Quick viewing(Text Mode)

Chapter 2 – Design Evolution

Chapter 2 – Design Evolution

axÉ „ WtÇwç WEARABILITY, AND THE FORMAL WHITE FOR MEN

Dean Brough, Master of Arts (Research) Queensland University of Technology , 2008

Principle Supervisor - Dr Luke Jaaniste Associate Supervisor - Professor Suzi Vaughan Keywords

Fashion, design, menswear, , white shirt, , wearability, practice- led research, innovation, Neo-, dandy, gendered object.

1 Abstract

This practice-led research creates innovative menswear for formal white dress , within boundaries of contemporary mainstream wearability.

As a result of an historical analysis, a conceptual spectrum is developed to scope the possibilities of the contemporary white dress shirt, from the orthodox menswear shirt to the many variations of the women’s blouse. Within this spectrum for the white shirt, the possibilities for innovation are discussed in terms of a threshold position between the shirt and the blouse - a position that parallels that of the dandy figure who subversively confronts dress norms of the day. This position is then explored in relation to an acceptable/ ‘wearable’ aesthetic which I have labelled ‘Neo-Dandy’. White shirts from contemporary menswear are then examined relative to this aesthetic. In doing so, this examination highlights the white dress shirt as a garment that is ripe for experimentation.

My own creative design process is then described as taking up the challenge of Neo-Dandy design innovation for the contemporary white dress shirt. On this archetypal garment, different styles and varying degrees of detailing were tested. A range of ‘concept shirts’ were produced, tested and documented, with each shirt succeeding to various degrees in achieving a Neo-Dandy aesthetic. Based on this range, a list of design principles for achieving this aesthetic are identified.

The weighting is 60% for the design objects (a collection of men’s white dress shirts that explore wearability and design innovation within a Neo-Dandy aesthetic) and 40% for the design discussion (exegesis and supporting appendices).

2 Key Terms – Glossary

Formal wear – a broad, contemporary notion of and formal occasions (not simply the high formality of white and dress codes) is being applied in this research; it includes evening wear, the formal end of social wear and cosmopolitan professional dress (where the and tie may not be dominant).

Modern white shirts (generic to both men and women) – upper body garment that is made from white fabric and has a , front opening and some form of sleeving. Encompasses a broad diversity of style, fit, silhouette and fabric type and worn from around the 1890s to the present. Note: the British English usage of the term ‘shirt’ is being followed in this research. American English usage of the term ‘shirt’ includes tee-shirts and other tops. These fall outside the definition applied in this research as they do not include collar treatments and front openings.

Formal white dress shirts (for men) – shirts that are made from white fabric and are designed to be worn as formal wear for men. Like all shirts, white formal shirts are an upper-body garment with a collar treatment, front opening with , set in sleeving and cuffs. The shirts are usually almost entirely white, but may have some colour in minor trimmings (such as buttons). Fabric type is either 100% or cotton synthetic blend.

Note: although men’s formal white shirts are often worn with a tie, this research is focused upon formal white shirts that can be worn without extra accessories such as ties and vests.

White (for women) – upper body garment worn by women that is made from white fabric and has a collar, front opening and some form of sleeving. A broad array of styles exist, ranging from decorative to plain in appearance, and loose to fitted in silhouette. A large diversity of fabric types and densities are used. Note: like the term ‘shirt’, ‘blouse’ can sometimes be used as a generic description that may include tops which have no collar or . However, such tops fall outside of the definition applied in this research.

3 Blousy – used in this research to refer to aspects of a shirt’s design which belong to the blouse, even if incorporated into a men’s dress shirt. Specific blousy attributes are: looseness of fit or a female silhouette that curves to fit bust and ; detailing that exists in areas and excesses beyond those found in the tuxedo shirt; and fabric that is highly sheer.

Mainstream wearability – used to describe the degree to which a garment can be worn in a particular setting whilst falling within conventions of dress that are shared by mainstream communities for that particular time and place. Furthermore, wearability is relative to the identity of those who are wearing it (in terms of age, social status, occupation and, most relevant for this research, gender). A garment is highly ‘wearable’ if it strongly adheres to such conventions. Issues of garment comfort, fit, marketability or saleability relate, but do not equate, to this definition of wearability.

In reference to menswear and womenswear in cosmopolitan settings, mainstream wearability differs along gender lines. In the main, for women, both menswear (what is sold as the domain of men) and womenswear (what is sold as the domain of women) are wearable, while for men, only menswear is wearable. If men wear clothes with significant characteristics aligned to womenswear, it is not considered within mainstream norms for dress styles. Such dressing is deemed to reside in the extremes of either cross-dressing or eccentric dress.

‘Neo-Dandy’ aesthetic – an aesthetic for men’s clothing that appears refined, formal, and leans towards characteristics of womenswear. The aesthetic attempts to be experimental and innovative with menswear and to confront, or at least nudge, gender conventions, whilst still operating within mainstream wearability for men. It could be viewed as operating on the cusp-of-wearability for men and it can be argued that this represents part of a growing trend in cosmopolitan menswear in the last decade or so which is heading towards a less gender restrictive aesthetic.

Design Innovation – effecting a change from an established custom of design practice and form.

Concept shirt – prototype garment to test innovative possibilities without being limited by marketplace pragmatics; not a final sample ready for commercial production.

4 Table of Contents

Keywords 1 Abstract 2 Key Terms – Glossary 3 Table of Contents 5 Statement of Authorship 7 Acknowledgement 8

Introduction – Design Approach

Background 10 Aims, research question and outputs 12 Methodology 14 Significance 15

Chapter 1 – Design Context

1.1 Defining Mainstream Wearability 18 1.2 Mainstream Wearability and Gender Norms in the Modern Era 20 1.3 Shifting Dress Norms and the Dandy Figure 25 1.4 Recent Trends and the Neo-Dandy Aesthetic 29

Chapter 2 – Design Evolution

2.1 Evolution of the Modern Men’s White Shirt 35 2.2 Evolution of the Modern Women’s White Blouse 54 2.3 Contemporary White Dress Shirt Designers and the Neo-Dandy 67 aesthetic

Chapter 3 – Design Journey

3.1 Machinery, Studio and Block 84 3.2 Designing and Assembling the Concept Shirts 87 3.3 Wearing, Exhibiting and Documenting the Concept Shirts 89 3.4 Conceptualising the Collection of Concept Shirts 98 3.5 Bringing Together the Research – the Final Exhibition 102

Summary – Design Contributions

Central Contribution – the concept shirts and key design principles 110 Broader Contributions 113 Further Research 115 Reflection 116

5 Appendices – Design Notebook

A.1 Characteristic differences between men’s dress shirts and women’s 119 blouses A.2 Complete thumbnails of white shirts by other designers 121 A.3 Images and studio design notes on all sixty concept shirts 125 …...Safe (Conservative) 126 …...Mildly-Dandy (Approaching) 130 …...Neo-Dandy (Aligning) 137 …...Blousy (Beyond) 157 …...Shirts not displayed in the exhibition (no matrix position) 185 A.4 Specific elements of experimentation on the concept shirts 191

References

Texts cited 194 Figures – General (Chapter 1 and 2) 198 Figures – Contemporary White Dress Shirt Designers (Chapter 2) 199

6 Statement of Authorship

The written and creative work contained in this exegesis has not been previously submitted to meet the requirements of an award or degree at this or any other higher institution. To the best of my knowledge and belief, the exegesis contains no material previously published or written by another person except where due references are made.

Signature:

Date: 17.11.08

7 Acknowledgement

I would like to express my deep and sincere gratitude to my partner, Judith Brough, for her understanding and encouragement during this journey. Her foresight and emotional strength has been of great value for me. To my two beautiful young children, Remington and Avalon, I apologise for the considerable loss of family time as a result of trying to juggle part-time study and full-time work commitments and I hope you understand.

To my long term work colleague, Wendy Armstrong, I thank you for being a shoulder to confide in and greatly appreciate your friendship. You were always prepared to listen to me and I have enormous gratitude for your time and advice.

To my principle supervisor, Dr Luke Jaaniste, I wish to express my sincere thanks for your time and vision for this research project. I would also like to warmly convey my appreciation to Professor Suzi Vaughan for her input and assistance.

Finally, I would like to mention my gratitude for the use of QUT’s excellent gallery facilities and the assistance of all precinct staff involved, in particular Nigel Oram and Jason Zadkovich.

8 (Intentionally left blank)

9 Introduction – Design Approach

This section introduces the reader to my background as well as the aims, methodology, outputs and significance of this research project.

Background

Arriving at the white dress shirt as the site of design innovation

This research project commenced with a desire to explore time-honoured craft skills, particularly those that were used in decorating garments. Traditionally, these decorative techniques have been primarily used on women’s clothing and the challenge I set myself in the early part of this research project was to not only learn these skills but to find out if they could be transferred to, or re-interpreted for, men’s clothing. That is, I began with a desire to experiment with detailing used for womenswear and see if it could be successfully interpreted in men’s clothing.

Very early in the research I experimented with detailing applied to . However, it quickly became clear that upper-body clothing was the preferred medium for the research. In particular, I decided to experiment with men’s shirting. My decision to work with shirts, as opposed to hotter garments such as or vests, was influenced by wearability requirements associated with a very hot summer. I then realised that white was the fabric colour most appropriate to show off detailing; white cloth functions as a neutral background, whereas patterned or coloured fabric would exert its own presence and compete for attention with the detailing. Hence, the white shirt entered the fray and, because I favoured formal clothing, the men’s white dress shirt became the site for my design innovation.

Connecting to my background as a /maker

The preoccupation with menswear, especially formal wear, is connected to my background as a fashion designer/maker and teacher. Over a twenty-five year period I have been especially interested in fashionable and formal menswear – in particular, (‘be spoken for’, made for an individual or hand crafted) techniques used in menswear. My first fashion foray was designing and producing neck ties in the late 1970s that were sold to David Jones (COU , 1978-1979). I

10 then designed ranges of fashionable shirts, along with trousers, for the youth market in the 1980s, with a diversity of styles shifting according to the fashion . They too were sold to David Jones and boutique retailers (Dean Brough label, 1980-1985). By the 1990s I had shifted to shirts, trousers and vests that were more casual with late 1960s influences, and sold at the bustling Riverside craft markets in Brisbane (Eskimo label, 1990-1995). Throughout all these periods I also designed and produced a significant number of bespoke clothes for individual clients, spanning the gamut of styles from tailored to apparel and , such as cycling outfits. However, my passion for menswear is fundamentally slanted towards the more fashionable, formal end of the spectrum of clothing styles. This interest in formal menswear is also connected to my fashion teaching, at both TAFE (1985-2006) and University (2004-2008), as I particularly enjoy imparting knowledge and skills in regards to formal men’s clothing.

The design innovation carried out in the research also connects to my larger creative practice as an artisan-designer. These areas of practice include - making, furniture design, house and restaurant interiors, home renovation and building and, of course, fashion. Within these diverse areas of practice, a commonality exists – a desire to make ‘beautiful’ objects. The pleasure from this desire is derived not only in viewing the final form, but also in the process of making. For me, beauty involves balancing conflicting attractions and desires. Such dichotomies include: old world charm and contemporary design, hand-crafted and mass-produced appearance, and ascetic men’s clothing and innovative women’s clothing.

Tempering innovation with wearability – the Neo-Dandy aesthetic

This desire for a balance of dichotomies was played out in a very specific way in this research project. I required design innovation to be tempered by notions of mainstream wearability. That is, a design limit applied to a garment so that it functioned within conventions and norms of mainstream dress, rather than as an outlandish extreme. During my research I discovered that this desire can be read into the fashion figure of the dandy, who operates on the border of dress norms and, at the same time, confronts conventions of dress. I realised then that my position was wrapped up in subverting the white dress shirt for men with elements – particularly detailing – that are normally thought to be reserved for womenswear garments such as the blouse.

11

As the white dress shirt for men is an iconic item of apparel which has been relatively rigid or fixed in design for over a century, the inclusion of blouse characteristics attempts to create a subversive position. However, as a result of my background and personal experiences, I have a need to place a limit on this subversion, relative to the boundaries of mainstream wearability for men. This cusp position between austerity and innovation which is mirrored in the dandy figure – and particularly the one that leans towards womenswear for design innovation – creates an aesthetic that I call Neo-Dandy. Specifically, this look can be described as being refined, formal and having womenswear characteristics.

Aims, research questions and outputs

Given my particular interest in the modern men’s white dress shirt which is innovative yet tempered by issues of mainstream wearability, a cusp position is created that requires the bringing together of three critical elements. The first of these elements is a design product, the modern white men’s dress shirt. The second is a design look, referred to as Neo-Dandy, and the last, a design limit of mainstream wearability. This could be put more formally as the principle guiding aim of this research:

The aim of this research is to apply design innovation with a Neo- Dandy aesthetic to the modern men’s white dress shirt, by incorporating characteristics associated with womenswear, whilst remaining quintessentially a contemporary mainstream menswear garment.

To achieve this aim, a principle research question was developed and explored:

What are the specific design principles that are required to create design innovation in the modern men’s white dress shirt, achieving a Neo-Dandy aesthetic (refined, formal and with womenswear characteristics) within boundaries of mainstream wearability for men?

12 Several supporting questions arose which needed to be addressed as part of tackling the principle research question:

How does mainstream wearability differ between genders?

What are the recent trends in menswear that are pertinent to the Neo- Dandy aesthetic?

What defines a modern white shirt for men and women?

How does the Neo-Dandy aesthetic compare and contrast with contemporary menswear designs that tamper with the modern white shirt?

In to achieve this research aim and answer the principle research question, a practice-led approach was pursued, resulting in the presentation of several outputs involving creative works (design objects) and accompanying written exegesis (design discussion). The outputs consist of:

Design objects (60% weighting) – a collection of men’s white dress shirts that explore wearability and design innovation within a Neo- Dandy aesthetic.

The shirts were displayed in a final exhibition, as well as in photographic documentation included in the supporting Design Notes (Appendices). Around sixty concept shirts were produced and they are numbered 1 to 60 for archival purposes, matching the order of assembly. Fifty five concept shirts were exhibited in the exhibition as five of the shirts remain as preliminary or incomplete experiments.

Design discussion (40% weighting) – the exegesis and appendices.

In the exegesis, Chapter 1 explores the key concepts around mainstream wearability and Neo-Dandy aesthetic. Chapter 2 surveys the historical evolution of the modern white shirt and uses this garment as a case study to highlight wearability differences between men and women. The chapter ends with a discussion of relevant work by contemporary menswear designers. Chapter 3 outlines the journey from early experiments to the final exhibition. The conclusion

13 summarises the key design principles arising from the research project, as well as the broader research contributions and areas for further research.

Methodology

There is a growing body of literature around practice-led research across art and design disciplines (see Gray and Malins 1996 and Haseman 2006 for an early and recent overview). However, practice-led approaches to fashion research remains largely uncharted. As Griffiths (2000, p.89-90) notes, fashion has a disintegrated approach to theory and practice and does not figure largely in academic text. To date, the study of fashion, including authors such as Breward, Hollander and Steele, has primarily concentrated on sociological relationships, whilst the theory of fashion practice has negligible discourse, in comparison to other design disciplines such as , and . Griffiths (2000, p.70) concurs by stating “amongst the entire body of academic work relating to fashion, there is scarcely a word written by a practicing designer, or articulated from a designer’s perspective”. In contradiction, fashion has been compared to architecture, with Hollander (1994, p.2) recognising both as having established sets of formal rules and impressive design visuals. Nonetheless, literature on fashion practice is still considered embryonic and, even more so by actual fashion practitioners. Some fashion practice-led research projects are currently in development in various academies, most notably from the College of Fashion (see Jan 2008 and Steinmetz 2008).

The strategies used in this research (which was undertaken as a part-time candidate) can be grouped into two main interwoven phases. Firstly, the creative practice phase – mid 2004 to mid 2006 – consisted of designing and producing around sixty concept shirts. In this period the concept shirts were exhibited and displayed in a variety of settings (discussed in Chapter 3) including exhibitions, fashion shows, seminars, as well as being worn in social settings by myself and others. The concept shirts have also been documented in photographic form (see Design Notebook – Appendices). In this studio-based phase, the benefit of working with concept shirts, as opposed to shirts ready for production or sale, was that it allowed for a greater freedom of practice. Issues relating to saleability – such as

14 price constraints, product branding, target market and market size – were not an elevated priority. The concept shirts served solely as a test bed for innovation.

The second phase – mid 2006 to late 2007 – consisted of synthesising this creative practice by testing and reflecting on wearability and success factors of the concept shirts and then developing a matrix that mapped their respective levels of design innovation. To underpin this work, two concurrent studies were undertaken: an historical study which linked the history of the men’s white shirt with dandyism and wearability; and an analysis of the white dress shirt in the hands of contemporary menswear designers. Late 2007 to early 2008 saw the production of the final exhibition and the exegesis.

Significance

This research makes original contributions to a range of emerging or niche areas:

Firstly, mainstream contemporary men’s clothing has, in the main, been traditionally conservative in design, with customary notions of menswear aligned to utility, functionality and conformity. Indeed, in comparison to womenswear, menswear has taken a back seat in regards to design innovation. This research assists in challenging notions that womenswear is the principal domain for a ‘fashionable’ display and illustrating that contemporary menswear can also reside in this domain.

Secondly, not only has design innovation been somewhat limited in mainstream menswear, so too has the amount of discourse surrounding the field of menswear. As Breward (quoted in Cicolini 2005, p.7) states: “[f]or while the literature on men and fashion is growing, it is in many ways a neglected subject with many social, aesthetic and cultural implications that deserve deeper scrutiny”. Breward is highly respected as a fashion historian and writer; however, an area that he does not mention is the limited voice of the fashion practitioner within the literature. Thus, this research allows an avenue for a fashion studio practitioner to discuss their practice and thereby contribute to the wider field of fashion discourse.

Thirdly, it has become evident in this research that men’s designers may to some degree tamper with the design of the archetypical men’s white dress shirt, but only

15 as part of a wider collection. Namely, they may include one or two ‘innovative’ white dress shirts in a season’s range, but have not embraced the iconic significance of a large collection that innovatively experiments with the garment – with the notable exception of Topman (an English men’s clothing chain) which undertook a ‘white shirt project’ in September 2007, with five designers creating five distinct interpretations of this consummate item of clothing. This research attempts to address the dearth of innovative practice in the design of such an iconic item of men’s apparel.

Finally, the relationship between a men’s white shirt and a women’s white blouse is undocumented in the literature. By researching and then documenting the history of the modern white shirt for both men and women, and the relationship between the two, this research adds an original contribution to the field of fashion dialogue.

16 (Intentionally left blank)

17 Chapter 1 – Design Context

Chapter overview and purpose

This chapter explores the variance between mainstream wearability for menswear and womenswear in the modern era. This period spans from the last decade of the nineteenth century through to contemporary times, and is indicative of the shifts that have occurred in wearability in Western cosmopolitan attire. It is proposed that the limits of mainstream wearability are different for each gender. The field of dress for women in the modern era is very broad and includes both womenswear and most menswear. On the other hand, this field is much narrower for men and almost exclusively consists of menswear. However, it is argued that shifts in norms for mainstream wearability are occurring for men and, for a segment of the menswear market, the scope is broadening to include some characteristics traditionally associated with womenswear. This segment has been slowly evolving – its limits tested and then stretched during the modern era, prompted by the dandy figure which has, in various guises, been at the cusp of these changes. Finally, an aesthetic relative to these changes – that I have called Neo-Dandy – is discussed, and highlights a shifting periphery for gender based dress conventions.

1.1 Defining Mainstream Wearability

In this research I use the term ‘wearability’ to refer to what is wearable or correct and appropriate attire for any particular social setting, era and culture. Before defining wearability, it is useful to state what wearability does not constitute and for this purpose I will use the coined terms of ‘fit-ability’, ‘comfort-ability’ and ‘sale-ability’. Firstly, fit-ability involves the degree to which the garment fits the body, such as correct length and collar size. Secondly, comfort-ability is aligned to the amount of within the garment or the degree to which the body can sufficiently move in the garment without restriction. It also involves the fabric type and of comfort relative to fibre type. Finally, the term sale-ability equates to whether the garment is merchandisable. In other words, sale-ability is a question of whether or not people will buy a garment and the reasons for this. All three factors (fit-ability, comfort-ability and sale-ability) are highly pertinent to commercial fashion practitioners. However, for this research, sale-ability is not relevant to my definition of wearability as the shirts are at a concept stage only (see

18 Blaszczyk 2008 and Sheman and Perlman 2007 for information on fashion and commerce). Similarly, while the shirts meet my criteria for fit-ability (for a medium size), as well as comfort-ability as a result of sufficient body ease and the use of natural fibres (see Aldrich 2006 and Knowles 2005 for more information on menswear garment fit and body ease), these criteria are not relevant to my definition of wearability.

Having defined what wearability is not, what is it? Wearability consists of being able to be worn within mainstream (Western) society while respecting characteristics associated with gender and societal norms. To be wearable, the garment must adhere to customary visual conventions for clothing and exist in the ‘ park’ for a particular setting or circumstance, and for particular markers of identity (age, class, occupation, religion and – most pertinent to this research – gender). In other words, wearability constitutes working within a design boundary that is not considered too extreme, whilst adhering to the contextual rules of dress. As Damhorst (2005, p. 70-71) states:

The rules we use to put all of these components (of dress) together on the body are loosely held guidelines for what is appropriate, fashionable, and attractive. The rules are a sort of grammar of dress. We learn the grammar of dress through the media and through groups and families to which we belong… For the most of what we wear, however, rules are not seriously enforced but are shaped by personal tastes, fashion trends, and group habits and conventions.

As will be discussed in the next section, one norm that is still upheld in mainstream contemporary society is that menswear strongly adheres to appropriate societal ideals and associated characteristics of dress.

19 1.2 Mainstream Wearability and Gender Norms in the Modern Era

Perceptions of what defines a masculine or feminine body image can be attributed to aspects such as body hair (particularly on the face), facial structure, body shape, tone of voice, gesture, hairstyle and mannerisms. Michelman (1999, p. 169) states, “secondary sex characteristics distinguish one sex from another. Frequently, differences between males and females are attributed to biology rather than the fact that they may be socially created”. However, even though biology assists in ascertaining a perceived gender of male or female, dress acts as one of the key visual factors for gender alignment. Conventions of dress, in relation to gender, have deep-seated societal norms. These gendered norms form conventions or rules of dress with culturally generated boundaries which are contextually specific for male and female attire. As Entwistle (2000, p.143) states “There is no natural link between an item of clothing and ‘’ or ‘masculinity’; instead there is an arbitrary set of associations which are culturally specific”. Likewise, renowned fashion designer Jean-Paul Gaultier is said to believe “that there is no clothing, with the exception of the , that is intrinsically male or female” (V&A c2007). Whilst clothing may not be inherently male or female, the connection between gender and dress is incredibly strong.

Please note: It is acknowledged that gender studies is an extensive discourse and, for the purpose of this research, gender is used only in relation to its association with an object. Everyday objects are aligned or made socially acceptable to a particular gender and considered appropriate for usage in mainstream society. The function of gender in this research is not to answer why this is the case or to question the validity of gender coding for objects (see Griggs (1998), Kirkham (1996) and Martinez and Ames (1997) for information about gender coding). The role of gender within this research project is to use it as a source for design innovation and as a reference point to scope the polarity of the field within mainstream Western society, for an item of clothing that covers the upper body of both sexes – most notably, the shirt.

