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Dependence: British Space Research Policy 1959-73

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Dependence: British Space Research Policy 1959-73 1 Title Page National prestige and in(ter)dependence: British space research policy 1959-73 A thesis submitted to The University of Manchester for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Faculty of Biology, Medicine and Health School of Biological Sciences 2016 Stuart A. Butler 2 Table of Contents Table of Contents Title Page .................................................................................................................................. 1 Table of Contents ..................................................................................................................... 2 Figures ...................................................................................................................................... 4 Abbreviations ........................................................................................................................... 5 Abstract .................................................................................................................................... 6 Declaration ............................................................................................................................... 7 Copyright Statement ................................................................................................................ 7 Acknowledgements .................................................................................................................. 8 Introduction ........................................................................................................................... 10 Literature Review ................................................................................................................... 16 British space research and space policy ............................................................................ 16 Anglo American, Australian and European relations ......................................................... 22 Modernity and decline ....................................................................................................... 33 Decision-making theories .................................................................................................. 39 Understanding distributed decision-making ..................................................................... 47 Primary Sources ................................................................................................................. 53 Thesis outline ..................................................................................................................... 55 Chapter 1: Ministerial influence, national prestige and the formation of ELDO and Black Arrow 1959-64. ...................................................................................................................... 60 1.1: Introduction ................................................................................................................ 60 1.2: Choosing from three options ...................................................................................... 62 1.3: Independence, interdependence and the turn to Europe .......................................... 77 1.4: Anglo-Australian relations and the ‘turn to Europe’ .................................................. 93 1.5: Ensuring the foundation of ELDO ............................................................................... 98 1.6: Policy-making without consent: the establishment of Black Arrow. ........................ 104 1.7: Conclusion ................................................................................................................. 120 Chapter 2: The first Wilson government and British space research 1964-6 ..................... 123 2.1: Introduction .............................................................................................................. 123 2.2: New priorities and a new language of power: Establishing Black Arrow ................. 124 2.3: Ministerial priorities in the approval of Black Arrow ................................................ 138 2.4: British approaches to ELDO ...................................................................................... 143 2.5: The “turn to Europe”? ............................................................................................... 153 3 2.6: Conclusion ................................................................................................................. 171 Chapter 3: White Heat in practice: Wilson and the rise of economics in decision-making . 174 3.1: Introduction .............................................................................................................. 174 3.2 Assessing the value of science? ................................................................................. 176 3.3: Research establishments and central government: a tense relationship? .............. 182 3.4: Assessing the economic value of science, again? ..................................................... 189 3.5: Intra-Departmental conflict and the defence of Black Arrow .................................. 198 3.6: Technological foreign policy: Tony Benn, ELDO and the ETC ................................... 206 3.7: Finally withdrawing from ELDO? ............................................................................... 217 3.8: Conclusion ................................................................................................................. 222 Chapter 4: The Heath government and British space research policy 1970-3. ................... 225 4.1: Introduction: ............................................................................................................. 225 4.2: New government with old advice? ........................................................................... 230 4.3: Personality and politics in the cancellation of Black Arrow. ..................................... 234 4.3: Heath, the European crusader? ................................................................................ 251 4.4 Replacing ELDO with a new organisation .................................................................. 265 4.5: Conclusion ................................................................................................................. 270 Conclusion ............................................................................................................................ 273 Bibliography ......................................................................................................................... 287 Archival Sources ............................................................................................................... 287 Published Primary Sources: ............................................................................................. 289 Secondary Sources ........................................................................................................... 291 4 Figures Figure 1 Britain's space policy - charted in headlines 9 Figure 2 D. Low, 'Blues Salesman', The Guardian, 13 January 1961, p.11. 88 Figure 3 DSIR 23/32243, A.N. Christmas, 'The E.L.D.O. Initial Launcher 100 System: Design Objectives and Development Programme', 25 September 1964 Figure 4 V. Weisz, ‘… and, of course, it may help us solve our problem 106 of re-entry!’, Evening Standard, 11 September 1964. Figure 5 The committee structure implemented by Wilson 128 Figure 6 Press comment on the decision to withdraw 168 Figure 7 The first page of the DEA questionnaire 195 Figure 8 The growing capability of satellites 201 Figure 9 The cancellation of Black Arrow in the press 250 Word Count: 86,461 5 Abbreviations CETS European Conference on Satellite Communications CNES Centre National d’études Spatiales (France) DEA Department of Economic Affairs DTI Department of Trade and Industry EEC European Economic Community ELDO European Launcher Development Organisation ESA European Space Agency ESRO European Space Research Organisation ESC European Space Conference Euratom European Atomic Energy Community FO Foreign Office LRWE Long Range Weapons Establishment MCC Missile Conversion Committee MinTech Ministry of Technology MoA Ministry of Aviation NASA National Aeronautics and Space Administration (US) OPD Defence and Oversea Policy Committee PESC Public Expenditure Survey Committee RAE Royal Aircraft Establishment RSP Space Policy Review Committee SAB Space Administration Branch SRD Scientific Relations Department 6 Abstract From 1960-4 the British government embarked on two large-scale space research programmes to develop satellite launchers. After first being cancelled as a military project in 1960, the Blue Streak missile was converted into the first stage of a British-led European collaborative project to build a three stage satellite launcher (through the European Launcher Development Organisation – ELDO). Born out of the Black Knight warhead re-entry testing vehicle, the independent Black Arrow project aimed to launch small satellites for scientific experimentation. With European collaborations, American scientific knowledge, and an Australian testing site, decisions affecting British space research had wide reaching diplomatic as well as domestic consequences. However, by 1973, both of these programmes had been cancelled. By examining the complex formation of British policy on these two space research projects, I will identify the alliances of actors involved focusing on understanding the role of civil servants, and the domestic, economic, and foreign policy priorities which directed
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