Iowa State University Capstones, Theses and Creative Components Dissertations

Spring 2021

Advocating for the introduction of compulsory voting in the United States

Benjamin Schwake

Follow this and additional works at: https://lib.dr.iastate.edu/creativecomponents

Part of the American Politics Commons, and the Comparative Politics Commons

Recommended Citation Schwake, Benjamin, "Advocating for the introduction of compulsory voting in the United States" (2021). Creative Components. 808. https://lib.dr.iastate.edu/creativecomponents/808

This Creative Component is brought to you for free and open access by the Iowa State University Capstones, Theses and Dissertations at Iowa State University Digital Repository. It has been accepted for inclusion in Creative Components by an authorized administrator of Iowa State University Digital Repository. For more information, please contact [email protected].

Advocating for the Introduction of Compulsory Voting in the United States

by

Benjamin Schwake Master’s Candidate Department of Political Science

Executive Summary: Among the most developed democracies in the world, the United States has had one of the lowest turnout rates spanning decades. Low voter turnout stifles the ability of policymakers to accurately represent their constituents and serve their needs. This policy proposal argues that introducing compulsory voting at the federal level can increase voter turnout, and thus improve representation in government. The proposal details what would need to be included in a constitutional amendment.

1

Introduction implementing a compulsory voting law in the United States, the voter turnout rate should increase as a result. In the modern democratic system, one of the key elements is mass participation in the electoral process. While voting is recognized A myriad of scholars have shown that the as a sacred right, voting in the United States, United States tends to have lower voter as well as other voluntary voting system turnout than those employing compulsory 2 democracies, remains low. voting. In the literature, compulsory voting can typically be referred to by name in one of two ways: compulsory voting or mandatory voting. For this proposal, the two Voter turnout in the United States is will be used interchangeably, as they share frequently studied, with some proclaiming the same ensuing definition. Compulsory that the low turnout is problematic. In a voting is a system of laws mandating representative democracy, low turnout enfranchised citizens to turn out to vote, creates conditions where legislators are usually being accompanied by a system of unable to take policy directives from the compulsory voter registration and penalties public that accurately reflect the public’s for non-compliance.3 As the definition desires or interests.1 Increasing voter highlights, turning out is all that is legally turnout would rectify this problem. required for eligible individuals, and not actually casting a vote for a candidate within the privacy of the voting booth. However, accomplishing universal or near- universal turnout is by far no easy task, especially for states with large populations. Scholars have formally modeled the voting One solution that countries have utilized to process via rational choice theories. If voters increase voter turnout is compulsory voting. are rational beings, they will opt to The implementation of compulsory voting is maximize their benefits while minimizing the the central focus of this policy proposal. By

1 According to Lijphart, low turnout impacts who Michael P. McDonald, “Voter Turnout gets elected and the content of public policy. Demographics,” United States Elections Project, Arend Lijphart, “Unequal Participation: Democracy’s http://www.electproject.org/home/voter- Unresolved Dilemma,” The American Political turnout/demographics. Science Review 91, no. 1 (1997): 3-4 Michael S. Lewis-Beck et al., “Voting Turnout” in The 2 Such examples in the literature, as well as a American Voter Revisited (Ann Arbor: University of database, describing the low turnout in English- Michigan Press, 2011), 103. speaking countries include: “Voter Turnout by Country,” Institute for Democracy Arend Lijphart, “Unequal Participation: Democracy’s and Electoral Assistance, last updated 2020, Unresolved Dilemma,” The American Political https://www.idea.int/data-tools/data/voter-turnout. Science Review 91, no. 1 (1997): 6. 3 Simon Jackman, “Compulsory Voting,” in Kay Lehman Schlozman, Sidney Verba and Henry E. International Encyclopedia of the Social and Brady, “The Unheavenly Chorus” (Princeton: Behavioral Sciences, ed. N. J. Smelser and B. Baltes Princeton University Press, 2012): 216. (2001): 16314.

2

costs.4 In voluntary systems, the benefits summary of the arguments and issues from voting often do not outweigh the costs surrounding contemporary voting associated with voting, so the rational tendencies in the United States. choice for voters in voluntary systems is to abstain. This calculus changes for compulsory voting systems that enforce Consequences of Compulsory sanctions as the cost of staying home grows considerably, surpassing the costs of turning Voting 5 out. By removing the costs associated with Consequences for Voter Turnout attending the polling location from the calculus of whether to vote for a candidate, The literature on compulsory voting is compulsory voting overcomes one of the fraught with mixed assessments of major hurdles of voting. The logic follows consequences of mandatory voting. that if the voter can overcome the costs of Depending on which country or region is turning out to vote, then the extra costs of studied, different results and interpretations casting a valid ballot would be minimal. The can be derived, which may or may not objective of this policy proposal is not to support arguments in favor of compulsory help enfranchised citizens optimally voting. There is consensus among scholars determine their preferred candidate. that compulsory voting yields higher voter Instead, it is to resolve the issue of low turnout rates than voluntary voting systems. turnout in the United States.6 The introduction of compulsory voting in Australia in the 1920s increased turnout by 23.2 percent.7 This dramatic increase is by This policy proposal first analyzes the no means exclusive to Australia during the literature describing the positive and Interwar Period. According to Laura Jaitman, negative consequences of compulsory voter turnout in Argentina in 1910 was at voting and its implications for implementing 2.8 percent of the eligible population, but states. Second, the report proceeds to detail increased to 62.7 percent following the 8 how the policy would be implemented in the implementation of compulsory voting. United States, and it addresses common While there is evidence that voter turnout reservations about compulsory voting. has diminished in countries that utilize Finally, this policy proposal concludes with a compulsory voting since the Second World

4 A formal model of voting is presented in the Insights. Latin American Public Opinion Project, citation which aggregates the costs and benefits of Vanderbilt University: 5. voting. Costas Panagopoulos, “The Calculus of Voting in Compulsory Voting Systems,” Political Behavior 30, 7 Elen Quintelier, Marc Hooghe and Sofie Marien, no. 4 (2008): 456. “The Effect of Compulsory Voting on Turnout 5 Ibid., 462. Stratification Patterns: A Cross-national Analysis,” 6 Some evidence suggests that the rational voting International Political Science Review 32, no. 4 calculus is the roughly the same regardless of (2011): 400-401. whether a country has compulsory or voluntary 8 Laura Jaitman, “The causal effect of compulsory voting laws. voting laws on turnout: Does skill matter?,” Journal Maldonado, Arturo. 2011. “Compulsory Voting and of Economic Behavior and Organization 92 (2013): the Decision to Vote.” 63. AmericasBarometer 82.

3

War, the same is also true in countries that argument that the effects are quite use a voluntary voting system.9 Despite this substantial. In countries with high turnout, reduction, the literature finds that small increases in turnout are significant compulsory voting systems consistently under the logic of diminishing returns. In a have higher average turnout rates. country such as Belgium, which consistently sees very high turnout rates, each

incremental increase in turnout is a Studies have found a myriad of results that substantial increase, since there are illustrate the positive impact of compulsory increasingly fewer individual not voting. voting on the turnout rate. One study found Incremental increases still can be observed that turnout increased by 3.6 percentage in states with such strong voter turnout, points with the introduction of compulsory according to Hirczy.13 Lundell finds that voting and decreased by 3.2 percentage states with mandatory voting laws have a points when mandatory voting was mean turnout rate of 80.7 percent, while abolished in the Carinthia-Salzburg region.10 voluntary states have a mean turnout of Other studies have shown much larger 65.7%.14 increases in turnout when compared against voluntary voting systems.11 The evidence in the literature seems to suggest that the Various studies have attempted to estimate average increase in voter turnout is closer to the potential impact of compulsory voting the lower estimate. The estimated increase on turnout in countries without it. Mikolj in turnout because of compulsory voting is Czesnik analyzes the 2001 Polish typically around five to six percentage parliamentary election and finds that if points.12 voting were required by law, turnout would have increased substantially, with no

changes to the outcome of the election.15 This increase in voter turnout may appear to Individuals will prefer to comply with the be marginal, but the literature makes the law, to avoid legal consequences.

9 Wolfgang Hirczy, “The impact of mandatory voting Artuno Maldonado, “Compulsory Voting and the laws on turnout quasi-experimental approach,” Decision to Vote,” AmericasBarometer Insights, Latin Electoral Studies 13, no. 1 (1994): 68. American Public Opinion Project, Vanderbilt 10 Stefanie Gaebler, Niklas Potrafke, and Felix Roesel, University, no. 63: 2. “Compulsory Voting, Voter Turnout and 13 Wolfgang Hirczy, “The impact of mandatory voting Asymmetrical Habit-formation,” CESifo Working laws on turnout quasi-experimental approach,” Paper Series no. 6764 (2017). Electoral Studies 13, no. 1 (1994): 68. 11 Bart Englen, “Why Compulsory Voting Can 14 Krister Lundell, “Civic Participation and Political Enhance Democracy,” Acta Politica 41 (2007): 26. Trust: The Impact of Compulsory Voting,” 12 Shane Singh cites a study which found the average Representation 48, no. 2 (2012): 226. level of turnout was 5.4 percentage points higher in 15 Mikolj Czesnik, “Is compulsory voting a remedy? the 23 countries that employ some compulsory Evidence from the 2001 Polish parliamentary voting. Arturo Maldonado found that turnout elections,” East European Politics 29, no. 4 (2013): increased by 5.9 percentage points. 517. Shane Singh, “How Compelling is Compulsory Voting? A Multilevel Analysis of Turnout, Political Behavior 33, no. 1 (2011): 98.