20 Wearability and women in the modern era

It will be demonstrated in detail in Chapter 2 that, during the early part of the twentieth century, women in cosmopolitan society were able to wear styles that encompassed both the characteristics of menswear and womenswear. In this period a multitude of factors assisted this shift, including economic, cultural and political changes. In particular, World War One had a significant impact on dress conventions as women were undertaking roles that were once considered male-only activities. Expanding job opportunities, combined with economic freedom and independence (relative to this period), acted as a catalyst for clothing styles to shift to a less gender restrictive field. Hegland (1999, p.194) states:

for a number of reasons, including the emancipation of women, practicality in the workplace, personal safety, physical comfort, and trends in , women in cosmopolitan societies have adopted and adapted almost every characteristic of “masculine” dress.

Or as Hollander (1994, p.181) states, “all parts of male dress have long since lost their outrageousness for women”.

However, some limits still apply for mainstream wearability for women. In particular, Hegland (1999, p.194) notes that conventions of dress still exist in the modern era, as it is still considered inappropriate for women to completely conceal their biological sex through clothing; in other words, it is appropriate for women to wear characteristics of men’s clothing, as long as they still look female. Nevertheless, it is proposed that women have a wide scope in relation to wearability, where they can now wear both the characteristics of menswear and womenswear. However, for men, different norms apply and these are discussed in the following section.

Wearability and men in the modern era

Whilst wearability for women is broad in scope, for men this is not the case. As Hegland (1999, p.194) states “Men who adopt any feminine forms of dress are viewed─at best─as humorous or peculiar, and─at worst─as abomination that

21 should be locked up.” While Hegland may have stated the matter extremely, the sentiment holds. These conventions of dress have historical origins. The late nineteenth and early twentieth century was a critical time for determining subsequent rigid and austere conventions of dress for men. See Flügel (1930) The Psychology of Clothes; Veblen (1994; first published 1899) The Theory of the Leisure Class; and Carter (2003) Fashion Classics: From Carlyle to Barthes for information on theories of dress. During this period moral respectability became aligned to austerity and rigidity of dress and, in particular, to the white shirt. In the 1920s, as Turbin (2000, p.525) states:

Critics criticized soft collars and loose clothes as ‘easeful garb’ and ‘flaccid fashions’ associated with postures and gestures, specifically slouchiness, which equalled lack of ‘backbone’.

Strict etiquette dictated standards for men’s attire, with an abundant number of etiquette books defining these standards. These etiquette manuals provided knowledge in regard to what was wearable and what was not, and when and where particular garments should be worn. In other words, these conventions served to outline society’s definition of wearability relative to time, place and social standing. However, these books progressively faded from society, particularly after the Second World War as the modern ethos slowly developed.

Even so, on the whole, men’s fashion still adhered to the ‘old’, sober appearance until the middle of the twentieth century. As McCracken (quoted in Michelman, 1999, p.173) states:

During the 20th century up through to the 1950’s, men followed a restricted code for appearance, limited to angular design lines, neutral and subdued colour palettes, bifurcated garments (i.e., pants) for the lower body, natural but not tight silhouettes, sturdy fabrics and , and simple face grooming.

In this period even the use of particular colours, which would be considered very conservative today, were considered confronting. As Cole (2000, p. 142) indicates, in the late 1940s, the colour of a man’s clothing indicated his sexual preference; in particular, pale blue was a “queer’s trade colour”.

22

By and large, modern mainstream men’s clothing has a narrow wearability field when it comes to what is considered appropriate for silhouette, type of garment and detailing. In summary, this comprises: a silhouette that is relatively close fitting; a small array of garment types, including trousers, shirts, vests, and ; and judicious use of detailing, including topstitching, and discreet trimmings. Hollander (1994, p.112), for example, proposes that the field of wearability for menswear includes: not mixing ‘programs’ (styles of wear); aesthetic propriety; no drapery, , and (nor, generally-speaking, ).

These boundaries are evolving and, for some, they form a place for innovation in men’s dress styles, thereby allowing a slippage of norms. As Entwistle (2000, p.180) notes: “[t]he boundaries of gender are tangibly still in place, though not totally unbridgeable for a few ‘creative’ individuals”. Nevertheless, for mainstream menswear, conventions of dress still apply and as Edwards (1997, p.16) states, “the rules of the right suit, knot in the tie and design of the collar are more rigid than the tightest ”. Furthermore, O’Bryne (2000, p.164) supports this premise by claiming that “men are notoriously more conservative dressers than women, and men’s designers have to venture carefully when it comes to new ideas”.

The minutiae of wearability for menswear

As established, a narrow band of wearability exists for menswear in comparison to womenswear. However, within this narrow band, an even smaller field exists. In mainstream menswear, minute design details are highly pertinent and levels of concern about the minutiae of garment details – such as trimmings, size and even stitch length – are highly significant. As Kirkham (1996, p.6) states:

The unease experienced by the disruption of apparently minor details of gender differentiation, such as the location of buttons on the ‘wrong’ side of a shirt or , appears to be far greater in men than in women who, in general, are more used to ‘appropriating’ aspects of male dress than men are aspects of female dress.

Anecdotally, my experience as a practitioner has ascertained that men who state they are not interested in fashion, on the whole, still display a great concern for

23 small details. The finer points of menswear detailing such as the subtle shaping of a collar, loops, and button sizes become important. The minute details are noteworthy on menswear and form an important element within notions of wearability.

In conclusion, in the modern era, the gender variations within mainstream wearability are considerable. In womenswear, a broad diversity of clothing styles – and equally broad tolerance and acceptability of this diversity – exists. In contrast, menswear has a narrower scope of clothing choices and a smaller field of wearability, as indicated in Chart 1a (below). This chart highlights the spectrum of wearability for men and women in the modern era and it will be further expanded in subsequent sections of this chapter. It will then culminate at the end of Chapter 2 in a complete Spectrum of the Modern White Shirt.

Chart 1a: Indicating different limits of mainstream wearability in the modern era for

menswear and womenswear.

24 1.3 Shifting Dress Norms and the Dandy Figure

As previously established, in the first half of the twentieth century menswear was, for the most part, austere and adhered to sober conventions. However, not all men adhered to these dress norms and some challenged the conventions of the day through dress innovation. This confrontational stance, at times, assisted in prompting shifts in wearability to occur for the broader population. There were many pioneers of dress innovation that were ahead of their time. Organisations such as the Men’s Dress Reform in the 1930s, attempted to change the sober and restrictive attire of the period by espousing a controversial style of dress. Their aim was to replace the tie and rigid collar with a soft, loose style collar; exchange the dress shirt for a loose bloused style garment; substitute trousers for comfortable and replace shoes with . This loose, practical style of dress is more commonplace in today’s fashion; however, at the time, it was considered at the vanguard of dress styles. In other words, they were working on the cusp of wearability by being at the forefront or the periphery of what was considered appropriate or inappropriate, depending on individual perspectives, for dress conventions of the time.

Figure 1.3-1: c1930 Men’s Dress Reform Party. Note the diversity of menswear styles. (Chenoune, 1993, p.170).

25

This confrontational stance, in all its guises, can be deemed as dandyism: a practice of dressing that is provocative or oppositional. Breward (2003, p.161) explains that the dandy is “an iconic figure whose actions have anticipated and mirrored the re- formation of style, as an active component of cultural change”. Namely, the dandy is positioned at the forefront of dress change, relative to his or her individual cultural landscape. However, as Fletcher (2004, p.136) argues, one of the key elements in dandyism is the ability to destabilise the rules of dress, whilst at the same time still abiding by the broader social and dress conventions of the time. This position, between upholding societal dress codes whilst challenging the norms of the day, is on the cusp of mainstream wearability. As a result, the practice of dandyism assists, at times, to nudge or stretch the boundaries for mainstream wearability for the wider field.

Even though the practice of dandyism has the general characteristic of confronting notions of mainstream wearability, its individual manifestations can be quite dissimilar. Dandyism is neither time, nor place specific and differs according to culture, ethnicity, age and social backgrounds. As a consequence, there are a range of ideological bases for dandyism, including the English socially constructed dandy and the French intellectual dandy. Examples of this diversity are numerous, ranging from distinction achieved through restraint of dress by the iconic dandy figure of Beau Brummel (1778-1840); the homosexual links with dandyism and as a result of his trial for sodomy in 1895; the associations of decadence and the Harlem's black dandy of the 1920s and 30s; the alliance with youth sub-culture and gangs in the 1950s with the Edwardian style dress of the Boy; through to the heterosexual representation of the Playboy. For information on this diversity see Fillin-Yeh (2001) and Moers (1960).

However, in this research the style of dandyism that is pertinent is the style of dress that works on the cusp of gender norms for wearability. This was particularly the case with male fashion in the 1960s with the ‘Peacock Revolution’ which was less gender constrained and more extravagant in nature than previous periods. The 1960s witnessed a revolution in conventions of male dress, with an explosion of colour and flamboyance for fashionable men’s clothing. Precincts such as London’s Carnaby Street, fuelled the shift to challenge previous ‘rules’ of masculine dress, which had remained relatively constant for over half a century. Chenoune (1993, p.258), when writing about the era, describes it as follows:

26 [A] polemic broke out over the new codes of handsomeness forged by adolescents who abandoned conventional clichés of virility by adopting “effeminate” colours and long hair…What shocked people more than anything, perhaps, was the ambiguous image projected by “electric adolescents.” The question on everyone’s lips was, “Is that a boy or is it a girl?”

English menswear designers, such as Michael Fish (Mr Fish label, in Clifford Street London), created vividly printed shirts and the use of frills and cravats came back in vogue. Parisienne designers such as Pierre Cardin, meanwhile, challenged conventions of the time with ‘ age’ unisex designs. New synthetic fabrics were widely used and previous advances in dyeing technology enabled a vibrant range of fabric prints and colours, which only a few years earlier were considered audacious for menswear. Men’s fashion became increasingly androgynous (relative to the time) and fashionable unisex clothing confronted previous strict notions of conventions for dress.

In the 1970s and 1980s one of the influencing factors for gender representation and shifts in conventions of dress for men, was popular music performers, particularly David Bowie and Boy George. As Entwistle (2000, p.175) states: “Boy George wore obvious make-up, nail varnish, hair ribbons and skirts, provocatively playing with conventions, not just of gender, but sexuality too”. In this period, as a result of increased exposure to popular media, a gradual relaxation of conventions was occurring. The early 1980s witnessed a shift to a style of fashion, although briefly, that was influenced by the dandified Regency designs from the English Romantic period. Popular music performers, such as Gary Kemp from Spandau Ballet and Simon Le Bon from Duran Duran, heightened a look that was less gender defined. However, this was in stark contrast to the ‘power dressing’ fashion that occurred in the late 1980s. This style of dress aligned with very ‘masculine’ conventions of dress and iconic such as epitomising the tailored suit and tie as a mark of business success.

By the late 1980s, another form of dandyism surfaced with the media driven English term, ‘New Man’. This fresh figure captured the new imagery of the caring, sensitive and new age man who was strongly aware of his feminine side. Peitsch (2004, p.46) proposes that the ‘New Man’ was a potent symbol for men seeking a break from the notions of a ‘macho’, rigid version of masculinity and a

27 breadwinner ethos. Also, Edwards (1997, p.39) suggests that the ‘New Man’ was a result of a second wave of feminism, with the 1980s Eternity advertisement depicting a handsome masculine man cradling an infant, as an iconic profile for this new form of manhood. The birth of the ‘New Man’ was nourished by men’s magazines such as Arena, a transformed version of the American publication GQ. Although, the ‘New Man’ tag slowly waned in the early 1990s and fell from grace in the media, the shift in conventions for masculine representation were significant. Also in this period, designers were challenging accepted norms of dress for men, particularly Jean-Paul Gaultier in 1985 with his ‘skirts for men’ collection.

In conclusion, even though the field of dress for mainstream menswear is narrow, a cusp exists where a style of dress or representation challenges the norms of the day. This position is occupied by the dandy figure. The particular panache of the dandy will vary significantly, according to time and place. However, the area of interest for this research is the region between menswear and womenswear for design innovation, albeit within limits. This self imposed restriction assists in retaining the garment within the menswear field, as illustrated with dotted line in Chart 1b.

Chart 1b: Dotted line indicating the cusp position of menswear characteristics, that leans towards womenswear characteristics, within mainstream wearability in the modern era.

28 1.4 Recent Trends and the Neo-Dandy Aesthetic

Through a combination of historical factors, as previously discussed, the stage had been set for a gradual relaxation in gender conventions for dress for men in the contemporary era. This has been particularly the case in recent times as a result of the influence of contemporary role models, such as the football celebrity David Beckham. Alongside this influence, increased media exposure and changes in consumption patterns have resulted in a reallocation of norms for men’s dress for a segment of the contemporary menswear market. Hollander (1994, p.181) states:

It’s clear that modernizing clothes for women has meant copying men’s clothes, directly or indirectly, one way or another. To even the balance, however we can see that many men in the last third of the century have already taken up the formerly female game of finding pleasure in expressive multiple guises… The new male freedom has produced a pleasing richness of variety similar to the modern female one, though not entirely the same and still not quite so broad… For the first time in centuries men are learning clothing habits from women, instead of the other way around.

McDowell (1997, p.196) proposes that male attitudes in contemporary society mirror the changes that occurred in female ideals at the turn of the previous century (1890s-1900s). As part of this trend, menswear designers are now increasingly looking towards female fashion for inspiration – “Burly men are pinning brooches to the tuxedos and toting knitted satchels as menswear designers flirt with femininity on the cat walks”. (Ruehl, 2005, p.2) Also, as a consequence of the boundaries and codes for gender classification blurring, heterosexual and homosexuality constructs are becoming fluid. Men are more likely to experiment with less rigid codes of masculine dress, as it is increasingly difficult to define male sexual preference by clothing styles. However, as Cicolini (2005, p.13) argues, this new form of dandyism is fuelled by self-actualised consumerism and a society at ease with industrial modernity. All in all, there is evidence that an element of men’s fashion is adjusting to an aesthetic that is not as fixed in its gender boundaries.

29 It is also noteworthy that authors, including Hegland, discuss a point where this shift of gender based dress conventions is classified as ‘cross-dressing’. However, little discussion is evident about the zone prior to this; a zone which for men is classed as ‘effeminate’, as opposed to feminine (cross-dressing). This effeminate position is ambiguous in nature and the point at which a style of dress or aspects of a particular garment are deemed effeminate is contextually relative.

The new English dandy

As previously outlined, men’s fashion in recent times has become, in the main, less beholden to previous rigid conventions for male dress. In particular, this relaxing of norms for men’s dress has accelerated, to a certain extent, during the latter part of the 1990s through to the present. In this period of dress change, diverse arrays of sartorial styles have manifested, with a range of , including military inspired dress, pared down and minimal clothing as well as a highly casualised ‘worn and torn’ look. However, one particular aesthetic that is gaining a fashionable foothold for 2008 is, as WGSN (Worth Global Style Network, an English based company) states, “cocktailwear and formal occasion dressing [that] crosses the boundary from day to night”. In other words formal clothing, that was once principally for evening wear, now is being worn across a broader array of occasions, including daywear and more casual social occasions.

This shift to more formal clothing, that is not as contextually specific, is enabling a segment of menswear to be more refined and formal in appearance. As Cicolini (2005, p.9) states “the new millennium has brought a slow but steady emergence of a new dapper man, converging with other, similarly strict and measured masculine trends across London and in other urban centres”. Paradoxically, the loosening up of conventions for male dress has also contrastingly witnessed a resurgence of bespoke ‘traditional’ menswear, as evidenced by the rise of English (celebrity) , such as , Ozwald Boateng and Mark Powell.

Within this formal tailored aesthetic, the relaxation of dress conventions has allowed individual sartorial display to flourish. As Breward states (quoted in Cicolini, 2005, p.7) “my sense is that a loosening up of things has had many positive effects, not least the ways in which a playful experimentation with issues of image and style can contribute to the breaking down of entrenched and divisive

30 assumptions about identity”. This blend of formal and at times ‘frivolous’ aesthetic is evident in Cicolini’s, The New English Dandy, a major touring exhibition and book with essays, photographs and interviews with contemporary British designers. A parallel is made between the dandy ‘movement’ of the early nineteenth century and modern male fashionable display in London. Cicolini (2005, p.9-10) states:

There are shared traits underpinning the deliberate choices these men are making, consideration, neatness, awareness of the importance of detail, appreciation of line, investment in quality and an enjoyment of a certain distinction that an understanding of these elements combine to afford.

Hence, the modern male peacock, in Cicolini’s discussion, embraces an aesthetic that experiments with a self-actualised style, realised through levels of formality and meticulousness. I wish now to articulate my own design aesthetic – the Neo- Dandy aesthetic – that forms part of this trend.

The Neo-Dandy aesthetic

For the purpose of this research, I am defining the Neo-Dandy aesthetic as a look that mirrors aspects of the new English dandy, as previously discussed. In essence this aesthetic, as stated in the key terms, appears refined, formal, and with womenswear characteristics. At the same time, the aesthetic endeavours to be experimental and innovative with menswear and confront, or at least nudge, gender conventions for men’s dress, whilst still operating within mainstream wearability for men. It could be viewed as operating on the cusp-of-wearability for men and it can be argued that this represents part of a growing trend in cosmopolitan menswear in the last decade or so which heads towards a less gender restrictive aesthetic.

More specifically, the Neo-Dandy aesthetic is formal in appearance; casual clothing is incongruous with the look. Within this over-arching formality resides a fine balance of conflicting forms. On one side of this continuum are rigidity, austerity and soberness of detailing (archetypical norms for menswear) and on the other side are softness, and detailing (‘generalised’ norms for some styles of womenswear). In other words, the Neo-Dandy aesthetic attempts to balance notions of male and female characteristics of dress.

31 The recent trends within the field that are pertinent to the Neo-Dandy aesthetic consist of a shift from previous rigid gender based notions of ‘correct’ attire for menswear to a new, less gender defined aesthetic. This is part of a growing segment of the menswear market and opens up the field for design that look to womenswear characteristics for inspiration. Hence, the third part of the diagrammatic Chart 1c indicates the position for the Neo-Dandy aesthetic.

Chart 1c: Indicating the Neo-Dandy position that leans towards womenswear characteristic for aesthetics, whilst retaining enough quintessential menswear characteristics relative to notions of mainstream wearability.

32 (Intentionally left blank)

33 Chapter 2 – Design Evolution

Chapter overview and purpose

In this chapter the modern white shirt is framed as a classic case of the differences between mainstream wearability for each gender. To aid in this demonstration, a Spectrum of the Modern White Shirt that builds upon the Spectrum of Mainstream Wearability (as outlined in Chapter 1) is developed. First discussed are the two ends of the spectrum – the archetypal men’s dress shirt on the one end (with a subtle Tuxedo variant), and the women’s blouse (austere or decorated, loose or fitted) at the other. As I will show through historical commentary, these garment types emerged by the end of the nineteenth century (at which time they were already aligned to different genders) and have stayed relatively fixed in European culture into the twenty-first century. The intent of this spectrum is to examine the characteristic differences between men’s shirts and women’s blouses and then position the Neo-Dandy aesthetic within this spectrum.

While I have taken up a Western notion of dress and associated conventions of norms of dress for men and women, it is acknowledged that even under this general cultural banner a wide multiplicity of positions may exist. I have predominantly focused on an Anglo-historical account. Thus the literature sourced is predominantly English language text and most of the information is about what occurred in Britain and the , as Australian historical documentation is limited.

This chapter then discusses selected examples of innovative white dress shirts by leading contemporary menswear designers, the intent being to scope the field of design innovation for the modern white dress shirt and, in so doing, compare and contrast its inherent aesthetic with the Neo-Dandy aesthetic. This discussion will then culminate in an exploration of four examples of innovation to the modern white dress shirt that align to the Neo- Dandy aesthetic.

34 2.1 Evolution of the Modern Men’s White Shirt

The archetypal men’s white dress shirt

The archetypal men’s white dress shirt has a natural fit for the upper-body and has a centre front button opening with tab, rigid collar and cuffs, customarily cut double, long set-in-sleeves and a curved line. The fabric used is generally either 100% cotton or, more recently, a cotton- blend. This icon of men’s fashion exists across the range of menswear outlets – from elite designer stores to low-cost clothing outlets.

The anatomical elements of a classic undecorated men’s dress shirt consist of several major pattern or block shapes: two sides of the front, the back, the sleeve and the yoke. These key components determine the form and fit of the garment. The main sub-elements consist of: the collar, which is normally cut in two pieces with a stand and a fall, and the . The purpose of these elements is to formalise the garment through rigidity, as well as to provide the main scope for stylistic variations. Other functional elements include: a front tab for buttons and , and a small band (called a ) on the sleeve to allow for access to the arm. These major pattern pieces combine to produce a basic dress shirt, although there are a range of extra pieces that play key supporting roles. Additional interfacing components provide rigidity to the front tab, the cuffs, the collar fall and collar stand. Interfacing can also be applied to the placket according to fabric density. Depending on construction methods, the collar fall and the cuff may also have an under pattern that is cut smaller than the pattern. The placket can also have a small bind to facilitate a precise closure. Therefore, even though a basic shirt appears relatively simple in form, it can have, in entirety, up to approximately a dozen fabric pattern pieces, half-a-dozen interfacing pattern pieces and, once the fabric is cut, over two dozen shapes.

35 Listed below are the specific elements and fabric cutting instructions for a men’s dress shirt:

Front – fabric cut as a pair to provide a left and right side Back – fabric cut on the fold of the fabric Yoke – fabric cut double Sleeve – fabric cut as a pair for left and right sides Outer cuff – fabric cut as a pair Under cuff – fabric cut as a pair Collar stand – fabric cut as a pair Outer collar – fabric cut single Under collar – fabric cut single Tab front – fabric cut as a pair Placket (sleeve vent) – fabric cut as a pair Placket bind – fabric cut as a pair Upper collar – interfacing cut single Under collar – interfacing cut double for support Front tab (centre front panel for buttons) – interfacing cut as a pair Cuff interfacing – interfacing cut as a pair Placket – interfacing cut as a pair (optional)

Figure 2.1-1: Basic pattern draft of major shirt pattern shapes. This pattern acted as a foundational pattern for the research project (Aldrich, 1984, p.30).

36

The white dress shirt is designed to be tucked in (hence the curved hem) and may or may not be worn with a tie. It is referred to as a dress shirt, because it is typically worn within the formal end of social wear and within cosmopolitan, professional settings. It also can be worn for formal evening wear where the suit and tie may or may not be dominant.

Figure 2.1-2: The archetypal modern dress shirt. Left (Louis Vuitton, 2006), and right (Dior Homme, 2007a).

The early evolution of modern men’s white dress shirt

For the scope of this research the early period of men’s shirt history is succinctly discussed. It is acknowledged that, prior to the modern era, successive changes occurred to the shirt as a result of fashion shifts and basic technical advancements in construction (see Cunnington and Willett (1992) for more information on the early evolution of the white dress shirt).

The shirt (period term, ‘sherte’) is an enduring item in both name and in its principal design. Its provenance can be traced back to the Norman period, around the turn of the first millennium, with a loose, utilitarian garment referred to as a or a smock. This unstructured form, which was considered as an , essentially remained consistent in silhouette up until the mid to late part of the nineteenth century.

37

Figure 2.1-3: (left) shirt, c 1795-1800; (right) man’s shirt, dated 1813 (Cunnington and Willett, 1992, p.100).

Figure 2.1-4: Men’s shirt pattern 1700 to 1810. Note the rectangular pattern shape (Waugh, 1964, p.53).

