SCIENCE CHINA Earth Sciences

SPECIAL TOPIC: Climate changes and human adaptation August 2016 Vol.59 No.8: 1519–1528 • PROGRESS • doi: 10.1007/s11430-016-5298-4

Taphonomic and paleoenvironmental issues of the Pleistocene loessic Paleolithic sites in the Qinling Mountains, central China

WANG SheJiang1* & LU HuaYu2†

1 Key Laboratory of Vertebrate Evolution and Human Origins, Institute of Vertebrate Palaeontology and Palaeoanthropology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100044, China; 2 School of Geographic and Oceanographic Sciences, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210093, China

Received September 11, 2015; accepted February 2, 2016; published online June 8, 2016

Abstract Hinterland intermountain basins and northern and southern piedmonts of the Qinling Mountains accumulated a large amount of loess during the Pleistocene. The loess strata not only record local paleogeographic and paleoenvironmental changes, but also contain rich hominin fossils and Paleolithic remains. In the northern piedmont of the Qinling Mountains and the lower valley of the South Luohe River, the loess strata have multi loess-paleosol sequences with aeolian loess continuously accumu- lating during glacial and interglacial cycles. In contrast to the northern piedmont, loess stratigraphy in the hinterland inter- mountain basins of the Qinling Mountains is relatively thin and contains finer loess particles. In this “mini” type of loess stra- tum, the density of Paleolithic remain generally is higher than the Loess Plateau in the north of the Qinling Mountains. Based on stratigraphic, chronological, and lithic artifacts analysis in recent years, it appears that the regional lithic assemblage be- longs to the Oldowan (Mode I) lithic industry, and it is dominated by choppers, cores, flakes, and simple retouched flake tools from 1.15 to 0.6 Ma. Paleolithic open-air sites such as Gongwangling and Chenjiawo in the Lantian area, Shangbaichuan and Liuwan in the Luonan Basin, Qiaojiayao in the Lushi Basin, Longgangsi and Yaochangwan in the Hanzhong Basin, Guanmiao in the Ankang Basin, and the Yunxian Man Site in the Yunxian Basin are representative sites in the region; from 400 to 250 ka, the Longyadong cave site in the Luonan Basin inherited the characteristics of the local Mode I lithic industry, the stone assem- blage is made up of cores, flakes, and small retouched flake tools, such as scrapers, points, and burins; during the period from 250 to 50 ka, bi-facially retouched Acheulean tools (Model II), such as hand-axes, picks, and cleavers, were commonly found in the Qinling Mountains region. The emergence of a large number of Model II artifacts indicates that local lithic industries went through a major transition process. Zhanghuokou, Guoyuan, and Huaishuping sites in the Luonan Basin, Diaozhai, Ganyu, Laochihe, and Xiehu sites in the Lantian area, Hejialiang site in the Hanzhong Basin are representative sites in this period; to the turn of the Late Pleistocene and Early Holocene, it may also exist a small flake-retouched tools lithic industry in the pied- monts of the northern and southern sides of the Qinling Mountains. The lithic assemblages in different stages of the Qinling Mountains region reflect the hominin behavioral changes and the development of lithic technology during the Pleistocene.

Keywords Qinling Mountains, Pleistocene, Loess stratigraphy, Paleoenvironment, Lithic industry

Citation: Wang S J, Lu H Y. 2016. Taphonomic and paleoenvironmental issues of the Pleistocene loessic Paleolithic sites in the Qinling Mountains, central China. Science China Earth Sciences, 59: 1519–1528, doi: 10.1007/s11430-016-5298-4

*Corresponding author (email: [email protected]) †Corresponding author (email: [email protected])

© Science China Press and Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2016 earth.scichina.com link.springer.com 1520 Wang S J, et al. Sci China Earth Sci August (2016) Vol.59 No.8

1. Introduction loess strata and Paleolithic remains. This article will briefly summarize the basic information for the loess deposits and Quaternary loess deposits cover about 12% of the earth’s Paleolithic remains in the Qinling Mountains areas of cen- land area, and are discontinuously distributed in the mid tral China. latitudes of the northern hemisphere. Aeolian, silt particles represent the main body of the deposit, and have been 2. Loess deposits and early hominin activities in shown to play an important role in exploring past environ- mental and climate changes. Meanwhile, as the characteri- the Qinling Mountains areas zation of sedimentary sequences become more accurate, loess plays an increasingly important role in understanding There are typical loess deposits from Lantian to Tongguan landscape changes, and the development of Paleolithic in- area at the northern piedmont of the Qinling Mountains, dustries. meanwhile stretch across the Luoning-Luoyang basins in Early hominids first appeared in the late Miocene in Af- the middle to lower reaches of the South Luohe River. The rica. With changes in climate and ecological environments, northern piedmont of the Qinling Mountains under the con- and after a series of physical evolution, early hominids trol of the wind from northwest in winter and spring in the evolved into Homo habilis and Homo ergaster from Aus- Quaternary period, the thickness of the loess deposits is tralopithecus in Africa from the late Miocene to Pliocene. large. While in Sanmenxia, Lingbao, Luoning-Luoyang During the Tertiary and Quaternary transition, they finally basins, because of air outlet to the southeast along the Yel- evolved to Homo erectus. About 1.8 Ma