculture as a Strategy private sector partners. Apart from the United States Agency for Urban agriculture and forestry, and other commitment, the partners must have the International Development greening related activities could be fea- capacity and skills necessary to fulfil their (USAID), New Delhi, sible strategies towards improving sus- responsibilities. In certain cases, technical India, 1997. With some tainable city development. In this partic- assistance may be needed. Success fur- modifications, it also will ular case, both, the parties involved and ther depends on realistic planning and be presented in the the city environment are benefiting from programming. International Symposium the decision to include urban agriculture on Urban Agriculture activities within the urban development Planning for Urban Agriculture to be held in Berlin July, framework. Private institutions create the A first step is that urban agriculture and 2000. opportunity to a socially responsive urban forestry activities are considered as oriented outlook while sharing benefits and responsibilities with the municipal A substantive amount of administration. The latter in turn, com- jobs and incomes takes time but will prevent confronta- bine the solution of environmental prob- can be created tions, which only disrupt project imple- lems with working on economic and mentation. social problems. The green coverage of part of the strategy in urban sustainability. the city further decreases air pollution Then the city needs to plan for it to hap- Projects should further financially be fea- and creates a healthier urban environ- pen. Sanctioning of land is a requirement sible, to ensure sustainability and to ment. Finally, a substantive amount of to formalise further implementation. City avoid or minimise the need for subsidies, jobs and incomes can be created. managers and planners need to take into as it is the case for the AGP component of account that trees and crops are long- the Greening of Ahmedabad Programme. The Partnership Approach term products and that these investments This experience shows that the partner- need proper time to yield benefits. This is Since each organisation or project has ship approach is indeed a viable alterna- especially valid for those plots that different characteristics, objectives and tive to supply an efficient service at lower belong to the municipality; the private approaches. It is difficult for a govern- costs. Important to note, is that the joint partners need the certainty that there is ment office alone to monitor day-today effort is understood as an opportunity time to recover their investment. needs and provide the assistance that benefits all the parties involved but required. This is why it is advisable to at the same time entails clear responsibil- count on the mediation of an appropriate ities. The development of transparent institute/organisation to act as a media- tor between the municipality and the implementing agencies. CONCLUSIONS For most of the grassroots organisations, The use of partnerships for the development and maintenance of public services is the partnership arrangement is a com- paying good dividends to AMC. The Ahmedabad Green Partnership Programme pletely new experience. They are motivat- demonstrates that when the rules of the game are clear, partnerships between gover- ed with the perspective of deriving some nments, NGOs, CBOs and other citizens groups are viable development options, benefits, while contributing to improve the which offer benefits for all parties involved. green cover of the city. Assistance in technical matters and in the development and With transparency, commitment, continuity and efficient administration from the implementation of participatory approach- AMC, the private sector, including low-income residents, have been encouraged and es will greatly help to maximise the enabled to respond and support the government in making Ahmedabad a healthy, resources and outputs of these projects. green and less polluted city.