In the middle part of the nineteenth century the origins of the modern shirt, including the dress shirt, begin to emerge. During the period 1840s to 1870s the shirt shifted from a loose garment to a fitted garment which essentially resembled current notions of fit and style. The catalysts for change were threefold. Firstly, during the mid to late nineteenth century tailors adopted a scientific approach to

38 drafting shirt patterns and this mathematical system enabled a better fitting garment. Shep and Cariou (1999, p.7) notes that many shirt drafting systems from that period were patented and enterprising inventors created highly and intricate systems to enhance the fit of the shirt. Shirtmakers could now draft patterns to fit a multitude of sizes and the quality of individual fit significantly improved. Secondly, this transformation of cut was necessary as the vest and jacket were becoming more fitted and a bulky was uncomfortable to wear. Through waist shaping, a shoulder yoke and a curved armhole and sleeve head, the shirt was able to reduce its bulk, whilst still allowing for movement. Also, as the vest and opening became higher it necessitated more formal and rigid collar and cuff shapes. Finally, due to improvements in sewing manufacture and the industrial revolution, the domestic sewing of men’s shirts was rapidly in decline. Ready made, affordable shirts were gaining popularity and this enabled a more refined style and cut to permeate the market.

Figure 2.1-5: (left) man’s evening dress shirt, 1850-1860; (right) man’s evening dress shirt c 1860-1870. Both shirts use a curved hem (Cunnington & Willett, 1992, p.158).

By 1890, the basic fitted shirt had evolved. It consisted of a fitted silhouette with coat style (full length button opening) front, yoke, firm cuffs and collar and a curved . The distinction between a dress shirt and a casual shirt was also becoming evident. Dress shirts had either pleated or plain bib fronts (on occasion, detachable bib fronts) or small frills on the front tab, depending on the fashion of the time. Collars, and sometimes cuffs, were also detachable on formal shirts, whereas casual shirts had attached, soft collars.

39

Figure 2.1-6: 1868 men’s shirt pattern. Note the use of armhole and sleeve shaping (Shep, 1999, p.27).

In conclusion, by the close of the 1890s, the bedrock had been laid for what we know today as the white dress shirt. The basic form is consistent with current notions of fit and silhouette and the construction, apart from the detached collar is, on the whole, allied to contemporary practices. Hence, it can be argued that between 1870 and 1890, the white dress shirt was in a form that paralleled modern variants, notwithstanding inconsequential styling, decoration and construction differences. At this point in history, the white dress shirt as we know it today, was clearly in existence. I now turn to the century-long design shifts associated with that archetypical form in the era of the modern white dress shirt.

40

Figure 2.1-7: 1891 men’ shirts. Note the use of a centre front opening, collar, cuffs and silhouette that resemble current era shirts (Shep, 1999, p.73).

The modern era of the men’s white dress shirt

In the last decade of the nineteenth century shirt styles were relatively fixed by societal codes of dress, heightened through the popularity of men’s journals. In this period, uniformity of shirt styles was widespread, except for discreet style and innovations.

At this time, the white dress shirt was plain; however, some detailing around the neck and front chest area, known as the bib, was in use. Chenoune (1993, p.95) states that

whether such shirts were figured, braided, pleated, or adorned with embroidery or open-work, they all obeyed one basic principle: the wider the , the easier they were to make and maintain, and therefore the more common they were. In contrast, the narrower the pleats, the more elegant they were.

Unlike prior periods the shirt’s role as a display medium was diminishing, except for very formal evening wear, as the now formed the avenue for

41 decorative display. Consequently, the collar was the principal visible element of the shirt. The button-on collar was standard dress and the shirt was now becoming a fixed item to connect varying and cuff variations. The collar was also used as a symbol of social rank, with high standing collars preventing a downward gaze, as Turbin (2002, p.482) states, “to look downward, high-status men had to literally look down their noses”. Consequently, high rigid collars distinguished the elite from clerks who necessitated low collars for ease of movement. The could also be readily starched, thereby allowing a rigidity and armour like appearance for the wearer. This rigidity was considered a crucial aspect for correct and sober dress during this period. In fact, these areas of upper chest and neck region, match the armoury of old with its rigid torso plates.

Figure 2.1-8: 1889 men’s detachable collars (Shep, 1999, p.149).

Even though the white dress shirt was comparatively unchanging in form, and for the most part hidden by outer garments, it still formed one of the keystone elements for understanding classical male dress until the first decade of the twentieth century. The white shirt, until the end of the nineteenth century, was a significant historical symbol of wealth and class distinction, as only a person of substantial

42 wealth could afford to have their shirts washed frequently and to own enough of them to wear. The link between social distinction and the whiteness of the shirting cloth was, as Roetzel (1999, p.20) proposes, used as a marker for affluence, as an unclean white shirt was connected with ‘dirty’, poorly paid labouring work. Even an unclean collar implied that not only was the garment unclean, but the inner body – including the mind – was as well.

The white dress shirt was also a powerful emblem of sobriety and uniformity in the Victorian era. Flugel (1930, p.75) believed that the white shirt, with its ‘virgin’ and pristine appearance sent a message of being authoritative, steadfast and trustworthy. The relationship between responsibility, sobriety and uniformity allowed the white shirt to become a customary vehicle for masculine dress. The pure white colour fulfilled masculine ideals of unwavering sombreness and the shirt, through its embodied consistency and rigid appearance with high collars and stiff bibs and cuffs, epitomised conformity and dependability. As Hollander (1994, p.69) suggests, by the nineteenth century, men who concerned themselves with decorative versus utilitarian needs were reviled for being non-masculine. The unadorned white dress shirt was intrinsically correlated to appropriate moral masculine behaviour and it was believed that any deviation from that norm would result in a collapse of society’s established conservative values. Honeyman (2002, p.428) states that this austerity of dress “indicated that a man could be trusted, that he was serious and that he meant business. It also meant that he was unlike a woman”. Hence, in the Victorian era, the white shirt underpinned attitudes to manliness and it formed a foundation stone for visual and moral assumptions about masculine ideals.

Furthermore, when patterned shirts were worn in that period, suspicions were raised as the patterned fabric was perceived to mask a lack of personal cleanliness. The potent historical message a white shirt can convey is noted by Mark Twain (1981, p.415) in his autobiographical account of his life, “if a man wanted a fight on his hands without any annoying delay, all he had to do was to appear in public in a white shirt and he would be accommodated. For those people hated aristocrats”. In essence, the white shirt was used as an emblem of business success and power and as a distinguishing marker for social rank.

43 This association with formality is evident in the 1880s and onwards with the adoption of the terms ‘white collar’ and ‘blue collar’ workers – white collar denoting a clerical or managerial level, and blue collar denoting manual work. Traditionally, shirts for manual workers were dyed a shade of indigo to conceal labouring stains and, as Turbin (2002, p.483) proposes, many working class men resented clerical workers for wearing white shirts, referring to them as ‘white collar stiffs’ as they dressed above their station, as an employer not an employee. Hence, the white shirt was essentially viewed as a symbolic icon inferring social status.

By the close of the nineteenth century the use of the white dress shirt as an insignia to define status had diminished and it had become ubiquitous male apparel. The reasons are threefold. Firstly, with the rise of the industrial revolution, manufacturing costs for shirts decreased and availability increased. As a result, men were able to afford to own at least one white shirt and they were readily available. Secondly, the rise of the middle class enabled an increased affluence brought about by a new ethos, which combined consumption, cleanliness and European gentility. This penchant for cleanliness acted as fuel for a public desire for immaculate white shirts, thereby escalating their popularity. Craik (1994, p.184) suggests that the rise of consumption patterns allowed a new, restrained style of dress to thrive and the correct external appearance of a man became fused to his social mobility and possible business success. Finally, the average man could now afford to launder at least one white shirt with multiple detachable collars, cuffs and bibs. This shirt was then able to equip a man for church, the ‘high street’ and for employment within clerical roles. Willet and Cunnigton (1992, p.189) also suggest that detachable collars and cuffs, which could be reversed when one edge was soiled, allowed the shirt to circumvent amenities. The white shirt was now able to bridge societal divides and the defining factor for class separation was no longer the colour but the fit, quality of the cloth and very discreet style variations.

By the beginning of the twentieth century, with the rise of commercial and inside plumbing, the whiteness of a dress shirt could easily be maintained. It was now common place to own a number of white shirts and the increased quality of manufacture ensured robustness during the laundering process and improved garment longevity. In this period the wearing of coloured shirts for business wear was gaining popularity; however, white shirts were still regarded as appropriate for eveningwear and ‘Sunday best’ attire. This period continued with detailing that was

44 relatively plain. At times, bib fronts were pleated but, generally, detailing was discreet or non-existent. As Burtis (quoted in Shep and Cariou, 1999, p.220) stated in a 1911 ladies’ journal, Making a Shirt for a Man, “many men believe that it is unbecoming for any one, save perhaps a college boy, to affect anything bordering on decoration or fad stunts as they call them”.

Figure 2.1-9: 1919 men’s suits worn with white shirts (Olian, 1995, p.113).

In the early twentieth century, the white dress shirt continued to have an undergarment association and, if a man was wearing only trousers and a shirt, he was considered to be ‘undressed’. Cunnington and Willett (1992, p.15) propose that a shirt was considered as an undergarment up until the First World War and the notion of an outer garment touching the skin was simply abhorrent. Even in contemporary times, this customary hangover can be evidenced where it can still be considered poor taste, in certain social contexts, for a man to take off his jacket in public and expose his shirt.

45 After the end of the First World War, a societal shift was occurring with a consequent rejection of Victorian rigid and ‘starched’ ideals and a desire to adopt new, post war conventions. The white dress shirt was still commonly worn; however rigid collars, cuffs and bibs became fundamentally aligned to formal wear. A new, softer and more fluid look was developing for less formal clothing. One of the key influences was the Prince of Wales (later Edward VIII for only one year in 1936), who was a popular leader of fashion at the time. His rejection of the white shirt, with its severe lines, in favour of soft, floppy, coloured shirts created a major shift in menswear. Alongside this shift to a ‘softer’ style of dress, casual shirts were becoming popular, including tennis and sports shirts. This period also aligned to the start of the demise of the detachable collar on the dress shirt, due to reduced laundering and manufacturing costs.

In the first part of the 1920s, the white dress shirt was still associated with moral respectability. Hence, in 1924 the founding father of IBM, Thomas J. Watson, was insistent on a and demanded all his office employees wear a classic white shirt as part of their mandatory attire. As Olofsson (2004, p.42) claims, a white shirt possesses sterling qualities of reliability, respectability and responsibility. The starkness of a white shirt juxtaposed against a darkly coloured suit coat or trousers, has been an enduring code of dress for decorum and propriety and this visual expectation is still manifested within many professional roles in the modern era.

By the start of the Second World War detachable collars were used for only the most formal of occasions, the dress code. The white dress shirt was plain, except for minor frontal bib treatment and, in essence, had not changed in form apart from construction details. In this period the shirt was no longer considered as an undergarment, as the white tee-shirt now fulfilled that role. The next major change for the white dress shirt was the introduction of synthetic fabrics in the late 1950s and early 1960s. Even though the adoption of synthetic fibres did not alter the garments appearance, it transformed the wearability and serviceability of the shirt. With the introduction of blends, and subsequently polyester, shirts were drip dry and required minimal . However, synthetic fibres had questionable ability for comfort, particularly in hot, humid climates.

46

Figure 2.1-10: (left) 1946 -1947 men’s shirts (Smith, 1999, p.43).

Another significant shift for the white dress shirt was in the late 1960s and early 1970s. This period witnessed an escalation in detailing, in particular frontal flounces and ruffles, as well as increased collar widths. Also, for some, the was being rejected in favour of open neck shirts. The white dress shirt was still seen as a formal garment as a vast array of highly coloured and printed shirts popularised the market place for casual clothing. In the early 1980s, for a brief period, an innovative, romantic style of dressing with loosely styled foppish and frilled white shirts was the height of fashion.

Figure 2.1-11: (right) late 1970s men’s shirts (Skinner and McCord, 2004, p.81).

47

Through the 1980s ‘power dressing’ was adopted and the white dress shirt, once again, regained its hold on social status. The formal shirt styles were austere and rigid and the tie regained a strong foothold. By the 1990s, however, the casualisation of clothing was occurring and the tie, which was the principle place for floridity, was being rejected in many formal settings. It is also noteworthy, that similar to prior periods, shirts significantly varied in quality during this period and a segment of the market did not follow fashionable changes.

Figure 2.1-12: late 1980s Hugo Boss ‘power dressing’ (Chenoune, 1993, p.312).

The tuxedo shirt

In the modern era, the men’s dress shirt is most characteristically associated, in its most formal state, with the rigid bib front and is customarily referred to as the tuxedo shirt. The bib covers the upper chest area and can be either plain, pleated, or adorned with small frills. Bibs are normally highly interfaced to provide firmness and are sewn as part of the garment, so as not to be detachable from the shirt. The term ‘tuxedo’ refers to a style of dress that is highly formal, which may also be referred to as ‘black tie’ or ‘ jacket’. The tuxedo shirt forms part of this code of dress and is designed to be worn under a jacket. The bib provides visual rigidity,

48 and at times decoration, to the area of the jacket. This style of shirt is customarily worn with a and has historically been white in appearance. The tuxedo shirt generally has either Barrel style (lapped over) or French cuffs. The French cuff has traditionally been the more formal variant and is seen as a symbol of a more reserved, well dressed appearance.

Figure 2.1-13: range of tuxedo shirts: (left) pleated (Dior Homme 2007b); (middle) bib front (Giorgio Armani 2006); (right) ruffled (Gucci 2007).

Boxed vs. Bespoke

The white dress shirt has come to be available in two distinct presentation methods: folded and boxed, or, on a hanger. The boxed version is significant for the following reasons. Firstly, this approach to presentation is emblematic of the shirt’s level of historical garment . As a result of scientific approaches, particularly through pattern drafting systems, the relationship to body fit has been exceedingly honed and the wearer can ‘trust’ size and fit designations. Through standardised measurements, exacting tolerances, industrialised fabrication and a comparatively universal appearance, the boxed shirt highlights the historical ‘fine- tuning’ that has occurred. Secondly, the boxing is symbolic of the archetypal status aligned to the white dress shirt. Boxed shirts appear void of human contact and, in this form, they are escalated to an eminent position in comparison to racked shirts. Furthermore, in an odd contradiction to this position of status, the boxing of shirts also contrasts with the ubiquitous nature of the garment. The boxed shirt materializes as a generic item that dilutes its associations with the high status that may be attributed to fashion. Finally, this method of packaging also parallels issues relating to consumption practices for men, particularly the fact that, in this form, the garment can not be tried on and the consumer can not experience the comfort,

49 fit and feel of the shirt prior to purchase. Male consumers (generally speaking) are reluctant to try on clothing at retail outlets and the boxed shirt, with its intricate presentation, epitomises this consumption practice. Hence, even though the boxing of the shirt is, in essence, a means of merchandising a product, it is still highly symbolic of aspects relating to men’s clothing. Many companies merchandise their shirts boxed and these range in quality and price, from designer labels such as Dior Homme to shirts bought in low-priced clothing stores.

Dress shirts are also produced in bespoke form, crafted to fit individual body measurements. This approach to producing white dress shirts is in sharp contrast to the mass produced nature of many boxed variants. Henry Poole & Co, a bespoke in Savile Row in London, is exemplary of this practice. The company crafts the classic conservative white dress shirt and, in the main, does not deviate from time honoured assembly practices. Clients can request the traditional practice of handmade buttonholes and the company has a reputation for fine classic hand tailoring. They are acknowledged as the founders of Savile Row, a street in central London famous for its traditional men's . The shirt designs produced by this company align to classic conventions, including the use of archetypal collar styles such as the Ascot, the British Spread, the Prince of Wales, the Windsor, and the button-down collar.

The archetypal white dress and formality

The formality of a dress shirt is ensured through a range of very specific ‘markers’ that are evident on areas of the shirt. All these markers work together, making the shirt rigid (not loose or floppy), non-utilitarian (avoiding the look and function of work and physical activity), high-quality (expensive, rather than low-cost and low- quality); and providing a full covering of the male torso and arms, from wrist to neck (avoidance of the display of skin and body hair). Conversely, the less a shirt displays these markers, the more casual it becomes.

The markers of formality include:

Bib front – a bib front is considered the most formal of markers for a dress shirt, associated with the tuxedo shirt. The layering of fabric gives it rigidity.

50 French cuffs – these consist of a large, rectangle cuff that doubles back on to itself and, in so doing, creates a thick, crisp silhouette around the wrist region. They are normally worn with cuff links and, more generally, the wider the cuff, the more formal the shirt.

Rigidity and design of the collar – the amount of crispness and firmness of a collar acts as a marker of formality. The use of a two-piece collar (collar and collar stand) assists to increase formality as this collar type is principally designed to be worn with a tie, as well as making a crisper, more rigid collar shape. The most formal of collar types is the wing or butterfly collar as it is designed to be worn with a bow tie (associated with black tie formal wear).

Depth of back yoke – on casual shirts the back yoke is generally deep and on formal shirts, such as the dress shirt, the yoke is shallow in depth. Casual shirts have by nature a lower yoke and, in the main, larger back pleats/tucks – so as to provide extra comfort in the across back region.

Hem type – a curved hem indicates the shirt is designed to be tucked in, thereby indicating formality. A straight hem implies the shirt can be left out and is more likely to be a casual garment. A long, back tail length on a shirt may also suggest a more formal and higher quality garment, and this long tail ensures that the shirt stays tucked in, even when the wearer is hunched over.

Button type and position – generally the closer the buttons the more formal the shirt. That is, a dress shirt normally has a minimum of seven buttons on the front tab, whilst a casual shirt may have fewer buttons. The numbers of buttons also relates to garment quality. The same correlation applies to buttons that have a four-hole method of attachment. Two-hole buttons are more likely to be used on casual, ‘low-cost’ shirts. The first button position from the top of the tab also indicates formality. If the button location is higher, the shirt appears to be more closed and, as a result, more formal in appearance.

Sleeve length and creases – long sleeves are normally indicative of more formal garments, whereas short sleeves appear casual. When a shirt is pressed, particularly with creases in the sleeve, it suggests a more considered

51 approach and may well, depending on the shirt type, imply that it is being worn for a more formal occasion.

Pockets – generally the use of pockets signifies a utilitarian function (even though pockets could well be for decorative purposes) and, particularly on dress shirts, the elimination of pockets assists to increase formality.

Fabric type – in the main knit fabric appears less formal and this particularly applies to methods of construction used for knit fabrics, such as ribbings and stitch types.

Stitch length – a small stitch length is also indicative of formal shirts and of a higher quality garment.

General symmetry – formal shirts, in the main, are symmetrical around the vertical axis of the button tab.

And finally, the colour of the fabric – the more formal the shirt, the more likely it will be white; black tie and white tie dictate a white dress shirt, although for semi-formal and lounge suits, other colours may be used.

In conclusion, the modern white shirt for men has remained fairly consistent in

form and detailing since the 1890s. The major construction change in the modern era has been the shift from a detachable collar to an attached collar. Even though manufacturing methods have improved significantly since the end of the nineteenth century, the fundamental technique of assembly has not changed. The principal elements of the shirt have remained constant: areas for rigidity have not been altered and the style of detailing for a dress shirt has not radically shifted in form. Cotton has remained the preferred fabric alongside cotton polyester blends. Thus, it is concluded that from 1890 onwards the dress shirt has had only minor ‘flirtations’ with innovation and its principal form has remained comparatively static from that period.

Furthermore, there are different levels of formality linked to the men’s white shirt. The least formal type is the casual short sleeve shirt, whereas the tuxedo shirt is considered the most formal. In the middle of the field for formality is the classic or traditional shirt (archetypal long sleeve shirt with collar) This shirt is able to span a

52 diversity of levels of formality depending upon accompanying accessories, such as neck ties, and supporting garment styles such as coats, vests and trousers. The white dress shirt is considered more formal than the classic shirt as it has increased markers of formality, such as French cuffs or extra rigidity.

It is also seen that the white dress shirt spans a diversity of practitioners. These include ‘elite’ designer labels, bespoke tailors, ‘mid-market’ companies and ‘low- end’ labels. Within this range of practitioners, the white dress shirt remains relatively consistent in design, apart from minor styling differences, although garment and fabric quality may vary.

The Spectrum of the Modern White Shirt (Chart 2a) can now be illustrated in a diagrammatic form. This chart shows the field of formality, spanning from the casual shirt to the Tuxedo shirt, the variances in wearability for men and women and the Neo-Dandy position, as discussed in Chapter 1.

Chart 2a: Indicating the field for men’s shirts placed within the spectrum of wearability. This chart highlights a continuum of formality, from the casual shirt, the classic shirt, to the most formal, the Tuxedo shirt.

53 2.2 Evolution of the Modern Women’s White Blouse

The women’s blouse has many variations and is not as fixed in form as the archetypical men’s dress shirt. The blouse can be either plain or adorned, loose or fitted, and it is acknowledged that the term refers to a woman’s garment. Generally, blouses have a button front opening, set in sleeves, shoulder and some variant of a collar. Copious differences exist within the general form, including garment length, sleeve fullness and body ease. A diversity of fabric types and densities are used, including cloth that is sheer.

The blouse as we know it today has evolved from two distinct lineages, one being the fitted form (referred to as a shirt-waist) and the other being a loose form (referred to as a middy-blouse).

The shirt-waist

By the 1890s a major shift was occurring in women’s dress styles and a new fashion was developing that resulted in changes to the silhouette. The waist became a central visual component and an S-bend silhouette was favoured. In particular, the wearing of a shirt-waist (or waist, as it was sometimes abbreviated to) enabled a ‘new look’ to surface and was seen as a significant departure from previous rigid Victorian silhouettes. An 1889 fashion publication by Butterrick, The Delineator, proclaimed “Shirt-waists are such an important part of a woman’s () that they cannot afford to be neglected”. (Harris, 2002, p.4) The shirt-waist became the principal part of a woman’s upper body dress in the late nineteenth century. The reasons for its popularity were numerous.

54

Figure 2.2-1: 1890s shirtwaist (State University of New York c2007).

As part of these developments, a two piece outfit, consisting of a tailored and a fitted blouse were highly fashionable, although versions were being worn as early as the 1860s. This outfit was then sometimes teamed with a matching jacket which, in effect, created a tailored suit. This mode of dress aligned to an increased uptake of paid work, such as office (mainly secretarial roles) and retail positions. Foner and Garraty (1991, p.384) state:

By the 1860s women on New York streets were wearing jacketed modelled after male suits. Thirty years later these styles had evolved into the shirtwaist, the man-tailored blouse that became emblematic of the clerical working woman. The shirt-waist’s popularity quickly spread upward to higher social classes. (As well, designers’ influence on fashion, particularly Gabrielle ‘Coco’ Channel, heightened the blouse’s popularity through the tailored suit, in the first part of the twentieth century)

55

Figure 2.2-2: 1893 Tailored outfit (Bryde, 1992, p.168).

The early shirt-waist had a tailored collar or a classic round neckline, fitted waist, some detailing such as pleating and some versions buttoned at the rear. From the late nineteenth century, the most prevalent style buttoned down the front and the garment appeared to be fashioned after a man’s shirt. The use of the term shirt- waist remained a popular convention until the 1920s (Calasibetta and Tortora, 2003, p.33 -37).

In the late Victorian era, similar to the man’s shirt, white cloth for the shirt-waist was linked to ideals of cleanliness and purity. Hence, in the 1890s the white shirt- waist became a highly fashionable garment, as it fulfilled those ideals. This period witnessed the advent of the new woman and the white shirt-waist was an iconic symbol of the new independent working class woman (see Anderson’s The White Blouse Revolution (1988) and Adams’ White-Blouse and White-Collar for information on period work practices). The white shirt-waist was a powerful representation of a new ethos and as a result it became, like the men’s white shirt, an archetypical and ubiquitous garment to be worn in the early part of the twentieth century. Paradoxically, the shirt-waist also became a symbol of poor labour

56 conditions, with many women sewing these garments in factories with deplorable work practices. In particular, the tragic fire in the Triangle Shirtwaist factory in in 1911, with the death of 148 workers, acted as a catalyst to highlight poor labour practices. See McEvoy (1995) and Drehle (2004) for information about labour reform as a result of this tragedy.