4

severity of the enforcement and turnout. Scholars have portrayed voters as rational Conversely, other scholars have investigated actors that act in ways that maximize the consequences for voter turnout if benefits while minimizing costs. The voter compulsory voting were abolished. must assess the total costs and benefits of Unsurprisingly, surveys found that if voting voting or abstaining. If a state has weak were voluntary, individuals would be less sanctions, the decision calculus tends to inclined to go to the polls and vote. One support abstaining. When states strictly survey of Australians reported that the enforce compulsory voting, the decision turnout rate would have been 67 percent, calculus considerably changes, with the risk- which is considerably lower than the benefit analysis favoring turning out. average rate of approximately 91 percent.16 Similarly, Simon Jackman found that 67 percent of Australian respondents answered In cases where enforcement is weak or they would “definitely” vote, with there are no sanctions for abstaining, approximately 25 percent of respondents studies find relatively low turnout rates.18 unsure whether they would vote if voting Laura Jaitman finds complementary results was made voluntary.17 The evidence in the in Argentina, suggesting that if there were literature seems to strongly suggest that if no threats of sanctions for non-voting, fewer mandatory voting were repealed in individuals would vote.19 These studies seem countries that currently have some it, voter to strongly suggest that unless states with turnout would resemble the rate of compulsory voting laws penalize non- voluntary voting systems. compliance, voter turnout will not increase as much as expected with the introduction of compulsory voting. The inverse happens Consequences for Sanctions and when the penalties are increased for Enforcement abstaining. One study found that as Evidence also suggests that turnout is sanctions and enforcement increase in impacted by the degree of enforcement. tandem, the individual likelihood of voting States that use compulsory voting typically increases.20 This follows the logic of rational have some means of enforcing the law. The choice models, as the cost for abstaining severity of the sanction that the regime becomes increasingly costly. In the levies against the individual for not hypothetical study of the effects compulsory complying with the law varies by state, and voting would have had on the 2001 Polish the literature has shown a link between the election, results suggest that introduction of

16 Anthony Fowler, “Electoral and Policy America, 1980 to 2000.” Comparative Political Consequences of Voter Turnout: Evidence from Studies 37 (8): 927. Compulsory Voting in Australia,” Quarterly Journal of 19 Laura Jaitman, “The causal effect of compulsory Political Science 8, no. 2 (2013): 172. voting laws on turnout: Does skill matter?,” Journal 17 Jackman, Simon. 1998. “Non-Compulsory Voting of Economic Behavior and Organization 92 (2013): in Australia?: What Surveys Can (and Can’t) Tell Us.” 83. Electoral Studies 18 (1): 35. 20 Shane Singh, “How Compelling is Compulsory 18 Carolina A. Fornos, Timothy J. Power, and James C. Voting? A Multilevel Analysis of Turnout, Political Garand. 2004. “Explaining Voter Turnout in Latin Behavior 33, no. 1 (2011): 107.

5

compulsory voting with sanctions would likely to abstain than respondents in non- have substantially increased the voter poor districts when informed there was a turnout rate.21 reduction in the fine. Treated voters in poor districts were twice as likely not to vote than

those in more well-off districts.24 Given the Consequences for Gender and evidence presented in the literature, there is Socioeconomic Status reason to suspect that wealthier individuals are more inclined to abstain as they can The literature has extensively examined the afford the fine, whereas those that are impact of compulsory voting on gender and impoverished cannot. A conclusion can be socioeconomic gaps. In a system that derived that the socioeconomic gap differs requires individuals to turn out, each person depending on the electoral system at work. experiences varying consequences due to In voluntary voting systems, the gap is socioeconomic circumstances or gender. accentuated as poorer individuals have a Numerous studies have investigated how higher proclivity to stay home, while the individuals in various socioeconomic tiers wealthier are more inclined to participate. act within compulsory voting systems. The Conversely, in compulsory voting systems most pronounced finding is the observed with enforcement, poorer individuals are differences in turnout among the extremes more likely to turn out, while wealthy of the socioeconomic status ladder. people can afford the penalty for staying Maldonado shows that people who are home. If there is no enforcement, then the 22 wealthier are far more likely to cast a vote. difference in the socioeconomic gap is This finding is consistent with other political comparable to the voluntary voting system. behavior research which consistently finds those that belong to higher tiers of the socioeconomic order are more invested in There is strong evidence linking the the political system and therefore have educational background of an individual to more to gain from participating.23 Those of interest in political matters. Cepaluni and lower socioeconomic stratums, as one Hidalgo found that compulsory voting would expect, are less likely to turn out to causes the average turnout level of more the polls. One experiment found that educated voters to increase.25 This, as they respondents in poor districts were more argue, creates a state of inequality where

21 Mikolj Czesnik, “Is compulsory voting a remedy? Mikolj Czesnik, “Is compulsory voting a remedy? Evidence from the 2001 Polish parliamentary Evidence from the 2001 Polish parliamentary elections,” East European Politics 29, no. 4 (2013): elections,” East European Politics 29, no. 4 (2013): 508. 512. 22 Artuno Maldonado, “Compulsory Voting and the 24 Gianmarco León, “Turnout, political preferences Decision to Vote,” AmericasBarometer Insights, Latin and information: Experimental evidence from Peru,” American Public Opinion Project, Vanderbilt Journal of Development Economics 127, (2017): 59. University, no. 63: 3 25 Gabriel Cepaluni and F. Daniel Hidalgo, 23 This finding can also be found in the analysis “Compulsory Voting Can Increase Political Inequality: Czesnik conducted on the hypothetical study. The Evidence from Brazil,” Political Analysis 24, no. 2 analysis shows that citizens with higher (2016): 277. socioeconomic status are more likely to vote with the other extreme being more indecisive.

6

one group of people, in this case affluent women in voluntary voting systems. voters, is disproportionally represented in According to Córdova and Rangel, statistical the electoral process. This is further analysis indicates a stronger effect for corroborated by the work of Miguel women than men when it comes to Carreras, who found that citizens with low engagement with the electoral process.29 levels of education appear less likely to be Compulsory voting, as their results indicate, politically interested when voting is lessens the gender gap. The average gender compulsory and enforced than when voting gap in voluntary voting systems was found is voluntary.26 Those that are less likely to be to be statistically significant, but the politically interested are more apt to difference in the gender gap in voluntary abstain, which reinforces the inequality gap voting systems is small to begin with. that Cepaluni and Hidalgo found. Córdova and Rangel also found that women in compulsory voting systems with some degree of enforcement are more attentive The literature has also more directly to the political system to make more addressed the differences in turnout among informed decisions than women in voluntary skilled and unskilled citizens in compulsory voting systems.30 The incentives in countries voting systems. Laura Jaitman finds that that enforce voting lead women to engage skilled workers have a higher turnout rate at comparable rates as their male than their non-skilled counterparts.27 This counterpart. This drive to seek information finding supports the results for education. It reduces the gender gap from 11.2 percent in then comes as no surprise that when faced voluntary voting system to 4.4 percent in with no threats of punishment for mandatory voting systems with strict abstention, unskilled citizens are enforcement.31 considerably more likely to not vote than skilled citizens.28 Some evidence suggests that there is no significant relationship between turnout and Gender gaps resulting from the gender in a compulsory voting system. One implementation of compulsory voting have study found no significant interaction effect also been examined in the literature. Some between gender and compulsory voting, studies suggest that women are more likely leading to the understanding that to be involved in the electoral processes compulsory voting is not an effective in than men in select countries, as well as reducing gender inequality.32 Compulsory

26 Miguel Carreras, “Compulsory voting and political Women’s Electoral Engagement,” Comparative engagement (beyond the ballot box): A multilevel Politics 50, no. 2 (2017): 276. analysis,” Electoral Studies 43 (2016): 164. 30 Ibid., 283. 27 Laura Jaitman, “The causal effect of compulsory 31 Ibid., 280. voting laws on turnout: Does skill matter?,” Journal 32 Elen Quintelier, Marc Hooghe and Sofie Marien, of Economic Behavior and Organization 92 (2013): “The Effect of Compulsory Voting on Turnout 83. Stratification Patterns: A Cross-national Analysis,” 28 Ibid., 83. International Political Science Review 32, no. 4 29 Abby Córdova and Gabriela Rangel, “Addressing (2011): 406. the Gender Gap: The Effect of Compulsory Voting on

7

voting, as the authors denote, only increases support from Jakee and Sun, who argue that the base level of turnout rather than it is unrealistic to argue that forcing citizens resolving inequality issues. This criticism of to vote will make them more informed and compulsory voting is important to consider. interested in the political process.35 This By increasing the turn-out rate for all argument holds some ground, as people are citizens in a country, the proportion among less than thrilled about the idea of doing the different groups in the population, something that is forced upon them such as whether it is race, gender, or socioeconomic paying taxes. Why then, would the masses status, would remain the same, in theory, be zealous about being required to vote? and thus no major changes would be The literature further supports the notion observed. Since the inequality issues are not that compulsory voting does not foster non- resolved through compulsory voting, most electoral political participation. Miguel marginal members of society would be stuck Carreras reports that compulsory voting has in a cycle of marginalization.33 no uniform influence on political participation beyond the ballot box,

reinforcing the previously mentioned results Consequences on the Democratic Process from different scholars.36 and Voting Liberties

Among the most common critiques of While there is scholarly consensus that compulsory voting is the consequences for compulsory voting has no observable effect the democratic process and individual on participation or civic engagement, there liberty to vote. At its foundation, are traces of evidence suggesting compulsory voting is designed to increase compulsory voting does affect other forms participation and civic engagement. There of engagement. Carreras finds individuals seems to be a consensus among scholars with no formal education, who live in a that compulsory voting does not encourage country with enforced compulsory voting non-electoral participation. Several scholars laws are more attentive to the news than have found that mandatory voting has either their counterparts under voluntary voting.37 no effect or a negative effect on civic By consuming news coverage, citizens think engagement or participation. Krister Lundell about politics, and ultimately are more likely found a negative effect on civic participation to engage in the political process. Carreras and other forms of societal engagement.34 also finds that compulsory voting increases This implies that citizens are only interested the likelihood of citizens engaging in political in fulfilling their obligation to the state discussions.38 These compounding factors because it is required of them, and little to assist in driving the voter to cast a ballot and nothing else. This finding receives additional

33 Annabelle Lever, “Compulsory Voting: A Critical 35 Keith Jakee and Guang-Zhen Sun, “Is compulsory Perspective,” British Journal of Political Science 40, voting more democratic?,” Public Choice 129 (2006): no. 4 (2010): 900-901. 69. 34 Krister Lundell, “Civic Participation and Political 36 Miguel Carreras, “Compulsory voting and political Trust: The Impact of Compulsory Voting,” engagement (beyond the ballot box): A multilevel Representation 48, no. 2 (2012): 226. analysis,” Electoral Studies 43 (2016): 166. 37 Ibid., 164. 38 Ibid., 164.