ago, some Homo low River in the Tongguan region, those areas also have erectus (perhaps including some Homo habilis) began their thicker aeolian loess deposits which was carried out by way of “Out of Africa” under pressures of from the natural northwest wind during the Quaternary period. environment and population on the African continent, they Traditionally, it is commonly recognized that the south- continuously migrated to Eurasia, and settled down in the ern boundary of the Quaternary loess distribution is mainly northern hemisphere in the lower latitudes. the northern Qinling Mountains, but recent studies suggest Early hominin survival is thought to be greatly restricted that Chinese Quaternary loess deposits are also distributed by natural environments in the case of using rudimentary in its hinterland intermountain basins and the southern chipped stone tools. Vast low latitude areas in Eurasia is piedmont areas. This now includes the areas of the Lu- represented by undulating terrain, with a diversity of cli- onan-Lushi basins in the upper reach of the South Luohe mate and ecological environments and, thus, it is suitable River (Wang and Huang, 2001; Wang, 2007; Wang et al., for human occupation. Early hominins migrated into Eura- 2008; Lu et al., 2007, 2011a, 2011b, 2012; Zhang et al., sia, and habited new environment highly consistent with the 2012), Yaoshi-Shangluo-Danfeng basins in the upper valley Quaternary loess accumulation process in the northern of the Danjiang River (Lei, 1999; Wang and Liu, 2011; hemisphere. Studies regarding the loess strata of Paleolithic Wang et al., 2013), from Fengxian County, Shuangshipu to sites can provide the paleoenvironment background of early Chaiguanling Mountain in the Liuba County in the western hominin life, and its chronological work can accurately re- Qinling Mountains (Lei, 1998, 2000) as well as Hanzhong- flect the human footprint at different stages of evolution. Ankang-Yunxian basins in the southern piedmont of the For these reasons, in the 1980s, Ranov firstly put forward Qinling Mountains (Sun et al., 2012, 2015; Wang et al., the “loess Paleolithic” to integrate loess-paleosol sequence 2014a) (Figure 1). and its chronology, stratigraphy and environmental back- Although south of the Qinling Mountains have Quater- ground with Paleolithic archaeological research (Ranov, nary loess deposits, due to the factors of local topography, 1989, 1995). Later, Prof. Liu used the term of “Loessic Ge- climate and atmospheric circulation, loess deposits in the oarchaeological Belt” and “Loess Lithic Industry”, to advo- region significantly differ from the typical loess deposits in cate the combination of Chinese loess research and Paleo- the north of the Qinling Mountains (i.e., the China Loess lithic archaeology (Liu, 1999). Now more than ten years Plateau). The differences are mainly reflected in the color, later, Chinese Paleolithic archaeology has made great pro- thickness, accumulation, continuity, and chemical or physi- gress with a growing number of Paleolithic sites being iden- cal aspects of the sediments. tified in loess areas (Xia et al., 1999; Wang, 2005, 2007; Wang et al., 2008, 2013, 2014a, 2014b, 2014c; Wang and 2.1 Loess Paleolithic sites in the northern piedmont of Huang, 2001; Wang and Liu, 2011; Wang and Lu, 2014; the Qinling Mountains Yang et al., 2005; Yang and Liu, 2008; Lu et al., 2007, 2011a, 2011b, 2012; Du et al., 2008, 2010; Du and Liu, In northern China, aeolian dust accumulation began during 2014a; Liu and Du, 2010, 2011; Sun et al., 2015). Recent the late Miocene, was continuous during the Pliocene-Pleis- archaeological site surveys, lithic analysis, and loess sedi- tocene, and continues to this day. Typical loess deposits mentary research have now achieved a new level enabling have obvious stratification. Multi light reddish, brown, or researchers to sketch out the relationship between regional brown-reddish buried paleosols are also often observed in Wang S J, et al. Sci China Earth Sci August (2016) Vol.59 No.8 1521

Figure 1 Distribution of Paleolithic sites in the intermountain basins, Qinling Mountains. (a) Image of the study area; (b) Lantian area, and Lu- onan-Lushi-Luoning basins in the South Luohe River valley; (c) Hanzhong-Ankang-Yunxian basins in the Hanjiang River valley. the profile. Paleosols are known to form when sedimentary are represented by brown soils that formed in forest-steppe rates are slow during warm and humid interglacial times, environments. However, paleosols in the Malan Loess are and the northwest wind is weak. According to Pleistocene black loams that formed in steppe environments (Liu et al., stratigraphic sequences (ca. 2.4 Ma), Prof. Liu divided Chi- 1985). Compared with the development of worldwide lithic nese Quaternary loess deposits into the Wucheng Loess of technologies, the chronology of the Wucheng and Lishi the Early Pleistocene, the Lishi Loess of the Middle Pleis- Loess formations substantially correspond with the Lower tocene, and the Malan Loess of the Late Pleistocene (Liu et Paleolithic stage, while the Malan Loess with the Middle- al., 1985). Paleosols in the Wucheng Loess and Lishi Loess Upper Paleolithic. 1522 Wang S J, et al. Sci China Earth Sci August (2016) Vol.59 No.8