At the close of the nineteenth century, a new icon – the Gibson Girl – emerged and ideals of female beauty came to represent the new woman. The Gibson Girl embodied changes in lifestyle and gender depiction and personified a break from Victorian social repression. The Gibson Girl image was popularised by the drawings of the American artist Charles Dana Gibson (Foner & Garraty, 1991, p.384). As Breward (1995, p.186) argues, the Gibson Girl encapsulated the new economic power within American society and her caricature embodied freshness and independence. Even though the Gibson Girl image was initially popular in America, it soon expanded abroad where it became a significant influence on fashion styles. The most conspicuous element of her attire was the shirt-waist, which pouched at the front and created a puffed pigeon breast appearance. The style of dress consisted of a tightly corseted waist, a high-collared neckline, long sleeves and a decorated fitted blouse with copious amounts of lace and pintucking on the front. Matched to this was a tailored bell-shaped skirt and hair rolled up to give a full appearance (Darnell, 2000, p.9). Through the popularity of the Gibson Girl’s perceived graceful image, new conventions for the ideal silhouette (the S- bend or Gibson bend) were forged. The Gibson Girl was a major influence on the blouse’s heightened popularity and its subsequent associations with femininity and decoration.

Another reason for the increased appeal of the fitted blouse was the adoption of cycling for women in the 1890s. During this period, cycling became enormously popular and it represented a move to a more independent lifestyle that contrasted with Victorian concepts of femininity. Cycling necessitated clothes that were not only practical on a bicycle but also symbolic of the freedom that was encapsulated in this new leisure activity. Consequently, the fitted blouse enabled relative ease of movement, in comparison to the fitted , when women were cycling.

57

Figure 2.2-3: 1897 advertisement with woman cycling (Bryde, 1992, p.173).

Other factors aided the shirt-waist’s popularity. One was the prevalence of fashion journals and the other, which supplemented these publications, was the availability of paper garment patterns. As Craik (1994, p.48-49) argues, the readership for women’s magazines escalated enormously in the late Victorian period and this helped to define and spread the influence of the confident new woman. As a result, the wearing of a white shirt-waist was readily taken up through the fashions that were espoused in these magazines. Alongside this, companies such as Butterrick produced both affordable paper patterns for blouses and supporting fashion publications, such as the Delineator. This enabled some women to readily produce fashioned garments at a more affordable price. Finally, the rise of the department store, with mass produced items, allowed the blouse to become a common place garment in the early part of the twentieth century. An additional contributing influence was the popularity of mail order companies, such as Sears, as this allowed an ease of access for new fashion styles outside the major urban centres.

58 The middy-blouse

While exact origins of the word are unclear, the term ‘blouse’ may have been introduced in the early 19th century in France and is likely to have developed from the French word "" or old French "blialt" – a long loose blue workman’s shirt-smock – or from the word ‘’ meaning ‘to blouse’. Use of the word blouse can also be evidenced in the mid 1800s, with the naval middy-blouse. It was a loose fitting midshipman’s garment that consisted of a long white skirted shirt that tucked into trousers, with blue decorative banding on the and chest area (Miller, 1997, p.121). Civilian adoption of the term ‘blouse’ was initially for boys- wear through the wearing of sailor style suits (the middy-blouse) in the mid 1800s and, subsequently, for womenswear in the late nineteen hundreds.

In the 1880s significant social upheavals were occurring and, as a result of these reforms, women were now undertaking activities that were once previously considered male in domain. Sporting activities were starting to become popular for leisure time. Alongside this, the growing trend for seaside vacations (England) required garments that reflected a more comfortable form. As well, in some schools and colleges, young girls undertook regular gymnasium based exercise. More ‘rational’ clothes were evolving to match the changing lifestyle for women. Organisations such as the Rational Dress Reform Society were established (1881) to espouse a new aesthetic for dress with alternative and more comfortable garments, such as the bloomer. As part of this shift to a more relaxed form, the middy-blouse was gaining popularity for leisure and physical activities.

This rapid shift in lifestyle enabled sports such as croquet, skating, golf and gymnasium- based activity to develop that had blouse variants. One of these 1880s costumes was the gym suit. The gym suit was based on the middy- blouse and, as Warner (2006, p. 203-206) indicates, early variants had sailor collars and were generally matched with baggy bloomers or a divided skirt. This garment was loose around the waist and generally worn tucked in. However, tennis was the principal sport that influenced the blouse. In the early Victorian period tennis costumes were, in the main, restrictive and allowed little concession for playing sport. They consisted of high necked and heavy skirts, although fabrics allowed some degree of movement (Bryde, 1992, p.165-166). By the early 1890s a more comfortable garment, the tennis blouse, had evolved. The tennis blouse consisted of a loose baggy waist, full sleeves and high gathered neckline.

59 This garment was unusual for the time as it was loose and bloused at the waist, hence the term ‘blouse’ (Warner, 2006, p.49). Once again, it was based on the naval middy-blouse and this outfit became highly popular in the 1890s for tennis and other leisure sports. At this time the tennis blouse had varying degrees of decoration. However, by the first decade of the twentieth century, it had become unadorned and a plain white shirt styled garment was the preferred choice (Horwood 2002, p. 47-48).

Figure 2.2-4: Pre-1914 tennis players. Note the menswear style shirts (Horwood, 2002, p.49).

In summary, the loose blouse form had its origins in the mid 1800s with the naval middy-blouse. This garment shifted to civilian use as a result of shifts in dress norms for women in the late Victorian period. Increased physical activity demanded completely new styles of garments. These garments mirrored a relaxing of ‘corseted’ Victorian ideals and allowed forms of ‘rational’ clothing (relative to that time) to emerge.

The blouse from 1910-1920s

In the early twentieth-century, the shirt-waist and the (middy-) blouse appear to have cross-influenced two major styles of white shirts for women. By 1914 the blouse / shirt-waist was, in the main, left untucked and the garment was becoming less adorned, straighter in form and sometimes worn with a tie. To all intents and purposes, the shirt-waist was evolving to become part of a silhouette that was

60 aligned to the ‘flapper’ of the 1920s. As Pendergast and Pendergast (2004, p.686- 687) suggest, the blouse / shirt-waist was, in effect, a dropped waist silhouette and it formed the foundation for this subsequent new look. Entwistle (2000, p.171) states: “[t]he 1920s ‘flapper’ represents the first expression of something approximating to an androgynous look”. (The design influence from Paul Pioret is considered to have acted as a precursor for this look). Therefore, by the end of World War One it was fashionable to wear a style of dress for the upper body that was decidedly menswear in style, as evidenced in the 1918 Sears Catalogue, below.

Figure 2.2-5: 1918 blouse and skirt. Note the diversity of blouse styles; from left to right – loose and adorned, menswear-style shirt and a loose middy blouse (Olian, 1995, p.103).

In conclusion, both forms of the blouse, the fitted and the relaxed, have a complex and interwoven history. They are aligned to labour reforms, female emancipation

61 and changes to dress norms. The 1890s were a critical period for the blouse as the shift from a fitted bodice to a more ‘rational’ form was evolving. Increased leisure activities for women, such as cycling and sport, influenced the need to move from Victorian rigidity to a softer silhouette, such as the blouse. The blouse, even though it was highly decorated in the Gibson Girl era, acted as a foundational catalyst for women adopting men’s shirt characteristics as part of their spectrum of dress in the twentieth century.

Figure 2.2-6: 1916 middy blouses. Note the looseness of form (Olian, 1995, p. 79).

62

Figure 2.2-7: 1918 decorated blouses (Olian, 1995, p.94).

Figure 2.2-8: c1920 postcard advertisement. Note the menswear style shirt and tie (Pendergast & Pendergast, 2004, p.681).

63 Contemporary blouses

In the contemporary era, notions of what constitutes a blouse have been founded from garment styles that were worn in the early part of the twentieth century. Associations with a relaxed form, particularly around the waist, have evolved from ‘rational’ garments worn by the ‘new’ emancipated woman in the late nineteenth century and early twentieth century. Elaborate decoration, inspired by the Gibson girl, as well as sheer and soft fabrics associated with the ‘’ blouse combine to fabricate broad ideas of adornment and aspects of fluidity aligned to a blouse. Blouses that are white in colour, which were worn by brigades of female office workers from the 1890s onwards, may align to notions of un-adornment, and uniformity. For others, the blouse may be viewed as a highly stylish garment that changes according to the fashion season. Hence, the blouse as we know it today can encompass a wide diversity of forms (images on next page).

64

Figure 2.2-9: A range of blouses available on Yahoo Shopping (2007) showing the diversity of fit, fabric, detailing and styling available for women’s white blouses.

65 In conclusion, the modern white blouse for women consists of a loose or fitted form that can be either plain or decorated. Formality within that gamut of styles is not as defined as is the case for the men’s shirt. For example, a short sleeve blouse, that is decorated or plain, may be worn for formal occasions. The defining factors in determining formality for womenswear are the accessories, such as shoes, bags and make-up, the fabric quality, accompanying garment types and construction methods.

I can now illustrate in a diagrammatic form the Spectrum of the Modern White Blouse, for women. The field for a woman’s blouse spans loose to fitted, plain to decorated, for both casual and formal wear. This chart also highlights the polarity of the field for men and woman for the modern white shirt.

Chart 2b: Indicating the field for the women’s blouse, ranging from loose to fitted, plain or decorated, with varying levels of formality.

66 2.3 Contemporary White Dress Shirt Designers and the Neo- Dandy aesthetic

In this section I will examine innovative white shirts produced by a range of leading menswear designers that have tampered, to some degree, with the archetypical white dress shirt. The research analysed thousands of archive catwalk images from major fashion sites including WGSN (Worth Global Style Network) and of these only a small number tampered appreciably with the men’s white dress shirt. These shirts will be examined relative to my own framework for levels of innovation that either head towards, go beyond, or align to the Neo-dandy aesthetic. The images are primarily sourced from European catwalk shows, particularly and . The shirts range in period from 2003 to 2007 as this timeframe is indicative of recent trends in men’s fashion.

Note: In the discussion that follows, selected images of innovative white shirts from contemporary menswear designers have been included in the discussion. For the full list of images, see the complete thumbnails (figures 2.3-1 to 2.3-34) of white shirts by other designers in the Design Notebook (Appendices).

Directions of innovation

My discussion below of innovative white shirts is framed around what I call ‘directions of innovation’. In regards to men’s shirts, possible directions of innovation that designers may head towards include different eras, such as historically inspired pirate shirts, or different domains including military clothing, work wear or sporting adaptations. However, for this research the direction of innovation that I am concerned with heads towards the female counterpart of the man’s shirt, most notably the blouse. However, when heading within this design direction, the innovation must not mask the origin of the garment – it must still give the impression of resembling the original design form – in this case, a man’s dress shirt. That is, white in colour and upholding customary notions of form, fit and lineage to formality.

In addition, it is worth noting that – because I am interested in innovation in , and in wearability in particular – I am not concerned here with what could be called the ‘art-shirt’: experimental sculptural forms that have their

67 basis in the white shirt, are created by artists and displayed in galleries (such as the artworks based on white shirts curated by Calvin Klein womenswear designer Franciso Costa in 2006, see Marsh, L 2006 and Wilson, E 2006). These ‘art-shirts’ form part of the contemporary interest that surrounds the white dress shirt, but they do not purport to be wearable fashion garments and so do not resonate with my design direction.

Directions towards a Neo-Dandy aesthetic

The first design direction that approaches the desired wearability aesthetic is the tuxedo shirt. It has a pleated, frilled or plain bib front (sometimes referred to as a ‘ front’) and adheres to the classic notion of a formal dress shirt. However, the designs with bib fronts from the following contemporary menswear designers have a level of innovation that approaches the Neo-Dandy aesthetic. For example, the designs from Antonio Marras 2006 (figure 2.3-1), and Patrick Ervell 2007 (figure 2.3-2) tamper mildly with the archetypical bib front and the outcomes head towards, though do not align to, the Neo-Dandy look. As an example, Marras extends the bib shape beyond the traditional upper torso area while Ervell uses contrasting fabric and large pleats to accentuate the bib silhouette. However, even though these shirts experiment with bib changes, the use of colour detracts from the formal appearance that is important for the Neo-Dandy aesthetic.

Figure 2.3-2: Patrick Ervell, 2007 a.

68 Other examples of bib experimentation are the designs from Prorsum 2006 (Figure 2.3-3) and Paul Smith 2006 (Figure 2.3-4). Burberry uses very full frontal flounces to create a bib silhouette. This effect leans towards the Neo-Dandy aesthetic as it effectively balances the softness created by the extra frills with the rigidity of the collar and front tab. Smith’s interpretation of a bib front is also of interest. In this design he references detachable bibs that were used on dress shirts in the late nineteenth and early twentieth century. His use of small button detailing to restrain the bib edges creates a discreet level of innovation. This design captures characteristics of the Neo-Dandy aesthetic, as it has markers of formality such as the rigid bib, and the innovative button detailing gives it a refined (not overly detailed) appearance.

Figure 2.3-4: Paul Smith, 2006.

The three shirts from Gucci 2006 (Figures 2.3-5 to 2.3-7) use alterations to the neckline for design innovation. These neckline treatments appear atypical for men’s shirts, with the use of frills and neck bows and this look is harmonious with the Neo-Dandy aesthetic. Nonetheless, Gucci’s shirt (Figure 2.3-7) appears overly decorated with bib and neck, chest and cuff treatments. The sheerness of fabric on all three shirts, however, provides the right level of appearance, as the translucency accentuates the design details.

69

Figure 2.3-7: Gucci, 2006 c.

Another aspect of the aesthetic is the use of frontal detailing. As an example, Barrett’s 2005 and 2006 shirts (Figures 2.3-8 and 2.3-9) use imitation printed frills and . This design innovation is noteworthy as it is a refined take on a classical look, though the colour detracts from the formality of the shirt. The design from D Squared 2006 (Figure 2.3-10) also has an interesting and novel frontal treatment. This innovation is in line with the Neo-Dandy look as it plays with or subverts traditional notions of formality, with the replication of a tie on the front band, even if the use of colour does not align to the Neo-Dandy aesthetic. However, the frontal detailing from Paul Smith’s 2005 (Figure 2.3-11) shirt is highly effective, as it is not only void of colour, but also accentuates the chest region and appears soft in form due to the floral embellishment.

Figure 2.3-11: Paul Smith, 2005 a.

70 On the other hand, both shirts from Dries Van Noten 2005 (Figures 2.3-12 and 2.3- 13) use detailing applied to the upper shoulder region. The treatment is identical on each shirt except for the use of the colour black on Figure 2.3-12. Both shirts are effective as they appear masculine due to the placement and style of detailing. However, the black embellishment hinders the appearance, as it creates both a less formal look as well as an overly ‘masculine’ nuance with visual association of a tattoo. In contrast, the white embellishment on Figure 2.3-13 is more compatible to the desired aesthetic.

Figure 2.3-13: Dries Van Noten, 2005 a.

Finally, in regards to fit and amount of garment ease, the shirt from Neil Barrett 2005 (Figure 2.3-14) illustrates the differences in garment volume. Barrett’s shirt is very lean in fit and even though it may have the required body movement, due to the ease of movement created by knit fabric, the silhouette is deemed too tight for the Neo-Dandy aesthetic. The shirt from Raf Simmons (Figure 2.3-15), on the other hand, illustrates the desired level of garment fit. The shirt is still lean in appearance, while not excessively tight, and would provide sufficient garment ease for a comfortable shirt.

71

Figure 2.3-15: Raf Simmons 2006.

In summary, the areas for design innovation that lean towards the Neo-Dandy aesthetic include the bib, the neckline, the front and the upper torso regions. The preferred innovation is one that balances womenswear and menswear characteristics, such as soft frills or lace juxtaposed with rigid cuffs, collars and tab. As mentioned above, formality is important to the look and the use of colour detracts from this. Finally, the desired fit should be lean whilst still providing sufficient body ease.

Heading beyond the Neo-Dandy aesthetic into a blousy aesthetic

Note: the term ‘blousy’ is used in this research to refer to aspects of a shirt’s design which belong to the blouse, even if incorporated into a men’s dress shirt. Specific blousy attributes are: looseness of fit or a silhouette that curves to fit bust and waist; detailing that exists in areas and excesses beyond those found in the tuxedo shirt; and fabric that is very sheer.

The Neo-Dandy aesthetic leans towards womenswear characteristics for design innovation. However, the line between what is perceived as menswear and womenswear is hazy to determine and relative to individual as well as broader societal notions of wearability. Be that as it may, when the line has been crossed for a man’s garment it appears, to all intents and purposes, as a womenswear garment. The characteristics that determine this may be subtle, such as the detailing slightly soft in style, or they may be obvious such as a silhouette that aligns to the female form, particularly bust fitting. I will now discuss a range of innovative shirt

72 designs that display blousy characteristics, relative to notions of mainstream wearability for men.

To begin with, Alexander McQueen’s 2006 shirt (Figure 2.3-16) is a good example of blousy characteristics. The garment finishes below the chest cavity and the hemline then curves down towards the back of the shirt. The upper body is also gathered into this hemline by the use of a band and thus takes on the form of an empire line. This silhouette is associated with design lines used for under bust fitting and is characteristic of some blouse attributes. The silhouette also has a very relaxed fit and this contributes to this association.

Figure 2.3-16: Alexander McQueen, 2006.

Another example of a silhouette that is not aligned to the archetypal men’s shirt is Dior Homme’s 2007 loose sleeve shirt (Figure 2.3-17). The sleeve is not suppressed at the wrist by a cuff. Thereby, in this form, the sleeve silhouette is too relaxed and deviates from conventional norms of men’s dress shirts. As a result, the silhouette appears blousy.

73

Figure 2.3-18: Gucci, 2005 a.

Furthermore, the silhouette on Gucci’s 2005 shirt (Figure 2.3-18) has characteristics contributing to a blousy aesthetic, such as the sleeve being gathered into a cuff band. In this form, the sleeve looks overly soft with the use of gathers in preference to the customary practice on men’s shirts of having pleats tucked into the cuff band. This blousy appearance is even more accentuated when the sleeve is gathered at the head. This style is referred to as a puff or leg-of-mutton sleeve and is commonly found on the blouse. However, no such sleeve style could be evidenced in the thousands of contemporary menswear images viewed for this research. In regards to other sleeve styles, Jill Saunder’s 2007 shirt (Figure 2.3-19) finishes at the elbow with a large band and this appears atypical to the convention for a men’s shirt and assists in providing blouse like characteristics.

A further example is ’s 2005 shirt (Figure 2.3-20) as it has mild characteristics that contribute to a blousy silhouette, such as the dropped shoulder line. It is noteworthy, however, that depending on the fashion cycle or style of garment, this silhouette may not apply. In this case, however, blouse characteristics are accentuated on this shirt by the use of closely spaced fabric covered buttons – a detail routinely used on the blouse as well as other female garments.

74 Another instance of a blousy silhouette is Kris Van Assche’s 2006 shirt (Figure 2.3-21). The volume of the sleeve appears very full as a result of the omission of the traditional set-in-sleeve routinely used on men’s shirts. The sleeve is gathered into a small elastic band and this accentuates blouse like characteristics. The removal of a cuff also decreases visual rigidity that is characteristically evident in men’s dress shirts.

Figure 2.3-21: Kris Van Assche, 2006 b.

Costume National Homme’s 2006 shirt (Figure 2.3-22) uses highly transparent and soft fabric. In the main, sheer fabric is not considered customary for men’s shirts, particularly as a result of possible exposure of body hair, whereas the blouse has a very broad range of cloth types, including sheer. Thus, sheer cloth heads beyond the required aesthetic for this research project.

Figure 2.3-22: National Homme, 2006.

75 Another aspect that contributes to blouse like characteristics is a very low frontal opening, such as on Gucci’s 2005 (Figure 2.3-23) shirt. An excessively low front may appear to reference cleavage exposure on a women’s blouse and is uncharacteristic for formal men’s shirts. This also applies to Gucci’s 2007 (Figure 2.3-24) shirt. However, it is acknowledged that, depending on the style of shirt, a low frontal opening may be viewed as a casual man’s shirt, not as a women’s blouse.

Figure 2.3-23: Gucci, 2005 b.

One more area of blouse like characteristics is the divergence from time-honoured dimensions used on men’s shirt design. An example of this is the use of oversize buttons. Men’s shirts customarily have small buttons, around twelve millimetres in size. As for the front tab width, this is traditionally about thirty to thirty five millimetres in width. Back yoke depths range from approximately seventy millimetres to one hundred and fifty millimetres. Cuff widths vary according to formality and style, although the range of measurements is in the region of forty millimetres for very narrow cuffs, to one hundred millimetres for wide French cuffs.

76 An example of a deviation from the traditional dimensions used for men’s shirt design is Pablo Ramirez’s 2007 shirt (Figure 2.3-25). The excessive collar and cuff sizes are beyond forms associated with mainstream men’s shirting and appear blousy. Another instance is Dior Homme’s 2006 shirt (Figure 2.3-26). The bow is extreme in size and diverges from customary visual characteristics used on men’s shirts, such as the classic bow tie. In this form, the neck bow appears out of character for men’s shirts and is more allied to a women’s blouse.

Figure 2.3-26: Dior Homme, 2006.

Excessive texture and levels and types of detailing can also contribute to a blousy aesthetic. An example of this is Emanual Ungaro’s 2006 shirt (Figure 2.3-27), with raised and asymmetrical soft floral decoration. Another example is Dries Van Noten’s 2005 shirt (Figure 2.3-28) with frontal decoration. On this shirt the frills and texture extend down to the front waist area and, in doing so, disengage the lineage to the customary positions for detailing on men’s formal shirting, such as the bib region. This concern also applies to Kris Van Assche’s 2007 shirt (Figure 2.3-29) with waist detailing and Paul Smith’s 2005 shirt (Figure 2.3-30) with back decoration.

77

Figure 2.3-27: Emanual Ungaro, 2006.

Lastly, men’s dress shirts conventionally button down a centre front tab. If this buttoning position is significantly altered, for example to a centre back opening, the shirt diverges towards the blouse. One further key aspect is that men’s shirts habitually button from left front over to right front. If this direction is reversed, the shirt adopts a characteristic associated with a women’s blouse which buttons right over left.

In conclusion, the above examples have highlighted contributing factors that constitute blouse like characteristics that head away from the Neo-Dandy aesthetic. These attributes include silhouettes that align to the blouse, such as the empire line; detailing that is overly excessive or in a location that is atypical in conventional men’s shirts; design features such as extreme collar heights and widths; or small wrist instead of cuffs. Finally, the use of excessively transparent fabrics also contributes to blouse like features.

So far, I have highlighted innovative white dress shirts that head towards and head beyond the desired Neo-Dandy aesthetic. Now, I will examine four designs that align with or have come significantly close to the desired Neo-Dandy aesthetic.

78 Aligning to the Neo-Dandy aesthetic

Gucci – Autumn Winter 2006/2007

Figure 2.3-31: Gucci, 2006 d.

