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Denken Over Rusland : Europese Beschouwingen Over De Grote Hervormingen, 1861-1881 Kern, J.H.C

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Denken Over Rusland : Europese Beschouwingen Over De Grote Hervormingen, 1861-1881 Kern, J.H.C Denken over Rusland : Europese beschouwingen over de grote hervormingen, 1861-1881 Kern, J.H.C. Citation Kern, J. H. C. (2008, December 4). Denken over Rusland : Europese beschouwingen over de grote hervormingen, 1861-1881. Pegasus Oost-Europese Studies. Retrieved from https://hdl.handle.net/1887/13310 Version: Corrected Publisher’s Version Licence agreement concerning inclusion of doctoral thesis in the License: Institutional Repository of the University of Leiden Downloaded from: https://hdl.handle.net/1887/13310 Note: To cite this publication please use the final published version (if applicable). DENKEN OVER RUSLAND EUROPESE BESCHOUWINGEN OVER DE GROTE HERVORMINGEN, 1861-1881 Proefschrift ter verkrijging van de graad van Doctor aan de Universiteit Leiden, op gezag van Rector Magnificus prof. mr. P.F. van der Heijden, volgens besluit van het College voor Promoties te verdedigen op donderdag 4 december 2008 klokke 16.15 uur door Johan Hendrik Caspar Kern geboren te Leiden in 1960 Promotiecommissie Promotor: Mw. prof. dr. M.E.H.N. Mout Copromotor: Mw. dr. C. Musterd Referent: Prof. dr. B. Naarden (Universiteit van Amsterdam) Overige leden: Dr. O.F. Boele Prof. dr. H.W. van den Doel Prof. dr. H. Renner (Rijksuniversiteit Groningen) DENKEN OVER RUSLAND EUROPESE BESCHOUWINGEN OVER DE GROTE HERVORMINGEN, 1861-1881 HENK KERN Pegasus Oost-Europese Studies 15 Uitgeverij Pegasus, Amsterdam 2008 PEGASUS OOST-EUROPESE STUDIES is een serie studies op het gebied van de Oost- Europese taalkunde, letterkunde, cultuurkunde en geschiedenis onder redactie van: prof. dr. Raymond Detrez (Universiteit van Gent) dr. Wim Honselaar (Universiteit van Amsterdam) prof. dr. Thomas Langerak (Universiteit van Gent) prof. dr. Willem Weststeijn (Universiteit van Amsterdam) Redactieadres: Uitgeverij Pegasus Postbus 11470 1001 GL Amsterdam Nederland E-mail: [email protected] © Copyright 2008 Uitgeverij Pegasus, Amsterdam www.pegasusboek.nl ISBN 978 90 6143 336 1/ NUR 680 ISSN 1572-0683 Bandontwerp en vormgeving MV Levievandermeer Druk en afwerking Koninklijke Wöhrmann bv Alle rechten voorbehouden. Niets uit deze uitgave mag worden verveelvoudigd, opgeslagen in een geautomatiseerd gegevensbestand, of openbaar gemaakt, in enige vorm of op enige wijze, hetzij elektronisch, mechanisch, door fotokopieën, opnamen, of enig andere manier, zonder voorafgaande schriftelijke toestemming van de uitgever. Voor zover het maken van kopieën uit deze uitgave is toegestaan op grond van artikel 16B Auteurswet 1912 j˚ het besluit van 20 juni 1974, St.b. 351, zoals gewijzigd bij het Besluit van 23 augustus 1985, St.b. 471 en artikel 17 Auteurswet 1912, dient men de daarvoor wettelijk verschuldigde vergoedingen te voldoen aan de Stichting Reprorecht (Postbus 3060, 2130 KB Hoofddorp). Voor het overnemen van (een) gedeelte(n) uit deze uitgave in bloemlezingen, readers en andere compilatiewerken (artikel 16 Auteurswet 1912), dient men zich tot de uitgever te wenden. Ondanks alle aan de samenstelling van de tekst bestede zorg, kan noch de redactie noch de uitgever aansprakelijkheid aanvaarden voor eventuele schade, die zou kunnen voortvloeien uit enige fout, die in deze uitgave zou kunnen voorkomen. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a database or retrieval system, or published, in any form or in any way, electronically, mechanically, by print, photoprint, microfilm or any other means without prior written permission from the publisher. INHOUDSOPGAVE Inleiding 1 Hoofdstuk 1. De staat: autocratie en hervorming 13 1.1 De Tsaar-Bevrijder 14 1.2. Het lokaal zelfbestuur 60 1.3 De rechtspraak 84 1.4 Slot: vlast en tsjin 109 Hoofdstuk 2. De samenleving: heren en narod 125 2.1 De boerengemeenschap 143 2.2 De Russisch Orthodoxe Kerk 193 2.3 De Russische adel 239 2.4 Slot: de twee Ruslanden 258 Hoofdstuk 3. Het midden: geest en goed 261 3.1 De stedelingen 266 3.2 De opgeleide klasse 288 3.3 De radicale intelligentsia 332 3.4 Slot: het vacante middenveld 369 Conclusie 373 Lijst van geraadpleegde werken 379 I Primaire gedrukte bronnen 379 II Secundaire literatuur 382 Register 387 Summary 391 Curriculum Vitae 395 AAN DE NAGEDACHTENIS VAN PIET DE BUCK (1931-1999) INLEIDING Dit boek is de vrucht van verwondering. Het is reeds door velen gezegd dat Rus- land een wonderlijk raadsel1 vormt, althans in elk geval voor diegenen die daar vanaf een zekere afstand zicht op proberen te krijgen. Waarnemers van buiten Rusland, bezoekers uit het Westen afkomstig van verschillende landen in Europa, hebben al sinds de zestiende eeuw hun bevindingen en hun opvattingen over het veelal onbekende rijk der tsaren in het oosten op schrift gesteld. Zij werden