According to statistics, more than one hundred Quater- formation (Wang et al., 2014b, 2014c). Based on paleo- nary loess profiles, which contain vertebrate fossils have magnetic dating, S6 in Chenjiawo site is dated to about been identified in China. Mammalian fossils found have 650–500 ka (Cheng et al., 1978; Ma et al., 1978; Liu and mainly been represented by rodents and herbivorous. Car- Ding, 1984). nivorous include: wolves, foxes, badgers, jackals and other Located above Lower Paleolithic layers, open-air sites, small animals (Liu et al., 1985). It has also been observed which are buried in the Late Pleistocene Malan Loess for- that loess strata in different periods have different unique mation, are also found in Lantian area. Sites in the region animal species, such as Myospalax omegodon, Prosiphneus include: Laochihe, Xiehu, Diaozhai, and Ganyu where intermidius, and Allocricetus ehiki Schaub in the Early thousands of lithic artifacts have been collected (Jia et al., Pleistocene, Megaloceros pachyosteus, Cerus grayi, Myo- 1966; Gai and You, 1976; Wang et al., 2014b). A number of spalax chaoyatseni, Myospalax minor, Ochotononoides stone artifacts from the upper part of the Malan Loess complicidens in the Middle Pleistocene, Myospalax psilu- deposit were collected in a recent archeological survey. rus, Myospalax fontaneri, Microtus brandtioides Young and Based on our observation in the field, we estimate that the Struthis anderssoni in the Upper Pleistocene (Liu et al., stone artifacts are buried in the L1SS1 and L1LL1 of the 1985). Overall, it appears that Quaternary vertebrates in the Malan Loess. Loess Plateau are evolving within arid steppe zones. Pale- To date, more than 40 Paleolithic sites have been discov- oenvironments in the Early Pleistocene inherited the warm ered over last 40 yr in the Lantian area. Paleolithic artifacts and humid forest ecological conditions of the Neogene, and are not only found from the early and middle Pleistocene gradually evolved into an arid steppe during the Middle and loess strata on the third terrace, but also unearthed from the the Late Pleistocene. This aridification trend has been ex- Malan Loess on the second terraces. These findings demon- tended to modern times, and it is clearly consistent with the strate that early hominins occupied the Lantian region for a formation of the loess areas in China (Liu et al., 1985). large portion of the Pleistocene (Wang et al., 2014b). Since the 1960s, a growing number of hominin fossils In addition to the Lantian area, lithic artifacts have been and Paleolithic open-air sites were discovered in the Lantian collected in the loess strata which are believed belong to the County of the northern piedmont of the Qinling Mountains Middle Pleistocene from Sanmenxia and Tongguan in the (Figure 1b). There are well-preserved river terrace sequenc- northern piedmont of the Qinling Mountains (Huang, 1964). es along the Bahe River. River terraces are composed of In the Luoning-Luoyang basins, the loess strata of the late fluvial sediments that are then capped by loess-paleosol Middle and Late Pleistocene also contain Paleolithic arti- sequences. Fluvial sediments range from silt to cobble in facts (Xia et al., 1999; Wang et al., 2008; Du et al., 2010; particle size, and loess-paleosol sequences have an average Du and Liu, 2014; Liu and Du, 2010, 2011; Lu et al., 2012) thickness of approximately 100 m. The Gongwangling (Figure 1b). open-air site is located on the highest river terrace on the Despite the abundance of Paleolithic sites found in typi- left bank of the Bahe River. The lower part of the river cal loess deposits in the northern piedmont of the Qinling terrace deposits are composed of gravel beds that lie upon Mountains and the middle to lower reaches of the South a red sandy clay with a thickness of 30 m. From 1964 to Luohe River, there are vast areas in the northern Qinling 1966, numerous animal fossils, including a hominin skull Mountains were archaeological work is still very weak. The and lithic artifacts, were recovered from a silty loess layer, Loess Plateau contains complete Quaternary loess-paleosol which was attributed to L15. During an extended survey, sequences, and has the advantage in establishing reliable lithic artifacts were collected in later times (Dai and Ji, site chronologies, deciphering taphonomic processes, and 1964; Dai, 1966; Jia et al., 1966; Wei, 1977; Wang et al., reconstructing paleoenvironmental backgrounds. The estab- 2014a). Paleomagnetic dating suggested that the dates of lishment of loess-paleosol type sections also allows Paleo- hominin skull fall into the range of the later Early Pleisto- lithic archaeologists the ability to stratigraphically correlate cene, about 1.15–1.1 Ma (An and Ho, 1989). Recently, sites and chronologically control surveys and excavations. based on Paleomagnetic results some researchers believe However, in the northern Qinling Mountains, thick loess that the fossil layer of the Lantian Man may be even older, deposits, the depth of hominin remains, and paucity of sur- belonging to S22 or S23, which is about 1.63–1.62 Ma (Zhu face finds and exposed sections greatly reduce the chance of et al., 2014). successfully finding Paleolithic remains. Furthermore, due Also during this time, more than 20 Middle Pleistocene to the thickness of loess stratigraphy at sites in the region, open-air sites were identified, from which more than 200 the systematic excavation will inevitably cost huge human stone artefacts were collected in the Lantian area. In 1963, a and material resources, and therefore is not conducive to fossil hominin mandible, and more than ten kinds of mamma- further research. Since the accumulation rates of loess are lian fossils were discovered. These fossil remains were buried fast and the relics are quickly buried, these fragmented re- in the reddish, clayey paleosol S6 on the third terrace of the mains are not conducive for the collection and extraction of right bank of the Bahe River. Recently more stone artifacts site information. As a consequence, the value of large-scale were discovered in the area of Chenjiawo in the Lishi Loess systematic excavations may be limited. Wang S J, et al. Sci China Earth Sci August (2016) Vol.59 No.8 1523