I propose that Gucci’s autumn winter 2006/2007 (Figure 2.3-31) white dress shirt aligns to the Neo-Dandy aesthetic. The level of innovation through detailing is entirely harmonious with this aesthetic. The degree of detailing is relatively restrained and appears refined and not overly excessive. The shirt has elements such as the neck cloth and frontal flounce, which provide both formality and, at the same time, a soft nuance. The detail is applied only to the upper frontal region and the focal point of the shirt is the neck, which thereby draws attention to the face. However, Gucci’s shirt is leaner in form than the preferred fit and, due to the fabric density, some men may consider this shirt ‘unwearable’ as body hair would be highly evident. Also, in this case, the shirt sleeves appear too short in length for the

79 male and this detracts from the aesthetic. It would be alluring to reinterpret a version of this shirt in a denser fabric and in a slightly looser cut.

Missoni – Autumn Winter 2005/2006

Figure 2.3-32: Missoni, 2005.

Missoni’s 2005/2006 shirt (Figure 2.3-32) is close to the Neo-Dandy aesthetic. On this design, lace detailing is applied to the frontal region and the shirt thus exudes blouse characteristics. The bib shape alongside the archetypal stand collar and tab front successfully counteract the use of lace detailing. The amount and type of detailing appears to be refined as it is not excessive in appearance. This shirt is most noteworthy as it effectively balances visual characteristics associated with the blouse and the men’s shirt; that is, menswear silhouette with the use of the bib front and blouse style detailing with the use of lace. However, the limpness of fabric type and the lack of rigidity for the cuffs and collars slightly hinder the shirt’s alignment to the Neo-Dandy aesthetic. The lace could also benefit from a tighter

80 weave as body hair may protrude and the use of a tab front is not the preferred style for a centre front opening.

Neil Barrett – Autumn Winter 2007/2008

Figure 2.3-33: Neil Barrett, 2006 c.

English designer Neil Barrett’s autumn winter 2007/2008 shirt (Figure 2.3-33) has elements that align to the Neo-Dandy aesthetic. Firstly, a dichotomy is created by combining both formal and casual attire on the same garment. The frontal bib treatment, combined with the rigid collar, clearly references the formality of a dress shirt, whilst the sleeveless design is essentially associated with casual or even sports clothing. This alliance with casual clothing seems contradictory to the previously stated adherence to formality for the Neo-Dandy aesthetic. Nonetheless, the play on purpose adds a capricious nature to the aesthetic. Barrett’s shirt attempts to educe a reaction due to its bilateral position of formality and informality. This ‘playful’, subversive position resonates with the Neo-Dandy aesthetic.

81 Emanuel Ungaro Homme – 2006

Figure 2.3-34: Emanuel Ungaro Homme, 2006.

Emanuel Ungaro Homme, 2006 (Figure 2.3-34) is another example of a level of innovation that aligns to this research project. On this shirt a dichotomy is evident, as the shirt borders both domains of menswear and womenswear. That is, the silhouette is aligned with a menswear style vest and the transparent soft frills are allied to the women’s blouse. However, the end result essentially remains in the domain of menswear, as the shirt appears essentially menswear in form. The reservation in regards to this shirt is the possible exposure of skin, as a result of the open frontal area.

In conclusion, through a comparative process, I have brought to light the Neo- Dandy aesthetic by comparing and contrasting the designs of contemporary menswear designers who tamper with the modern white shirt. Through a discussion of four exemplary white shirts by the designers Gucci, Missoni, Barrett and

82 Ungaro, I have established a look that parallels or closely aligns to the desired Neo- Dandy aesthetic. This aesthetic is formal in appearance and scopes towards the women’s blouse, in particular, the fitted and decorated form.

I can now illustrate (Chart 2c), the final diagrammatic part of the Spectrum of the Modern White Shirt. This chart highlights the design directions for the Neo-Dandy aesthetic; that is, the formal end of the field of men’s shirts and an aesthetic that heads towards the decorated, fitted blouse.

Chart 2c: Indicating the design directions for the Neo-Dandy aesthetic – the formal end of the field of men’s shirts and heading towards the decorated, fitted blouse for innovation.

83 Chapter 3 – Design Journey

Chapter overview and purpose

This chapter provides a snapshot of the design journey for the research project. Initially discussed is the studio based component of the research, including the studio environment, the machinery and the pattern block used to create the concept shirts. Next, the methodology used for the research is explored, particularly the process of design-by-finding and design-by-making. Finally, the phase that created a framework for the research – including the clustering of the concept shirts according to a Matrix of Innovation – is discussed.

This matrix is explained and it is recognised that two opposing directions exist within this spectrum for the modern white dress shirt for men. That is, innovation flows in one direction and mainstream wearability in the other. The two sides of the spectrum conflict with each other as a highly innovative shirt is more likely to have a narrower field of wearability. The opposite applies to innovation as the less innovative a shirt is, the broader its wearability field will be.

The last section in this chapter discusses the final exhibition of the concept shirts, particularly the display methods used in the Loft gallery space at QUT Creative Industries in June 2008. Images of this exhibition are included in the discussion.

3.1 Machinery, Studio and Pattern Block

Machinery and Home Studio

The studio based component of the research project was situated in my home rather than within a professional studio environment. Even though I have access to excellent studio space within my University work environment, I elected to base the studio aspect of the research within a more informal confine. The compensation for a less professional work space was the ability to frequently search through my collection of notions and fabrics and, to some extent, mask my chaotic making process from my professional life.

84 The concept shirts were sewn on a very old Singer industrial machine, model 291U3 circa 1960. I have owned this machine for over thirty years and I have sewn thousands of garments within that time. The machine is relatively outdated; nevertheless, it has been extremely reliable and produces a quality stitch. The machine is very much cherished as it is one of my principal tools for garment fabrication. The other machine used is a domestic Bernina overlocker. This compact machine finishes the seams and allows for fine edge treatments, such as those used on frills. Unlike my old Singer, I have a disconnected relationship with this machine, as it was recently purchased.

Figure 3.1-1: Home studio space – a shared (crowded) environment with other family members.

The Block – the pattern used for the concept shirts

A block is a basic un-styled pattern used by clothing practitioners that acts as a starting point for garment fit and form. It provides a general shell for the garment and is initially constructed from a mathematical calculation using major body reference points such as waist, chest and neck. For many fashion practitioners, this approach is customary and they guard their basic blocks, as they are one of the keystones ensuring quality of fit.

85 The block used to create the concept shirts was drafted from a menswear drafting textbook, titled Metric Pattern Cutting for Menswear by Winifred Aldrich (Aldrich, 1980, p.16). I constructed this block in 1985 and I have used it in many derivations ever since. At the time of drafting the block, I selected several other textbooks and created numerous basic shirt blocks. Upon sampling the different blocks in fabric, the Aldrich pattern provided the best fit. The initial block was drafted using medium body measurements of: neck 40cm, chest 100cm, armhole depth 24.4cm, natural waist length 44.6cm, half back 20cm and sleeve length 85cm. This block conforms to the basic principal pattern pieces used for the dress shirt – that is, front, back, yoke and sleeve – as identified in Chapter 2. Over the years, I have constantly refined the block, and comparing the original draft to the final variant used in the practice highlights major shape changes. As more concept shirts were made the block was altered, with fine-tuning applied to the neckline, armhole, sleeve head and sleeve length, body ease, garment length and waist shaping. The purpose of these alterations was to improve the fit and progressively reduce garment volume to a leaner silhouette.

Figure 3.1-2: Un-styled men’s shirt block used as a basis for the concept shirts.

86 3.2 Designing and Assembling the Concept Shirts

Sourcing Materials – design-by-finding

My source of inspiration for a design is sparked by found objects. I amass a diverse array of items such as buttons and trims and a considerable quantity of fabrics, and these are used as a catalyst for creative thought. This bower bird approach has created a stockpile of notions and trims and these objects acted as a springboard for the design of the concept shirts. I have termed this -by-finding.

The sourcing of materials for design inspiration was not a premeditated process. In fact it was quite the opposite. I randomly sourced laces and trims without a fixed plan or preconceived idea of my exact requirements. This was an ongoing process and pivotal within the design process, as the materials were one of the primary sources for design inspiration.

There are, however, three disadvantages to this process. It is time consuming, replication of multiples using the exact materials may be difficult, and it requires considerable storage space for fabrics and trims. Indeed, I store most of my fashion based materials in my roof space, where I regularly fossick through boxes for an elusive bolt of fabric or trim. Hence, my main site for design inspiration is, in effect, a hot and dusty confine, that can only be accessed by a ladder.

One of my favourite retail sources was an old fabric shop at Redcliffe which specialises in liquidation stock at very affordable prices. I would regularly visit the store on Saturday mornings just to see what was new and to try to find trims or fabrics of interest. My other key source in finding key trimmings was a liquation sale by a bridal manufacturer. At this trade only sale I was able to purchase quality laces and trims that were used as a stepping stone for design inspiration. Approximately half the fabric used in the research came from wholesalers. The rest was sourced at numerous retail outlets, as no minimum order for fabric length was required.

The other design influence was retail shopping for both children’s wear, in particular girls clothing, and womenswear. Men’s clothing stores provided limited inspiration as the clothing was characteristically restrained in design. I was

87 frequently enthused by the decoration or detail applied to children’s garments, such as a small area of smocking on a knit top, a particular texture on the fabric, or a flounce applied to the front. Boys’ clothing did not provide a source of inspiration as the clothes were quite austere in detail. For retail outlets for womenswear, texture was the main inspiration. The detailing viewed acted as a catalyst for design inspiration and was not used as a direct facsimile.

Forming the concept shirts – design-by-making

The next phase involved designing as the object was made. In general, I had a broad notion of what the end design might look like before I commenced making. However, once the fabrication process started, the design evolved significantly as the object was created. Hence, I have called this process design-by-making.

Conventional approaches to fashion design involve designing on paper first and then producing a number of samples until the design is resolved. Rather than work from a sketch, I designed the garment as it was made, using the materials at hand. This approach involved sketching the block directly onto the fabric with a water- soluble pen and designing pattern shapes as I cut out the cloth. The cutting of the cloth influenced the design process as the collar and cuff shapes and the overall silhouette were altered as the shirt was cut. The degree and position of the detailing could then materialise during the making of the shirt. This pattern drafting method did not create a pool of patterns for future reference, except for the basic shell. Aspects of this design methodology align to the time-honoured approach of bespoke tailors where the suit is directly drafted onto the cloth with tailors chalk and no paper or cardboard patterns are created.

The benefit of this methodology is the ability to reflect upon a three dimensional object as the design evolves and alter the course of the design during the making process. Thereby, this artisanal approach allows the sense of sight, and at times touch, to lead the design direction as the practice evolves. As Murray (2006) states: “there is a renewed appreciation of the tactile involvement of making in the realisation of successful design”.

88 3.3 Wearing, Exhibiting and Documenting the Concept Shirts

Wearing the concept shirts myself

The concept shirts were worn at social functions, both formal and casual, and within a work context. The purpose of wearing the concept shirts in a public arena was to explore both the reaction of others and test my own judgment in regards to the designs. As Plowman (2003, p.31) argues, through using and interacting with an object, an with its design is experienced.

One of these experiences was when I presented an artist talk at Artisan gallery (formerly Craft Queensland) and I decided to wear one of the more unusual shirts and team it with a pair of blue . To my surprise, the audience for this talk consisted of approximately fifty high school students from a regional country school. After I presented the talk the first question that was asked was: “Did you intentionally decide to wear that shirt with jeans so as to look like Seinfeld’s ‘puffy shirt’?” (Comedian Jerry Seinfeld wore a version of a pirate shirt in an episode of the American sitcom Seinfeld. It originally aired on American television on September 23, 1993 and the shirt now resides in the National Museum of American History.) At that point, I questioned my notions of wearability in relation to levels of innovation as in the eyes of the audience I had clearly crossed the boundary of mainstream wearability.

When I first starting wearing the concept shirts I did not feel at ease. I felt the shirts appeared attention seeking and over adorned. However, as time passed, my confidence grew and so did my need to expose the concept shirts to an audience. By the end of the research project, friends would comment if I did not wear a decorated white shirt as it became my customary dress.

The decision to wear the concept shirts had its disadvantages. Some of the shirts have been worn at least twenty to thirty times and the balance between keeping them pristine and gauging wearability is difficult. At times when the shirts have been worn by others, including models and acquaintances, the condition of the shirt upon return has been poor.

89 Other people wearing the concepts shirts

Even though I did not set out to design the concept shirts for a wider audience, they have been worn by others in numerous circumstances. This assisted the research project as I was able to view the concept shirts on both male and female bodies and, in doing so, gauge the appearance when worn by different genders. Images of other people wearing the shirts can be found in the supporting Design Notebook (Appendices).

The first time I saw the concept shirts worn by other people was when they were shown primarily on female bodies. Six shirts were paraded as part of the Mercedes Benz Brisbane Fashion in September 2006. Five shirts were worn by female models and one shirt was on a male model. The female models wore black with the shirts and I was exceedingly pleased with the appearance. The male model, on the other hand, wore the shirt tucked in and his burly stature detracted from the shirt. This experience led me to reconsider whether or not to parade the garments on male models for the final exhibition. It also allowed me to question the type of body that might be suited to the shirts as a muscular build appeared incongruous to the garments.

Figure 3.3-1: Mercedes Benz Fashion Festival, September 2006 (left) shirt number 39 and (right) shirt number 56.

90

Figure 3.3-2: Mercedes Benz Fashion Festival, September 2006 (left) shirt number 59 and (right) shirt number 45.

In June 2007, one shirt was worn by a groom for his wedding at the Victoria Park Golf Club. Prior to the wedding, both the and groom came over to my studio and I showed them the entire collection of concept shirts. This was a beneficial exercise as it was interesting to analyse his individual preferences and listen to his partner’s perspectives on which shirt would be the most suitable. As the function was formal, he planned to wear a buttoned-up jacket and principally required interesting detail either around the neck or in the lapel area. His partner was trying to sway him towards the more extreme designs and it was obvious he was feeling hesitant with that particular direction. In the end, after trying on many concept shirts, his partner selected a shirt with a formal neck . He actually seemed relieved that he did not have to make a choice. For more information about gender variance in selecting clothes, see Gleeson and Frith (2004).

91

Figure 3.3-3: Shirt number 55 worn by the groom for a wedding ceremony in June 2007.

In October 2007, three concept shirts were worn by female dancers for the rehearsals and opening night performance for the ARC Biennial at QUT Art Museum. This experience provided limited feedback in regards to wearability as the shirts, in essence, adopted a new role as a costume item.

Figure 3.3-4: Three female dancers wearing the shirts as part of a site specific performance to open the ARC (Art Craft and Design) Biennial.

92

Figure 3.3-5: Dancer ‘rolling’ on the floor as part of a site specific performance for the opening night of a site specific performance for the ARC (Art Craft and Design) Biennial.

Exhibiting and talking about the concept shirts

I presented the concept shirts in several exhibition spaces and gave public talks during the research. The public exhibition spaces included the Artisan gallery in Brisbane’s Fortitude Valley, the Queensland Art Gallery, the QUT Art Museum, and the gallery spaces of the Block and the Loft (final exhibition) in the QUT Creative Industries precinct. Artist talks were presented at the QUT Art Museum, Artisan gallery and within the QUT fashion studios. Below are comments relating to the most notable occasions, in terms of the reflections and insights gained.

In March 2006 I was part of an exhibition at Artisan gallery. The exhibition consisted of ten shirts (see Design Notebook (Appendices) – numbers, 15, 23, 24, 26, 30, 45, 48, 51, 52, and 56) displayed on hangers against a white wall. This experience was illuminating, as previously I had considered the shirts to be items of clothing. However, as a result of the gallery setting, the perspective had shifted and the shirts became more aligned to art objects. This experience highlights the disparity of notions about clothing in a gallery situation. On opening night, to my amazement, numerous people were handling the shirts, feeling and crushing the fabric and even unbuttoning them. This was in contrast to the customary practice of not touching artwork in a gallery situation.

93

Figure 3.3-6: Shirts exhibited at Artisan Gallery (Fortitude Valley, Brisbane) March 2006.

Figure 3.3-7: Shirts exhibited at Artisan Gallery (Fortitude Valley, Brisbane) March 2006.

94

Figure 3.3-8: Shirts displayed front window of exhibition at Artisan Gallery, March 2006

.

Figure 3.3-9: Rear view of the front window display at the Artisan Gallery in March 2006.

95 At this point I entered the shirts into the Design Institute of Australia Awards (Queensland chapter), won the category of 'Lifestyle ’ and was nominated as one of only four finalists for the overall major design award. As part of this award, the garments were on display at the Queensland Art Gallery for three weeks in July 2006.

I also presented the concept shirts at the QUT Fashion ‘Shed Talks’ in April 2006. The shed talks are an informal monthly fashion gathering that is open to the public. At this talk I outlined my research to date. This presentation highlighted aspects of the research project that I incorrectly assumed would be of minor interest to an audience, including questions in regards to the making of the shirts.

As part of the Art, Craft and Design Biennial (ARC) the concept shirts were displayed in the QUT Art Museum from early October to late November 2007. I also presented an artist talk at the gallery during that time. The shirts were displayed hanging on a timber rod and also folded on a plinth. On reflection I realised the wooden rod used was both too narrow (so that the racked clothes did not sit perpendicular to it) and did not resemble a classic elegant rack, thus detracting from the display of the garments.

Figure 3.3-10: The Minister for the Arts, the Honourable Senator George Brandis and myself discussing the shirts on the opening of ARC Biennial.

96 In December 2007 the complete body of work was exhibited at the QUT Creative Industries gallery space, the Block. This exhibition allowed for an experimental opportunity to test the use of garment racks for display, lighting methods and gallery layout.

Documenting of the concept shirts

The concept shirts have been documented in photographic form. This has been beneficial as it has assisted in the cataloguing of the concept shirts according to the order in which they were made and levels of design innovation. The concept shirts were first photographed in 2006 as part of Peak Performance, a collective of practice-led researchers who were exhibiting their work at QUT Creative Industries galleries that year. In mid 2007 I photographed the concept shirts myself and documented the order of make and then used the graphic program Photoshop to enhance the photo.

Figure 3.3-11: Shirt number 37 photographed for QUT Peak Performance.

97 I experimented with a range of presentation styles for the photographs. These included display on mannequins, models on the catwalk and garment hangers. When the shirts were photographed, either on a model or a mannequin, the characteristics of the body/form within the shirt became the focus, whereas I desired the shirts to be the central focus. However, shirts photographed on hangers did not accurately record the fit of the shirts. Thus, the final method selected was a body display so as to accurately record the fit. However, the image was cropped from neck to seat to accentuate the concept shirt design, as opposed to the wearer’s individual features.

3.4 Conceptualising the Collection of Concept Shirts

By January 2006 the last concept shirts were made and the next phase involved ‘taking stock’ of the research project. During this time I began to reflect on the aims of the research project. In this period, I extended my research, reflecting and connecting the studio based research to larger issues including the history of the white shirt, discourses around wearability and codes of dress, and the dandy and other menswear designers who have experimented with the white shirt. What resulted was the formulation of the Spectrum of the Modern White Shirt. As a result of this spectrum, a Matrix of Innovation was developed (discussed subsequently) and the concept shirts were clustered according to levels of design innovation in relation to the research aims.

Discovering dandyism

From the outset I had an underlying interest in dandyism, although initially my knowledge was very basic. However, after the studio based component of the research had ended, it was evident that the dandy figure was pertinent to the research. The practice of dandyism, with all its multiplicity of meanings, echoed aspects of the research aim. That is, the desire to test limits of design innovation through dress, juxtaposed against mainstream wearability. Within my research it became apparent that the dandy represented a subversive position in regards to the cusp-of-wearability for fashion innovation.

It became evident through the research that the specific style of dandyism that was of interest to this project was that which leant towards the characteristics of

98 womenswear, while retaining the appearance of menswear. To be more precise, I was gauging the confines for design innovation in men’s shirts within the accepted norms for menswear and womenswear. At this point, I assigned the working title for my research project: the Neo-Dandy.

Racking the shirts

Once the concept shirts had been pressed, they were placed in sequential order of making on two garment racks. This allowed the concept shirts to be viewed, not in isolation, but as a body of work and allowed me to analyse them relative to each other. The rack has been an exceptionally beneficial site for reflective practice.

The daily scrutiny of the rack to find a suitable shirt to wear has created a natural filtering process. Some shirts were rejected outright due to their over adornment. Others I was lured to but, as I took them off the rack, they were quickly discarded. Some of the shirts I tried on, took off, tried on again and then finally rejected due to a minor fault or a just-not-right reaction. In the end, a small handful of shirts always seemed to be selected.

The next phase was to shuffle the shirts on the rack and place them in positions relative to their level of innovation and degree of success. This process occurred on a daily basis for several months. The continuous positioning and repositioning of the shirts on the racks created a further filtering process, highlighting successful and not as successful attributes. As a result of the filtering a Matrix of Innovation was developed. This matrix consisted of assigning shirts to positions that spanned from safe to innovative design. Within this matrix, the aim was to ascertain which garments best aligned to the Neo-Dandy aesthetic for design innovation. The matrix functioned as a device to question degrees of innovation and levels of design resolution.

99 The Matrix of Innovation explained

Opposing directions of innovation and wearability

The Matrix of Innovation of the white dress shirt for men consists of two opposing directions. That is, innovation flows in one direction and this is against the other direction of wearability. The two sides of the matrix are in tension as a highly innovative shirt is more likely to have a narrower field of wearability, and the less innovative a shirt is the broader the field will be for wearability.

Through the clustering of the concept shirts into zones, I determined which were pre-eminent, which captured the desired Neo-Dandy aesthetic, and why. This analytical process has been highly beneficial as it has highlighted the tension between innovation and wearability for the men’s formal dress shirt. That is, the more a shirt is innovated the more likely it will transgress towards the unwearable, in relation to men’s mainstream clothing. The use of a matrix has also brought to light the fluid boundary that exists when a garment contravenes conventions. This boundary is not rigid and is contextually specific according to time, place, social standing, age and individual style. Nonetheless, for mainstream menswear, a point (albeit shifting) at which a garment crosses over into the womenswear margin does exist. For some, this point may be deemed an effeminate position.

(Positions of the Concept Shirts in the Matrix of Innovation begins next page)

100

Positions of the Concept Shirts in the Matrix of Innovation

Safe Mildly-Dandy Neo-Dandy Blousy (Conservative) (Approaching) (Aligning) (Beyond)

4 9 37 18 19 40 Front Blousy 21 22

of rack 5 48 levels of 11 23 25 (Resolved) 28 55 detailing 34 35 59 38 44

57

13 27 24 26 Blousy 30 31 Middle 29 45 zones of of rack detailing 32 33

16 17 49 50 (Mild (beyond 36 41 51 52 problems) neck, chest, 43 58 53 56 cuff) 60

Back 8 Blousy 10 14 of rack 20 Silhouette

(Definite 6 12 (loose, 15 39 problems) 46 puffy, 42 54 gathered)

Directions of Innovation (toward the blouse) Æ Å Mainstream wearability for men (toward the archetypal men’s shirt)

Note: Shirts not included: 1 (short sleeve), 2 & 3 (cream colour), 7 & 47 (incomplete).

101 The positions in the matrix explained

In the Matrix of Innovation, four zones have been developed: Safe, Mildly-Dandy, Neo-Dandy and Blousy. Within each of these zones, there are three levels of success: Resolved, Mild Problems and Definite Problems. (For an explanation as to why each shirt is in a particular zone, see Design Notes.)

The Safe zone consists of concept shirts that are very conservative in design, with minimal design innovation. Three concept shirts fall into this category and they could be considered highly wearable within mainstream society, as they adhere to visual norms for a classic shirt. The Mildly-Dandy zone is a progression of design innovation from the Safe zone and the concept shirts still appear relatively conventional in design, although with a more heightened level of innovation away from the classic shirt. Six shirts fall into this category. Nineteen concept shirts fall within the Neo-Dandy zone and all align closely to this desired aesthetic. That is, they appear not to have overly excessive detailing (refined); they have many markers of formality included in the design (formal); and varying degrees of detailing that may be considered to have characteristics associated with the blouse, albeit within boundaries. Finally, the Blousy zone consists of twenty six shirts that have gone beyond the desired aesthetic. The detailing is either excessive, outside the traditional zones associated with men’s dress shirts, or the silhouette is aligned to the loose blouse.

