THE UNIVERSITY OF HULL Kinship and Modernisation: An Analysis of a Cham Community of East Coast Peninsular Malaysia Being a Thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in The University of Hull By Siti Nor Awang B.A (Hons.), University of Malaya, Malaysia 1993 M.A (Anthropology), University of Malaya, Malaysia 1996 February 2010 ABSTRACT This study addresses the issue of the nature of contemporary kinship relationships among the Cham Muslim community of migrants from Cambodia, now settled in Malaysia. The study was conducted in 2006 in Pulau Keladi Village, a Cham settlement on the East Coast of peninsula Malaysia, and employed an ethnographic research approach combining traditional participant observation with simple survey techniques. The study is primarily concerned with how modernization has affected kinship relations among the Cham. Modernization is used here to designate the processes of involvement in the commercial relations of a market-based society. In the case of the Cham, the transition to such relations was intertwined with the process of movement from their country of origin, i.e. Cambodia, to another country. With the process of movement and resettlement, this community confronted real challenges and had to develop new ways of life in a new milieu. From traditional forms of farming and fishing, which had been their main sources of economic support in Cambodia, these people utilized a similar physical environment to develop commercially-oriented economic activities in their new settlement. The degree of cooperation in the village helps producers to produce and market larger quantities than if everyone operated as an isolated unit. The spirit of mutual help which pervades this community, and which is interrelated with kinship, is an important aspect of this study. Through the way in which they responded to their new milieu and the cultural challenges which it provided, the Cham managed to re-establish strong kinship networks and to assemble a large group of kin in a single place. Through examining the kinship structure and ideology of the Cham, their marriage patterns, relations between parents, adult children and adult siblings, the role of kinship in life course transitions and ceremonies, the utilisation of kinship in economic activities and the interplay of migration, ethnic identity and kinship, the study identifies the significance of kinship to Cham social organisation and explores the elements of continuity and change. Over the last three decades, these people have undergone significant transformation due to the modernization process and resettlement. The data of this sudy suggests that changes have taken place in some aspects of their lives. However, compared to western communities, the resilience of kinship ties is clearly transparent. While there are more elements of freedom for the younger generation in many areas of life, they still accept considerable guidance from older family members, and the range of kin who are recognised and who meet regularly to celebrate family events, the preference for working with kin, the patterns of financial and emotional assistance, the relatively high levels of arranged marriages and of cousin marriage, the exceptionally low rates of divorce and remarriage, and the close relations between parents and adult children and between adult siblings, all illustrate the importance that the Cham attach to the bonds of kinship and their efforts to protect kinship from the eroding influence of modernisation. Finally, the study suggests that important contributing factors to the continuing strength of kinship are the historical and contemporary efforts of a minority group to maintain their identity, persecution under the Khmer Rouge and the subsequent migration and resettlement, which have all both accentuated the importance of kinship as protection and resource, and deepened the attachment of the Chain to a collective identity - now in the form of Orang Kemboja - which kinship plays an important role in maintaining. HI Acknowledgements Throughout the course of my Doctoral study, and in all the places it has taken me, I have met with great generosity of spirit and willingness to help. I would like to thank all those without whose individual contributions the completion of this thesis would not have been possible. I am greatly indebted to the University of Malaya for its generous sponsorship of my study. My special thanks are due to the Head of Department of Anthropology and Sociology, the late Professor Dr Hussein Mohammed and the current head of the department, Associate Professor Dr Jas Lailie Suzana Jaafar. I would like to express my heartfelt gratitude to my advisor, Mr. Colin Creighton, who is most responsible for helping me complete the writing of