2.2 Loess Paleolithic sites in the intermountain basins and Xiaoshan mountains, loess accumulation rates are of the Qinling Mountains slower, particle sizes are finer, and the thickness of the loess deposit is thinner in the upper reaches in the Shim- Intermountain basins of the Qinling Mountains largely con- en-Luonan-Lushi basins of the South Luohe River. The tain fine particle sizes as the barrier of the northern alpine thickness of the loess deposits on the second terrace is gen- terrain, which reaches 2000–3000 m above sea level, inhibit erally about 20 m with some strata containing an abundance the transport of larger particles. The climate is warmer and of stone artifacts. Although there are sporadic loess deposits more humid during the Quaternary, and surface soils are located on the top of local hills and high terraces, these de- rich in aluminum in this environment. In addition, loess posits tend to be only a few meters in thickness. In recent accumulation is also influenced by the slope wash and dy- years, numerous Paleolithic artifacts have been found in namic water processes on both sides of the mountains range. these loess deposits. Because of the mountain barrier and Excluding some narrow intermontane basins, loess deposits the existence of wind outlet in the north, the dynamic of are often mixed with colluvial debris or alluvial flood de- aeolian transmission in the middle to lower reaches of the posits. However, deposits in the region still have obvious South Luohe River is relatively strong, the rate of loess ac- stratification and display loess-paleosol cycles. Compared cumulation is quick, and aeolian particles are coarse. The with deposits of the northern Qinling Mountains, the thick- Luoning Basin has typical loess deposits in 90 m. Since the ness of loess strata in intermountain basins is often less than terrain barrier effect weaken, and a strong wind transmis- that in the Loess Plateau. Furthermore, paleosols in these sion effects, the thickness of typical loess accumulation intermountain basins are often thick due to strong ground even up to 100 m in the lower river valley (Lu et al., 2012; surface weathering, and long term pedogenesis. Zhang et al., 2012). Generally, in the intermountain basins south of the main In recent years, loess stratigraphic sections of the Shang- ridge of the Qinling Mountains, the maximum thickness of baichuan, Liuwan, Zhanghuokou, Guoyuan and Shizilukou loess deposits on lower river terraces does not exceed 30 m. sites have been studied in the Luonan Basin (Figure 1b). Due to local terrain conditions, the thickness of loess is These sites are located on the second terrace in the upper usually only a few meters, and is deposited on the top of valley of the South Luohe River, which is situated between hills and higher river terraces. These intermountain loess the South Luohe River and its tributary of the Xianhe River. deposits can be regarded as a “mini” type of loess sedimen- The terrace gravel layer is higher than the modern river by tary sequence. It has been observed that impacts of local several (if not 10’s) of meters. The age of the overlying lo- topography, geomorphology and water conditions on these ess is approximately 1.1 Ma (Lu et al., 2007). The Liuwan sequences often lead to intercalated deposits that are mixed site is located on the second river terrace in between the with alluvial and slope sediments. Furthermore, strata from Shimen River and Maping River, which are both tributaries certain periods have been affected by erosional processes, of the South Luohe River. The site is covered with 13 m of and therefore are not continuous sequences. However, loess loess deposits, and the age of the lowest loess strata is be- strata in the intermountain basins of the Qinling Mountains tween 600–500 ka ago. The Qiaojiayao site in the Lushi are still comparable to the typical profiles of the Loess Basin, which is located on the second terrace of the South Plateau. Stratigraphic correlations with Loess Plateau de- Luohe River, is covered with 20 m of typical aeolian loess posits allow researchers to establish both chronological and deposits. Dating results indicate the age of the bottom loess paleoenvironmental frameworks for sites in the region. boundary is about 600 ka (Lu et al., 2011a). All these sites During the Quaternary period the environmental conditions contain in situ stone artifacts in different layers of the loess of intermountain basins are moderate, and ecological condi- stratigraphy. At the Shangbaichuan site, which is located in tions appear to be suitable for human beings. It has been the upper portion of the South Luohe River valley, the found that due to the limited thickness of the loess deposit, maximum depth of buried lithic artifacts is about 17 m from stratigraphic information associated with sites in the region the surface. Paleomagnetic dating demonstrate that the ear- are easily exposed, and represents a great advantage for liest loess strata containing lithic artifacts corresponds to a Paleolithic archaeological survey and excavation. In partic- date of 700 ka ago, which is in the vicinity of the Brun- ular, often times it is easier to reach lower strata in these hes/Matuyama (B/M) boundary. These results indicate that “mini” loess strata when excavating sites. It has also been since at least 700 ka ago, early hominins occupied the South observed that Paleolithic remains contained in the Qinling Luohe River valley. On the third and the higher