RELEVANCE OF THE AGP FOR Urban agriculture, urban forestry and other greening activities need to be recognised URBAN DEVELOPMENT POLICIES by urban managers and planners as viable development alternatives. Especially those The AGP includes very relevant and inno- aimed at improving the living conditions of the urban poor will help to develop better vative features, which can radiate very cities of which not only we but future generations can feel proud of. positively when they are adopted and/or The Urban Agriculture Magazine tends to focus on regions in the South. Most contributions and case studies draw heavily on experiences in The Urban Farmers Asia, Africa and Latin America. And as an initiative under RUAF, this is not of St Petersburg surprisingly so. Another project on urban agriculture ETC Ecoculture is called “Soil and Annually up to 2,5 million inhabitants are involved nologies applied by these urban Water Management in in agricultural activities in St. Petersburg. The farmers are normally very basic: Agricultural Production in total area cultivated by city dwellers around the hand labour and simple tools. Urban Areas in CEE/NIS city is 560,000 ha, and in the summer time over Countries” (SWAPUA). 500,000 of them constantly live on their summer In 1998, the urban farmers of St. The St. Petersburg residences and other types of buildings on plots. Petersburg produced: 15,800 tons Downtown Gardening Club of potatoes; 47,400 tons of apples, is one of the six Eastern pears and plums; 38,500 tons of European organisations he main reasons for city vegetables; 7,900 tons of strawber- active in SWAPUA. dwellers to practice farming ries; and 23 million cut flowers on T are (Moldakov, 1999): the plots (Maydachenko, 1999b). ❖ self-sufficiency, especially the This is more than all agricultural urban people spend almost every supply of fresh green food; farms of the Leningrad Region. weekend in these areas from mid- ❖ additional income, through April until the end of October. the sale of fruits, vegetables, eggs, Urban agriculture is practised in milk, and flowers. People’s the inner city and in the peri- The agricultural activities provide expenditures for food are very urban areas. In the inner city the an important way to solve high, up to 60% of total income; farming takes place in backyards, the poverty and unemployment pensions are very low and unem- in public lands and vacant space problems. ployment is high. near the houses, basements, roof- ❖ access to “healthy” food tops, balconies, windowsills. HISTORY ❖ leisure The history of the urban gardening ❖ productive use of “free” The areas for peri-urban farming movement in St. Petersburg dates resources, such as kitchen waste- may be located at the city boun- back to the end of the nineteenth water and residues. daries (commercial or subsisten- century, when village noblemen ce-oriented) or at larger distances moved into the city but kept their Mainly middle-aged and elderly (10-100 km). The latter includes farming practices. They were the people carry out urban agricultural the large amount of allotments first to create a summer residence activities, falling between the ages with weekend or summerhouses, cum farm outside the city. Oleg Moldakov, of 35-45 and above; younger peop- which are worked by Petersburg St. Petersburg Downtown le are not interested or are engaged citizens during weekends in the Until the Soviet period, St. Gardening Club, with other occupations. The tech- summer periods. Thousands of Petersburg practically had no real St. Petersburg, Russia urban area, but consisted of many Selling products from the one-level houses made of wood garden with small gardens and animals. on the The Soviet authorities did not wel- streets come agricultural activities in the city, and built new multi-story apartments and subsequent infrastructure. Inner city agricultural activities, such as cultivation and selling of flowers or growing vegetables for sale, were allowed only to urban and suburban pensioners and invalids. Individual subsistence oriented agricultural activities were permit- ted to rural and peri-urban inhabitants, but were limited by the significant tax to land-property.