8

engage in the electoral process, whether it is change in the voter demographics could the bare minimum or significantly more. shift power to a different party. According to several scholars, there does not appear to

be any evidence that compulsory voting has Studies that have investigated the relation any effect on vote shares. When compulsory between age and turnout consistently voting was implemented in Carinthia, the observe similar results. In voluntary voting proportion of party vote shares of left-wing systems, voters are more likely to vote if parties decreased by 4.7 percentage points they are older, whereas younger voters are upon its introduction.40 Hoffman, León, and more likely to abstain.39 This relation also Lombardi reaffirm the finding that extends into other forms of non-electoral compulsory voting does not affect the party participation. Several explanations propose vote shares. According to their study, in the differences in turnout and electoral both parliamentary and state elections, participation are related to attitudes toward compulsory voting laws did not shift the the state and ability to contribute to political share of votes going to right- or left-wing campaigns. Younger voters are less likely to parties.41 This suggests that compulsory have time to participate and donate to a voting does not create a clear distinctive political campaign, so their developed advantage for left or rightward leaning attitudes toward the political system are parties, and the introduction of compulsory minimal. On the contrary, older individuals voting would not be too consequential on are considerably more likely to have the the partisan balance. Despite this evidence, time to invest into political matters and the Simon Jackman estimates that if compulsory money to contribute toward a political voting were to be abolished in Australia, the campaign. Older voters developed Labor Party would be impacted the most, sentiments of duty to the state, which with the Liberal Party benefitting from the younger voters likely have not yet repeal of the law.42 The author does not developed. delve into the extent of the political damages that would result from the abolition of compulsory voting. Additional Research has also examined the effect evidence of the potential political influence compulsory voting has on the vote share from compulsory voting can be found in and political parties. Since the objective of close elections, which can be swayed in compulsory voting is to increase turnout, favor of the incumbent and their party if there is reason for concern that this drastic that regime has social assistance programs.43 This would lead voters to have a

39 Kay Lehman Schlozman, Sidney Verba and Henry government spending: Evidence from Austria,” E. Brady, “The Unheavenly Chorus” (Princeton: Journal of Public Economics 145 (2017): 113, Princeton University Press, 2012): 216. 42 Simon Jackman, “Non-Compulsory Voting in 40 Stefanie Gaebler, Niklas Potrafke, and Felix Roesel, Australia?: What Surveys Can (and Can’t) Tell Us,” “Compulsory Voting, Voter Turnout and Electoral Studies 18, no. 1 (1998): 42. Asymmetrical Habit-formation,” CESifo Working 43 Matthew Layton and Amy Erica Smith, Paper Series no. 6764 (2017): 21. “Incorporating Marginal Citizens and Voters: The 41 Mitchell Hoffman, Gianmarco León and María Conditional Electoral Effects of Targeted Social Lombardi, “Compulsory voting, turnout, and

9

more favorable outlook on one candidate or and norms.46 The norms surrounding party due to the social assistance. Local compulsory voting can also be observed party politics may be influenced by the through self-reporting survey studies. introduction of compulsory voting. Party According to Maldonado’s research, the demographics in one area might favor one average difference between the actual party over another. The research seems to turnout and self-reported turnout is 4.4 suggest that vote shares would not be percent in compulsory voting systems, while affected by compulsory voting at the it is nearly three times larger in voluntary national scale, but it does not specify if this voting states.47 This suggests that social is true at the local level. desirability is more prevalent in voluntary voting states as they overreport their

tendency to vote. There is also evidence to Research has also sought to understand how suggest that habit formation may occur in compulsory voting shapes voting norms. countries that have had compulsory voting There is evidence to suggest that for a long period of time causing citizens to compulsory voting does not foster long-term continue to turn out even if the norms in relation to voting. Without the consequences for abstaining were strong incentive of the law, voting habits reduced.48 surely would not persist.44 Presumably, this Another consequence for the democratic also translates into the norms that younger process pertains to the rise of outsider voters have regarding compulsory voting. candidates. There is evidence that suggests Younger individuals have not established the that compulsory voting leads to an increase sense of duty to the state, so any traces of in the number of outsider candidates. civic obligation would gradually erode to the Miguel Carreras shows that the share of point that the norm vanishes, if it existed in votes obtained by an outsider candidate the first place.45 The establishment of voting increases by approximately eight percent norms drives the willingness to vote in when voting is made mandatory.49 This future elections. Bart Engelen argues, consequence is not unexpected as it relates contrary to Louth and Hill, that compulsory to the disinterest that some voters have in voting helps solidify some kind of social either the established parties or candidates, norm regarding voting, as when states or in political system in general. revoke the law, turnout levels gradually decrease suggesting that the mandatory voting law fosters the development of habits

Assistance in Latin America,” Comparative Political American Public Opinion Project, Vanderbilt Studies 48, no. 7 (2015): 866. University (2011): 2. 44 Jonathon Louth and Lisa Hill, “Compulsory Voting 48 Gianmarco León, “Turnout, political preferences in Australia: Turnout with and without it,” Australian and information: Experimental evidence from Peru,” Review of Public Affairs 6, no. 1 (2005): 30. Journal of Development Economics 127, (2017): 61. 45 Bart Engelen, “Why Compulsory Voting Can 49 Miguel Carreras, “The Rise of Outsiders in Latin Enhance Democracy,” Acta Politica 41 (2007): 27. America, 1980-2010: An Institutionalist Perspective,” 46 Ibid., 27. Comparative Political Studies 45, no. 12 (2012): 47 Arturo Maldonado, “Compulsory Voting and the 1467. Decision to Vote,” AmericasBarometer Insights, Latin

10

Besides increasing turnout, arguments in The most prominent argument levied favor of compulsory voting claim that against compulsory voting is the concept of mandating voting enhances the legitimacy the “right to vote,” or more aptly, not vote. of a democratic state. The literature is In a democratic regime, each citizen is given divided on this matter, with some arguing liberties that they are free to exercise. that equating higher turnout with greater Among those liberties in a voluntary voting legitimacy is overly simplistic.50 Turnout may system is the right to vote. Those in favor of successfully increase, but this increase may the right to vote make the argument that create volatile electoral conditions and the choice to participate in the electoral encourage illicit activities, such as vote process should be left to the individual, as buying. In the case of the latter, the voting may not always be in the best presence of illicit activities does not present interest for the voter. Annabelle Lever notes a valid case for a legitimate government, that even if people have a sense of duty to with one or more parties gaining an vote when voting is in their self-interest, advantage illegally. Other scholars make the people still need justification that voting case that lower turnout threatens the truly is in their best interest to continue with legitimacy of country’s government and the act.53 It is a difficult task for those that electoral system.51 This argument stems are invested in politics to know what is in from the logic that without high voter their true best interests, let alone those that turnout, only a minority would be are not interested in politics and are forced represented. By increasing turnout and to participate in the electoral process when thereby increasing the number of voting is mandatory. The right not to vote constituents that are represented in permits the individual to have the freedom government, the regime holds more to freely move between active and passive legitimacy in the eyes of the public. Scholars participation.54 This freedom enables have also made the argument that the state individuals, according to Lever, to protest in has the legitimacy to implement and, more ways that feel safe or comfortable, as well importantly, enforce the laws that are as not requiring intensive coordination or passed, even if those laws are not resources to stage this act of protest.55 necessarily agreed upon by the people.52

Just as the government is justified in regulating traffic speed, the government, as The counterargument to the right to not the argument goes, can enforce compulsory vote argues that the proper requirement of voting. turning out under compulsory voting law does not violate any individual liberties.

Since compulsory voting does not require

50 Keith Jakee and Guang-Zhen Sun, “Is compulsory 53 Ibid., 906. voting more democratic?,” Public Choice 129 (2006): 54 Heather Lardy, “Is there a Right not to Vote?,” 69-70. Oxford Journal of Legal Studies 24, no. 2 (2004): 307. 51 Annabelle Lever, “Compulsory Voting: A Critical 55 Annabelle Lever, “Compulsory Voting: A Critical Perspective,” British Journal of Political Science 40, Perspective,” British Journal of Political Science 40, no. 4 (2010): 899. no. 4 (2010): 911. 52 Bart Engelen, “Why Compulsory Voting Can Enhance Democracy,” Acta Politica 41 (2007): 30.