terraces of loess units can be richer than sections found in the Loess the valley, Optically Stimulated Luminescence (OSL) da- Plateau. The following examples will be provided from ting shows that loess deposits accumulated during the Late hinterland intermontane basins of the Qinling Mountains. Pleistocene. In the Luonan Basin, systematic excavations at The main stream and tributaries of the South Luohe Riv- the open-air sites such as Zhanghuokou, Mengwa, Guoyuan, er developed a series of faulted Cenozoic basins. There are Huaishuping etc., and the Longyadong cave site, indicates loess deposits distributed in the upper, middle and lower there are several prosperous periods of hominin occupation, river valleys, but due to the northern barriers of the Huashan which date to 800–600, 400–250, and 250–50 ka ago 1524 Wang S J, et al. Sci China Earth Sci August (2016) Vol.59 No.8 respectively (Lu et al., 2011b). the dominant species. In contrast to loess layers, paleosols As the representative open-air site in the Hanzhong Basin S1 and S2, contain higher percentages of tree pollen with (southern facet of the Qinling Mountains), the Longgangsi the content of Pinus pollen steadily increasing. Paleosol S1 site has produced a large number of lithic artifacts during may represent a pine forest grassland landscape. Paleosol the early 1980s (Wang and Lu, 2014). These finds are in S2 is dominated by Ulmaceae (forest grassland landscape), conjuction with at least 10 other Paleolithic sites in the area. with broad-leaved tree pollen accounting for a large propor- In recent years, a series of the archaeological surveys have tion of counts, and significantly reduced percentage of her- examined loess deposits on the different river terraces in the baceous pollen (Lu et al., 2012). Hanzhong and Ankang basins, which are located on both The magnetic susceptibility, particle size (Lu et al., 2007; sides of the Hanjiang River (including tributaries) in the Zhao et al., 2008; Zhang et al., 2008), and organic carbon southern piedmont of the Qinling Mountains (Figure 1c). isotope (Zhang et al., 2009) analysis results reveal the Paleolithic sites in the Hanzhong Basin are located from the paleoclimate and paleoenvironmental changes in time (be- second to the sixth terraces of the Hanjiang River and its tween glacial-interglacial cycles) and space (the upper, tributaries. These loess deposits are known to have formed middle, and lower river valleys) in the South Louhe River. in different times throughout the Quaternary, and generally Temporally, the South Luohe River valley is largely con- bear rich Paleolithic remains. There is varying thickness of sistent with the Loess Plateau with incipient aeolian loess loess sediments occurring on the second to fifth terraces on deposition beginning in the Early Pleistocene. However, the right bank of the Hanjiang River. This area is located at local differences in the initial time of loess accumulation the eastern piedmont of the Liangshan Mountain at Nan- may be related to the local topography, stage of climate zheng County, Hanzhong Basin. The thickness of loess change (i.e., interglacial-glacial cycles), and enhancement strata at the Hejialiang site on the second terrace is about of the dust accumulation (Lu et al., 2010). Loess-paleosol four meters, and consists of a single paleosol. The combina- strata and magnetic susceptibility sequences reveal that the tion of Thermally Transferred Optically Stimulated Lumi- cycles in glacial-interglacial stage are consistent with the nescence (TT-OSL) and paleomagnetic dating results show typical loess section of the Loess Plateau in Luochuan. Spa- that the Hejialiang paleosol belongs to paleosol S1, which tially, there are observable differences between the upper formed approximately 80–70 ka ago. Results also demon- reach and lower reach loess deposits in the area. Loess ac- strate that loess strata on the second terrace of the Hanjiang cumulation rates are slow in the upper reaches, and are River and its tributaries in the Hanzhong Basin formed dur- strongly weathered during interglacial stages. Deposition of ing the Late Pleistocene. Located on the third river terrace, loess and weathering in the region are also known to be the Longgangsi and Yaochangwan sites began to accumu- intimately linked to local topographic and microclimatic late loess deposit at least since 800–600 ka ago, and has effects. Differences in paleoclimate and paleoenvironments been extent until the first paleosol S1 stage (Sun et al., in the region demonstrate that hominins lived in a variety of 2012; Wang et al., 2014a). Since 2013, results from system- environments in the Qinling Mountains. This suggests that atic archaeological excavations at the Longgangsi site indi- populations in the area had the strong ability to adapt to the cate that loess deposits on the fourth terrace contain four to local environmental conditions and climate change. Re- six paleosols, with the upper strata located near B/M search has shown that loess deposits in the basins of the boundary. The age of the lower part of the loess strata may Qinling Mountains generally experienced a strong weather- not be later than 1.2 Ma ago. The loess deposit on the fifth ing process, even during glacial times, suggesting local mi- river terrace also appears to have been deposited sometime croclimates were relatively mild and suitable for hominin during the Early Pleistocene. survival (Zhang et al., 2008; Zhao et al., 2008; Zhang et al., In addition to the Hanzhong Basin, Paleolithic remains 2012). have been found in loess deposits on the second and third The analysis of soil, pollen, magnetic susceptibility