Approximately from the beginning of the sixties, some urban families in St. Petersburg were allowed to engage in agriculture on small sites in suburbs. Such sites were in the The St. Petersburg Downtown Gardening Club (STDTGC) premises of suburban plants, of schools The St. Petersburg Dopwntown Gardening Club has developed out of the Centre for or hospitals, and the urban authorities Citizen Initiatives USA-Russia (CCI), a non-profit foundation. A group of enthusiastic did not object to such small gardens for people decided to establish this Club, as an effort to make the city more natural and their own use. ecological. The Club was officially registered in 1992 as an NGO. In 1993 a Rooftop Gardening Programme (RGP) started. The main goal was to try At the same time, others had the opportu- out the gardening techniques developed by Dr. Martin Price of ECHO (“Educational nity to cultivate for own use in community Concerns for Hunger Organisations”) for gardening on apartment-building roof- gardens in peri-urban areas created by co- tops (Martin, 1997). operative societies. These gardens were divided into numerous clusters of plots of The advantages of rooftop gardening in urban areas are many: about 0.1 ha with small houses. Initially, ❖ large amounts of extra food can be raised these ‘dachas’ were exclusively state pro- ❖ household wastes can be directly utilised; the Club used empty basements to perties and were placed at the disposal of accommodate special containers with California redworms that recycle kitchen the Soviet Union’s new “high society”, for- wastes into compost, which is subsequently used as fertiliser for the rooftop gar- mally for temporary use, but in reality they dens (Gavrilov, 1997) could be owned for life and inherited by ❖ people can engage in gardening right where they live and do not need to travel the next generation. Their inhabitants far from the city; women with young children can engage in gardening, generating were Communist Party functionaries and income, while staying close enough to the home to look after the children. outstanding scientists, artists, actors, etc. ❖ improved ecology (household waste recycling; production of oxygen: one roof These were places for relaxation and the top garden of 150 m2 can create enough oxygen for 100 people to breathe for one agricultural activities represented no more year) than an exotic hobby. ❖ people in the city can feel closer to nature Next to rooftop gardening the Club also started kitchen gardens in the “Kresty” After the Stalin era, some lands in peri- (Cross) city prison, developed a model ecological apartment building (Eco-House), urban areas were made available to the started gardening as a therapy at the prosthesis institute, and participated in a DSK (‘Association for cooperative buil- school gardening and recycling projects. The Club focusses now on the creation of ding of single storey cottages’), which better marketing conditions for small urban and peri-urban farms and promotes aimed to build for ordinary people. Small urban agriculture as an integral part of the urban productive system. summer-houses were built on plots of around 0.1 ha on the basis of cooperative fees by special building companies and these houses were regarded as the assets 1999a). Market oriented production beca- ally 0.06 ha), with small summer houses of the dacha-building cooperative union. me unprofitable (Maydachenko, 1999). and a common infrastructure (roads, wel- Since the late 1970s almost all Soviet Still however, many people, with the time ls). Sadovodstvos are usually located in enterprises and organizations began to and means to cultivate, aspire to get the peri-urban areas of new and industrial ask the local authorities for permission to their own peri-urban plot by any means cities and towns, and are now under pri- acquire plots for gardening, with single- possible. St. Petersburg provides to all vate ownership. Today there are some storey houses on them. Usually lands pensioners a subsidy on public transport 2800 officially registered gardening com- placed at people’s disposals were forest costs in order to allow them to go to their munities located in areas around St. sites or on unused land, located 2-3 km plots and cultivate for their subsistence. Petersburg which include 560,000 plots from railroads or motorways and 10 up to (Maydachenko, 1999a). They also produce 100 km from the cities. The plot-owners’ TYPES OF URBAN AGRICULTURE mainly for subsistence. main objective was to grow fruit, orna- IN ST. PETERSBURG mental plants and vegetables for home Several types of urban agriculture have An ogorod is a gardening plot (0.02-0.3 ha) consumption, while any surplus could be been established. There are the former co- without any buildings, and often with no sold to neighbors and any chance purcha- operative types: Dacha, Sadovodstvo and or little infrastructure, and mostly informal sers. From 1985 onwards enterprises and Ogorod; as well as individual land plots. or even illegal entities. Ogorods are usually organizations also helped their staff members with loans in order to acquire their Dachas are blocks of gardening plots The agricultural activities plots of land. Between 1986 and 1996 the (0.08-0.15 ha) with cottages. They are usu- provide an important way to number of dacha-owners doubled. ally located in the peri-urban area of the solve the poverty problems In the period of radical changes and econo- older cities and are presently under priva- mic crisis 1989 - 1996 the need to cultivate te ownership. There are approximately located in the peri-urban areas of small land was guided by the logic of survival. 150,000 dachas in the Leningrad Region, towns. Ogorods are on municipal lands or Since then, under the market economy, the most of them 50 km. from the city. The privately owned. Thhere are some 180 000 agricultural production in the city became production is mainly for subsistence. plots (Maydachenko, 1999a). difficult, for instance because the cost for the transport has increased for non- A sadovodstvo is a gardening community, Factory gardens and greenhouses; during pensioners and children (Maydachenko, consisting of 50-600 gardening plots (usu- the communist period nearly all plants The City authorities in St. Petersburg expenses for services to the almost two consider urban and peri-urban farming million St Petersburg residents, who to be a major social factor spend their summers in peri-urban locations. One must consider that one garden area alone, “Trubnikov the Boron“ in and factories used to grow food in gar- NATIONAL AND LOCAL POLICIES Tosno, houses 50,000 summer residents, dens and greenhouses to feed their The current Russian law allows and even while in the nearby “Danube” garden employees in its canteens. Especially stimulates the existence and further area, almost 100 thousand gardeners are older, larger companies and military firms development of agricultural activities in active during summer weekends. continue to do so. Land under greenhou- the city and its periphery. For example, Another key problem is the marketing of ses is in municipal or private ownership. one clause mentions, that the authorities the produce. The businessmen from St are obliged to help the gardening associa- Petersburg only come irregularly and Individual permanent houses with backyard tions on important issues, such as con- transport is costly. gardens can still be found in the older parts struction and reparation of roads, trans- of the city and in the city periphery (often mission lines, water drains and water Theft is also a major problem in the gar- privately owned or municipal property) supply. Local authorities are also suppo- dening areas. It has been proposed that sed to facilitate the transport of garde- police from St Petersburg helps the local Various households and private entrepre- ners to their sub-urban plots and summer police to patrol the gardening complexes. neurs use the basements to grow mush- residences (Marjina, 1998). rooms, other use the rooftops and balco- Other constraints for the further develop- nies to grow vegetables, other use these City authorities in St. Petersburg consider ment of urban agriculture are: places to process fruits and vegetables urban and peri-urban farming to be a ❖ absence of a clear strategy for the deve- major social factor and means of subsis- lopment of urban agriculture in St In the periphery of the city one encoun- tence for at least 2 million citizens (total Petersburg; ters conglomerates of private parcels of land city population nearly 5 million). St. ❖ insufficient information on nutritional, that formed part of a former collective and Petersburg city budget provides to all socio-economic, ecological and health state farm. These lands are a now belon- pensioners a subsidy on public transport aspects of urban gardening; ging to the former labourers of the collec- costs in order to allow them to go to their ❖ the shortage of written information tive or state farm. The production is more plots and cultivate for their subsistence. (books, articles) on urban agriculture for integrated, including small livestock and From May to October, twenty-five spe- urban gardeners; fruits, and aims at both subsistence and cialised medical ambulances serve garde- ❖ low rentability of agricultural activities. market production. ning and country facilities. An Furthermore, former kolhozes and sov- Information Centre for gardeners has OPPORTUNITIES OF URBAN chozes are transferred in a “company been created to assist in the “manage- AGRICULTURE with limited liability” and maintained as ment and development of kitchen gar- The opportunities for urban agriculture large-scale, fully commercial farms, with dens”. in St Petersburg are many. the former kolhoz- or sovhoz- members The City of Petersburg operates an Office The following issues are opportunities as shareholders of the company. for the Development of Horticulture and and at the same time challenges: Gardening in St. Petersburg and the ❖ there are plenty of vacant lands in the Leningrad Region, which co-ordinates city that can be used for small scale agri- the activities of state agencies and local culture; government agencies. One of the other ❖ most urban gardeners are optimistic,