11

the individual to cast a ballot, rather just lead some to be upset or uninterested in the turn out to the polling location, no civil or political process. According to the literature, political liberties are being violated. This dissatisfaction with government would change if the individual were required performance tends to be a large to cast a ballot, as it would violate the civil deterministic factor that leads voters to cast and political liberties of each person, so the an invalid ballot. Cohen finds that in Latin distinction must be clearly demarcated.56 America, it is the perception that Heather Lardy states that compulsory voting government performance has been poor would maintain or, more likely, enhance over a range of policy areas that drives equal standing of voters as it would require policy-motivated invalid voting and not poor the political parties and leaders to take perceived economic outcomes.59 account of the preferences of their constituents.57 If given the opportunity to abstain from each election, those Evidence suggests that those with high and individuals’ interests could never be low levels of political sophistication are as represented in government, as politicians do likely to invalidate their vote, albeit for not know what those individuals would like different reasons. Research shows that the to see implemented in policy. most alienated members of society are very likely to cast an invalid ballot as a means of

abstaining.60 The most alienated members Consequences of Invalid Voting and are typically those with little interest or Discontentment with Mandatory Voting political sophistication, as well as those less financially stable. More politically Besides the effect compulsory voting has on sophisticated individuals are more likely, as voter turnout, a frequently examined topic Moral reports, to cast an invalid vote when concerns the act of casting an invalid ballot dissatisfied with party policy offerings.61 and the attitudes associated with this action. Scholars provide numerous explanations why someone may cast an invalid ballot. In addition to the most alienated being likely One explanation provided is dissatisfaction to invalidate their ballot, voters can with the mandate to vote, or with demonstrate their frustration through anti- government performance. There is evidence party sentiments and voting for a third-party that alludes to an increase in invalid votes candidate. Research shows that compulsory when turn out increases in compulsory and voluntary voting systems share voting systems.58 When voting is forced comparable levels of negative views toward upon the eligible voter, this certainly will

56 Ibid., 903. Latin America,” Political Behavior 40, no. 2 (2018): 57 Heather Lardy, “Is there a Right not to Vote?,” 406. Oxford Journal of Legal Studies 24, no. 2 (2004): 313. 60 Ibid., 409. 58 Mitchell Hoffman, Gianmarco León and María 61 Mert Moral, “The Passive-Aggressive Voter: The Lombardi, “Compulsory voting, turnout, and Calculus of Casting an Invalid Vote in European government spending: Evidence from Austria,” Democracies,” Political Research Quarterly 69, no. 4 Journal of Public Economics 145 (2017): 110. (2016): 739. 59 Mollie Cohen, “Protesting via the Null Ballot: An Assessment of the Decision to Cast an Invalid Vote in

12

political parties; however, compulsory by elected officials. The highest justices that voting states have an increased likelihood of determine the constitutionality of laws or voting for third parties and expressing actions are appointed and confirmed by antiparty sentiments.62 elected officials. The responsibilities of the government, particularly the federal

government, have grown considerably since Another consequence that is magnified in the inception of the United States, so it is compulsory voting systems is the prevalence important that the people’s voices are heard of clientelism. While clientelism can occur in in the electoral process. If government voluntary voting systems, it is far more continues to play as large of a role as it has frequently observed in countries that have since the Great Depression, then the policies compulsory voting. Léon finds that voters in and laws enacted by local, state, and the compulsory electoral systems who attend federal government should represent the the polls because of the mandate are more interests of the constituents. Currently, the likely to accept monetary gifts in exchange United States experiences voter turnout that for their vote.63 Since the electoral system is considerably less than the turnout rate in requires citizens with different degrees of other advanced industrial democracies. Low interest to turn out, a conclusion that voter turnout is troubling to a political uninterested voters are likely to engage in system that relies heavily upon the input an illegal act for financial incentives can from the public. Policymakers can take realistically be attained. As expected, vote policy directives from the public from how buying is also prevalent among poorer people vote. Politicians can interpret that voters. Léon finds that there is a relationship voters would like some, or all, of their policy between turning out due to high sanctions pledges to be advanced and implemented. If and vote buying. As the costs for abstaining turnout does not exceed 60 percent of the are reduced, turnout, and thus vote buying, eligible voting population, then one can decreases.64 reasonable argue that the representative function is not properly working, as a rather significant proportion of the population are Policy Proposal not voicing their interests for how the country should proceed. Voting is one of the cornerstones of a well- functioning democratic system. Voting can enable changes to the structure of the This policy proposal seeks to remedy this country that can benefit the lives of those issue of low voter turnout in the United living in that democracy. Some of the most States through the implementation of basic functions of daily life can be related compulsory voting. While research has back to the process of voting. Regulations on shown that there are some negative food products or on houses are all enacted consequences associated with compulsory

62 Éric Bélanger, “Antipartyism and Third-Party Vote 63 Gianmarco León, “Turnout, political preferences Choice: A Comparison of Canada, Britain, and and information: Experimental evidence from Peru,” Australia,” Comparative Political Studies 37, no. 9 Journal of Development Economics 127, (2017): 68- (2004): 1068. 69. 64 Ibid., 69.

13

voting, voluntary voting systems also have voluntary at certain ages, other states have issues. As the literature demonstrated, not enacted the same voluntary measures compulsory voting consistently increases for individuals of ages. So, then, which voter turnout, which is the primary goal of approach would be the best for the United this proposal. States regarding age and compulsory voting?

Compulsory for Whom? To answer this question, this proposal An important aspect of this proposal is to strongly suggests following the path of determine who must turnout. Voting Brazil. Compulsory voting would be privileges in states that permit voting among mandatory for all individuals starting at the the masses are a right that belongs to age of eighteen, which is consistent with citizens. As it stands in the United States, current US voting laws, and compulsory only citizens are capable of voting in voting would transition to voluntary once elections. Thus, it stands to reason that this the individual reaches the age of seventy. At policy proposal will only impact citizens. the age of seventy, individuals are still While it would be easy to issue a blanket capable of moving around and have high mandate that every citizen must participate mental functions, although it is slightly more in the political process, this is simply not difficult. According to Timothy Salthouse, feasible for some people with special cognitive changes for individuals as they age circumstances, so it is imperative to remains rather stable until the later years of delineate those among the citizenry that are life, typically eighty or older.65 Based on this required to vote in elections and those that research, one could make an argument of are not. setting mandatory voting until an age of seventy-five, but American political psychology research shows that older Among the states that have compulsory individuals are among the most likely to voting, a few in South America have vote. Data on those who are registered and implemented age ranges that are deemed voted in 2008 clearly indicate the effect age voluntary or compulsory. Brazil and Ecuador has on voting. The percentage of individuals have a policy where voting is voluntary who voted in the 2008 election who were among those between the ages of sixteen between the ages of approximately fifty-one and seventeen as well as over the ages of and seventy-six hovers around seventy seventy or sixty-five, respectively. percent, which is considerably higher than Compulsory voting is mandated for every the percentage of individuals between the election, including primaries, special ages of eighteen and thirty who voted in elections, and the November elections at that election.66 This is further supported the local, state, and federal level, once the when considering more recent election individual is age eighteen. Given that a results. As Table 1 illustrates, older handful of states have made voting

65 Timothy A Salthouse, “Does the Level at Which 66 Kay Lehman Schlozman, Sidney Verba and Henry Cognitive Change Occurs With Age?,” Psychological E. Brady, “The Unheavenly Chorus” (Princeton: Science 23, no. 1 (January 2012): 21. Princeton University Press, 2012): 216.

14

Table 1. Turnout Rate in the United States per age bracket (written as a percent)

Age (years) 2010 2012 2014 2016 2018 (Midterm) (General) (Midterm) (General) (Midterm)

18-29 20.3 40.9 16.3 43.4 32.6

30-44 36.1 56.2 30.1 56.9 45.8 45-59 50.4 66.0 42.6 66.2 56.2 60+ 59.0 71.2 54.9 71.4 65.5 individuals more frequently turn out to vote Therefore, if sixteen- and seventeen-year- than younger individuals.67 Given that senior olds were permitted to vote in elections, citizens are more likely than young citizens their propensity to vote in future elections to vote, requiring these individuals to vote would likely increase. This voluntary buffer once they attain an age beyond seventy is phase also gives young individuals the ability meaningless. to vote in presidential elections prior to their eighteenth birthday. There is

considerable excitement surrounding However, as the table indicates, younger presidential elections, which have been people make up less of the share of the demonstrated to have higher turnout than electorate, and more directed effort needs mid-term elections. A sixteen-year-old to be applied to this subgroup of the under the current voting system would have population to stimulate higher turnout. to wait until they turned twenty before they Experience with voting seems to be one of could vote for a presidential candidate, the strongest means of fostering long-term assuming they shared the same levels of electoral participation.68 A survey among excitement for voting in mid-term elections students showed mixed results regarding as the average American. Requiring voting their attitudes toward compulsory voting, among those over the age of eighteen and but students who lived in countries that making it voluntary for young adults maintained compulsory voting for a long between sixteen and seventeen circumvents period of time held more positive attitudes this dilemma. Furthermore, mandating toward compulsory voting, suggesting voting gives policymakers at either the state younger individuals’ norms in these or federal level a thorough indication of countries favor electoral participation.69 what much of the populace believes should

67 Michael P. McDonald, “Voter Turnout 69 Jessamay Pesek, “Comparing Youth Opinions Demographics,” United States Elections Project, Toward Compulsory Voting Across Five Countries,” http://www.electproject.org/home/voter- Journal of International Social Studies 4, no. 1 (2014): turnout/demographics. 69. 68 Michael S. Lewis-Beck et al., “Voting Turnout” in The American Voter Revisited (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2011), 103.

