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The Hot Springs Facies Model - Background

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The Hot Springs Facies Model - Background BACKGROUND EXPEDITION: YELLOWSTONE! STaRRS Facies Model of Hot Springs The Hot Springs Facies Model - Background The changes in the morphology (shape), water chemistry, and microbial life along the flow path of a hot spring differentiate the hot spring system into five distinct parts, called facies. The changes in water chemistry, water pH and flow rates influence the morphology (shape) along the flow path of a hot spring, which in turn differentiates the hot spring system into five distinct facies. Fouke et al., (2000), definesThe Hot Springs Facies Model as the packets (or distinct structures) of limestone found along the primary flow path in a hot springs system. Thefacies represent the physical, chemical, and biological processes active in the environment at the time of deposition. They can be identified by the physical evidence left in sedimentary rock deposits. The type of sedimentary rock in hot springs facies is most often limestone, which is composed of the minerals calcite and aragonite. Both of these minerals are made up of calcium carbonate (CaCO3). Limestone forms in many different types of environments, but limestone that precipitates from hot springs is called travertine. The physical processes that create the travertine structures include the morphology (shape) of the underlying terrestrial surface and temperature of the water. Other physical influences include chemical Figure 1a characteristic of the spring water, such as pH, and biological communities. These biological communities include all of the plant, animal, and microbial populations that inhabit the environment. The water temperature of a travertine hot spring source is affected by the mixing of heated subsurface and meteoric (derived from precipitation) water. The mixing affects the amount of calcium carbonate (CaCO3) that dissolves out of the rock into the water and the rate at which the carbon dioxide degasses (or leaves the water). Recall that pH is the measure of the range of acidic to basic qualities of the water. Microbial organisms, or microbes, are responsible for Figure 1b the dominant biological activity in the hot springs facies. The microbial communities that inhabit many hot springs are easily identified by their various colors ranging from creamy white to dark green to brown. BACKGROUND EXPEDITION: YELLOWSTONE! STaRRS Facies Model of Hot Springs The Formation of Travertine Underneath Yellowstone there is considerable geothermal activity because the Yellowstone region is volcanically active. Water from rain and snow filters through the ground over time and is heated to high temperatures through its contact with volcanic rock. This hot water moves upward through fissures (cracks) in the underground rocks and dissolves minerals in the rocks incorporating them into the water (Brock, 1994). This can take from 2000 to 11,000 years (Rye and Truesdell, 2007). Mammoth Hot Springs overlies limestone that was deposited during the Paleozoic era from 570 million to 245 million years ago when the region was covered by an inland sea (Smith and Siegel, 2000). Limestone (CaCO3) may +2 -2 be broken down by acidic volcanic waters into calcium (Ca ) and carbonate (CO3 ) ions. Through further chemical reactions the carbonate is changed to carbon dioxide (CO2). As carbon dioxide levels increase, water becomes more +2 acidic, resulting in a lower pH. The water is super-saturated with calcium ions (Ca ) and carbon dioxide (CO2) by the time is arrives at the surface. Upon exposure to air at the surface, some of the carbon dioxide leaves the water through a process called degassing. An everyday example of degassing happens when a chilled can of soda pop is opened and allowed to sit on a counter for a few hours. Initially, there is a lot of carbon dioxide dissolved in the soda. However, once the pressure is released and the temperature lowers to match the air temperature, much of the carbon dioxide gas will escape into the air. Because of this, the soda becomes less acidic and its pH value increases. Degassing in a hot springs system occurs due to a variety of factors such as changes in temperature, pressure, turbulence, the length and angle of the flow path, and photosynthesis by microorganisms. When there is less carbon dioxide compared to calcium ions dissolved in the hot springs water, precipitation occurs. This is due to the reversal of the chemical reaction that caused the water to become super-saturated; calcium carbonate (CaCO3) precipitates out of the water. When a mineral precipitates out of the water it forms a solid. In this case, the mineral – calcium carbonate – creates travertine deposits. The Five Facies of Hot Springs Systems1 The hot springs facies model has five facies