REFERENCES activities of the Office is the organisation, well-informed, self-trained and skilled; - Afanasjev O., Gardener and Law, Moscow, 1998 jointly with the “Union of Gardeners” of ❖ many people are active in the field of - Boyko Oksana, The Day of Gardener has appeared, Neva time No 55 (1936) March 27, 1999 the yearly competition “Gardener of the sustainable and organic agriculture; the - Competition “ Most - most... “, Petersburg Vedomosti No 107 (1781), June 10, 1998 year” as an effort to promote technologi- urban agriculturist in St Petersburg has - Gavrilov Alexander, Roof top gardening in cal innovation and “rational” land use. never been keen to use chemicals and St. Petersburg., 1997 - Marjina T., Dispute on the land plot boundary, always preferring manure and compost; Petersburg Vedomosti No 87 (1761), May 13, 1998 MAIN PROBLEMS ❖ well-established education at the uni- - Maydachenko Roman, Kitchen garden in city boundaries: family help or financial servitude? Despite the fact that the authorities of St versity level; Petersburg Vedomosti No 182 (2096), October 1, ❖ 1999 Petersburg disburse funds for services to low salaries, limited purchasing power - Maydachenko Roman, Are any land plots (peri-) urban gardeners for garbage col- and high market prices of agricultural available? Petersburg Vedomosti, No 76 (1991), April 26, 1999a lection, maintenance of roads, wells, etc., products force people into self-produc- - Maydachenko Roman, Gardeners are pleased gardeners complain that the living condi- tion; with them, Petersburg Vedomosti, No 56 (1971), March 30, 1999b tions in the garden communities are not ❖ growing governmental and municipal - Moldakov O., City survey on urban gardening in up to standard as in the city itself. They interest to support food security, self- St-Petersburg, 1999 - Preriev Ilya & Gunt Boris, “Summer residences: refer to police control and health care employment and small enterprise deve- yesterday, today, tomorrow”, “Land and Freedom” electronic journal, N18 (215) May 7, services, amongst others. lopment for social and political stability 1998. reasons. - Sokol A.Ya., Roof top gardening. 1996 - St-Petersburg Land resource Management Peri-urban counties claim to be compen- Department Report, St-Petersburg, 1998 sated for their extra administrative Organopónicos in Havana, Cuba