this thesis as well as the challenging research that lies behind it. Colin was always there to guide and advise me at critical times, especially during the fieldwork' and helped to give a clear direction concerning the modification of the initial research question, and overall aim of this study. I owe a great debt to my co-advisor, Dr. Mark Johnson who, as well as being my mentor, has been a good friend. Both of them have tirelessly provided advice and guidance, and taught me never to underestimate the value of knowledge. To both of them I would like to say, 'Terima kasih yang tidak terhinggcf. Throughout my research activities I have had the assistance of many different institutions and individuals. I take this opportunity to thank: The staff of the Department of Social and Criminology for their support, assistance, and encouragement during the writing of the thesis; The staff of the Language Institute at the University of Hull who deserve special mention for helping me to learn French and for improving my English. The staff of the Brynmor Jones Library at the University of Hull. The staff of the Oriental and Indian Office Library in the British Library. The staff of the University of Malaya Main Library, the Zaaba Memorial Library (Perpustakaan Peringatan Zaaba), the National University of Malaysia, and the Muzium Negara Library. In Malaysia, I would like to thank the following people: District Officer of Pejabat, Daerah Pekan, and the staff, for giving me research permission and introducing me to the Penghulu Mukim Paloh Hinai, who was later become my 'gate keeper' of my fieldwork. In Pulau Keladi, I am greatly indebted to my late 'adopted parent' Mr. Ramli and his wife Mrs. Safiah, He is not only my Chain teacher, but also my key informant who was extremely helpful in providing information and who was always willing to share life experiences, answering any question, and introducing me to the villagers during fieldwork. I am also indebted to Mr. Safi and Mrs. Zaiton, who introduced me to my landlord and made me feel at home, introducing me to Cambodian dishes. Also special thanks to their daughter Rosnah, who became my research assistance and my interpreters when dealing with older iv Chain. I am grateful to Wak Rip, Kak Yam and family with whom I stayed and from whom I learnt about Cham cultural practices. Also to Aoung Tuan, Seman, Abang Yaakob, Cik Long Khatam, Mai Roh, Kak Midah, Minah, Leha, Wak Mat, Mai Su, Mai So, and Fini, whom I regard as my family and friends who provided much help. A special thanks goes to my friends Rahilah, Aiza, Zu, Rokiah, Rokimah, Bib, Mizi, Eita, Danial Yaqeen, Peah, Zahari, Rosiah, Shima, Fuad, Ani, Fauzi, Mazlan, and Nafisah I thank their generosity and encouragement. My family have given me great support, morally and financially throughout my study. I would like to express my gratitude to my husband, Ismail for unconditional support and encouragement to pursue my interests, even when the interests went beyond boundaries of language, field and geography. To my children, Danial, Shasha, and Darwish who have had to make their own sacrifices at such a young age, thank you so much for your cooperation and understanding. Lastly, to my parents and siblings who have always been my source of inspiration and who are always comforting, I thank all of you and may Allah bestow us with His blessings. I may have omitted some names but I will never forget all the assistance, and the friendships that I have been given. Hanya ALLAH yang mampu membalas segala kebaikan kalian. Abstract ii Acknowledgement iv Contents vi Glossary xi Abbreviation xiv Chapter One Introduction 1.0 Background 1 1.1 Aims of Study 3 1.2 Research Approaches 5 1.2.1 Gaining Access 5 1.3 Theoretical Considerations : Kinship and Modernization 16 1.4 The Concept of Network 28 1.4.1 Function : What Do Kin Networks Do? 31 1.5 Kinship Networks and Family Strategy 34 1.6 The Chain Kinship Networks 36 1.7 Summary 36 Chapter Two From Cham to Khmer Muslim to Orang Kemboja 2.0 Introduction 38 2.1 The Cham and Historical Movement 38 2.2 Conflict and Violence in Cambodia 44 2.3 Seeking Refuge 50 2.3.1 Early Settlement 53 2.4 Moving to Pulau Keladi 62 2.5 From Cham to Khmer Muslim to Orang Kemboja 64 2.6 Summary 73 Chapter Three The Ethnographic Setting 3.0 Introduction 74 3.1 Pekan as a District and Town 74 3.2 Geographical Setting of Pulau KeladF 78 3.3 Daily life in Pulau Keladi 83 3.4 Economic Activities 88 3.4.1 Fish Farming and Fishing 89 3.4.2 Farming 94 3.4.3 Coffee Shops and Food Stalls 100 3.4.4 Other Economic Activities 103 3.5 The Cham House 105 3.6 TheSerau 112 3.7 Population of Pulau Keladi 120 3.7.1 Age Structure 120 vi 3.7.2 Place of Birth 120 3.7.3 Ethnic Identity 121 3.7 4 Language 122 3.8 Summary 123 Chapter Four