3.5 Bringing Together the Research – the Final Exhibition

Trial exhibition

As previously mentioned, the method of presentation of garment racks was trialled in a previous exhibition at the Block (QUT) in late 2007. This display method was successful for three reasons. Firstly, the four racks allowed for a clear delineation between the zones within the matrix and the concept shirts can be clustered on racks according to degrees of success. Secondly, the racks convey a sense of work in progress. That is, the concept shirts were not designed for retail sale and are to be viewed as being at first sample phase. Finally, by displaying the concept shirts on racks rather than on a body or a mannequin, they paradoxically appeared more wearable. This display method is void of any particular body form or facial

102 features. Hence, the potential for the exhibition audience to imagine themselves wearing the concept shirts is increased, as they were not swayed by display methods that might be incongruent to their own body image.

The Final Exhibition

For the final exhibition (26 to 27 June, 2008) the principal display method consists of four delineated racks that align to the zones in the Matrix of Innovation. Each rack is spotlighted by a single light; namely, four racks and four spot lights. The intention is to create a dark environment in the gallery space, except for the garment racks. Thus, the lighting creates a delineated area, although blurred, that represents the matrix used to delineate innovation.

The exhibition audience is provided with a pair of white gloves. The audience is encouraged to take the concept shirts off the rack for closer scrutiny and the gloves provide less risk of garment soiling. Additionally, the gloves convey a degree of formality associated with the white shirt and thus echo the historical significance of this iconic item of apparel in Western society.

This experience attempts to emulate elements of retail or sample room environments, where the cloth can be felt and the garment readily removed from the racks for perusal. This practice of inspecting and handling objects is not the custom in traditional gallery spaces. Hence, the objective of this experience is for the concept shirts to be viewed not as works of art but as items of clothing, albeit with varying degrees of innovation and wearability.

(Schematic layout of the Neo-Dandy exhibition begins next page)

103

Figure 3.5-1: Schematic layout of the Neo-Dandy exhibition in the Loft Gallery space.

104

Figure 3.5-2: Four racks of shirts displayed in the QUT Loft gallery, June 2008.

Figure 3.5-3: Shirts positioned on the Blousy rack in the QUT Loft gallery, June 2008.

105

Figure 3.5-4: Shirts positioned on the Neo-Dandy rack in the QUT Loft gallery, June 2008.

Figure 3.5-5: Shirts positioned on the Mildly-Dandy rack, QUT Loft gallery June 2008.

106

Figure 3.5-6: Shirts positioned on the Safe rack in the QUT Loft gallery, June 2008.

Figure 3.5-7: Close up image of shirt number 48 in the QUT Loft gallery, June 2008.

107

Figure 3.5-8: Close up image of Blousy rack in the QUT Loft gallery, June 2008.

Figure 3.5-9: Close up image of Blousy rack in the QUT Loft gallery, June 2008.

108

Figure 3.5-10: Close up image of Neo-Dandy rack in the QUT Loft gallery, June 2008.

Figure 3.5-11: Close up image of shirt number 52 in the QUT Loft gallery, June 2008.

109 Summary – Design Contributions

This final section summarises the key findings related to the principle research question as well as the broader research contributions. It ends by proposing areas for further research and reflecting on the journey I have undergone as a designer through this research project.

Central Contribution – the concept shirts and key design

principles

The central contribution of this research project has been the development of a body of work, namely the Neo-Dandy concept shirts, which was exhibited in The Loft as well as documented in the appendices of this exegesis. Despite the ubiquity of the men’s white dress shirt in contemporary fashion, design innovation for this garment is relatively rare. Thus the body of work represents a ‘gap’ in the field of contemporary menswear design. As discussed in Chapter Two, a component of this research involved analysing thousands of archive catwalk images from major online fashion sites, and of these only a fraction (around sixty) tampered appreciably with the men’s white dress shirt – no single practitioner was found to have focused solely on design innovation for this garment, beyond several endeavours.

In summary, the direction for design innovation for this research project leaned towards the blouse. A limit was employed so the men’s dress shirts adhered to notions of contemporary mainstream wearability, and as a result a cusp position is created between a man’s shirt and a woman’s blouse. The challenge in the research was to find a harmonious level of innovation that connected to that position, and in so doing, achieve a Neo-Dandy aesthetic. This direction enabled the shirts’ form to be consistent with a man’s dress shirt – with long sleeves, back yoke, tab front, curved hem, collar and cuffs – whilst degrees of innovation could be tested through decoration and detailing characterised with women’s blouses.

110 To ascertain which concept shirts aligned to this research aim, a Matrix of Innovation was then developed. This matrix allowed an analytical approach to be employed so as to determine which shirts aligned or came close to the Neo-Dandy aesthetic, which went beyond into a blousy appearance, and which remained conservative in design. As a result of this matrix, the successful concept shirts were highlighted.

Finally, by determining the design elements and traits common to the positions on the Matrix, a set of Neo-Dandy design principles can now be distilled, which address the central research question:

What are the specific design principles that are required to create design innovation in the modern men’s white dress shirt, achieving a Neo-Dandy aesthetic (refined, formal and with womenswear nuances) within boundaries of mainstream wearability for men?

These principles, discovered and tested through this research, are as follows:

Design Principle 1 – Locations of Detailing

When detailing is applied to the shirt, the upper front torso is the most successful location. In this way the shirt references the traditional tuxedo bib and appears wearable in form, even with perceived womenswear characteristics. Other successful areas for detailing include the collar and, to a lesser degree, the edge of the cuff. In other words, it is the areas that leak out of the jacket (upper front torso, collar and cuff edges) are safe zones for experimentation, relative to boundaries of wearability.

Design Principle 2 – Degree of Detailing

In order to assist with refinement, adopt a one area only approach for the detail. As an example, if the bib area is detailed, the rest of the shirt should be plain; that is, simple stand collar, traditional cuffs, yoke, tab front and buttons. Inversely if the shirt is plain more adventurous design detailing can be applied to the neckline, such as neck wraps. Also to assist with refinement a judicious amount of detailing should be used.

111 Design Principle 3 – Integration of Detailing

In order to assist with refinement, the detail should appear integrated into the shirt design. As an example, if lace is used it should appear joined to the fabric, not sewn on top of the fabric; if the collar has detailing it should be built-in with the shape of the collar, not added as additional trim; and if fabric texture is used to create detailing the treatment should appear to reside ‘into’ the fabric not placed ‘onto’ the fabric.

Design Principle 4 – Silhouette

If the silhouette is significantly changed – with waist fitting or excessive sleeve fullness – the form appears blousy in appearance. Consequently, in order for the shirt to appear wearable, the silhouette should be consistent with the traditional form of a men’s dress shirt.

Design Principle 5 – Skin Exposure

If excessive skin is visible – through cut away areas or open detailing such as lace – the shirt appears blousy in appearance. Therefore, skin exposure needs to be subtle, avoiding areas that may have body hair.

Design Principle 6 – Formality

The use of increased rigidity applied to areas such as collars, cuffs and front tabs, enables the shirt to remain within the formal end of the spectrum for the men’s shirt. Formality is also enhanced by the use of French cuffs and pearl style buttons.

Design Principle 7 – Customary Design Elements

Extreme changes to traditional elements – such as oversized collars, cuffs, tab widths and button sizes – accentuate blouse like characteristics. Thus, the customary design elements need to remain within a range that respects norms for men’s dress shirts.

112 Design Principle 8 – Fabric Types

In order for the shirt to maintain both a level of formality and a wearable appearance, the fabric needs to adhere to convention; that is, the use of woven (not knit), 100% cotton or cotton blend fabric. Highly shiny fabrics contribute to blouse like attributes, whereas knit fabrics reduce ties to formality.

Broader Contributions

Broader research contributions and findings were made through addressing the supporting research questions which arose in the course of this research project, as summarised below:

How does mainstream wearability differ between genders?

It has been found that gender variations within mainstream wearability are considerable. As distilled in Chapter One men have a narrow field of dress, whilst women have a significantly broader scope for levels of dress innovation. Mainstream wearability for men is a function of: silhouette, zones of detailing, degree of detailing, and narrow range of fabric choice. Wearability for women, on the other hand, does not have these limits: it could consist of a men’s or women’s silhouette, any zones of detailing varying degrees of detailing and any type of fabric choice.

What are the recent trends in menswear that are pertinent to the Neo- Dandy aesthetic?

For a segment of the menswear market, shifts in wearability are occurring and this has enabled a less gender defined aesthetic to evolve. Urban men are more likely to experiment with less rigid codes of dress, as it is increasingly difficult to define male sexual preference by clothing styles. This shift in wearability for men to a more elastic gender boundary for dress is pertinent to the Neo-Dandy aesthetic, as this look leans towards womenswear for design innovation to the modern white shirt for men.

113 What defines a modern white shirt for men and women?

As explored in Chapter Two the field for the modern white shirt for men consists of a range of styles that are all linked to levels of formality. The casual short sleeve shirt is the least formal, whilst the tuxedo shirt is considered the epitome of formality. The middle field within this scope of formality is the classic shirt, whilst the dress shirt is considered more formal in appearance.

The field for the modern white blouse for woman is somewhat different as it spans two forms, one fitted and the other loose. A loose or fitted blouse can be decorated or plain and can traverse the field of formality. Thus, for a woman’s blouse, form and detailing are not linked to levels of formality. That is, a loose, short sleeved blouse – either with detailing or without – or a long sleeved, fitted blouse – highly detailed or plain – can be worn in a multiplicity of contexts.

How does the Neo-Dandy aesthetic compare and contrast with contemporary menswear designs that tamper with the modern white shirt?

The Neo-Dandy aesthetic compares to, and contrasts with, other white shirt designs by contemporary menswear designers. A number of menswear designers scope towards other domains such as military, sporting or for innovation for their white shirt designs. These looks are in contrast to the Neo-Dandy aesthetic. On the other hand, some men’s shirt designs by contemporary menswear designers head towards womenswear for design innovation. Men’s shirt designers may elect to extend this direction of innovation so that the garment adopts significant blouse like elements. This particular look goes beyond the Neo-Dandy aesthetic. More importantly, the level of innovation in the white dress shirt from some other contemporary menswear designers, such as the examples by Gucci and Missoni, compare favourably to the Neo-Dandy aesthetic.

In answering these questions, the research has mapped out several significant undocumented areas of knowledge. These include: coining a new term -– mainstream wearability – to describe a field of dress within men’s clothing; marking this position out in relation to the dandy figure and in more recent times that of the Neo-Dandy trend; identifying the inverse relationship between design

114 innovation and wearability for mainstream menswear; constructing a comprehensive, conceptual-historical framework of the modern white shirt and its relation to wearability and gender; identifying the common traits and differences between the shirt and blouse; establishing markers of formality for the white shirt and articulating the dissimilarity between the spectrums of formality for the shirt and the blouse; and charting the history of the shirt and blouse, including recent design innovations for the white dress shirt for men.

Thus, in several ways, this research project contributes to the discourse around the field of fashion history and fashion practice, shifting notions of womenswear as the principal domain for a fashionable display by demonstrating that the restrained aesthetic associated with menswear can be augmented by a more innovative – and now, theoretically grounded – stance.

Further Research

Looking beyond the current research there are several possible areas for further examination:

First of all, men’s formal white dress shirts can continue to be a fertile ground for design innovation and it would be a fruitful experience to translate the concept shirts to final design, and ultimately, to commercial sale. This research could then be extended to examine consumer perspectives, in a variety of retail settings, to analyse levels of design innovation to determine garment saleability.

Next, the could be taken further by experimenting with other colours, in particular black as this colour allows design attributes to recede. This shift in colour would appreciably change the shirts appearance and it would be intriguing to evaluate the design shifts that may be required. An examination could be undertaken comparing design requirements linked to colour, innovation and wearability.

Another avenue for future research is to examine other garment types that could be used as a case study for wearability. One notable example for this examination is the characteristic differences between men’s trousers and women’s pants. Formal men’s trousers have not significantly changed in construction or general design

115 (apart from minor styling details, such as pleats and hem widths) for more than one hundred years. However, women’s pants encompass a wide diversity of styling details, including menswear styled trousers. This future research would further contribute to the limited discourse around gendered clothing from a design perspective.

Also throughout the journey I have had many requests from women to purchase the concept shirts. This did not occur as I required the shirts for the final exhibition and they were sized for the male body. However, as a result of this interest, the research could be extended to determine design characteristics required for non-gender specific garments as well as more blousy garments for women.

An additional area that is of significant interest for further research is men’s industrial workwear. Even though my design interests in menswear have been geared towards formal wear, I spend a considerable amount of time wearing industrial clothing as part of pursuing my passion for home renovation. Evidence from my own experience of wearing workwear, as well as feedback from numerous acquaintances in the building , suggests that the design of men’s workwear requires examination. The clothes are rudimentary in design and issues of form and function appear unresolved. At the time of writing this exegesis a research project into designing ‘better’ men’s workwear, linked with industry partners, is in the preliminary phase of implementation. Such a project would provide an opportunity to further advance my love of making and designing men’s clothing.

Reflection

In the closing phase of this research project I can now look back upon the fruition of an aesthetic, titled Neo-Dandy, and question this look in relation to my own style of dress. This poses a question: am I a Neo-Dandy? At the start of the project my particular panache at that time could be described as relatively formal, cautious in style and strongly adhering to notions of mainstream menswear – certainly not a Neo-Dandy. My style then shifted as a result of wearing and testing the Neo-Dandy shirts during the research. I became more audacious in my style of dress and at times I was a Neo-Dandy. I felt comfortable in this new zone and enjoyed the shift to a more innovative stance. However, by the end of the journey this has changed again. For the most part I am no longer a Neo-Dandy. My style has shifted back to

116 a relatively conservative position, with a surprisingly more casual bias to my dress. The principle reason for this shift to casual clothing has been the purchase of a beachside house. I have adopted a new weekend lifestyle – boating, fishing and sailing – and as a result, my preferred panache has slightly shifted away from the formal aspect of the Neo-Dandy aesthetic. However, for prescribed occasions that require a level of formality of dress I gravitate to being a Neo-Dandy, as the aesthetic provides a level of uniqueness in dress whist remaining formal in appearance.

On reflection, the research project has also contributed to shifts and growth in my design practice and increased my understanding of my background and identity in relation to being a designer/maker of clothing. To reflect upon this of life experiences and how it influenced my designing was a useful experience, as it brought to light my need for wearability juxtaposed with innovation – a position that is slowly gravitating more towards mainstream wearability as I age. The research project has brought to light my methodology of designing and making and provided an opportunity to examine and connect this process to my other design interests. Foremost, this research project provided an avenue to formally connect my love of designing and making with a theoretical grounding.

117 Appendices – Design Notebook

118 A.1 Characteristic differences between men’s white dress shirts and women’s white blouses

Men’s White Dress Shirt White Fitted Blouse White Loose Blouse

Fit Body form is recognisable Body form is Relaxed fit recognisable

Fabric 100% cotton No boundaries for fabric composition including 100% or cotton and polyester mix Synthetic

Normally matt fabrics Shiny or matt fabrics

No sheer fabrics Sheer fabrics OK

Limited texture Texture OK

Garment Easy care – preferably machine wash Numerous cleaning methods due to variety of fabrics care types e.g. Dry Clean, hand wash and machine wash

Openings Must have a centre front opening Can have no opening and over the head The opening can be in a number of positions (not just centre font)

Must be left over right opening Either direction opening is possible

Closure Small buttons, preferably four hole for No determinate button size, method durability any method for closure including clasps and lace-up

Minimum of 7 buttons on the front – Any number of buttons buttons must not be too close or too many

Generally buttons are white or pearl in Buttons any colour colour

Form Limited or no waist shaping Waist shaping Limited or no waist shaping

No skin visible on chest, back or arm – Exposure of skin is OK (sheerness – lace openings, only wrist and neck low-cut, short or no sleeves)

Shirt bottom has curved hem tails Any hem shape

Shirt is longer at back than front Any length Must have enough length to tuck in

Normally has a horizontal back yoke Shoulder line and/or yoke position – any depth or shape of yoke

Armholes are sufficiently deep to provide Generally armhole depth Generally armhole depth movement is high is low

Shoulder/armhole line is true Generally a true Can have dropped shoulder line shoulder

Front Separate sewn-on front tab Any method Rigid bib (if used)

119

Back Shirt is longer at back Back pleats from yoke or waist darting No restrictions on back only Generally formed to fit body May have darting on back No fitting and/or front Sleeves Set in sleeves Any sleeve method including Raglan and Magyar

Long sleeves Long or short sleeves Tapered to wrist in silhouette Many forms including puff at head or wrist Pleated into the cuff to allow for Many forms – gathered or pleated if a cuff is used movement Traditional method and position for Any method or position for placket placket opening Limited sleeve blousing Generally no blousing Blousing is OK

Yoke Quite shallow in depth Any shape or depth Cut double Can be cut singular Horizontal on back Slightly comes forward to the frontal area Yoke is cut on horizontal straight grain Grain direction is not critical Cuffs Has a cuff Cuff optional Rigid, rectangular and narrow. Many forms – soft, rigid, shaped, any size One or two button opening. Otherwise Any number of buttons or alternate closure methods cuff links Collars Rigid Rigid or soft Close to neck Close or away from neck Not falling on any part of the body Can fall on any part of shoulder, back or frontal areas except for frontal area Traditional form Can be excessive in shape Two-piece construction to provide a Any method of construction good role line Collar has no Facing can be used to assemble the collar Neckline True to neck shape True to neck or away from neck Pocket No pocket or one pocket only on left Any number or size of pockets side Stitching Small stitch size in generally matching Any stitch size, and contrast thread colour is OK thread Top stitching on collars, cuffs, yokes to Stitching not critical increase garment durability Interfacing Rigid fusible interfacing on cuff, collar Generally soft interfacing or no interfacing, can be fusible and centre front tab or traditional Applied to visible surface Applied to either surface

Detailing Generally applied to top frontal area Any position and degree of detail

If used relatively discreet in appearance

Assembly Sleeve is sewn to the armhole then side Sleeve is sewn to the armhole then side seams are sewn seams are sewn or sleeve is set in after side seams are sewn Seams are overlocked (seam finishing) Seams can be sewn open or closed seams closed

120 A.2 Complete thumbnails of white shirts by other designers

Directions towards a Neo-Dandy aesthetic

Figure 2.3-1 Figure 2.3-2 Figure 2.3-3 Antonio Marras, 2006 Patrick Ervell, 2007 Burberry Prorsum, 2006

Figure 2.3-4 Figure 2.3-5 Figure 2.3-6 Paul Smith, 2006 Gucci, 2006 a Gucci, 2006 b

Figure 2.3-7 Figure 2.3-8 Figure 2.3-9 Gucci, 2006 c Neil Barrett, 2005 Neil Barrett, 2006 a

121

Figure 2.3-10 Figure 2.3-11 Figure 2.3-12 D Squared, 2006 Paul Smith, 2005 a Dries Van Noten, 2005 a

Figure 2.3-13 Figure 2.3-14 Figure 2.3-15 Dries Van Noten, 2005 a Neil Barrett, 2006 b Raf Simons, 2006

Heading beyond the Neo-Dandy aesthetic into a blousy aesthetic

Figure 2.3-16 Figure 2.3-17 Figure 2.3-18 Alexander McQueen 2006, Dior Homme, 2007 c Gucci, 2005 a

122

Figure 2.3-19 Figure 2.3-20 Figure 2.3-21 Jill Saunders, 2007 John Galliano, 2005 Kris van Assche, 2006

Figure 2.3-22 Figure 2.3-23 Figure 2.3-24 Costume National Gucci, 2005 b Gucci, 2007 Homme, 2006

Figure 2.3-25 Figure 2.3-26 Figure 2.3-27 Pablo Ramirez, 2007 Dior Homme, 2006 Emanual Ungaro, 2006

123

Figure 2.3-28 Figure 2.3-29 Figure 2.3-30 Dries Van Noten, 2005 b Kris Van Assche, 2007 Paul Smith, 2005 b

Aligning to the Neo-Dandy aesthetic

Figure 2.3-31 Figure 2.3-32 Figure 2.3-33 Gucci, 2006 d Missoni, 2005 Neil Barrett, 2006 c

Figure 2.3-34 Emanuel Ungaro 2006

124 A.3 Images and studio design notes on all sixty concept shirts

Note: The following shirt images and studio notes are discussed in order according to the four zones in the Matrix of Innovation: Safe, Mildly-Dandy, Neo-Dandy and Blousy. Within these groupings the assigned shirt numbers correspond to the chronological order of assembly.

Some shirts overlap in both the Blousy levels of detailing and Blousy zones of detailing. When this occurs, the shirt is placed in the zone with the most predominant characteristic. Furthermore, the Blousy zone states the key design principles that have not been adhered to.

(Safe zone begins next page)

125

Safe (Conservative)

Images begin next page.

126

Shirt number 11

This shirt is based on a classic dress shirt with no features apart from the traditional bib, French cuffs and vintage dress buttons. This shirt was made with the intention of adding decorative treatment to the bib front. This did not happen as I abandoned the use of hand skills for detailing.

• Zone: Safe (front of rack)

• Comments: The fabric used on this shirt was overly dense in weight.

127

Shirt number 16

This shirt experimented with a more traditional look using a pleated front panel. The silhouette on this shirt is leaner than previous shirts, as a result of waist darting and less volume through the chest and the body. As well, the length of the garment has been extended.

• Zone: Safe (middle of rack)

• Comments: Very safe in innovation as the shirt appears similar to a classic pleated dress

shirt, except for the twisting of the front pleats.

128

Shirt number 6

Waist suppression was achieved on this shirt through the use of hand smocking. Vintage shirt buttons were applied to the shirt and the inspiration was from Victorian tab front dress shirts.

• Zone: Safe (back of rack)

• Comments: Resembles a classic period dress shirt, with tab front and stand collar. Subtle in

appearance and relatively effective style of detailing, considering smocking is not traditionally

used on men’s clothing. The waist suppression is flattering to the body, although the hand

stitching is poorly executed. The style of smocking used on the back should be similar to the

front. Similar waist suppression results could have been achieved by sewing a simple .

129

Mildly-Dandy (Approaching)

Images begin next page.

130

Shirt number 5

Tailor’s tacks (hand stitching technique) were used on shirt number 5 to create small folds on the centre front panel.

• Zone: Mildly-Dandy (front of rack)

• Comments: The use of tailor’s tacks is relatively innovative as this type of hand stitch is not

normally used as detailing. White thread on white fabric worked extremely well. The shape

created by the hand stitching needs refining – the stitching should be closer towards centre

front and the gap decreased between each .

131

Shirt number 28

Bridal closures (small loops and buttons) were the inspiration for shirt number 28.

• Zone: Mildly-Dandy (front of rack)

• Comments: Discreet use of detailing, although a very impractical number of buttons for the

pragmatic nature of menswear. The button loops on the bottom of the shirt front are not

required

132

Shirt number 17

This shirt has shoulder guards that were designed to add ‘masculine’ visual strength to the upper body.

• Zone: Mildly-Dandy (middle of rack)

• Comments: The shoulder guards appear to balance the soft collar shape. The front band

could be narrower in width and the shape of the curved collar modified. The slightly textured

fabric is effective.