During the crises years of the early 1990s when due to the deconstruction of the eastern European bloc, Cuba lost it main trading partners and at the same time the US intensified its economic blockade against Cuba, the black market thrived and food prices skyrocketed. Many food items got “sidetracked” from state distribution chains feeding the black market and causing scarcity in the ration system. Fresh fruits and vegetables, even when produced in ample quantities often rotted in the fields or at warehouses because the transportation system was also in crisis.

Urban Agriculture in Food production in the community by the community and for the community Havana (Cuba)

oday food is much more Such crises as Cuba experienced THE ROOTS OF THE URBAN available, prices have come in the 1990s are a quiet and AGRICULTURE MOVEMENT T down, and quality is up. Per everyday crisis around the globe. All over the island, agriculture capita figures for fresh fruits and For the hungry, whether they are changed in response to the new vegetables are recovering. Much in underdeveloped or overdevel- situation. Without fuel and parts of this turn around has been due oped countries, Cuba is demon- for the tractors or agrochemicals, to a mass movement within all strating to the world that with an Cubans began to use sustainable levels of Cuban society to produce appropriate set of policies, technologies. The urban agricul- and market food, flowers and resources, and technological ture movement was born out of medicines “in the community, by innovation hunger and food inse- this crisis. Although Cuba is high- the community, and for the com- curity need not be the norm for so munity” (Fuster, 1999). many families. The urban agriculture movement was born out of this crisis

2500 58% National Total ly urbanized, urban agriculture Urban Agriculture was virtually nonexistent prior to the 1990’s. When the crisis came, 2000 6% the urban areas were the hardest hit because it was difficult to transport produce into the cities 1500 due to the fuel shortages. As a result people in many communities began to quietly take over 1000 13% empty lots and to farm. Others

Production of tons Production 39% requested local agencies to let 500 64% them farm on their open space. Many of the first gardens were planted in side lots, on patios, 0 and on rooftops by urban families Rice Vegetables Non Citrus Tubers (Millions who were trying to feed them- Fruits of) Eggs selves when the store shelves Martin Bourque and Figure 1 Urban Agriculture as a Percentage of Total Production were bare. Kristina Cañizares (MINAGRI, 2000; Cuba News 2000) Food First/Institute for Food and Development Policy Oakland, USA Table 1: Extent of Urban Farming in the City of Havana 1997 (after Companioni et al. 1998).