and terraces of the Ankang Basin (Hanjiang River valley), the organic carbon isotope shows that the area of the South Yaoshi-Shangluo-Danfeng basins (upper valley of the Dan- Luohe River valley is represented by grassland and forest jiang River, the branch of the Hanjiang River) (Wang and vegetation under the influence of continental, sub-humid Liu, 2011; Wang et al., 2013; Wang and Lu, 2014). climate conditions in the Pleistocene. During interglacial periods, arbor and herbaceous vegetation increase, indi- cating the establishment of warm and humid environmen- 3. The paleoenvironment background of the tal conditions. This is seen in a variety of proxies includ- early hominin subsistence ing: increase in tree pollen counts, more positive carbon isotope values, relatively high magnetic susceptibility, the Results from pollen analysis in the Luonan Basin show that relative increase in the proportion of C4 herbaceous the loess layers L1 and L2 largely consists of herbaceous plants, and strong pedogenesis. In contrast, during glacial pollen with relatively few shrub pollen counts. This reflects stages, the number of the arbors decrease, and is reflected a meadow landscape where Gramineae and Artemisia are in the reduction of arbor pollen, more negative carbon Wang S J, et al. Sci China Earth Sci August (2016) Vol.59 No.8 1525 isotope values, the decrease in magnetic susceptibility intermountain basins and the northern and southern pied- values, the reduction of C4 herbaceous plants, and pedo- monts of the Qinling Mountains. From the typo-technological genesis weakens. analysis of the lithic artifacts in different areas, we can According to the age of loess deposits, the time span of summarize the development of lithic technology in Qinling the second terrace is about between the late Early Pleisto- Mountain areas. cene to the late Middle Pleistocene. Since the second terrace In terms of the structural geology of the Qinling Moun- is currently higher than the modern river level about 30–40 tains, there is a close relationship between the hinterland m, it indicates that the uplift rate of the Qinling Mountains intermountain basins and the northern and southern pied- is not significant during the Pleistocene (especially since the monts. Lithic industries in these different regions appear Middle Pleistocene). On both sides of the Qinling Moun- very similar. Quartz, quartzite, siliceous limestone and ig- tains, intermontane basins contain rich Paleolithic sites, neous cobbles/pebbles collected from river terraces by early which are thought to demonstrate hominins in the region hominins, were the preferred raw materials for making had the ability to occupy a large range of elevations. It is stone tools. Other raw materials, such as flint, are rare. Ac- also argued that local landscape patterns have not substan- cording to local river gravel composition, raw materials tially changed since the first occupation by hominin popula- show some regional differences. In the Hanzhong Basin tions. Although there are some differences in the thickness lithic artifacts are dominated by quartz, quartzite, siliceous of the loess deposits in different regions, the initial time of limestone, and igneous rock. In the Luonan-Lushi and the deposition is not exactly the same, but the loess accu- Yaoshi-Shangluo-Danfeng basins, quartz, quartzite, grey- mulation rate is relatively stable. The loess-paleosol depos- wacke, and quartzite sandstone cobbles/pebbles are the most its contains rich information in relation to hominin activities prevalent raw materials. In the Lantian area on the northern and environmental changes during the Pleistocene. piedmont of the Qinling Mountains, raw materials are dom- The intermountain basins of the Qinling Mountains pro- inated by quartz, quartzite, siliceous rocks and granitic cob- vide the ideal geomorphological conditions for hominin bles/pebbles. Direct hard hammer percussion is the principal habitats during the Pleistocene. There are well-proportioned stone knapping technique. The bi-polar and anvil-chipping low hills and basins in the region. Furthermore, the bottom methods are also frequently used in the lithic assemblage of these basins is represented by gentle terrain. Since the from this region. Middle Pleistocene, the area appears to remains relatively Stone artifacts were first found on the northern piedmont stable, and new tectonic movement is not active. Our work of the Qinling Mountains, but the stone artifacts of the has also demonstrated that Paleolithic sites are located on Gongwangling site are few. Before 1980s, only 26 stone each terrace of the South Luohe River and its tributaries. artifacts were collected and unearthed in previous surveys The techniques and types of the lithic assemblages found at and excavations (Dai and Ji, 1964; Dai and Xu, 1973; Jia et different heights of the landform are identical or similar. al., 1966; Gai and You, 1976; Wei, 1977, Wang et al., This is direct evidence of the establishment of large-scale 2014b, 2014c). In addition to cores and flakes, retouched hominin activities in the region. In particular, this region tools include scrapers, spheroids, choppers, and hand-axes/ represents a transition zone between warm temperate and picks. Loess strata associated with these artifacts may date subtropical climates with temperature and humidity suitable from the Early to Middle Pleistocene. The composition of for early hominin survival. This also includes the fact that lithic artifacts is very simple and only very limited in situ the barrier of the high mountains in the north block cold air artifacts are unearthed from the Early Pleistocene strata at coming