15

be the policy direction for the state or who are intellectually disabled. The country. intellectually disabled can have a wide range of mental functionality, ranging from being a

fully functioning member of society with While this policy proposal advocates for the slight peculiarities to requiring full assistance mandatory voting of each citizen, there with daily functions. Requiring individuals must be certain exceptions, as not everyone with the most extreme disabilities to vote is is in the same situation or has similar an absurd demand for those who may not circumstances. In the states that employ be able to fully grasp the situation, let alone compulsory voting, exceptions have been understand which candidate best represents made for those that have some intellectual their interests. Those afflicted with mental disabilities. Further, exceptions should be deterioration, typically more pronounced in extended to those abroad, as well as those older individuals, might also be incapable of who are physically incapable due to assessing their best interests. Those with hospitalization or serious illness that would more hindering mental disabilities need prevent going to the polling location. If assistance in their daily functions and would exceptions are made for those abroad or also require assistance when voting. physically incapable of voting, the question should be raised concerning the status among those travelling domestically. Since The proposed safeguards may be excessive, travel within the United States can traverse considering that Pietro Tiraboschi and vast distances, the most logical answer to coauthors found that patients with varying the present question is to extend the vote degrees of mental disorders could still vote, waiver application to domestic travels. To be though perhaps not understand the full eligible for exemption, the applicant should intricacies.70 Due to their sample size (n=38), include the reason why they will not be able the results must be taken with a grain of to vote on Election Day and submit this to salt, but they do suggest the easing of the county auditor or via the state’s concerns previously described. According to Secretary of State website. The county the study, most participants were able to auditor would be responsible determining make a choice; and over half understood the the applicant’s exemption. Some guiding nature of the vote. If this policy were to principles the county auditor should advocate for compulsory voting among consider, although not limited to, are the those with a mental disorder, this finding reason for the domestic travel and time would suggest that most of them could required to return and vote. For example, perform that action. However, their attendance of a funeral or interstate travel research also supports the concerns in that should be categorized as exempt. only about a third of the participants were able to fully understand the effect of voting,

and considerably less could evaluate the The most obvious case to provide an possible consequences of electing the exception to mandatory voting is for those

70 Pietro Tiraboschi et al., “Evaluating Voting International Journal of Alzheimer’s Disease 2011 Competence in Persons with Alzheimer Disease,” (2011): 983895. Doi:10.4061/2011/983895.

16

preferred candidate for their own lives.71 If the library. The application should be the voter is as rational as the literature processed quickly and lenient with the suggests, then not comprehending the excuse provided. consequences of a vote for one’s life seems to contradict the notion that individuals will vote in a way that advances their interests. Additional concern should be given to Therefore, it is imperative that voting another vulnerable segment of the remains optional to this community, while population: illiterate individuals. Obliging compulsory for those who have a better individuals that could not read to cast a chance of understanding the consequences ballot could lead to a multitude of issues. of their vote on their lives. The most pressing issue that could arise is aides taking advantage of the illiterate

person to advance their own political The exemption from compulsory voting agenda. Due to this possibility, this proposal must also apply to those experiencing argues for an exemption for illiterate certain physical ailments or conditions. The members of society among whom voting phrasing is admittedly vague, but this would be strictly voluntary on an election- exception should be restricted to those by-election basis. This contrasts with the incapables of going to the polling location system that Brazil has implemented, where because of their condition or ailment. Those those in the voluntary category of voting are that are hospitalized, for example, would fit required to regularly participate after the mold of being exempt, as hospitalization registering, or face having their voter would prevent them going to their polling registration card revoked.72 This suggests location. Not all conditions or ailment are that they are effectively categorized as negative. Women who are near or going compulsory voters, which goes against the into labor, as well as those who had gone notion that voting is voluntary among into labor and have not been cleared for illiterate members of society. These release by the hospital would find the individuals should not be penalized for requirement of electoral participation choosing to exercise their electoral rescinded. Regardless of the circumstances, privileges when they belong to a voluntary individuals should never be penalized for group. Therefore, this policy advocates for something that is out of their control or if the complete exemption of illiterate they are physically incapable of attending individuals from mandatory voting. Should the polling location. Should someone such an individual become literate, then temporarily living away from their polling their voting status would shift to location, said person should apply for compulsory. This is due to not requiring any permission to vote in a different location. assistance during the voting process as they Each state government should create a form can interpret the ballot, to the best of their that can be accessed either online or from abilities, on their own. the local public buildings, such as city hall or

71 Ibid. Brazil, 1986-2006,” Journal of Politics in Latin 72 Timothy Power, “Compulsory for Whom? America 1, no. 1 (2009): 105. Mandatory Voting and Electoral Participation in

17

electoral turnout. Those working in the retail sector are susceptible to low turnout. They Changes to Contemporary Voting Laws are frequently in lower income brackets and So far with this proposal, some substantial have inconsistent work hours. Due to this changes to the electoral system have been combination of factors, these individuals proposed. However, other changes must be may not be able to take off or make the time made to the current electoral laws to required to cast a ballot during an election. increase voter turnout levels. Among the To increase turnout among this segment of first should be made to Election Day. This the population, this proposal would proposal suggests changing Election Day mandate employers give their employees an from a Tuesday to Saturday; and making the adequate amount of time to perform their day a national holiday. Election day electoral responsibility. This can be becoming a national holiday would consist accomplished by one of two methods. First, of state and federal offices close, schools employers can provide extended breaks. that hold class on Saturday would be Consideration must be applied depending canceled for the day, and non-essential on location from the polling location and businesses or organizations may choose to time of day. A second option consists of conduct business as usual or cease marginally shorter shifts. This would give the operations for the day, like they might for retail sector employee an opportunity to Independence Day or Christmas. Public come to work slightly later after voting or facilities with documents or forms related to leave early for the same purpose. Should the voting should remain partially open, but not corporation neglect to provide their every function of the facility needs to be employee an opportunity to participate in operational. Research suggests that nearly the electoral process, the corporation 60 percent of Americans are supportive of should face a financial consequence. making Election Day a national holiday, and roughly four-in-ten Americans support moving Election Day to the weekend.73 By The creation of a “candidate booklet,” which moving Election Day to the weekend and would be placed next to each voting station making it a national holiday, fewer at the polling location, should also assist in individuals would be inhibited from turning the increase of voter turnout. This booklet out to their respective polling location due would contain brief key points of each to occupational obligations. If Election day is candidate, which summarizes their policy moved to the weekend, young voters, who agenda or arguments that the candidate are constrained by their responsibilities as a would like the public to quickly assess student, would have more opportunities to before casting a ballot. Each candidate participate in the electoral process. would submit their arguments to the state’s Secretary of State, and the key points should

not exceed five bullet points worth of Simply making Election Day a national information and be concise. Keeping each holiday is not enough to ensure increased candidate’s selling points limited should

73 R. Michael Alvarez et al., “Voter Opinions about More Convenient?,” Election Law Journal 10, no. 2 Election Reform: Do They Support Making Voting (2011): 84.

18

reduce how much time the voter spends at Considering the benefit that can be derived the voting booth. The time required to from an extensive absentee voting reform, thoroughly research a candidate and assess absentee voting can be implemented in the which one best represents the individual’s following way. Voters can request an interests is generally too much for the absentee ballot via a similar means as average voter. By providing a booklet the registering for a voter identification card. voter can skim through the key points of Local governments should place the each candidate’s platform, the voter can absentee ballot request in a space near the minimize issues related to the voting registration form, and submitted to the process, and more effectively participate. county auditor no less than three weeks Candidates are not required to submit before the election to allow the ballot to be anything, but they will not have their points mailed to the voter, and for records to be listed in the booklet should they not submit updated. Alternatively, the voter can anything. request an absentee ballot online. Each state would need to create a webpage,

which guides the voter through the process The proposal has analyzed voter turnout of requesting an absentee ballot. Voters that through the lens of costs and benefits and opt to vote via an absentee ballot should provided some solutions to minimize the submit their ballot no later than ten days costs that would lead someone to abstain. before the election to ensure the ballot is Introducing absentee voting across the counted in time for the election. Should the United States would also contribute to an deadline to mail the ballot elapse without increase in voter turnout. As it stands, under the ballot being submitted, it falls on the half of the states in the Union have responsibility of the voter to either 1) implemented absentee voting. Evidence submit the absentee ballot in person to the suggests that absentee voting reduces the county auditor’s office, or 2) forfeit their costs of voting among those inclined to vote, absentee ballot at their polling location and and yields higher representation in the vote using a regular ballot. electorate.74 While absentee voting boosts the likelihood of likely voters, there is reason to believe this would apply to those that are The final proposed change to the existing less inclined to vote. Low income individuals electoral laws pertains to giving more are most likely to benefit from moving to options to voters when casting their ballot. absentee voting, many of whom earn hourly To give the voter more options under the wage pay and would benefit from not taking constraints of compulsory voting, the ballot off time to vote. Even among higher income requires adjustments to provide the voter individuals, absentee voting lowers the with a legal way of abstaining or protesting. costs, since the voter does not need to The literature suggests that voters may expend much time nor effort going to the invalidate their ballot as a form of protest polling location. The voter can participate voting. This is a legitimate form of within the comfort of their own home. participation, and as such should be

74 J. Eric Oliver, “The Effects of Eligibility Restrictions Turnout,” American Journal of Political Science 40, and Party Activity on Absentee Voting and Overall no. 2 (1996): 510.