Form of Production Total Number of Sites Total Area (ha.) Santa Fe, a small beach community on the western edge of Havana, grew to be Intensive Gardens 92 gardens 17.00 one of the leading farming neighbor- Organopónicos 96 gardens 23.80 hoods in Havana. By 1995, there were 915 Hydroponics & Zeoponics 3 locations 111 small farms and gardens with 400 gar- Suburban Farms 2,138 private farms 7,718 deners working on them. 285 state farms Popular Gardens 5,000 gardens 1,854 As policy makers watched this movement 26,604 gardeners they began to realize its potential. After Business and Factory Gardens 384 gardens 5,368 many visits and interviews in Santa Fe Household Gardens Unknown Unknown and other successful communities, Urban Total 7,998 gardens 15,092 ha Agriculture was declared a national priority and was supported by the highest authorities in the country (Gonzalez, network of extension agents based on The Cuban government wanted to make 2000). The Ministry of Agriculture creat- Santa Fe and other experiences to assist it easier for farmers to distribute their ed a National Urban Agriculture Program the gardeners, provide information about produce to the population. Previously all through which significant resources were the latest technology, and help to distrib- food that was bought and sold either channeled to support food production in ute seeds and tools. Many independent went through government stores or was cities and small towns (MINAGRI, 1999) urban farmers have now formed cooper- traded on the black market. To prevent atives for credit and service (CCS) and this practice and to lower food prices, the THE GROWTH OF URBAN new collective farms are being created government allowed food to be sold at AGRICULTURE farmer’s markets and on-site stands The principal challenges for urban farm- throughout the city (Gonzalez, 2000). ers and gardeners at that time were access Compañeros, Because the food is sold where it is grown, to land and a lack of experience. In 1993, For some time I have been insisting there are no transportation or storage the Ministry restructured urban land use on the importance of developing our urban costs, and the food is always fresh. Some rights to make it easy for locals to apply agriculture. I am convinced that these are gardens have hired neighbours to sell pro- for land. Any unused land could be given the first products that we duce on bicycle carts. Many gardens also to a gardener in permanent usufruct will be self sufficient in and that this donate some food to local community ownership- it would remain under his or will represent an important factor centers, schools, elder cares facilities, hos- her control as long as it was under culti- in the gradual solution to the problems pitals, and the like (Murphy, 1999). vation. Havana blossomed with gardens. of feeding the population. The government programmes are suc- Most urbanites people had little experi- -Raul Castro, Minister of the cessful because they are not static; they ence with agriculture, and even those Revolutionary Armed Forces, 1998 change in response to the needs of the with farming backgrounds had little producers and consumers. For instance, knowledge of the small-scale, organic under the legal umbrella of the Basic as the demand for garden inputs grew, techniques that were necessary for urban Units of Cooperative Production (UBPC) the Ministry found that its small stores, cultivation. The Department of Urban (Companioni et al. 1998). or seed houses, would be more efficient if Agriculture coordinated a comprehensive less centralized. Therefore each seed house, which supplies all the necessary garden inputs, is highly autonomous. The 1000 25 Ministry delivers inventory, but does not set the sale prices. This type of negotiated 900 cooperation has provided the flexibility 800 20 necessary for unprecedented growth and

700 Yields innovation. )

600 15 2 A DIVERSITY OF TYPES OF FARMS 500 AND GARDENS Urban agriculture in Havana takes many

400 10 (kg/m Yield forms; gardeners use different methods

Production (1000 tons) Production 300 depending on the size, location, and 200 Total Production 5 quality of the lot. The existing forms can be divided up by methods used and by 100 social organization The different types of 0 0 methods are intensive gardens and patio 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 plots, organoponicos and small diversified farms. In the densely populated urban Figure 2: Total Production and Yields of Organoponicos 1994 to 1999. areas where gardens are small (under two (After Companioni et al., 2000) hectares), Cubans use either intensive gardening or the organopónico methods of cultivation. The intensive garden is used where the existing soil is healthy and drainage is adequate, and seeds and seed- lings can be planted directly into the existing soil. Raised beds may be created with supports around them to protect against heavy rains and to more efficient- ly use the organic fertilizer.

