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Policy makers' discourses on Russia in Germany, Poland and Finland Marco Siddi PhD University of Edinburgh University of Cologne 2014 Declaration of originality This is to certify that the work contained within has been composed by me and is entirely my own work. No part of this thesis has been submitted for any other degree or professional qualification. …………………………………….. Contents Acknowledgements ...................................................................................................... i Abstract ....................................................................................................................... ii Chapter 1: Identity, memory and Russia as Europe’s Other: an introduction ... 1 Chapter 2: Theorising national identity and foreign policy ................................. 22 Chapter 3: Applying discourse-historical analysis: methodology and research design ......................................................................................................................... 42 Chapter 4: National identities in historical perspective ...................................... 70 Chapter 5: The Nord Stream pipeline and European energy security ............. 111 Chapter 6: The August 2008 Russian-Georgian war .......................................... 155 Chapter 7: Post-electoral democratic protests in Russia, 2011-2012 ............... 201 Chapter 8: National identities in the EU discursive arena: German, Polish and Finnish presidencies of the EU .............................................................................. 235 Conclusion: towards a shared discourse on Russia? .......................................... 267 Bibliography ........................................................................................................... 287 List of Figures Table 1. Definitions: nation and national identity ................................................ 10 Table 2. Conceptualisation of identity in the main theories of International Relations .................................................................................................................... 25 Table 3. The main features of discourse-historical analysis ................................. 47 Table 4. Museums where national identity construction was analysed .............. 48 Table 5. Discursive strategies: objectives and devices .......................................... 52 Table 6. Steps in the application of the discourse-historical approach ............... 53 Table 7. Sources for the analysis of foreign policy makers’ discourses on Russia between 2005 and 2012 ............................................................................................ 63 Table 8. Dominant themes in German identity discourses ................................... 83 Table 9. Dominant themes in Polish identity discourses ...................................... 97 Table 10. Dominant themes in Finnish identity discourses ................................ 107 Table 11. Dominant themes in German, Polish and Finnish identity discourses ... .................................................................................................................................. 110 Map 1. The route of the Nord Stream pipeline ................................................... 115 Table 12. German foreign policy leaders under investigation ........................... 119 Table 13. Polish foreign policy leaders under investigation ............................... 133 Table 14. Finnish foreign policy leaders under investigation ............................ 145 Acknowledgements I would like to thank my supervisors, Dr. Luke March, Prof. John Peterson and Prof. Wolfgang Wessels, for their insightful support during the various stages of my research. A special thanks goes to Dr. Luke March, who accepted to supervise my work when I arrived at the University of Edinburgh in April 2012. He provided invaluable academic advice and encouragement throughout the writing of this dissertation. I also want to thank the many other researchers and colleagues who commented on my PhD project, presentations and draft chapters. Dr. Geoffrey Edwards deserves a special mention, not least because he travelled as far as Cologne, Dublin and Cagliari in order to discuss my work and that of my colleagues in the EXACT Marie Curie PhD programme. Prof. Brigid Laffan, Dr. Robert Kissack, Prof. Ben Tonra and Dr. Juliet Kaarbo also gave me incisive advice on how to structure the theoretical and methodological framework of the dissertation. Furthermore, I am particularly grateful to Juha Jokela, Annina Aalto, Susan Stewart, Katrin Böttger, Hans-Henning Schröder, Ludvig Zsuzsa and Szymon Kardas for the useful discussions concerning the countries that are the subject of investigation in this work. The Discourse Analysis, Politics & IR and Europa research groups at the University of Edinburgh were highly stimulating forums where I could present and refine my research. Thanks are also due to my colleagues in the EXACT programme and at the Jean Monnet Chair of the University of Cologne, who were a great source of moral and intellectual support throughout the last four years. Last but not least, I am grateful to my parents, who have taught me the importance of being hard-working, my brother Luca and his girlfriend Anna, who hosted and supported me during my research trips to Germany, and Krzysztof, who greatly contributed to my interest in Poland by taking me to some of the most fascinating corners of the country. The biggest thanks go to my girlfriend Barbara for giving me all kinds of support, following me during four years of wandering through Europe and tirelessly reading and commenting on everything I wrote. This work is dedicated to her. i Abstract Numerous academics and foreign policy practitioners have argued that relations with Russia are one of the most divisive issues within the European Union (cf. Leonard and Popescu 2007, Mandelson 2007). Mainstream explanations highlight that this is due to the different interests and security concerns of EU member states (David et al. 2011). This dissertation proposes an alternative understanding that focuses on national identity construction and Russia‘s role therein. Germany, Poland and Finland, three EU member states that traditionally have different stances towards Russia, are selected for in-depth analysis. The key argument is that divergent national discourses on Russia are due to the different ways in which the country was constructed in national identity. In order to show this, the thesis elaborates on social constructivist scholarship studying the relationship between identity and foreign policy. It argues that constructivist models theorising a causal link between identity and foreign policy (eg Wendt 1999, Katzenstein 1996) are insufficient to fully explain the complexity of this relationship. Drawing on the work of scholars such as Ted Hopf (2002), Richard Ned Lebow (2008, 2008a) and Ole Waever (2002), this thesis develops an interpretive theoretical framework in which national identity and foreign policy are conceptualised as mutually constitutive and studied at the level of discourses. Dominant identity and foreign policy narratives are examined in a longue durée perspective, which allows for an exploration of their deep historical roots. The research conducted through this model highlights the relevance of long-standing narratives on Russia to current foreign policy discourses. However, the thesis also shows that national identity is malleable and top national officials can reformulate dominant discourses in order to achieve particular foreign policy goals. This is illustrated in the case studies, which focus on official narratives concerning the building of the Nord Stream pipeline, the Russian-Georgian war of August 2008 and the mass demonstrations in Russian cities in the winter of 2011-2012. The empirical analysis shows that gradual convergence took place across national discourses as national constructions of Russia were reformulated in order to pursue a pragmatic foreign policy towards Moscow. Finally, through the comparison of national discourses in the EU discursive arena, the dissertation assesses the prospects for the emergence of shared EU foreign policy narratives on Russia. ii Divisive identity, divided foreign policy? Chapter 1: Identity, memory and Russia as Europe’s Other: an introduction Rationale for the dissertation This dissertation explores the relationship between national identities and foreign policy discourses concerning Russia within the European Union. It originated from a broad interest in the development of several sub-disciplines