133

Shirt number 10

This shirt has a decorative hand stitch (chain) applied to the collar, centre front and name patch.

Numerous attempts were made to reapply different name patches without success. At this point in

the research project I realised that hand stitching was not working on the shirts. The time in relation

to the quality of the outcome was unbalanced. I had to re-examine the notion of spending a

considerable amount of time applying detailing through the use of hand sewing, for a limited

outcome, was unsuitable.

• Zone: Mildly-Dandy (back of rack)

• Comments: The applied name patch appears not integrated to the shirt. It looks as though it is

an afterthought for detailing and is highly unsuccessful.

134

Shirt number 12

Shirt number 12 is based on shirt number 11, although with subtle beading added to the bib and cuffs. A soft large curved collar was applied to the shirt.

• Zone: Mildly-Dandy (back of rack)

• Comments: The curved collar appears overly soft (needs more interfacing) when used with a

traditional men’s bib front. The pearl trimming did not withstand high iron temperatures and

melted on the edges. The interfacing needs to be firmer to create crisp bibs and cuffs. For

future reference ensure all trims are tested for high iron temperatures.

135

Shirt number 46

This shirt was an intentional regression to a more ‘masculine’ styling, with epaulettes (shoulder ) and a traditional collar shape. The epaulette and collar have multiple layers of fabric stitched together.

• Zone: Mildly-Dandy (back of rack)

• Comments: As a result of using multiple layers of fabric the collar and epaulettes are overly

thick and the collar does not roll correctly. The epaulettes do not enhance the design of the

shirt.

136

Neo-Dandy (Aligning)

Images begin next page.

137

Shirt number 37

The collar on this shirt was inspired by the traditional neck tie and ’s (renowned dandy figure) use of wrapped neck-cloths.

• Zone: Neo-Dandy (front of rack)

• Comments: Effective balance between austerity and detailing through the use of shoulder

guards and the neck tie derivation. The shoulder guards are subtle so as not to ‘fight’ with the

design detailing applied to the collar. The use of fringing on the tie adds interest. French cuffs

were effective although could be more rigid to increase formality. However, if this shirt was

remanufactured I would consider removing the shoulder guards, so the attention is solely on

the neck area. As well, a higher quality of cloth could be investigated.

138

Shirt number 40

This shirt was a follow-on experiment from shirt number 39.

• Zone: Neo-Dandy (front of rack)

• Comments: An excellent result was achieved with multiple varieties of lace applied to only the

front area of the shirt. The amount of frills used on the front band is appropriate, as it

references a traditional tuxedo shirt and is subtle in appearance. If this shirt was to be

remanufactured the lace could be shortened so it finished on the chest area. As well, a

heavier interfacing could be applied to the cuffs and front tab to assist with more rigidity.

139

Shirt number 48

Shirt number 48 continued experimenting with the layering of fabric for collar detail. This shirt was more successful than previous versions (shirt numbers 47 and 46) as the lines were softer and the layering was not as rigid as the previous two shirts. Multiple layers of fabric were used to add depth to the collar and alternating bias panels created strong vertical lines. This shirt forged the path for experimentation with neckline treatments on future shirts.

• Zone: Neo-Dandy (front of rack)

• Comments: An effective way to use bias strips for a fabric treatment and a resolved use of

multiple layers of fabric for collar detailing. If this shirt was to be remanufactured several

aspects may be improved: the front detailing could be reduced in depth so it finishes on the

chest area, with a shape that follows a bib silhouette; the collar is fully resolved although it

could benefit from being placed on a plain shirt, without frontal detailing; inversely a plain

stand collar would be the preferred style, when matched with the front detail. Hence, this shirt

could be reinterpreted into two styles, if remanufactured – one with a layered fabric collar and

a plain body and the other with the textured bias front (modified) and a plain stand collar.

140

Shirt number 55

This shirt explores neckline and collar treatments. The collar wraps around a neck band and falls in folds in order to imitate a or separate neck cloth.

• Zone: Neo-Dandy (front of rack)

• Comments: The collar extension creates for a neckband that successfully wraps around to

form a resolved shape. The band shape allows for a multiplicity of tie variations and is refined

in detailing – a successful collar experiment. I would consider the use of a higher quality

fabric, if the shirt was remanufactured.

141

Shirt number 59

This shirt continued with derivations of the attached neck cloth and tie. Fabric is folded and twisted to form a tied neckband.

• Zone: Neo-Dandy (front of rack)

• Comments: A harmonious level of innovation and austerity, as the collar references a

traditional tie and the folding on the neck band provides for a soft and delicate appearance. If

this shirt was to be remanufactured, the length of the neckband could be slightly extended

and the trim on the cuffs could be removed. French cuffs would be preferable to the plain

barrel style cuffs used on this shirt, as it increases formality.

142

Shirt number 24

This shirt builds upon shirt number 23 with the use of bib detailing.

• Zone: Neo-Dandy (middle of rack)

• Comments: The use of a traditional collar successfully offsets the softness of the lace. The

contrast of sheer fabric and a solid bib effectively highlights the chest area. The bib shape

could be narrower in width.

143

Shirt number 26

Bridal lace was used to create an attached over-vest.

• Zone: Neo-Dandy (middle of rack)

• Comments: The combination of a traditional men’s vest silhouette and the use of soft bridal

lace creates for an effective visual balance. The vest could benefit from an improved bottom

shape and fit. The lace is overly textured.

144

Shirt number 29

On shirt number 29 the front fabric is slashed on an angle and a self-fabric bias strip is threaded through the cut area.

• Zone: Neo-Dandy (middle of rack)

• Comments: An effective method to add detail without exposing skin. However, there is no

need to slash so low on the front, as the loose fabric can be annoying when tucking in the

shirt.

145

Shirt number 45

This shirt experimented with treatments to the frontal area with a classic centre front (flounce).

• Zone: Neo-Dandy (middle of rack)

• Comments: The use of a bias cut front effectively highlights the decorative jabot. The degree

of detailing appears refined, as it is applied to the front and neck regions only. The French

cuffs assist to aid formality. The jabot could be smaller in size, as it is very floppy when worn.

The collar trim could either be smaller in size or eliminated.

146

Shirt number 49

On this shirt the collar forms four loose flowing folds (similar to a men’s neck tie) and was inspired by the ‘four-in-hand’ tie knot.

• Zone: Neo-Dandy (middle of rack)

• Comments: The collar treatment is effective, although the lengths of the ties are excessive

and hang down longer than a traditional tie.

147

Shirt number 50

This shirt was a continuum of shirt number 49 and experiments with collar changes.

• Zone: Neo-Dandy (middle of rack)

• Comments: A novel way to create an extension of the neck band. The detailing applied to the

shoulder and the armhole area is slightly excessive. This shirt would have been placed front

of rack Neo-Dandy if the seam detail was not applied.

148

Shirt number 51

This shirt digressed back to the ‘safeness’ of using a traditional two-piece collar. The collar was twisted and buttoned down, similar to the classic button down collar. Although in this case two pearl buttons were used instead of the traditional one button.

• Zone: Neo-Dandy (middle of rack)

• Comments: An effective collar treatment as it stays within known visual boundaries. The lace

on the centre front tab is visually unnecessary, as it adds unneeded texture.

149

Shirt number 52

This shirt revisited shirt number 2 by using a knotted style of collar.

• Zone: Neo-Dandy (middle of rack)

• Comments: A more successful outcome than shirt number 2 as the fabric texture matches the

twist in the collar line. The textured fabric is effectively applied only to the frontal area. The

collar could benefit from extra rigidity and a better quality interfacing.

150

Shirt number 53

This shirt experimented with a collar treatment inspired from a traditional men’s neck tie and is an evolution of shirt number 49.

• Zone: Neo-Dandy (middle of rack)

• Comments: This shirt is plain except for the collar treatment, thereby allowing the collar to be

the focal point. The collar angle needs further resolution. One collar tip needs to be longer so

the tie can be fully knotted, similar to a traditional tie. The interfacing on the collar ‘bubbled’

after a hot wash.

151

Shirt number 56

This shirt experiments with changes to the collar and is inspired by a men’s neck tie. The collar wraps around the to create suppression and is buttoned at the rear.

• Zone: Neo-Dandy (middle of rack)

• Comments: The collar effectively reduces waist volume and from the rear view the collar

references a masculine vest silhouette. However, from the front view the collar seems slightly

excessive in size. The cuff treatment is not needed.

152

Shirt number 8

Shirt number eight has brown embroidery thread applied to imitate patch pockets and highlight seam areas.

• Zone: Neo-Dandy (back of rack)

• Comments: The use of colour detracts from the shirt as this aligns to a casual appearance.

White on white stitching would be more discreet and preferable. The buttons did not withstand

a hot wash and the stitching catches on and .

153

Shirt number 20

Shirt number 20 was an evolution from shirt number 19 although with a classic centre front opening.

This shirt also was the first of many to experiment with lace to join seams and exposure of the skin.

• Zone: Neo-Dandy (back of rack)

• Comments: The lace adds excessive weight and thickness to the front.

154

Shirt number 39

This shirt revisited early experiments with the use of lace to join seams together.

• Zone: Neo-Dandy (back of rack)

• Comments: An effective way to replace seams with lace detailing, thereby giving an

integrated detailing effect to the shirt. An alternate lace should have been used so as to

expose less skin around the armhole area. This shirt was almost placed in the Blousy zone

due to the exposure of skin.

155

Shirt number 54

Shirt number fifty four continued with the idea of a tie silhouette. The tie folds from the chest position on the centre front tab.

• Zone: Neo-Dandy (back of rack)

• Comments: The bias strips are visually effective however the tie falling from the chest area

resembles a ‘feminine’ style bow. This shirt was almost placed in the zone of Blousy levels of

detailing.

156

Blousy (Beyond)

Images begin next page.

157

Shirt number 4

On this shirt ‘White Work’ (hand embroidery) was used to decorate the front in a curved symmetrical pattern. The hand sewing was slow, taking many hours to complete. An interesting decorative effect, however the time taken to hand sew the feature seemed disproportionate to the final outcome. White decorative thread on white fabric was effective.

• Zone: Blousy levels of detailing

• Comments: The symmetrical shape created by the ‘White Work’ gives an interesting depth to

the frontal area of the shirt. However, the texture appears not integrated to the shirt and

excessive. The symmetry creates a shape that needs refining. The French cuffs appear

overly formal in relation to the casual and loose texture of the detailing.

• Principle not adhered to: Design Principle 2 - Degree of Detailing

Design Principle 3 - Integration of Detailing

158

Shirt number 9

Hand weaving of cotton tape was used to decorate the front bib. The detailing appears ‘added on’ and was unsuccessful.

• Zone: Blousy levels of detailing

• Comments: An interesting use of cotton tape for bib detailing, as this form of tape is normally

used for inner supporting treatments and generally not as decoration. However, the tape

creates an unfinished and overly decorated look. The tape slightly shrunk in the first wash

thereby making the front of the shirt difficult to press. The addition of cotton tape to the front

tab and cuffs appears excessive. A more lustrous style of tape would add more formality to

the shirt.

• Principle not adhered to: Design Principle 2 - Degree of Detailing

Design Principle 3 - Integration of Detailing

159

Shirt number 18

Shirt number 18 was a formative shirt that assisted the design direction for numerous subsequent shirts.

This shirt experimented with the combination of lace and frills.

• Zone: Blousy levels of detailing

• Comments: The use of lace and the textural front appears slightly over adorned. The stand

collar works well with the lace trim, although not when matched with the front detailing. More

interfacing is required on the front tab as it gaps at the neckline and does not give a crisp

formal appearance.

• Principle not adhered to: Design Principle 2 - Degree of Detailing

Design Principle 6 - Formality

160

Shirt number 19

This shirt experimented with lace panelling. The lace was partially hidden with sheer fabric to create a discrete effect. The shirt also tried to break away from using the traditional full centre front opening – an unsuccessful experiment.

• Zone: Blousy levels of detailing

• Comments: The use of piping was unsuccessful, as it created bulk of fabric and is superfluous

detailing. The concept of ‘hidden’ lace was an interesting idea. The shirt front is significantly

difficult to press with the lace detailing. The omission of a full front tab gives the shirt a casual

appearance.

• Principle not adhered to: Design Principle 2 - Degree of Detailing

Design Principle 6 - Formality

161

Shirt number 21

This shirt explored using frills and smocking on a traditional bib front.

• Zone: Blousy levels of detailing

• Comments: The frills on the bib are quite large and ‘fight’ with the smocking. The pearl

buttons are effective and add formality to the shirt. The bib treatment appears patched ‘onto’

the shirt.

• Principle not adhered to: Design Principle 2 - Degree of Detailing

Design Principle 3 - Integration of Detailing

162

Shirt number 22

This shirt builds on from shirt number 21 – the lace and frills offset the crispness of a rigid bib. Large firm

French cuffs are used.

• Zone: Blousy levels of detailing

• Comments: The use of lace and frills appear excessive and overly decorated. The French

cuffs and the self-striped fabric assisted to increase formality. The front bib shape is too wide

in appearance. Frills on the neckline are not required.

• Principle not adhered to: Design Principle 2 - Degree of Detailing

163

Shirt number 23

This shirt was a continuation of the previous shirt design. Bridal lace was used on the bib to contrast a plain shirt. Frills adorn the neckline.

• Zone: Blousy levels of detailing

• Comments: The use of braid adds formality to the shirt and the self striped fabric references

dress shirt nuances. The use of a neck frill appears excessive when combined with the

frontal detailing.

• Principle not adhered to: Design Principle 2 - Degree of Detailing

164

Shirt number 25

Shirt number 25 was another bib experiment and uses soft directional self fabric frills.

• Zone: Blousy levels of detailing

• Comments: The frills appear excessive when used on different angles. The method of frill

attachment is not successfully executed, as the sewing is visible. The frills appear patched

‘onto’ the garment. The diagonal stitching is also unnecessary.

• Principle not adhered to: Design Principle 2 - Degree of Detailing

Design Principle 3 - Integration of Detailing

165

Shirt number 34

This shirt follows on from shirt number 33 – small scraps of fabric and short lengths of lace are used to join seams together.

• Zone: Blousy levels of detailing

• Comments: The lace on the armhole area exposes underarm body hair and too many types of

lace were used. The detailing protrudes unnecessarily from the shoulder region and the bias

striped fabric ‘fights’ with the lace. This is an effective way to reduce fabric costs as detailing

is attained through the use of small lengths of lace and sample room floor leftovers.

• Principle not adhered to: Design Principle 1- Locations of Detailing

Design Principle 2 - Degree of Detailing

Design Principle 4 - Skin Exposure

166

Shirt number 35

A continuous length of ruffled bias pleating was spiralled at random over a length of fabric and then stitched in place to form decorative detailing.

• Zone: Blousy (overly decorated)

• Comments: The neckband treatment is thick and appears unwarranted. The ruffled bias

pleating is excessive when applied over the entire front area.

• Principle not adhered to: Design Principle 1 - Locations of Detailing

Design Principle 2 - Degree of Detailing

Design Principle 3 - Integration of Detailing

167

Shirt number 38

Intricate lace was applied to a large curved cuff – inspired by decorated shaped cuffs used on blouses and wedding dresses.

• Zone: Blousy levels of detailing

• Comments: The curved cuff is incorrect in shape (does not fit the wrist silhouette) and is bulky

in appearance and overly large in size. The amount and type of lace used does not enhance

the wrist area and is excessive in appearance.

• Principle not adhered to: Design Principle 1 - Locations of Detailing

Design Principle 2 - Degree of Detailing

Design Principle 7 - Customary Design Elements

168

Shirt number 44

This shirt has lace and frills applied to a raglan (styled armhole shape) style panel.

• Zone: Blousy levels of detailing

• Comments: The shoulder area is not enhanced by the lace panel and the detailing is

excessive. The upward frills on the cuffs appear unnecessary.

• Principle not adhered to: Design Principle 1 - Locations of Detailing

Design Principle 2 - Degree of Detailing

169

Shirt number 57

This shirt was inspired by accidentally buttoning up the previous shirt incorrectly and as a result the buttoning created a fold at the centre front tab.

• Zone: Blousy levels of detailing

• Comments: Skin is visible through the folds and the shirt appears unbalanced and overly

adorned due to the increased volume created by the folds. The front folds are excessive and

exceedingly deep in size.

• Principle not adhered to: Design Principle 2 - Degree of Detailing

Design Principle 5 - Skin Exposure

170

Shirt number 13

This shirt has a folded diamond pane pleating applied to one sleeve. This technique is an old fashioned sewing skill that was commonly used on cushions. The treatment looked effective until I cut it up the fabric and applied it to the shirt. Folded pleating can be successful on large areas but it did not translate well onto a small sleeve panel.

• Zone: Blousy zones of detailing

• Comments: The asymmetrical detailing unbalances the shirt and the sleeve becomes the

focal visual point.

• Principle not adhered to: Design Principle 1 - Locations of Detailing

171

Shirt number 27

Shirt number 27 experimented with alternate closure methods – snap press buttons as well as a diagonal front opening. Smocking and frills were used on the front tab area. This shirt defined the use of buttons in preference to snaps for subsequent shirts.

• Zone: Blousy zones of detailing

• Comments: The front diagonal opening requires a greater offset from centre front. The snap

closures are discreet. However, they do not have a quality feel or appear formal in

appearance. Detailing is not required on the cuff or yoke areas.

• Principle not adhered to: Design Principle 1 - Locations of Detailing

Design Principle 2 - Degree of Detailing

Design Principle 6 - Formality

172

Shirt number 30

This shirt follows on from shirt number 29 with slashes created by folding bias strips in alternate directions.

• Zone: Blousy zones of detailing

• Comments: This is an effective method to add design detailing by sewing and folding bias

shapes together, however it appears excessive when applied to the entire frontal area. This

treatment ended up unnecessarily thick and bulky.

• Principle not adhered to: Design Principle 1 - Locations of Detailing

Design Principle 2 - Degree of Detailing

173

Shirt number 31

This shirt experimented with randomly tucked fabric on the diagonal grain prior to cutting out the shirt.

• Zone: Blousy zones of detailing

• Comments: The tucking treatment appears excess and unwarranted when applied to all body

areas. The raw edges detract from the formality and the back tucking does not match the front

in angle. This treatment was extremely wasteful in fabric – approximately eight metres. The

haphazard effect created on the fabric was effective.

• Principle not adhered to: Design Principle 1 - Locations of Detailing

Design Principle 2 - Degree of Detailing

Design Principle 6 - Formality

174

Shirt number 32

Shirt number 32 was conceived by examining the scrap fabric on the cutting room floor and trying to work out how I could creatively use it. Numerous fabric swatches were cut on the bias (to stop fraying) and applied randomly to the front panels. This method of detailing was a reaction to the excessive waste of fabric used on shirt number 31.

• Zone: Blousy zones of detailing

• Comments: This treatment became heavy and bulky, and appears excessive when applied to

the whole frontal area. Lighter weight fabrics could have been used to eliminate bulk. The

patched detailing made the shirt appear casual in appearance.

• Principle not adhered to: Design Principle 1 - Locations of Detailing

Design Principle 2 - Degree of Detailing

Design Principle 3 - Integration of Detailing

Design Principle 6 - Formality

175

Shirt number 33

A continuation of using waste fabric for detailing – bias rectangles are stitched together to create a fabric treatment.

• Zone: Blousy zones of detailing

• Comments: The patching appears integrated to the shirt design, however when applied to the

whole front it is excessive in detail. The use of bias strips was effective in stopping the fabric

from fraying. This shirt provided a more resolved version of the use of fabric scraps for

detailing.

• Principle not adhered to: Design Principle 1 - Locations of Detailing

176

Shirt number 36

This shirt experimented with a similar spiralling detailing used on shirt number 35. The treatment is applied to the sleeves and back yoke.

• Zone: Blousy zones of detailing

• Comments: The sleeves and yoke are not enhanced by the detailing and the frills on centre

front, collar and cuff are excessive when combined with the sleeve treatment.

• Principle not adhered to: Design Principle 1 - Locations of Detailing

Design Principle 2 - Degree of Detailing

Design Principle 3 - Integration of Detailing

177

Shirt number 41

A raglan style sleeve was used as an experiment to change from the use of the traditional set-in sleeve.

Smocking was applied to the panel and lace was used to join the seam.

• Zone: Blousy zones of detailing

• Comments: An excessive amount of detailing was created by the use of smocking and when

applied to the yoke and sleeve it appears unwarranted.

• Principle not adhered to: Design Principle 1 - Locations of Detailing

Design Principle 2 - Degree of Detailing

178

Shirt number 43

This shirt continued to explore the raglan sleeve silhouette with lace and smocking as a design feature.

• Zone: Blousy zones of detailing

• Comments: The detailing appears excessive and not appropriate on the sleeve and shoulder

area.

• Principle not adhered to: Design Principle 1 - Locations of Detailing

Design Principle 2 - Degree of Detailing

179

Shirt number 58

Shirt number 58 experimented with extending the collar line on both the front and back of the shirt.

• Zone: Blousy zones of detailing

• Comments: From the rear view the collar shape appears exceedingly unwarranted and is

excessive in size.

• Principle not adhered to: Design Principle 1 - Locations of Detailing

Design Principle 7 - Customary Design Elements

180

Shirt number 60

The last shirt continued to experiment with collar changes.

• Zone: Blousy zones of detailing

• Comments: The collar falls onto the yoke area of the shirt and from the rear view appears

excessive in size and in doing so references a Peter Pan style collar – commonly used on

women’s blouses and children’s tops.

• Principle not adhered to: Design Principle 1 - Locations of Detailing

Design Principle 2 - Degree of Detailing

Design Principle 7 - Customary Design Elements

181

Shirt number 14

This shirt revisited waist suppression that was used on shirt number 6. A detailed braid was applied to form soft waist gathers. This shirt also experimented with folding fabric and fusing it onto the interfacing of the collar to form a gathered effect.

• Zone: Blousy silhouette

• Comments: The amount of waist suppression is excessive. For future reference, the shirring

thread should be removed prior to the fusing of the interfacing, as it leaves a residual mark.

• Principle not adhered to: Design Principle 1 - Locations of Detailing

Design Principle 4 - Silhouette

182

Shirt number 15

This shirt experimented with waist suppression. This was the first of many shirts to use machine smocking – a relatively quick process to reduce fabric volume and a style of detailing not familiar to men’s clothing. Pearl buttons were also used to add lustre and formality to the shirt.

• Zone: Blousy silhouette

• Comments: This shirt has hanger appeal however the smocking is overly restrictive to the

waist. Excessive waist suppression creates fullness in the chest area and armhole area. The

smocking creates an overly curved waistline.

• Principle not adhered to: Design Principle 1 - Locations of Detailing

Design Principle 4 - Silhouette

183

Shirt number 42

This shirt uses a similar raglan experiment as shirt number 41, except the smocking is looser in construction. The sleeves ended up excessively full and the shirt appears voluminous in the sleeve area.

• Zone: Blousy silhouette

• Comments: The looseness of the sleeve creates an excessive silhouette. Tighter smocking

should have been used to overcome the looseness. The wrist frills are over adorned and

unnecessary.

• Principle not adhered to: Design Principle 1 - Locations of Detailing

Design Principle 2 - Degree of Detailing

Design Principle 4 - Silhouette

184

Shirts not displayed in the exhibition (no matrix position)

Images begin next page.

185

Shirt number 1 - NOT DISPLAYED IN THE EXHIBITION

This first shirt experimented with drawn thread work on the front panel. The intricate detailing was very effective, however, the short sleeves on the shirt did not harmonise with complex decorative detailing; the short sleeves were casual and the detailing appeared formal. This formative shirt determined that all future shirts would be long sleeve as the detailing matched the formality of a long sleeve shirt.