In areas where the soil is poor, rocky, compacted, contaminated, or non-exis- tent, especially where drainage is blocked, or on paved lots the organopónico method uses raised beds with “imported” soil and compost. The beds are usually construct- ed out of any handy material, including old roofing tiles and rocks or broken cement blocks. The soil is brought in from the area and mixed with equal amounts of organic material to fill the beds. Both of these systems are extremely intensive. They never try to have the beds unplant- could get) and provides the infrastructure agriculture programme also produces ed more than 48 hours, and they are all such as fencing, sales kiosk, tool shed, herbs, medicinal plants, rice, fruits, cook- use very high application rates of compost irrigation system, and startup production ing oils, honey, pigs, chickens, rabbits, and other organic soil amendments loans, which the cooperative will pay off and ornamental plants. Specific programs (González, 2000; MINAGRI, 1999; over time. The rates are low and the land provide irrigation systems, worm com- Murphy, 1999). is free so most are able to pay off their posting, and recycling of household loans before the term is up. wastes. Urban agriculture has provided In the outskirts of the city where more land is available, are the suburban farms Many state run enterprises have been Urban agriculture exceeding two hectares in size. Because experimenting with a new arrangement activities in Havana of their larger size, the suburban farms where they break up the large state takes many forms are able to integrate more livestock, fruit owned lands surrounding the city and and forestry trees in with the horticultu- give small plots (up to 20 hectares) to urban dwellers with a way to grow their ral production found in the smaller gar- new farmers. They are like Usufructuarios own food, and current production is ris- dens. These farms are also highly diverse in many senses except that they must ing so fast that some areas are already and may produce crops with longer crop continue to produce the crops that that producing 30% of their caloric intake. cycles that a small farm would see as an enterprise traditionally produced, and inefficient use of limited space. Many of sell it exclusively to that enterprise. The Another important impact of urban agri- the starchy tubers and grains are pro- contracts are based on production quo- culture was that food prices went down duced on these farms. tas, and the prices are fixed before plant- due to the increasing production. ing. Anything the farmer produces above There are many different ways that urban and beyond the quota either gets an farms are organized and two main types increased price or can be sold directly to of land tenure. The farmers who have tra- consumers at higher prices. ditional private parcels are in both urban REFERENCES -Castro, Raul. 1998. Communiqué to the First Secretaries of the and suburban areas are called Parceleros As a result of the policy, resources, land provincial committees of the Cuban Communist Party. and are typically organized into credit and market reforms, and dedication of September 4, 1998. -Companioni Nelso, Ojeda, Egidio Páez, and Catherine Murphy. and service cooperatives (CCSs). Since government and community members, 2000. Urban Agriculture in Cuba: Structure and Fundamentals. 1993, when the government began giving the urban agriculture movement has In Transforming the Cuban Countryside: Advances in sustainable agriculture. Food First Books. Oakland. In Press. out land to individuals in free and perma- exploded. Figures for number of gardens, -Companioni, Nelso, Elizabeth Peña, Adolfo Rodriquez, Yanet nent usufruct ownership, a new category area farmed, total production, yield Ojeda, and Mirian Carrión. 1998. La Agricultura Urbana en Cuba: Su Estructura y Fundamentos Organicos. INIFAT. of farmer was created: The Usufructuario. and percentage of total food production Havana. -González, Mario. 2000. Institucionalización de la Agricultura They are increasingly being incorporated demonstrate these trends. Urbana en la Ciudad de La Habana. A paper presented to the into the CCSs. When several farmers Urban Development Program of the United Nations Development Program. Quito Ecuador, April 2000. come together and form a cooperative REAPING THE BENEFITS OF -MINAGRI. 1999. Lineamientos para los Subprogramas de la and ask for land and loans as a group, URBAN AGRICULTURE Agricultura Urbana para el Año 2000. Grupo Nacional de Agricultura Urbana. Havana. they form a Basic Unit of Cooperative The urban agriculture program has had -Murphy, Catherine. 1999. Cultivating Havana: Urban agriculture and food security in the years of crisis. Development Report Production (UBPC). The state gives them a fantastic impact on nutrition and food no 12. Food First / Institute for Food and Development Policy. a piece of land (larger than an individual security. Besides vegetables, the urban Oakland. Questions and answers ❖ How to find certain publications? On the Bibliography pages of the RUAF website you may find what you look for. RUAF, being a resource centre, regularly recei- Furthermore, we will regularly review new Colofon ves questions from a variety of persons and releases under the section New Publications. Urban Agriculture Magazine institutions on many different subjects. Some Volume 1, No 1 of them can be answered directly by RUAF; June 2000

