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The Fuel Economy of Public Bathhouses in the Roman Empire Classical History

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The Fuel Economy of Public Bathhouses in the Roman Empire Classical History Faculty of Arts and Philosophy Michael Mietz The Fuel Economy of Public Bathhouses in the Roman Empire Classical History Thesis Presented in Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Master of Arts in History 2015-2016* Supervisor: Prof. dr. Andries Johan Zuiderhoek History Department 1 2 Contents ACKNOWLEGDMENTS .............................................................................................................................. 5 SHORT SUMMARY .................................................................................................................................. 6 Korte Samenvatting in het Nederlands .......................................................................................... 6 FIGURES AND PICTURES IN THE TEXT ...................................................................................................... 6 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................... 8 CORPUS ...........................................................................................................................................12 1. Fuel Consumption .................................................................................................................................... 12 1.1 Ancient Sources ....................................................................................................................... 12 1.2 The Influence of the Hypocaust System, the Opening Hours and the Bath Temperatures ........................................................................................................................................ 15 1.2.1 The Hypocaust system ............................................................................................................ 15 1.2.2 Opening Hours ......................................................................................................................... 16 1.2.3 Bath Temperatures ................................................................................................................. 19 1.3 Archaeological Reconstruction, Thermal Analysis and Heat Transfer Studies ............. 20 1.3.1 The Saalburg baths .................................................................................................................. 21 1.3.2 The Herbergsthermen ............................................................................................................ 22 1.3.3 The Nova Baths ........................................................................................................................ 22 1.3.4 Discussion and Comparison of the Archaeological Reconstructions .............................. 24 1.3.5 Areas needed for sustainable exploitation .......................................................................... 25 1.3.6 Discussion and Comparison to Ancient Sources ................................................................ 27 1.4 Summary and Intermediary Conclusion .............................................................................. 28 2. Bath Operation and Cost. Bath Management and Supplying its Fuel. ......................................... 29 2.1 Funding the Baths ........................................................................................................................... 29 2.1.1 . Entrance Fees, Benefactions of Free Bathing and Rents ............................................. 30 2.1.2 Other Types of Benefaction and Benefactions ‘in tutelam’ .............................................. 32 2.1.3. Liturgies, Civic Duty and Public Funds ............................................................................... 33 2.1.4. Public Domains: Loca Publica. .............................................................................................. 37 2.2 Bath Management and Personnel, Monitoring and Heating the Baths ................................. 38 2.3 Fuel Contractors and Fuel Transport and the Price of Fuel. .................................................... 42 2.3.1 Contracts and Social Status ................................................................................................... 43 2.3.2 Transport and Storage ........................................................................................................... 46 2.3.3 The Cost of Fuel and Cost of Transport................................................................................ 50 2.3.4 Calculations and comparison ................................................................................................ 53 2.4 Summary and Intermediary Conclusion ..................................................................................... 55 3. Types of fuel .............................................................................................................................................. 56 3.1. The use of wood and the use of charcoal ................................................................................... 58 3.1.1 The use of wood and silvicultural systems ......................................................................... 58 3.1.2 Comparison with the results from our short survey and discussion .............................. 62 3.1.3 The Use of Charcoal ................................................................................................................ 64 3.2 The use of non-wood fuels ............................................................................................................ 67 3.2.1 The meaning of the term ‘lignum’. ....................................................................................... 67 3.2.2 The use of chaff and the use of reed..................................................................................... 68 3.2.3. The use of olive pits and pomace ......................................................................................... 70 3 3.2.4 The use of bones and the use of dung; The Bosra and Musarna finds ............................ 72 3.2.5 The use of coal in Roman Britain .......................................................................................... 77 3.3 The types of fuel: concluding remarks ........................................................................................ 79 4. Modelling the fuel economy of Roman public baths. ....................................................................... 81 4.1 Quantifying ...................................................................................................................................... 81 4.2 Qualifying ......................................................................................................................................... 83 CONCLUSION ..................................................................................................................................85 SOURCES USED ...............................................................................................................................88 PRIMARY SOURCES ............................................................................................................................... 88 Written ................................................................................................................................................... 88 Epigraphy and Papyri ........................................................................................................................... 90 BIBLIOGRAPHY ..................................................................................................................................... 91 ADDENDA ........................................................................................................................................98 ADDENDUM 1: MAP OF LOCATIONS FEATURED ....................................................................................... 98 ADDENDUM 2: QUANTITATIVE MODEL: POMPEIIAN FUEL CONSUMPTION AD 79 (HANDOUT BY ROBYN VEAL) ...... 99 ADDENDUM 3: FIGURES AND PICTURES ................................................................................................ 103 ADDENDUM 4: HEAT BALANCE SUMMARIES ......................................................................................... 108 ADDENDUM 5: TABLE OF DIFFERENT CALORIFIC VALUES OF THE FUELS LISTED IN SECTION 3 .................... 111 Cover image from Pasquinucci M. 1987. Terme romane e vita quotidiana, Modena, Panini. fig 33: “l'approvvigionamento del combustibile il legname” Word count: 41 522 4 Acknowlegdments I would like to thank the Flemish Government, Ghent University and Rector Ann de Paepe for providing me with the opportunity of studying at their great institution. I would like to thank Rector Ann de Paepe for allowing me to finish my studies in spite of study delays and setbacks. I would also to express my gratitude for their efforts, and all those who contributed, at keeping such an establishment open and affordable. Throughout my studies all of the staff at the history department have been nothing but helpful, and were always ready to teach with enthusiasm and excitement. Several people in particular have contributed directly toward the completion of this work. I would like to thank my promotor, Prof Arjan Zuiderhoek for his guidance, his always-friendly and helpful attitude and general patience for my shortcomings. Furthermore I would like to thank Prof. Koenraad Verboven, Prof. Em. Erik Thoen, Dr. Sadi Marechal, Dr. Wim Broeckaert, and Dr. Wouter Vanacker, and Drs. Tim Clerbaut for their time and advice
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