from the northwest in winter, and therefore, even in the Gongwangling site. The chronology of the hand-axe/ the Pleistocene glacial stages, these basins can provide ideal pick collected from the Pingliang locality in the east of the environments for hominin occupation. There are lush trees, Gongwangling site is still unclear. The lithic artifacts in the dense vegetation, and various animals in the Qinling Moun- Chenjiawo and Jijiawan sites, which date to the Middle tains areas. It is a treasure house of wild animals and plants, Pleistocene, inherited the characteristics of the Gongwan- which provided a wealth of food resources for early human gling site. The composition of lithic assemblages is still beings. The Paleolithic remains have been found throughout very simple, except for cores, flakes, and retouched tools, the last glacial and the interglacial period suggests that such as scrapers, points, choppers and spheroids. Heavy- hominin have stronger ability to adapt the various environ- duty tools include choppers and spheroids. Recently a large ments. The high density of hominin activity remains in dif- number of stone artifacts were found from the Malan loess ferent stages in the Qinling Mountains is not accidental. in the Laochihe, Xiehu, Diaozhai, and Ganyu sites on the second terrace of the Bahe River at Lantian area. Based upon the OSL dating results, these sites date between 70 to 4. Loessic Paleolithic technology and its devel- 30 ka ago. Retouched tools in these assemblages include opmental context heavy-duty tools, which were made of cobbles/pebbles, large flakes like choppers, heavy-duty scrappers, hand-axes, So far, over 400 Paleolithic sites have been identified in the picks, cleavers and spheroids, and small tools made of small 1526 Wang S J, et al. Sci China Earth Sci August (2016) Vol.59 No.8 flakes. per loess strata on the second terrace in Zhanghuokou, Since the early 1980s, thousands of lithic artifacts have Guoyuan and the other open-air sites in the Luonan Basin. been collected in the eastern part of the Liangshan Moun- The loess deposits that contain Mode II tools include the tain in the Hanzhong Basin, along the southern piedmont of loess strata L3, S2, L2, S1, and L1, which range in age from the Qinling Mountains. The lithic artifacts assemblages are 250–50 ka. Mode II tools are also found in the late Pleisto- made up of four groups, including cores, flakes, retouched cene loess deposits on higher terraces. The lithic assem- tools, and chunks/small debris. The retouched tools com- blage in the Beiyao site in the lower reach of the South prise choppers, picks, hand-axes, heavy-duty scrappers, Luohe River consists of cores, flakes, and simple retouched spheroids, scrappers and points. Among the tools, picks, flake tools. Recent continuous archaeological excavations at hand-axes, and spheroids are most representative stone tools more than ten Paleolithic sites demonstrate that the loess in the Hanzhong Basin. The lithic assemblage collected deposits containing in situ hand-axes, picks, and cleavers from the Hanzhong Basin has typical features of the cobbles/ are not older than the Zhanghuokou and Guoyuan sites. pebbles lithic industry. This industry represented by China’s Therefore, the chronology of the Acheulean type tools in the first Paleolithic open-air sites which were recognized as the Qinling Mountains areas is likely not older than middle to cobbles/pebbles lithic industry in the south China. The latest late Middle Pleistocene. In addition, compared with the sites surveys and excavations on the second to third terraces in in the Hanzhong Basin of southern piedmont and the Lanti- the Hanjiang River and its tributaries indicate that these an area of the northern piedmont of the Qinling Mountains, lithic artifacts closely resemble the previous lithic industry, the lithic assemblage in the Luonan Basin lacks well-made but the proportion of flakes and retouched flake tools was round spheroids, and the proportion of spheroids at some of significantly underestimated. In addition, a distinctive fea- the sites in the Hanzhong Basin is far greater than all other ture is that spheroids are clearly the predominant tool type retouched tools. in some sites of Chenggu County in the eastern Hanzhong From the above lithic analysis, it is reasonable to con- Basin. It is worth noting that since 2013, through three con- clude that at least from the late Early Pleistocene until the secutive years of systematic archaeological excavation, the early Middle Pleistocene, the lithic assemblage in the Qin- majority in situ lithic artifacts on the fourth and fifth terrac- ling Mountains areas still resembles Mode I industry. The es in the Longgangsi site have been excavated under the stone tools, which are made of local pebbles/cobbles such as B/M boundary. Small flakes and retouched small flake tools quartz, quartzite, greywacke, sandstone and igneous rocks, dominate the tens of thousands in situ lithic artifacts that consist of choppers, scrapers, points, and spheroids, among have been unearthed in the different terraces at the Long- others in situ Mode II tools, such as hand-axes, picks, and gangsi site in recent years. A large number of the heavy- cleavers, do not appear in the loess deposits before the Mid- duty tools, such as choppers, spheroids, picks, and hand- dle Pleistocene. From the middle to late Middle Pleistocene axes, were collected in previous surveys, but they are rarely and into the Late Pleistocene, Mode II tools are commonly found during excavations. The Longgangsi lithic artifacts found in some open-air sites in the Qinling Mountains areas. are mainly medium and small in