others are forwarded to partner institutions Recent questions received, that were of The UA-Magazine is published with the required expertise. Readers are also interest to quite a few of who communicated by the Resource Centre for welcome to contribute and share experiences with RUAF are: Urban Agriculture (RUAF), a Programme executed by ETC with others. In the next issue we will start with Netherlands and financed by an interactive Question and Answer section. ❖ Where to find information on indicators DGIS, The Netherlands and IDRC, Canada. or models that may assist in calculating the Frequently asked questions include the percentage of food security and income delivered The UA-Magazine is published 3 times a year. following: by urban agriculture. ❖ Information on the qualitative and In the future the UA-Magazine ❖ Information on gardening practices and quantitative impacts of community gardens. will also be published in French and Spanish, and distributed techniques, like organic farming ❖ Where to find or how to apply for funding through regional institutions. Answers to many of these type of questions for setting up a community garden. The UA-Magazine is also can be found on the website of City Farmer: published on the RUAF website: http://www.cityfarmer.org. If not, these We invite you to share your www.ruaf.org.

questions could be dealt with by other experiences with us. You can Address institutions participating in RUAF, or other send your answers, suggestions RUAF, P.O. Box 64, of the Support Group. and questions to: 3830 AB Leusden, The Netherlands, ❖ Information on conferences and other Visitors address: activities The editor of UA Magazine: Kastanjelaan 5, Leusden.

See the section on Forthcoming Events RUAF: [email protected] Tel: +31.33.4943086 of the UA Magazine or here, or at ETC International Fax: +31.33.4940791 ? Email: [email protected] http://www.ruaf.org. There you will also PO Box 64 , 3830 AB Leusden Website: www.ruaf.org find links to other websites that may provide The Netherlands this type of information see the section on tel: + 31 33 4943086 Editorial This Issue has been compiled by Websites. fax: + 31 33 4940791 Henk de Zeeuw (guest editor) and René van Veenhuizen (responsible editor)

Photographs Except for the article of Ahmedabad (photo’s by L. Marulanda), photo’s available with RUAF have been used, of Next issue the following sources: C. Schilter (Togo), B. Mbiba (Zimbabwe), ! T. Pinzas (Peru), P. Jacobi You are invited to contribute to the Urban (Tanzania), F. Nunan (India), L.M. Sanchez (México), M. Agriculture Magazine with an article, description of Amar-Klemesu (Ghana), PUVPP best (or bad) practices, photo’s and information on Project (Phillippines), Ciudad de Havana (Cuba). interesting publications, websites, workshops and training courses. Administration Bernie Coenders

An article-contribution, should No. 2 Urban Livestock Subscriptions highlight the urban aspects and (October 2000) The editor [email protected] policy implications and recommen- No. 3 Integration of urban dations. Articles should be written in agriculture in urban planning Design and Layout Jan Hiensch, Leusden such a way that they can be readily (January 2001) understood by those working with No. 4 Management of urban Language Editor farmers. We would like to suggest agriculture related health aspects Amunda N. Salm articles of up to 3000 words long (April 2001) Printing (This is about 6 pages A4). Articles No. 5 Methodologies in planning Koninklijke BDU, Barneveld should preferably be accompanied and facilitation of urban agricul- by an abstract, illustrations (digital ture (September 2001) if possible) and references. The plan- No. 6 Urban agriculture and food RUAF is a global initiative ning for the next issues is: security (December 2001) of the Support Group on Urban Agriculture, co-ordinated by ETC www.ruaf.org