19

encouraged than staying home. Ballots, as a and what the consequences would be if result, should be modified to include an upheld. option that voters can select, if on an electronic voting station, or fill in declaring they choose to willfully abstain. Selecting The argument up to this point strongly this option will treat the ballot as blank and advocates for increasing voter turnout will not contribute any votes for the among the eligible population via candidates running for the various offices at compulsory voting. Therefore, this proposal stake. If voters do not fill in or select this suggests that compulsory turnout must be option, they are at liberty to vote for the enforced to maintain the credibility of the different offices of their choice without law. Just as traffic laws are enforced and voting for each office. This is an attempt to result in consequences when broken, so minimize discontented attitudes for the should turn out. A law that does not enforce drastic electoral change and raise turnout. the rules it has established holds no Protest voting is still participation and legitimacy, and therefore holds no meaning. indicates to elected officials issues that may For this proposal to have credibility, the need to be addressed. policy must then be enforced.

Enforcement Structure By enforcing the law, it then becomes important to delineate how extensive Simply having the compulsory voting law enforcement should be. Using a scale exist is not enough to encourage people to ranging from little to strict enforcement, follow said law. Countries that have enforcement of this policy should be implemented compulsory voting have had to moderate. The penalty should not be too decide on whether to enforce compliance strict, which creates conditions leading more through sanctions or not enforce the law. voters to detest the electoral process and Evidence suggests that as sanctions for only comply to not be penalized. Nor should abstaining increase, voters increasingly the policy be too lenient, where the voter invalidate their votes.75 Research also has no reason to comply with the mandate, suggests that stricter enforcements does since little or no consequence exists for increase voter turnout by roughly six abstaining. Even with strict enforcement, full percentage points.76 States with strict participation is likely unrealistic, but it is enforcement, such as Australia and Belgium, reasonable to expect turnout to increase to consistently yield higher voter turnout, while three-quarters of the eligible population or little to no enforcement, such as Mexico, greater. It was noted that the government have considerably lower turnout. Therefore, would keep record of those that had it is imperative to assess to what extent the participated and those that did not. This mandatory turn out law should be upheld, ensures that there is a way to determine

75 Mert Moral, “The Passive-Aggressive Voter: The 76 Costas Panagopoulos, “The Calculus of Voting in Calculus of Casting an Invalid Vote in European Compulsory Voting Systems,” Political Behavior 30, Democracies,” Political Research Quarterly 69, no. 4 no. 4 (2008): 462. (2016): 741.

20

who did not comply with the mandate, and cannot afford to do so. Therefore, the fine that they are faced with the repercussions should affect each socioeconomic class in a for their lack of participation. way that is appropriate for their income. Fines will still disproportionately affect lower

income individuals more than wealthier Individuals that fail to turn out will receive a individuals, due to the difference in notice by mail informing them of their economic possessions. The fine should be recalcitrance of the law and the procedure divided into several tiers to encourage turn that follows. The responsibility to send the out, while being as fair as possible. Those notice to noncompliant voters belongs to living under the federal poverty line should county auditor. In addition, the county be fined 25 USD for failure to turn out. The auditor would be tasked with evaluating the fine should increase to 50 USD for those return form. The form should include a brief that earn more than the federal poverty statement explaining the reason for line, but less than 50,000 USD per year. receiving the notice, an area where the Those between 50,000 and 100,000 USD recipient can provide an explanation for not should be penalized 100 USD for failure to voting, and information where to send the turn out. Individuals that make more than completed form. The receiver of the notice 100,000, but less than one million USD would be given the option to send it back via should receive a fine of 500 USD. For cases mail services, or by an email address involving the wealthy, which will be defined connected to the county auditor. If the as earning more than one million USD per explanation provided is determined to be a year, the county auditor or judge presiding valid excuse for not turning out, then no over the case should levy a fine that is penalty would be bestowed. If the appropriate and fair. explanation is not satisfactory to the county auditor, then the person who failed to turn out must pay a fine. If the person in Implementation of Compulsory Voting question fails to turn out three or more Dramatically revamping the electoral times, then they will be faced with a fine system, or any system, is no easy feat. and be asked to face a judge, who is Reworking the electoral system to require appointed by the governor, and receive an electoral participation requires delicacy and additional penalty should the judge not find consideration in crafting the policy and the provided explanation sufficient for not transitioning the system. The first step is turning out. The additional penalty would defining what this policy proposal means by consist of privileges to receive any “compulsory voting.” For the sake of this government benefits being revoked. proposal, “compulsory voting” means compulsory turnout, akin to other countries such as Brazil and Australia. Casting a ballot Due to the variety of socioeconomic station is ideal, but not required of those that turn in the United States, a flat fee does not out. By requiring citizens to attend the polls, suffice, as it disproportionately harms low the largest contributing cost in the voter income individuals. Wealthier individuals decision calculus can be overcome, which can simply pay the fine, as if nothing happened, while lower income people

21

may lead the individual to cast their ballot, rights and protections to people of color since they had to attend the polling location. during the century following the US Civil War.

With this working definition of “compulsory voting,” it is imperative to assess how and This proposal is intended to be a federal where this policy would be discussed and policy proposal. Its intent is increasing voter implemented, as well as how different turnout in the United States at the national groups would perceive this policy level. However, the proposal can be introduction. Compulsory voting is a implemented on a state-by-state basis. In moderately new concept, with the first case fact, it is more likely that a proposal such as implementing the electoral system in the this would be ratified at the state level than late Nineteenth Century. Due to the at the national level. The proposal would be relatively new notion of national compulsory introduced in the state legislative bodies and voting laws, the Founders were not inclined debated like it would be done if introduced to specify if voting in the United States in the US Congress. The amendment process should be required or strictly voluntary. The of the state’s constitution to include Founders reserved most powers for the compulsory voting would follow the states through Article X of the United States specifications described by each state’s Constitution. This would allow states to constitution. Amending state constitutions is determine the intricacies of voting. A few an easier process than amending the US states, namely Georgia and Virginia, have Constitution. experimented with compulsory voting during the Eighteenth Century, and other states have tried to introduce it.77 Normally, Undoubtably, opposition to such a policy states would discuss and vote on how voting would be immense, not only from the would be conducted within the state legislators, but from the public. A substantial legislature without other states experiencing proportion of the populace likely will see the consequences of the decision. Due to such a policy as encroaching on their rights the nature of this proposal, the introduction as free people. Some legislators would also of compulsory voting would need to be very vocal in their opposition, perceiving originate at the federal level, as it would the policy as a threat to their political seats. mandate every citizen turn out to the polls. This could apply to any candidate, regardless A constitutional amendment would need to of party, depending on the demographic be introduced, deliberated, and voted on in composition of the district or state. both chambers of Congress before being sent off to the states for ratification. A constitutional amendment is an effective The party that would most likely be most way of gaining the cooperation of the states, vocal in its opposition would be the as it was a means of accomplishing equal Republican Party, on the principle that it

77 Lisa Hill, “Low Voter Turnout in the United States: Is Compulsory Voting a Viable Solution?,” Journal of Theoretical Politics 18, no. 2 (2006): 222.

22

violates individual liberties. Additionally, Evidence also suggests that Republicans they may be concerned that the Democratic would not support a compulsory voting law Party may gain a political advantage, due to based on their history regarding the the propensity for minorities to vote for the expansion of voting rights. In recent years, Democratic ticket. Presidential election data more states have made moves to restore going back to 1992 from the Pew Research voting rights for ex-felons, though many Center shows that registered minorities states resist re-enfranchising ex-felons. tend to favor the Democratic Party, while According to Jason Conn, data appears to white registered voters tend to favor the suggest that ex-felons favor the Democratic Republican Party.78 Party preference among Party, even suggesting enfranchised felons each race may better accentuate this would have swung the 2000 presidential assertion. Among white registered voters, election in favor of Democratic Candidate Al the marginal of difference is not as distinct Gore.81 Conn explains the tendency of ex- as it is among black registered voters. felons to prefer the Democratic Party over Whites favor the Republican Party by 15 the Republican Party as a difference percentage points when considering those perspective. Democrats frame the issue of that identify with or lean toward either felon enfranchisement as a civil rights issue, major political party. Among black while Republicans frame it as “being tough registered voters, the difference is eighty on crime.”82 By frame it as a deterrent to percentage points in favor of the crime, Republicans position themselves in a Democratic Party. Party preference among detrimental way likely leading to a Hispanics largely favors the Democrats, but substantial electoral advantage for the not to the same degree as registered black Democratic Party if ex-felon’s voting rights voters. Additional data from the Pew were to be reinstated. Research Center appears to validate this concern, which found that four-in-ten registered Democrats are non-white, while Democratic candidates may also be vocal in under twenty percent of registered their opposition, depending on their district. Republicans are non-white.79 However, data Democrats in more urban district are likely shows that Non-Hispanic White and Non- to be less concerned about the introduction Hispanic Black voters tend to vote in similar of compulsory voting, as their cities tend to proportions.80 be Democrat hot spots, while rural areas tend to favor more conservative candidates.

So, Democrats in districts that are largely

78 “Party affiliation among voters: 1992-2016,” Pew 80 Michael P. McDonald, “Voter Turnout Research Center, last modified 13 September, 2016, Demographics,” United States Elections Project, https://www.pewresearch.org/politics/2016/09/13/ http://www.electproject.org/home/voter- 2-party-affiliation-among-voters-1992-2016/. turnout/demographics 79 “In Changing U.S. Electorate, Race and Education 81 Jason Belmont Conn, “Felon Disenfranchisement Remain Stark Dividing Lines,” Pew Research Center, Laws: Partisan Politics in the Legislatures,” Michigan last updated 2 June, 2020, Journal of Race and Law 10, (2005): 512. https://www.pewresearch.org/politics/2020/06/02/i 82 Ibid., 513. n-changing-u-s-electorate-race-and-education- remain-stark-dividing-lines/.