daar geconfronteerd met een soms veelbelovende, soms verontrustende, maar altijd ver- rassende realiteit. Of het nu ging om de zeden en gewoonten onder de boeren- bevolking, de eredienst van de Russisch Orthodoxe Kerk, de overdaad en onder- danigheid van edelen aan het hof in het Kremlin, of om de almacht en vermetel- heid van een vorst als tsaar Peter de Grote; zij troffen er zaken aan die enerzijds herkenning opriepen, want deel uitmaakten van een blanke, christelijke en ver- wante beschaving, maar anderzijds ook wezensvreemd leken aan de wereld waar de bezoekers vandaan kwamen, want barbaars, woest en Aziatisch. Oog in oog met de ander werden Europeanen voortdurend geprikkeld hun gedachten te vormen en hun standpunt te bepalen over Rusland. Dit enorme rijk der Russen, dat eens ge- regeerd werd door autocratische tsaren, toen door communistische sovjets en tegenwoordig door gekozen presidenten, blijft tot onze verbeelding spreken als een buurland op grote afstand en toch dichtbij. Tot op de dag van vandaag stelt Rusland de toeschouwers uit het Westen voor de vragen wat ervan te weten, hoe dit te kunnen begrijpen en welke houding ertegenover aan te nemen. De zoek- tocht naar antwoorden op dergelijke vragen vormt het thema van het onderhavige onderzoek, dat daarom de titel draagt: ‘Denken over Rusland’. Dit thema betreft niet slechts de persoonlijke fascinatie van de onderzoeker zelf maar vooral ook een inspirerende verzameling van gedachten zoals geformu- 1 Bijvoorbeeld: ‘Russia is a riddle wrapped in a mystery inside an enigma’, een uitspraak van Winston Churchill voor de Britse radio in september 1939. INLEIDING leerd door vele andere onderzoekers, verkenners en vertellers uit het verleden, die elk op hun eigen afzonderlijke manier getracht hebben om als buitenstaander vat te krijgen op Russische realiteiten en zich een beeld te vormen van hetgeen waar Rusland volgens hen voor staat. In het onderzoek staat centraal hoe en wat zij gedacht hebben over Rusland. Dit onderzoek is verricht, niet in de waan dat hier- mee het raadsel op te lossen of het geheim te onthullen zou zijn, dat zou ijdelheid wezen. Wel in de hoop dat uit de gedachten over Rusland mogelijk ideeën en vondsten zullen voortkomen die ons denken over de verwante ander kunnen hel- pen. De gedeelde verwondering mag hier dienen als eerste aanzet tot inzicht. Uit de veelbewogen geschiedenis van meer dan duizend jaar Rusland is in dit onderzoek gekozen voor het tijdperk van de Grote Hervormingen onder het be- wind van keizer Alexander II (1855-1881) die ook wel de Tsaar-Bevrijder ge- noemd werd. Deze hervormingen omvatten een samenspel van afgekondigde wetten en geïnitieerde veranderingen die binnen een tijdsbestek van een tiental jaren Rusland een geheel nieuw aangezicht gaven. Hierin vormde de afschaffing van de lijfeigenschap voor de boeren in 1861 de belangrijkste hervorming, die tevens de impuls gaf aan een reeks andere hervormingen zoals de vermindering van de censuur, de invoering van lokaal zelfbestuur, de modernisering van de rechtspraak, de invoering van algemene militaire dienstplicht, de uitbreiding en verzelfstandiging van het hoger en voortgezet onderwijs, en nog tal van minder opvallende bestuurlijke reorganisaties en maatschappelijke verbeteringsplannen. Deze golf van hervormingen werd in de eerste plaats ingegeven door een bittere noodzaak daar het midden negentiende eeuw in de Krimoorlog (1853-1856) aan vriend en vijand duidelijk geworden was dat Rusland als grote mogendheid steeds verder achter dreigde te blijven bij de snelle ontwikkelingen in de rest van Europa. Teneinde het bestaande bestel in stand te kunnen houden, moest het dringend gemoderniseerd worden, zo vatte men algemeen in de kringen van de regering en haar adviseurs de situatie van Rusland op. De troonopvolger Alexander II zette zich aan deze taak, niet vanuit een ideologisch streven het autocratische systeem fundamenteel te willen veranderen om van Rusland een westers land te maken, maar vanuit Realpolitik streven de kracht en eigenheid van Rusland tegenover het Westen met hernieuwde energie te kunnen bewaren. De hervormingen waren in 2 INLEIDING essentie conservatief van aard en gericht op het Russische staatsbelang. Maar de gevolgen voor de Russische samenleving bleken, onbedoeld of niet, toch zeer in- grijpend en wellicht zelfs revolutionair te noemen. Of historici deze periode later hebben willen duiden als doorbraak van het kapitalisme, of als een begin van een liberaliseringproces, of als een van bovenaf geleide modernisering,2 in elk geval kwam de geschiedenis van Rusland na een decennialange periode van reactionaire verstarring weer in beweging. En dat riep vragen op. De reden voor de keuze van dit tijdperk van de Grote Hervormingen als de focus voor het onderzoek naar het denken over Rusland is dat juist in deze periode de verhouding van Rusland tot Europa op een nieuwe
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