that can be found along the primary spring water flow path. They are: (a) vent, (b) apron channel, (c) pond, (d) proximal slope, and (e) distal slope. The vent (Figures 1a & 1b) is the location where the spring water first emerges at the surface. The vent may look like a bowl shaped depression or a narrow fissure. The water is hottest in this part of the facies because it is most affected by the underground heat source. The water temperature at the vent can be as high as 71-74 °C (159-165 +2 °F). Vent water also contains very high amounts of dissolved carbon dioxide (CO2) and calcium (Ca ) and carbonate -2 (CO3 ) ions. The dissolved carbon dioxide makes the water slightly acidic. Pure water is neutral and has a pH of 7. Water that emerges from the vent has a pH of approximately 6.1. 1All of the information for the facies model is based on Mammoth Hot Springs in Yellowstone National Park. Other hot springs can have lower or higher temperatures. BACKGROUND EXPEDITION: YELLOWSTONE! STaRRS Facies Model of Hot Springs The next facies along the flow path is calledthe apron channel facies (Figure 2a and 2b). It can be shaped like a gently sloped stream or have the characteristics of a billowing apron. The spring water moves quickly over this facies. As it flows, it degasses and precipitates calcium carbonate. At Mammoth, the water temperature at this facies ranges from around 69-74°C (156-165 °F). The pH increases a little to 7.0, due to the loss of carbon dioxide. A family of bacteria called aquificales can sometimes be found inhabiting the apron channel. These bacteria look like long, white or cream colored streamers and can be seen clearly in Figure 2a Apron Channel Figures 2a, 2b, and 3a. After the apron channel, the next facies is called the pond facies (Figure 3a and 3b). Fouke (2011) describes the ponds as “multiple semicircular depressions with a rim on one side” (page 92). Depending on the shape of the precipitated travertine, there may be many ponds in succession along the flow path, or a few very large ponds. The series of ponds form the characteristic set of step-like terraces found in the Upper Terraces at Mammoth Hot Springs. Ponds closer to the vent will have higher temperatures and lower pH (higher acidity) than ponds further from the vent. Figure 2b Apron Channel There is also variability within the ponds themselves. If the primary flow path runs through the middle of the pond, it will have a higher temperature and lower pH than the water located in the more stagnant peripheral edges of the pond. The range in pond temperatures has been recorded from between 35-69°C (95-156 °F) and the pH varies from 7 to 7.9. Microbial life in the ponds can be very colorful (Figures 4a and 4b). It is not unusual to see aqua, peach, brown, green, or gold bacterial and algal mats. Some types of microbes are able to capture sunlight and undergo photosynthesis. Different types of microorganisms have been associated with different photosynthetic colors. The types of microbial communities that inhabit a hot spring will change due to fluctuations in environmental factors such as temperature, pH, sunlight, and flow rate (Fouke et al., 2000). The final two facies have names with the word “slope” in them. The first of these is calledthe proximal slope (Figures 5a & 5b) because it is located closer to the vent. This facies is usually found at an increase in the downward BACKGROUND EXPEDITION: YELLOWSTONE! STaRRS Facies Model of Hot Springs Figure 3a Ponds Figure 3b Ponds Figure 4a Microbial Life - colors Figure 4b Microbial Life - colors Figure 5a Proximal slope Figure 5b Proximal slope BACKGROUND EXPEDITION: YELLOWSTONE! STaRRS Facies Model of Hot Springs slope. The “steps” on the proximal slope terraces tend to be more spread out than those of the pond facies and the corresponding pond-like features are much shallower. The temperature along the proximal slope flow path ranges from 28-54 °C (82-129 °F), and the pH increases to around 7.4. Remember that increasing pH values mean decreasing acidity. Microbial life along the proximal slope is not usually as colorful as it is in the ponds. This could be due to several factors including changes in acidity and temperature, as well as residence time of the microbes. The final facies is called the distal slope, (Figures 6a and 6b) so named because it is furthest from the vent. The distal slope is not as steep as the proximal slope. In fact, it can be nearly flat. At this point, the shape of the land Figure 6a Distal Slope Figure 6b Distal Slope controls the flow path. The water in the distal slope facies has the lowest temperatures and highest pH values. This is because the water has traveled the greatest distance from the vent and much of the carbon dioxide has degassed, giving the constituents in the water time to reach equilibrium with the environment.
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