23

rural have some concern that compulsory salient issue. Since bills rarely, if ever, go voting would significantly reduce their through the legislative process unscathed, chance of winning a seat in that district. the success of this proposal would largely Research suggests that compulsory voting depend on amending the proposal in the does not favor either left- or rightwing debate or committee process. parties, so politicians should not harbor any concerns about their political rival gaining an electoral advantage from the introduction of The implementation of compulsory voting compulsory voting.83 must be rolled out over a period to allow voters to adjust to the new electoral system.

Like any massive change, some time will be Businesses may also oppose this policy. A required for adjustment and acceptance. A provision in the policy mandates companies survey among American students revealed give their employees the time needed to that approximately 64 percent opposed fulfill their civic duties. This could create a compulsory voting, and this number likely is logistical problem for companies, especially similar to the opinion on compulsory voting those with small staffs, as each worksite is among the adult population in the United going to have different experiences. One States.84 An immediate shift from voluntary precinct may operate quickly and efficiently, to compulsory voting would create adverse while another is slow to operate. This consequences, as it may lead voters to feel reduces the standardization of company strongly uninterested in the electoral procedures, as it would be dependent upon system, thereby exacerbating low turnout in each store to determine how much time is the United States. required for each employee to fulfill their civic obligation. If the transition from a voluntary to

compulsory voting system were to take Given the potential opposition, passing a place over the course of a decade, this proposal like this in its current state is would give adults over the age of eighteen improbable. The passage of this proposal the chance to vote up to five times for very likely requires some compromises to elections for the House of Representatives, satisfy both major political parties, as well as up to three times for presidential races, and interest groups. Finding a solution that up to two Senate elections to adjust. This satisfies all contending parties is not as easy would permit a new voting norm to develop as including conditions that generalize the and settle among collective consciousness of interests of each party. For example, the public. The transition period should be including a tax incentive may entice characterized as a period of lax enforcement Republican congressmen to pass the to allow people to be accustomed to their proposal, but only if this is a highly regarded new obligations and for the government to

83 Mitchell Hoffman, Gianmarco León and María 84 Jessamay Pesek, “Comparing Youth Opinions Lombardi, “Compulsory voting, turnout, and Toward Compulsory Voting Across Five Countries,” government spending: Evidence from Austria,” Journal of International Social Studies 4, no. 1 Journal of Public Economics 145 (2017): 113. (2014): 69.

24

make the final preparations once the for the attendant keeping track of those mandate is truly enforced. Once the grace fulfilling their obligation to the state. Those period expires, those that fail to comply with that are not required by the law to turn out the mandate will be faced with would only need to present documentation consequences, which will be detailed in their that verifies being of an eligible age to own dedicated section of this policy participate and place of residence if they proposal. want to engage in the electoral process. These verification measures are established

for the sake of legitimacy and to prevent Voters over the age of 18 and future voters illicit voting from those that inclined to do must also prepare. Citizens would be so. Most countries that permit voting among automatically registered to vote but would the public have some sort of identification not be able to participate until they meet process for voting, so it is within reason to the age requirement. With automatic citizen incorporate such a requirement among registration, there would then be a need to those that are required and those that connect the voter identification to the voluntarily vote. However, these verification person. Tying the voter identification processes should not be too extensive, as number to a person’s social security would some research suggests that intense voter be the simplest solution, since each social identification requirements adversely affect security number is unique. Each person turnout.85 No barriers beyond simple would be required to update their voter identification should be erected to thwart registration information upon moving the citizen’s obligation to the compulsory location or other major life changes that voting law. would relate to identification. Currently, this information can be changed through the voter registration forms via the Secretary of Since voter identification plays a role in State page for each state, or the form can be compliance with the law, access to the voter submitted through the county auditor. identification should be a simple process. It Under this proposal, the process of updating is the responsibility of the government, be it voter registration information would remain local or state, to provide access to the the same, as this process does not warrant registration form. Current online registration any alterations. forms will be carried over from the voluntary system. Online registration is the

easiest option available to the public given For the state, the preparations required for how accessible the internet is from public implementing a wide-sweeping electoral libraries. Local governments should also policy are significantly more exhaustive. The provide the same registration form, which state must prepare the voter registration can be sent by mail to the county auditor. record for each precinct to assess who is These forms should be placed in the city hall complying with the mandate to turn out and or public library, if possible, or in a publicly who is not. This list will serve as a checklist available building such as an establishment

85 R. Michael Alvarez, Delia Bailey, and Jonathan N. Turnout,” California Institute of Technology Social Katz, “The Effect of Voter Identification Laws on Science Working Paper no. 1267R (2008): 17

25

of worship if that is acceptable with the In a representative democracy, accurate establishment. Since registration is representation is difficult to attain with low automatic for citizens, registration forms will voter turnout. For the United States, this is only be necessary for new citizens or people the reality the political system faces. changing addresses. This means it is Turnout in the United States is among the unnecessary to display a large quantity of lowest of any advanced industrial forms. democracy. Voter turnout data indicates that turnout among the voting age

population for congressional races during Leading up to an election, the state midterm elections is considerably lower government should ensure that its than the same race during presidential constituents are reminded of the upcoming election years.86 To contrast, data on Senate election. This aspect of the policy proposal elections from the Australian government requires budgetary adjustments on behalf of indicate turnout has only dipped under the state government. This reminder ninety percent once in the past century encapsulates sending a small card to each since the inception of compulsory voting.87 eligible voter mailing address, as well as Other countries with compulsory voting but posting signage for homeless individuals in with less severe penalties for abstaining, highly frequented locations such as also exhibit higher voter turnout than the homeless shelters or food banks. This should United States. This illustrates that the be sent no less than two weeks prior to the United States is experiencing issues with one election to give eligible voters enough time of the most important aspects of its to receive or see this notification. Therefore, democratic republic, and a solution is each state should allocate enough in the necessary. budget for the cost of the postage, which equals the number of eligible households multiplied by thirty-five cents. An accurate Finding a solution that pleases everyone yet estimate of the postage required should fulfills the objective of increasing voter analyze data from the voter registration turnout is an arduous task for any database as well as census records. By policymaker. The solution would require reducing the notifications being sent to balancing the citizen’s liberty to vote freely households rather than per person, the and restricting that very liberty for accurate costs associated with the reminder to turn representation in government. If the out is considerably reduced. solution maintains a system of voluntary participation, what measures will lead to an

increase in voter turnout? Perhaps a shift in Conclusion norms but voting records strongly suggests that voting norm are not firmly cemented in American culture. Incentives could be a

86 International Institute for Democracy and Electoral 87 “Voter turnout-previous events,” Australian Assistance (IDEA), “United States” (2020). Election Commission, last updated 10 December https://www.idea.int/data-tools/country- 2019. view/295/40. https://www.aec.gov.au/elections/federal_elections /voter-turnout.htm.

26

solution but could be rather costly. If the advantage. However, it has not been proven solution were to make voting compulsory, that compulsory voting leads to any distinct voter turnout would surely increase but party advantage, because of the widened would depend on enforcement. If the law active electorate. Critics also lambast were enforced, what degree of sanctions for compulsory voting arguing governments do noncompliance would need to be applied? If not have the right to revoke the liberty of there is no enforcement, would there be a choice when voting. This argument loses substantial increase in voter turnout? These some credibility when considering are but a few questions that policymakers governments regulate other choices must consider when drafting policies to individuals can make. Just as government increase voter turnout. can regulate traffic laws to ensure the safety of drivers, the government can regulate

electoral participation to ensure the This proposal has suggested that attending people’s opinions are heard and then, the polls should be made mandatory among hopefully, responded to in the legislative citizens to increase voter turnout. Under this process. proposal, voting, itself, is not mandated, rather it is encouraged. By its nature, compulsory voting limits choices available to This policy proposal has attempted to each person. To counteract the imposed increase voter turnout without sacrificing limitation, voters are given the ability to too many democratic ideals Americans hold legally abstain from voting on the ballot. dear. Choice remains a valuable attribute This gives the voter the ability to cast a and this proposal has sought to maintain it protest vote or display a lack of interest in by giving the voter the ability to vote for as politics. By mandating every citizen to turn many running positions like they can under out to the polling location, one of the the current system, or to legally abstain. primary costs of voting can be overcome, Additionally, the policy has attempted to which may lead individuals to actively make the voting process more convenient participate in the electoral process. through the national rollout of absentee voting. Absentee voting permits the voter to

make their decisions in the comfort of their Critics of compulsory voting have voiced a own home and, most importantly, avoid the multitude of arguments against the idea. costs associated with attending physical Some complaints ring true, as compulsory polling locations. Some of the costs voting is not a perfect electoral system. associated with absentee balloting include Compulsory voting is likely to agitate more the time required to request the ballot and than it is please voters, which may lead to a postage stamps, but these costs are less substantial increase in invalid votes or than the potential costs of voting in person increased discontentment with the political at physical polling locations. The proposal process. It may not rectify any issues that has also delineated who is required to exist within the current electoral system. turnout. The proposal suggests that sixteen- Some critics argue that compulsory voting and seventeen-year-old citizens be able to would alter the voting composition, and voluntarily participate. This gives them the potentially give one party an electoral experience of voting, which is one of many