size, and only a small This technological industry continued to the Late Pleisto- number of large tools, such as choppers and other heavy- cene, around 50 ka. According to the latest surveys, a lithic duty tools, have been unearthed. These results are signifi- assemblage of small flake and retouched small flake tools cantly different from the results of surveys in 1980s. There made of vein quartz may exist in the northern piedmont of are two likely reasons for the differing results. First, larger the Qinling Mountains. This assemblage is found on the top artifacts are more easily discovered in field surveys, and of the Malan Loess and may date to the interglacial epoch surface collection was the main means of gathering lithic MIS 3. However, further field surveys and excavations are artifacts during the 1980s. Second, large stone artifacts are needed to confirm the prevalence of this assemblage. put on aside by workers during soil sampling in brick man- ufacture areas, and the small size of stone artifacts are mixed and lost in the brick clay. This is a common archae- 5. Conclusion ological phenomenon in the Qinling Mountains areas, in- cluding the Luonan Basin and the Hanzhoung Basin. Based on the latest archaeological survey and excavation Based upon recent systematic archaeological surveys and data, this paper summarizes the development of lithic in- excavations in the Luonan Basin in the eastern Qinling dustry and the relationship between the regional Paleolithic Mountains, only simple cores, flakes, and retouched pebble sites and the environment in the Qinling Mountains, central or flake tools such as choppers, scrapers, and points, have China. The main points can be concluded as follows. been found in the early loess stratigraphy. Large Acheulean (1) As a typical Loess Plateau region, the Lantian area on tools, such as the hand-axe, cleaver and knife, have not been the northern piedmont of the Qinling Mountains is charac- found in early-stage deposits. The Longyadong cave site is terized by quick loess accumulation rates, thick stratigraphic still this case in 400–250 ka. Since 2010, in situ Acheulean sections, and complete loess-paleosol sequences. There is a type (Mode II) tools are commonly unearthed from the up- continuous loess accumulation on glacial-interglacial time- Wang S J, et al. Sci China Earth Sci August (2016) Vol.59 No.8 1527 scales, which offers a great opportunity to study site for- Ankang Basin on the southern piedmont of the Qinling mation processes and chronology. Existing archaeological Mountains. However the developmental direction of the information indicates that Paleolithic remains first appeared Mode II lithic industry in these areas is still a mystery due in this area in the early Late Pleistocene (about 1.15 Ma) to the lack of loess strata associated with this time period in and possibly as early as 1.6 Ma. Paleolithic remains are also the hinterland intermountain basins. commonly found in the Lishi Loess of the Middle Pleisto- In summary, the loess deposits in the Qinling Mountains cene and the Malan Loess of the Late Pleistocene. There is areas contain rich Paleolithic remains, which provide a even a lithic assemblage of a small flake and retouched unique opportunity to explore the evolutionary process of flake tools found in the Lintong County and the Lantian early hominins, the development of lithic technology, and area thought to date to the later stages of MIS 3. However, the relationship between human activities and environmen- the northern Qinling Mountains are not conducive to ar- tal changes. In the past decades, research on the “Loess chaeological survey and excavation because of thick loess Paleolithic” has yielded some new insight, but current work deposits and the lower density of the Paleolithic remains. is still far from revealing the internal relationships between The continuity of hominin activities in this area must be human activities, technological behavior, and environmental verified with further systematic archaeological work. changes. Ultimately, there are still many scientific problems (2) There are loess deposits on the terraces of the main to be explored. Hopefully, ongoing archaeological investi- rivers and their tributaries south of the main ridge of the gation and excavation, combined with geochronology, Qinling Mountains. The loess in this region is relatively semi-quantitative reconstruction of paleoenvironment, ge- fine, the accumulation rate is lower, and the deposits are omorphic process analysis, and paleoclimate research, will reddish-brown in color. Due to the impacts of the Pleisto- allow us to better understand relationships between the cene climate, surface water flow and topography, the loess evolution of hominin behavior, the development of lithic deposit is not thick, and some of the strata are missing. technology, and the environment changes. Paleolithic sites in the intermountain basins can be reliably dated using OSL and paleomagnetic dating techniques, and comparison of the typical loess strata. The density of the Acknowledgements We thank Prof. Houyuan Lv and Prof. Xing Gao for inviting us to write this paper; special thanks to Dr. Xuefeng Sun Paleolithic remains in this “mini” atypical loess strata is and Mr. Wenchao Zhang for drawing the figures, Mr. Mathew Fox for much higher than that of the loessic Paleolithic sites in the correcting the English. We also thank the anonymous reviewers for their northern Qinling Mountains areas, hence this area is ideal valuable comments. This research was supported by the Strategic Priority for archaeological survey and excavation. 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