• No position - short sleeves do not match the criteria for a dress shirt.

186

Shirt number 2 - NOT DISPLAYED IN THE EXHIBITION

The inspiration for this shirt was derived from a neck tie with the knots on the collar forming the central feature around the neckline. French cuffs highlighted the formality of the shirt; however, the cream colour looked ‘dirty’ in appearance.

• No position - colour (cream not white) does not match the criteria for a white dress shirt.

187

Shirt number 3 - NOT DISPLAYED IN THE EXHIBITION

This shirt was also cream in colour but with red thread used to accent the button stitching. This shirt was made as a shell to add decorative hand stitching. The detailing was never added and this shirt assisted in determining my preference for a neutral palette. The red thread appears effective however it makes the shirt casual in appearance.

• No position - colour (cream not white) does not match the criteria for a white dress shirt.

188

No photograph - the shirt was not assembled to a significant level to be worn on the body.

Shirt number 7 - NOT DISPLAYED IN THE EXHIBITION

This garment was never finished. It began as an experiment to apply fringing to the hem line and was highly unsuccessful.

• No position as the garment was not finished. The fabric was not suitable and the fringing was

unsuccessful.

189

Shirt number 47 - NOT DISPLAYED IN THE EXHIBITION

This shirt has multiple layers of fabric stitched together on a high stand collar, as well as the cuffs.

• No position - This shirt was not finished and still requires buttons and buttonholes. It became

apparent during construction that the design was poorly executed, due to the thickness of

fabric on the collar and cuffs.

190 A.4 Specific elements of experimentation on concept shirts

The experiments can be clustered into seven areas, which depending on the shirt, can overlap in their treatments. All major patterns shapes were experimented on including the front, back, yoke, sleeve, collar and cuffs.

Firstly, a significant number of shirts had texture. These include shirts number 4, 5, 9, 15, 16, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 27, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 41, 42, 43, 44, 48, 52 and 54. Texture was a significant element for design experimentation, as evidenced by the quantity of shirts with this treatment. By using techniques such as machine smocking, slashing of fabric, decorative hand stitching, or applying lace, the plainness of the fabric could be enhanced. Within this diversity of techniques the most successful was to allow bias edges to be exposed when joined, such as shirt numbers 33 and 48.

Numerous shirts had frontal detailing, such as numbers 4, 5, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 29, 30, 32, 33, 34, 35, 40, 44, 45, 47, 48, 51, 52 and 54. Frontal treatment was, in the main, highly successful. These experiments included adding lace, smocking, frills, texture, and changes to frontal openings. At the time of making I did not intentionally realise the underlying notions as to why frontal treatment was successful or the fact that I had applied this to more than half the shirts in the practice. Hence, frontal treatment formed one of the main experimental areas for the studio based component of the research.

Very few shirts had changes to frontal closure methods. These include shirts number 27, 28, and 57. Shirt number 27 experimented with diagonal openings and the use of press studs. Both of these treatments were ruled out as satisfactory for subsequent shirts, as they digressed too far from the archetypical dress shirt. Shirt number 28 used numerous pearl buttons spaced closely together as an experimental feature. This worked exceedingly well even though it was impractical to unbutton the shirt. Finally, shirt number 57 experimented with changes to the front using an asymmetrical folded opening and once again this did not significantly reference the classic tab front on a men’s dress shirt.

191 Experiments to sleeve detailing were tried on shirts number 13, 36, 41, 42 and 43. In all of these cases the experiment was deemed unsuccessful. The techniques included texture through the use of smocking and applied trimmings.

Cuff experiments were tried on only two shirts, numbers 38 and 56. On shirt number 38 I frustratingly tried many variants of cuff detailing, including different shapes and textures. All were unsuccessful including the final technique. In hindsight I should have documented (photographed) all the variations used. Shirt number 56 had an inconsequential modification by extending the cuff shape to create an overlap.

On shirts number 33, 34, 39, 48, 50, 51, 52 and 54 seam experiments were applied. These treatments included using lace to ‘bridge’ seams, such as the sleeve to the armhole and the sewing of smaller shapes to create exposed seams. Collar experiments were applied to shirt numbers 2, 37, 48, 49, 50, 53, 54, 55, 56, 58, 59 and 60. The collar detailing forms one of the principle methods to draw attention to the face and these experiments included applying texture, frills and changes to the collar silhouette. Finally, experiments to change waist form were applied to shirt numbers 6, 14 and 15. These experiments were unsuccessful as the silhouette tended to become overly loose.

In addition, numerous shirts experimented with texture of the fabric. The techniques included the use of bias cut panels, slashing of fabric, hand sewing detailing and applying trimming directly onto the fabric. The most successful type of texture was when it appeared to reside ‘into’ the fabric; that is, the detail appeared integral to the garment design, not added on. Examples of this ‘into’ effect are shirt numbers 5, 15, 16, 29, 31, 40, 48 and 54. Other techniques created an ‘onto’ effect. This outcome appeared less successful than the ‘into’ effect and could be viewed as decoration for the sake of decoration. Examples of this ‘onto’ effect include shirt numbers, 21, 24, 25, 32, 35 and 36.

Finally, it is noteworthy that as the experiments evolved they became more audacious in style and this mirrored my growing confidence in wearing more uncustomary clothing. This confidence can be evidenced with the use of treatments, such as smocking and lace insertion, as well as significant deviations from archetypical forms for neckline treatments.

192 (Intentionally left blank)

193 References

Texts cited

Adams, C. 1990. White-Blouse and White-Collar: Work, Culture and Gender. Gender & History, Vol 2 (Issue 3).

Aldrich, W. 1984. Metric Pattern Cutting for Menswear. London: Granada Publishing.

. 2006. Metric Pattern Cutting for Menswear: Including Unisex Clothes and Computer Aided Design. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing.

Anderson, G. ed. 1988. The White Blouse Revolution: Female Office Workers Since 1870. Manchester [England]: Manchester University Press.

Blaszczyk, R. ed. 2008. Producing Fashion: Commerce, Culture, and Consumers. Philadelphia: Pennsylvania Press.

Breward, C. 1995. The Culture of Fashion. Manchester: Manchester University Press.

_____. 2002. Style and Subversion: Power Poses and the Neo-Edwardian Suit in Mid-Twentieth-Century Britain. Gender & History, Volume 14 (Number 3).

_____. 2003. Fashion. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

_____. 2004. Fashioning London: Clothing and the Modern Metropolis. Oxford: Berg

Bryde, P. 1992. Nineteenth Century Fashion. London: B.T. Batsford Limited.

Burtis, E. 1999. Ladies Home Journal, Jan 1911, Making a Shirt for a Man. In Shirt's & Men's Haberdashery 1840's to 1920's. California: Shep Publications.

Calasibetta, C. and P. Tortora. 2003. Dictionary of Fashion. London: Laurence King Publishing.

Chenoune, F. 1993. A History of Men's Fashion. Paris: Flammarion.

Cicolini, A. 2005. The New English Dandy. London: Thames and Hudson.

Cole, S. 2000. Don We Now Our Gay Apparel: 's Dress In The Twentieth Century. Oxford: Berg.

Craik, J. 1994. The Face of Fashion. London: Routledge.

Cunnington, P. and C. Willett. 1992. The History of Underclothes. London: Dover Publications.

194 Damhorst, M. 2005. Dress as Nonverbal Communication. The Meaning of Dress. ed. Damhorst. M., Miller-Spillman. K and S. Michelman. New York: Fairchild Publications.

Darnell, P. 2000. Victorian to Vamp: Women's Clothing 1900-1929. Reno: Fabric Fancies.

Drehle, D. 2004. Triangle: The Fire That Changed America. New York: Grove Press.

Edwards, T. 1997. Men in the Mirror: Men's Fashion, Masculinity and Consumer Society. London: Cassell.

Entwistle, J. 2000. The Fashioned Body. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers.

Flugel, J. 1930. The Psychology of Clothes. New York: International Universities Press.

Foner, E. and J. Garraty. 1991. The Readers Companion to American History. Wilmington, MA: Houghton Mifflin.

Gleeson, K. and H. Firth. 2004. Clothing and Embodiment: Men Managing Body Image and Appearance. Psychology of Men & Masculinity, Volume 5 (Issue 1): p. 40-48.

Gray, C. and J. Malins. 2004. Visualizing Research: A Guide to the Research Process in Art and Design. England: Ashgate publishing.

Griffiths, I. 2000. The Invisible Man. The Fashion Business: Theory, Practice, Image. ed. White, N. and I. Griffiths. Oxford: Berg.

Griggs, C. 1998. S/he: Changing Sex and Clothing. Oxford: Berg.

Harris, K. 2002. Victorian & Edwardian Fashions for Women, 1840 to 1919. Atglen, PA: Schiffer Publishing.

Haseman, B. 2006. A Manifesto for Performative Research. Media International Australia incorporating Culture and Policy. No 188, February 2006, pp98- 106.

Hegland, J. 1999. Drag Queens, Transvestites: Stepping Across the Accepted Boundaries. The Meaning of Dress. ed. Damhorst. M., Miller. K and S. Michelman. New York: Fairchild Publications.

Hollander, A. 1994. Sex and Suits. New York: Kodansha America.

Honeyman, K. 2002. Following Suit: Men, Masculinity and Gendered Practices in the Clothing Trades in Leeds, England, 1890-1940. Gender & History, Volume 14 (Number 3).

Horwood, C. 2002. Dressing Like a Champion: Women's Tennis Wear in Interwar England. The Englishness of English Dress. ed. Breward, C. and B. Conekin. Oxford: Berg.

195 Jay, U. 2008. Recognition and Restoration of the Fashion Crafts of Pakistan. London College of Fashion, Research Degrees, Current Research Students. http://www.fashion.arts.ac.uk/5231.htm (accessed 19.06.08)

Kirkham, P. 1996. Introduction. The Gendered Object. ed. P. Kirkham. Manchester: Manchester University Press.

Knowles, L. 2005. The Practical Guide to Patternmaking for Fashion Designers: Menswear. New York: Fairchild.

Marsh, L. 2006. The Week in Fashion. (Elle.com). http://www.elle.com/TheWeekInFashion/8832/michael-kors-may-12- 2006.html (accessed 29.09.07).

Martinez, K. and K. Ames. ed. 1997. The Material Culture of Gender, the Gender of Material Culture. Winterthur: Winterthur Museum.

McDowell, C. 1997. The Man of Fashion: Peacock Males and Perfect Gentlemen. New York: Thames and Hudson.

McEvoy, F. 1995. The Triangle Shirtwaist Factory Fire of 1911: The Triangle Shirtwaist Factory Fire of 1911: Social Change, Industrial Accidents, and the Evolution of Common-Sense Causality. Law & Social Inquiry, Volume 20 (Issue 2): P. 621-651.

Michelman, S. 1999. Appearance for Gender and Sexuality. The Meaning of Dress, ed. Damhorst. M., Miller. K and S. Michelman. New York: Fairchild Publications.

Miller, N. 1997. The U.S. Navy: An Illustrated History. New York: American Heritage Publishing.

Moers, E. 1960. The Dandy: Brummell to Beerbohm. London: Secker and Warburg.

Murray, K. 2006. Craft Culture. Craft Victoria. http://www.craftculture.org/review/kmurray1.htm (accessed 13.05.08).

O’Bryne, R. 2000. After a Fashion. Dublin: Town House.

Olofsson, G. 2004. When in or Rio or Riyadh: Cultural Q&A s for Success Business Behaviour Around the World. Boston: Intercultural Press.

Peitsch, E. 2004. Making Over Masculinity: the and the Rise of the Style-Conscious Male, McGill University, Montreal.

Pendergast, S. and T. Pendergast. 2004. Fashion, Costume, and Culture: Clothing, Headwear, Body Decorations, and through the Ages. ed. S. Hermsen. Detroit: Thomson Gale.

Plowman, T. 2003. Ethnography and Practice in Design Research Methods and Perspective. ed. B. Laurel. Cambridge MA: MIT Press.

Roetzel, B. 1999. Gentleman: A Timeless Fashion. Colonge: Konemann.

196 Ruehl, P. 2005. Horror! It's Blokes in Blouses. The Australian Financial Review, March 5-6.

Shep, R. and G. Cariou. 1999. Shirts and Men's Haberdashery 1840's to 1920's. California: Shep Publications.

Sheman, G. and S. Perlman. 2007. The Real World Guide to Fashion Selling and Management. New York: Fairchild Publications.

Steinmetz, M. 2008. Freedom of Movement in Woven Women's Wear Clothing Products- Flat Pattern Cutting as a Response to Urban Life. London College of Fashion, Research Degrees, Current Research Students. http://www.fashion.arts.ac.uk/5231.htm (accessed 19.06.08)

Turbin, C. 2000. Collars and Consumers: Changing images of American Manliness and Business. Enterprise & Society, Volume 1 (Issue 3). . 2002. Fashioning the American Man: The Arrow Collar Man, 1907 - 1931. Gender & History, Volume14 (Number 3).

Twain, M. 1981. Roughing it. New York: Penguin Classics.

V&A (Victoria and Albert Museums). c2007. Jean Paul Gaultier. http://www.vam.ac.uk/vastatic/microsites/men_in_skirts/gaultier1.htm (accessed 10.09.07).

Warner, P. 2006. When the Girls Came Out to Play: The Birth of American Sportswear. Amherst and Boston: University of Massachusetts Amherst. A full-text of this book is archived at http://scholarworks.umass.edu/umpress_wtg/ (accessed 15.10.07).

Waugh, N. 1964. The Cut of Men's Clothes 1600-1900. New York: Theatre Arts Books.

WGSN (Worth Global Style Network). 2007. Menswear Season Overview Autumn/Winter 2007/08, Evening Wear for Daywear. http://www.wgsn- edu.com/members/trends-info/features/ti017801_index (accessed 07.11.07).

Wilson, E. 2006. Using a White Shirt as Their Canvas, The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2006/05/11/fashion/thursdaystyles/11WHITNEY.h tml?_r=1&pagewanted=print&oref=slogin (accessed 29.09.07).

197 Figures – General (Chapter 1 and 2)

Aldrich, W. 1984. Metric Pattern Cutting for Menswear. London: Granada Publishing.

Bryde, P. 1992. Nineteenth Century Fashion. London: B.T. Batsford Limited.

Chenoune, F. 1993. A History of Men's Fashion, Hugo Boss Advertisement, Paris: Flammarion.

Cunnington, P. and C. Willett. 1992. The History of Underclothes. London: Dover Publications.

Horwood, C. 2002. Dressing Like a Champion: Women's Tennis Wear in Interwar England, in The Englishness of English Dress, Oxford: Berg Publishing.

Olian, J. 1995. Everyday Fashions 1909-1920, As Pictured in Sears Catalogs. New York: Dover Publications.

Pendergast, S and T. Pendergast. 2004. Fashion, Costume, and Culture: Clothing, Headwear, Body Decorations, and Footwear Through the Ages. Detroit: Thomson Gale.

Shep, R and G. Cariou. 1999. Shirts and Men's Haberdashery 1840's to 1920's. California: Shep Publications.

Skinner, T and L. McCord. 2004. Fashionable Clothing from the Sears Catalogs, Late 1940's, Dress Wear Fall/Winter 1946-1947, Atglen USA: Schiffer Publishing.

Smith, D. 1999. Fashionable Clothing from the Sears Catalogs, Early 1970's, White Crepe Shirts, Atglen USA: Schiffer Publishing.

State University of New York. Fashion 224 History of Costume Homepage, Shirtwaist 1890's. http://employees.oneonta.edu/angellkg/1890.html (accessed 10.10.07).

Waugh, N. 1964. The Cut of Men's Clothes 1600-1900. New York: Theatre Arts Books.

Yahoo Shopping. 2007. Clothing, Accessories & Shoes. http://shopping.yahoo.com/ (accessed (25.10.07).

198 Figures – Contemporary White Dress Shirt Designers (Chapter 2)

Alexander McQueen. 2006. Catwalk Show, Milan (Autumn Winter 2006/2007). 6 of 24. http://www.wgsn- edu.com/members/catwalks/shows/cw2006jan11_015381 (accessed 09.09.07).

Antonio Marras. 2006a. Catwalk Show, Milan (Spring/Summer 2007) 14 of 80. http://www.wgsn-edu.com/members/catwalks/shows/cw2006jun23_020758. (accessed 04.09.07).

Burberry Prorsum. 2006. Catwalk Show, Key Items Analysis, A Touch of Romance. http://www.wgsn- edu.com/members/catwalks/keyitem/reports/cw2006feb23_015407be. (accessed 09.09.07).

Costume National Homme. 2006. Catwalk Show, Key Items Analysis, Sheers and Semi-sheer Shirts. http://www.wgsn- edu.com/members/catwalks/keyitem/reports/cw2006jul28_016990ax. (accessed 05.09.07).

D Squared. 2006. Catwalk Show, Key Items Analysis, Bib Fronts. http://www.wgsn- edu.com/members/catwalks/keyitem/reports/cw2006feb23_015407bf. (accessed 10.09.07)

Dior Homme. 2006. Catwalks, Key Items Analysis, Stock Tied Necks and Bow Ties. http://www.wgsn- edu.com/members/catwalks/keyitem/reports/cw2006feb23_015407bj. (accessed 09.09.07).

. 2007a. (Spring/Summer 2008) 16 of 20. http://www.vogue.co.uk/shows/photos/Default.aspx?showID=4971&type=sh ow&pageNo=2. (accessed 09.09.07).

. 2007b. (Spring/Summer 2008). 20 of 20. http://www.vogue.co.uk/shows/photos/Default.aspx?showID=4971&type=sh ow&pageNo=2. (accessed 09.09.07).

. 2007c. (Spring/Summer 2008). 19 of 20. http://www.vogue.co.uk/shows/photos/Default.aspx?showID=4971&type=sh ow&pageNo=2. (accessed 09.09.07).

Dries Van Noten. 2005a. Catwalk Show, Key Items Analysis, Decorative Shirtings. http://www.wgsn- edu.com/members/catwalks/keyitem/reports/cw2005jul26_013522bi. (accessed 05.09.07).

. 2005b. Catwalk Show, Key Items, . http://www.wgsn- edu.com/members/catwalks/keyitem/reports/cw2005jul26_013522bb. (accessed 05.09.07).

. 2005c. Catwalk Show, Paris (Spring/Summer 2006). 59 of 137. http://www.wgsn-

199 edu.com/public/images/content/catwalks/cw013198_8059.jpg. (accessed 05.09.07).

. 2005d. Catwalk Show, Paris, (Spring/Summer 2006) 52 of 137. http://www.wgsn-edu.com/members/catwalks/shows/cw2005jul01_013198. (accessed 05.09.07). Emanuel Ungaro Homme. 2006. Paris (Spring 2006). http://www.fashionwindows.com/beauty/emanuel_ungaro/2006S/euMS0602 .asp. (accessed 05.09.07).

Giorgio Armani. 2006. GQ, (Spring) Australia: FPC Magazines. p.99.

Gucci. 2003 Catwalk Show, Milan (Spring/Summer 2004). 79 of 88. http://www.wgsn- edu.com/members/catwalks/shows/cw2003jun19_007132?. (accessed 10.09.07).

. 2005a. (Fall 2005). 30 of 40. http://men.style.com/fashion/collections/F2005MEN/complete/thumb/GUC CIMEN?trend=&page=3. (accessed 10.09.07).

. 2005b. (Spring 2005). 12 of 40. http://men.style.com/fashion/collections/S2005MEN/complete/thumb/GUC CIMEN. (accessed 10.09.07).

. 2006a. Catwalk Show, Key Items Analysis, Bib Fronts. http://www.wgsn- edu.com/members/catwalks/keyitem/reports/cw2006feb23_015407bf. (accessed 04.09.07).

. 2006b. Catwalk Show, Key Items, Analysis, Stock Tied and Necks and Bow Ties. http://www.wgsn- edu.com/members/catwalks/keyitem/reports/cw2006feb23_015407bj. (accessed 09.09.07).

. 2006c. Catwalk Show, Milan (Autumn/Winter 2006/07). 36 of 84. http://www.wgsn- edu.com/members/catwalks/shows/cw2006jan11_015381?view=Standard&r eport=17&page=3. (accessed 10.09.07).

. 2006d. Catwalk Show, Key Items Analysis, Touch of Romance. http://www.wgsn- edu.com/members/catwalks/keyitem/reports/cw2006feb23_015407be. (accessed 05.09.07).

. 2007. (Spring 2008). 30 of 45. http://men.style.com/fashion/collections/S2008MEN/complete/thumb/GUC CIMEN?trend=&page=3. (accessed 05.09.07).

Jill Saunders. 2007. (Spring 2008). 7 of 42. http://men.style.com/fashion/collections/S2008MEN/complete/thumb/JSME N. (accessed 09.09.07).

John Galliano. 2005. Catwork Show, Key Items, Poet Shirt. http://www.wgsn- edu.com/members/catwalks/keyitem/reports/cw2005jul26_013522bb. (accessed 04.09.07).

200 Kris van Assche. 2006. (Spring 2006). 4 of 36. http://men.style.com/fashion/collections/S2006MEN/complete/thumb/KVA MEN. (accessed 10.09.07).

. 2007. Catwalk Show, Paris, (Autumn/Winter 2007/08). 18 of 54. http://www.wgsn-edu.com/members/catwalks/shows/cw2007jan24_019016. (accessed 07.09.07).

Louis Vuitton. 2006. GQ, (spring) Australia: FPC Magazines. p.103.

Missoni. 2005. Catwalk Show, Key Items Analysis, Collarless Shirts. http://www.wgsn- edu.com/members/catwalks/keyitem/reports/cw2005mar04_012106be. (accessed 20.10.07).

Neil Barrett. 2005. Catwalk Show, Key Items Analysis, Pattern Placements. http://www.wgsn- edu.com/members/catwalks/keyitem/reports/cw2005jul26_013522bj. (accessed 05.09.07).

. 2006a. Milan, (Spring 2007). http://www.fashionwindows.com/beauty/neil_barrett/2007s/nbms0708.asp. (accessed 09.09.07). . 2006b. Catwalk Show, Milan. 22 of 88. http://www.wgsn- edu.com/members/catwalks/shows/cw2006jan11_015381. (accessed 09.09.07).

. 2006c. Catwalk Show, Key Items Analysis, Fashion Flash: -Front Shirts http://www.wgsn- edu.com/members/catwalks/keyitem/reports/cw2006jul28_016990au. (accessed 10.09.07).

Pablo Ramirez. 2007. Uomo Collezioni (Spring/Summer 2008). Italy: Perfetti, S. p.83.

Patrick Ervell. 2007. (Spring/Summer 2008). 4 of 28. http://www.gqstyle.co.uk/TheCollections/Photos/Default.aspx?ShowID=536 7&ImageIndex=3&ShowType=Mens. (accessed 07.09.07).

Paul Smith. 2005a. Catwalk Show, Key Items Analysis, Decorative Shirtings. http://www.wgsn- edu.com/members/catwalks/keyitem/reports/cw2005jul26_013522bi. (accessed 10.09.07).

. 2005b. Catwalk Show, Key Items Analysis, Pattern Placements. http://www.wgsn- edu.com/members/catwalks/keyitem/reports/cw2005jul26_013522bj. (accessed 05.09.07).

. 2006. Catwalk Show, Key Items Analysis, Bib Fronts. http://www.wgsn- edu.com/public/images/content/catwalks/cw015407bf_02-th.jpg. (accessed 05.09.07).

201 Raf Simons. 2006. Catwalk Show, Key Items Analysis, Collarless. http://www.wgsn- edu.com/members/catwalks/keyitem/reports/cw2006feb23_015407bh. (accessed 10.09.07).

202

Top View