27

hurdles young people face encounter during without resorting to mandatory voting the electoral process. Senior citizens have among citizens. The government, be it local, also been addressed in this proposal by state or federal, have a multitude of options making voting voluntary upon turning available to them to increase turnout, they seventy. The body and mind increasingly can select the option that best works for become brittle as one ages, so it should not that area, or that can be passed in the be required for older citizens to vote. Legislature, should only parts of this Studies have also shown that older voters proposal be implemented. tend to turn out more frequently than other age groups, so there is a decent likelihood that they would turn out without the threat This proposal has sought to introduce a of a mandate. The proposal has also made policy for compulsory voting in the United measures to safeguard other vulnerable States. There are likely areas of this proposal members of society, such as the illiterate that are missing elements that would and intellectually disabled. These groups improve the policy. Drafting a policy that should not be preyed upon by those seeking completely revamps the electoral system is to advance their own political agenda, so no easy task, particularly for one author. voting will be voluntary for these people. Additionally, altering the mental state of the American public to be more favorable

toward voting is quite possibly an impossible The proposed solution to the turnout feat. This might mean that implementing problem in the United States described compulsory voting will leave many above is one answer that other countries Americans aggravated with the electoral have employed to increase turnout. Passing system but electing to comply with the a national compulsory voting proposal like mandate to avoid being penalized. It is this in its entirety would rectify the current possible that after a while of having dilemma plaguing the US electoral process, compulsory voting, the United States could but the likelihood of doing so is minimal. revert back to a voluntary voting system but Implementing parts of this proposal would evidence in the literature does not inspire be an acceptable alternative on the basis confidence that voters would willingly vote if that turnout increases. Adopting the mandatory voting laws were lifted. Current measure to make Election Day a national voting tendencies in the United States do holiday or increase the ease of voting not suggest that turnout will increase through the national rollout of absentee significantly. While voter turnout is better voting. States or cities can enact some or all during presidential elections than midterm this proposed policy. The national turnout elections, both are quite low compared to rate would likely not change significantly other advanced industrial democracies with unless enough states pass parts or all the voluntary voting systems, let alone countries proposal. However, this would likely lead to with enforced compulsory voting. If the constituents being represented more United States wants to champion the ideals accurately in government. While not of democracy abroad, then those same discussed in this proposal, but a national ideals should be promoted at home. rollout of same-day registration may also be a successful way of raising voter turnout

28

Bibliography parliamentary elections,” East European Politics 29, no. 4 (2013): 499-520. Alvarez, R. Michael, Delia Bailey, and Jonathan N. Katz, “The Effect of Voter Identification Laws Englen, Bart, “Why Compulsory Voting Can on Turnout,” California Institute of Technology Enhance Democracy,” Acta Politica 41 (2007): Social Science Working Paper no. 1267R (2008): 23-39. 1-28. Fowler, Anthony, “Electoral and Policy “Voter turnout-previous events,” Australian Consequences of Voter Turnout: Evidence from Election Commission, last updated 10 Compulsory Voting in Australia,” Quarterly December 2019. Journal of Political Science 8, no. 2 (2013): 159- https://www.aec.gov.au/elections/federal_elec 182. tions/voter-turnout.htm. Fornos, Carolina A., Timothy J. Power, and Bélanger, Éric, “Antipartyism and Third-Party James C. Garand. 2004. “Explaining Voter Vote Choice: A Comparison of Canada, Britain, Turnout in Latin America, 1980 to 2000.” and Australia,” Comparative Political Studies 37, Comparative Political Studies 37 (8): 909-40. no. 9 (2004): 1054-78. Gaebler, Stefanie, Niklas Potrafke, and Felix Cepaluni, Gabriel and F. Daniel Hidalgo, Roesel, “Compulsory Voting, Voter Turnout and “Compulsory Voting Can Increase Political Asymmetrical Habit-formation,” CESifo Working Inequality: Evidence from Brazil,” Political Paper Series no. 6764 (2017). Analysis 24, no. 2 (2016): 273-280. Hill, Lisa, “Low Voter Turnout in the United Carreras, Miguel, “Compulsory voting and States: Is Compulsory Voting a Viable political engagement (beyond the ballot box): A Solution?,” Journal of Theoretical Politics 18, no. multilevel analysis,” Electoral Studies 43 (2016): 2 (2006): 158-168. Hirczy, Wolfgang, “The impact of mandatory Carreras, Miguel, “The Rise of Outsiders in Latin voting laws on turnout quasi-experimental America, 1980-2010: An Institutionalist approach,” Electoral Studies 13, no. 1 (1994): Perspective,” Comparative Political Studies 45, 64-76. no. 12 (2012): 1451-82. Hoffman, Mitchell, Gianmarco León and María Cohen, Mollie, “Protesting via the Null Ballot: Lombardi, “Compulsory voting, turnout, and An Assessment of the Decision to Cast an Invalid government spending: Evidence from Austria,” Vote in Latin America,” Political Behavior 40, Journal of Public Economics 145 (2017): 103- no. 2 (2018): 395-414. 115. Conn, Jason Belmont, “Felon International Institute for Democracy and Disenfranchisement Laws: Partisan Politics in Electoral Assistance (IDEA), “United States” the Legislatures,” Michigan Journal of Race and (2020). https://www.idea.int/data- Law 10, (2005): tools/country-view/295/40. Córdova, Abby and Gabriela Rangel, “Voter Turnout by Country,” Institute for “Addressing the Gender Gap: The Effect of Democracy and Electoral Assistance, last Compulsory Voting on Women’s Electoral updated 2020, https://www.idea.int/data- Engagement,” Comparative Politics 50, no. 2 tools/data/voter-turnout. (2017): 264-90. Jackman, Simon, “Compulsory Voting,” in Czesnik, Mikolj, “Is compulsory voting a International Encyclopedia of the Social and remedy? Evidence from the 2001 Polish

29

Behavioral Sciences, ed. N. J. Smelser and B. Lundell, Krister, “Civic Participation and Political Baltes (2001): 16314-18. Trust: The Impact of Compulsory Voting,” Representation 48, no. 2 (2012): 221-234. Jackman, Simon. 1998. “Non-Compulsory Voting in Australia?: What Surveys Can (and Maldonado, Arturo. 2011. “Compulsory Voting Can’t) Tell Us.” Electoral Studies 18 (1): 29-48. and the Decision to Vote.” 63. AmericasBarometer Insights. Latin American Jaitman, Laura, “The causal effect of Public Opinion Project, Vanderbilt University: 1- compulsory voting laws on turnout: Does skill 9. matter?,” Journal of Economic Behavior and Organization 92 (2013): 79-93. McDonald, Michael P., “Voter Turnout Demographics,” United States Elections Project, Jakee, Keith and Guang-Zhen Sun, “Is http://www.electproject.org/home/voter- compulsory voting more democratic?,” Public turnout/demographics. Choice 129 (2006): 61-75. Moral, Mert, “The Passive-Aggressive Voter: Layton, Matthew and Amy Erica Smith, The Calculus of Casting an Invalid Vote in “Incorporating Marginal Citizens and Voters: European Democracies,” Political Research The Conditional Electoral Effects of Targeted Quarterly 69, no. 4 (2016): 732-45. Social Assistance in Latin America,” Comparative Political Studies 48, no. 7 (2015): Oliver, J. Eric, “The Effects of Eligibility 854-81. Restrictions and Party Activity on Absentee Voting and Overall Turnout,” American Journal Lardy, Heather, “Is there a Right not to Vote?,” of Political Science 40, no. 2 (1996):498-513. Oxford Journal of Legal Studies 24, no. 2 (2004): 303-321. Panagopoulos, Costas, “The Calculus of Voting in Compulsory Voting Systems,” Political León, Gianmarco, “Turnout, political Behavior 30, no. 4 (2008): 455-467. preferences and information: Experimental evidence from Peru,” Journal of Development Pesek, Jessamay, “Comparing Youth Opinions Economics 127, (2017): 56-71. Toward Compulsory Voting Across Five Countries,” Journal of International Social Lever, Annabelle, “Compulsory Voting: A Critical Studies 4, no. 1 (2014): 60-80. Perspective,” British Journal of Political Science 40, no. 4 (2010): 897-915. “In Changing U.S. Electorate, Race and Education Remain Stark Dividing Lines,” Pew Lewis-Beck, Michael S. et al., “Voting Turnout” Research Center, last updated 2 June, 2020, in The American Voter Revisited (Ann Arbor: https://www.pewresearch.org/politics/2020/06 University of Michigan Press, 2011), 1-428. /02/in-changing-u-s-electorate-race-and- Lijphart, Arend, “Unequal Participation: education-remain-stark-dividing-lines/. Democracy’s Unresolved Dilemma,” The “Party affiliation among voters: 1992-2016,” American Political Science Review 91, no. 1 Pew Research Center, last modified 13 (1997): 1-14. September, 2016, Louth, Jonathon and Lisa Hill, “Compulsory https://www.pewresearch.org/politics/2016/09 Voting in Australia: Turnout with and without /13/2-party-affiliation-among-voters-1992- it,” Australian Review of Public Affairs 6, no. 1 2016/. (2005): 25-37. Power, Timothy, “Compulsory for Whom? Mandatory Voting and Electoral Participation in

30

Brazil, 1986-2006,” Journal of Politics in Latin America 1, no. 1 (2009): 97-122. Quintelier, Elen, Marc Hooghe and Sofie Marien, “The Effect of Compulsory Voting on Turnout Stratification Patterns: A Cross-national Analysis,” International Political Science Review 32, no. 4 (2011): 396-416. Salthouse, Timothy A, “Does the Level at Which Cognitive Change Occurs With Age?,” Psychological Science 23, no. 1 (January 2012): 18-23. Schlozman, Kay Lehman, Sidney Verba and Henry E. Brady, “The Unheavenly Chorus” (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2012): 1- 601. Singh, Shane, “How Compelling is Compulsory Voting? A Multilevel Analysis of Turnout, Political Behavior 33, no. 1 (2011): 95-111. Tiraboschi, Pietro et al., “Evaluating Voting Competence in Persons with Alzheimer Disease,” International Journal of Alzheimer’s Disease 2011 (2011): 983895. Doi:10.4061/2011/983895.

31